Biological Molecules

- Organic Molecules
- Organisms are composed mostly of water and organic molecules, chemical compounds
that contain carbon and hydrogen called “Hydrocarbons”
Biomolecule aka biological molecules - any subtstances that are produced by cells and living
organisms.

4 MAJOR TYPES OF Biomolecules

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Nucleic acids
Proteins

Molecular Subunit
● Organic molecules are made up of Polymers
● Polymers are large molecules(macromolecules) composed of many repeated subunits.
● Polymers are made up of chains consisting of small molecular subunits called Monomers
● Monomers are molecules that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a
polymer
● A polymer is made up of monomers that are linked together
● Monomers are linked by 2 connectors to form a polymer
● Molecular connectors are small groups of atoms that serve the same coupling function

Dehydration Synthesis
- A chemical reaction to link monomers together into polymers
- Monomers release water molecules as a byproduct
- Aka condensation reaction
- Dehydration9water loss) synthesis means “to put” together while losing water
- Water is removed and a new bond forms between 2 monomers
Hydrolysis
- Reverse reaction of dehydration synthesis. It breaks the bonds that link monomers
- Hydrolysis “breaking with water”
- Happens when the body’s digestive enzymes in stomach and intestine break down
proteins and other polymers in food.

4 TYPES OF ORGANIC MOLECULES

- All organisms from bacteria to plants to people, consist largely of the same four types:
I carbohydrates
II Proteins
III Nucleic Acids
IV Lipids
I. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
 • Carbohydrates are the simplest of the four main types of organic compounds, mostly
because of the few monomers that make them up. What are CARBOHYDRATES?
● products of photosynthesis in plants
● major component in the structure of plants
● major source of energy for most animals
● empirical formula Cm (H2O)n
● highest oxygen-to-carbon ratio than any of the important organic molecule
● also called as saccharides
I. Carbohydrates • 2 Main Groups:
• 1. Simple Sugars (Simple Carbohydrates) - provide a ready source of cellular energy,
which is released when their bonds are broken – Monosaccharide – Disaccharide
• 2. Complex Carbohydrates - provide cellular support in organisms – Polysaccharide

Classification of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides(simple sugars)
2 FORMS:
1 linear Molecule - when in dry or powdered state
2 Ring Structure - when dissolved in water

Function:
- Major cellular nutrient and energy source
- Monomers that are incorporated to make complex carbohydrates
Structure: 3-7 carbon atoms

All 3 compounds have 6 carbons(Glucose, Galactose, Fructose) hence, have the same
molecular formula C6H12O6, However have different structural formulas=different biological
actions.

Isomers - molecules have the same formula but different structural formulas

Ribose(5C) forms the backbone of nucleic acids

Glucose(6C) Product photosynthesis and requirement for respiration that provides energy for
cellular activities
Fructose(6C) is found in many plants and is often bonded to glucose and fruit sugar.
Galactose(6C) - provides steadier energy through time

2. Disaccharide
Function:
- sweetener, dietary component, and energy source
Structure; glycosidic linkage of monosaccharide
Glycosidic linkage - bond formed by dehydration synthesis(condensation)of monosaccharide
monomers

Hydrogenesis reaction - 2 monosaccharide molecules react to form disaccharides + water

Maltose(Glucose + Glucose) - malt sugar found in sprouting grains, malt-based energy drinks,
or beer

Lactose(Glucose + Galactose) - milk sugar that is a source of energy for infants; an energy
called lactase is required to digest this.

Sucrose (glucose + fructose) - found in table sugar processed fro sugar cane, sweet fruits, and
storage roots like carrots.
Condensation: reactions between 2 monosaccharides
Glucose + Glucose = Maltose + water
Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose + Water
Glucose + Galactose = Lactose + Water

- Not all sugars are sweet, but differ in degree of sweetness

- Sucrose 6x sweeter than lactose, 3x sweeter than maltose, slightly sweeter than
glucose, but only half as sweet as fructose
Hydrolysis - chemical reaction that involves the breaking up large molecules by adding water

Maltose + water = Glucose + Glucose

Sucrose + Water = Glucose + Fructose
Lactose + Water = Glucose + Galactose

Fructose - sweetest natural sugar, aka Levulose and fruit sugar, isomer of lgucoe and ketose
simple sugar. Highest solubility among all sugar
Glucose is least sweet

Glucose - honey
Fructose - Apple
Galactose - Milk
Sucrose - Table sugar
Lactose - Icre cream
Maltose - Beer

3. Polysaccharide
Function:
- Storage martial for important monosaccharides
- Structural material for the cell or entire organism
Structure: hundred to thousands of monosaccharides join by glycosidic linkages
- Made of several monosaccharide units with a bonding arrangement similar to that
disaccharides Ex. starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
- Linkage of monomers to form a sheet-like structure
Cellulos - tough sheet like structures that forms part of plant cell wall. Makes up dietary fibers
Chitin - Cell walls of fungi contains chitin as do the flexible exosekeletons of insects, spiders,
and crustaceans.

Peptidogylcan - for structural support in bacterial cell walls

Examples:
Storage Polysaccharide - large molecules retained in the cell and are insoluble in water.

1. Starch - act as storage molecules that readily break down into their glucos emonomers
when cells need a burst of energy
2. Glycogen - occurs in animal and fungal cells, in Humans. For example, skeletal muscle
and the liver store energy as glycogen.
Starch - found in plants
Sources: corns, potatoes, wheat, and rice(major source of energy for human)
Remember: digestive system has enzymes tha catalyze the hydrolyiss of starch to glucose.

Glycogen - starch like substances synthesized in the human body

- Concentrated in the muscles(as intermediate source of energy)
- Liver(helps maintain a constant level of glucose in the blood)
Cellulose - Major structural unit of plants
- Found in cotton fiber and wood
- Enzymes that readily hydrolize starches cannot hydrolize cellulos.)bacteria that contain
enzymes called cellulases hydrlyze cellulose)

Importance of Carbohydrates
1. Form a major portion of our food
2. Instant source of energy
3. Store molecules
4. Provide raw materials for industries like textiles, paper, lacquers, adn breweries.
5. Structural frame

Effects of too much sugar in the body

1. Bad teeth
2. Fatty liver
3. Insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome
4. Weight gain and obesity
5. Rased cholesterol
6. Heart disease
7. Infertitlity

Proteins
- Serves as srreuctural components and support organisms
Structure:
Amino acid - basic building block
Amino acid monomers are linked together by bonds forming the peptide chain.
- Peptides are biologically occurring short chains of amino acid monomers linked by
bonds.
- Deydration synthesis reaction connects amino acids together.
- Protein consists of on eor more peptide chains. Proteins in the body and diet are long
polypeptides
- Compirse about 15 percent of the human body
- Obtain from meat, poultry, fish, legumes, eggs, nuts, diary products.
- Major structural components of skin, muscle, nails, cartilages
- Consist of carbon , hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and some containing sulfur
- Biilding blocks are amino acids
- Protein a chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds in a specific sequence.
- Next to wter protein is the most plentiful substance in your body.

Functions:
- Maintenance of body tissue include development and repair
- Major source of energy
- Creation of hormones, body function such as interconnection of several organs that help
regulate growth.
- Produces enzymes that increazes the rate of chemical reactions in the body.

Two categories:
Fibrous - found in animals
- Usually serve as structural entities for example, connective tissue, tendons and muscle
fiber. Normally soluble in water

Globular - Acts as transporters, like hemoglobin and are often enzymes, water soluble.
Dipeptide: 2 amino acids(a.a + aa )
Tripeptide: 3 amino acids(a.a + dipeptide)
Oligopeptide: 4-10 amino acids
Polypeptide: More than 10 amino acids

Structural functions
Collagen - most abundant protein in mammals, gives bone and skin their strength
Keratin - provides structure to hair and nails
Enzyms - Enzymes are organic substances that accelerate the rate of chemical reaction. Used
in digestion releasing of energy from nutrients for fuel, triggering reactions that build muscle and
tissue.
- Organic or biological catalysis
- Catalsysis are substances that speed up a reaction without being used up, destroyedm
or incorporated into the end product.
Amylase - enzymes that help changing of starch into sugar. It is present in human saliva in
some other mammals. They help with digestion of foods that contain large amounts of starch
like potatoes and rice.
Pepsis - is an enzymes that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is produced in the
stomachand is one of the main digestive enzymes in the digestive systems of human and many
other animals.

Lipase - they are found in most living organisms and perform essential roles in digestion,
transport, and processing of dietary lipids, fats, oil, etc.

Hormones - signaling molecule and chemical messengers that are made on one part of the
body(glands), but acts on cells in other parts of the body to regulate physiology and behavior.

Immune function - immune response is a serie sof steps a body takes to mount an attack
against invaders.

Antinodies aka “immunolobulins” are large Y-shaped blood proteins that attack and inactivate
bacteria and viruses.
- Antibodies recognize a unique molecule of the harmful agen, called an antigen.

Fluid Balnce
- Fluif in thebody are intracellular or extracellular and must remain balanced.
- Blood proteins like albumins help to regulate this balance by remaining in the capillaries
and attracting fluid.
Fluid Balance
Albumin
- Produced by the liver and occurs dissolved in blood plasma and is th most abundant
blood protein. It is essential for maintaining the oncotic pressure eeded for proper
distribution of body fluids between blood vessels and body tissues.

Transport
- Albumin transports variety of nutrient such as calcium, zinc, and vitamin B6
Hemoglobin
- protein molecule in red blood cells that contains iron but transports oxygen
Proteins may also acts as channels or pumps across the cell membrane.

Acids-Base Balance
- Proteins(hemoglobin) help to maintain a stable pH level in our body fluid picking up extra
hydrogen ions when conditions are acidic, and donating hydrogen ions when conditions
are alkaline.

Energy source
- If the diet does not provide enough energy, the body must begin to break down its own
protein.
 - Proteins are broken down into individual amino acids, the remaining carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen compounds are used to make energy or glucose.

Nucleic Acids
Functions: store information for cellular growth and reproduction
Structural: a polymer consisting of nucleotide monomers
Nucleotides - are energy (ATP) carriers and capable or inhibiting or activating enzymes.

Dehydration synthesis link nucleotides together and hydroysis breaks them apart.

2 types of Nucleic Acids

1. Ribonucleic Acid(RNA) made up o r ribose
2. Deoxyribonucleic Acid(DNA) - made of deoxyribose
Ribose - is a pentose monosaccharide with one oxygen atom attached to each carbon atom
Functions:
- Convert genetic information from genese into the amino acds sequence of proteins
Structure: typically single stranded abundant than the DNA
3 main types:
Ribosomal RNA(rRNA) - major component of the ribosomes which is essential in protein
synthesis.
Messenger RNA(mRNA) - carries information for protein synthesis from the DNA in the nucleus
to the ribosomes
Trasnfer RNA(tRNA) - brings amino acids to the ribosomes for proteins synthesis

Deoxyribose - modified pentose monosaccharide lacking one oxygen atom(deoxy)

Functions:
- Contain genetic instructions used in development an dfucntion of all known living
organisms
- Tells a cell which amino acids to string together for form each protein.
Structure: DNA polymer is a doule helix that resemberles a spiral straircase.

Lipids
- Organic molecule that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents such as oil
Two Types:
- Containing fatty acids(fats, oils, waxes, and phospholipids)
- Not containing fatty acids(steroid and cholesterol)
- Organic compounds that do not dissolve in water(insoluble)
- Function for energy storage and cushioning vital organs and for insulation
- Important in plasma membrane structure and serves as precursors for important
reproductive hormones.
3 Groups:
Triglycerides(fats)
Functions:
Enery storage, cushioning of vital organs(adipose tissue), insulation
Structure: consists of three long hydrocarbon chains called fatty acid monomers.

Here’s a comparison of saturated and unsaturated fats, along with a section on phospholipids,
organized in table form:

Type of Fat Saturated Fats (BAD) Unsaturated Fats (GOOD)

Structure Linear structure; close packing Bent structure; prevents close packing
of fat molecules

Physical Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature

State

Hydrogen High presence of hydrogen Low presence of hydrogen

Presence

Stability Stable Monounsaturated: Best type (e.g., olive

oil)
Polyunsaturated: Least stable; best in
cold applications (e.g., sunflower oil)
Trans fats: Less stable

Health Increases blood cholesterol Can improve cholesterol levels;

Impact levels; associated with heart beneficial for heart health
disease

Type of Molecule Phospholipids

Function Major component of cell

membranes

Structure Self-assembles into bilayers

Components Hydrophilic phosphate group (head)

Hydrophobic fatty acids (tails)

Steroids:
Function: Regulate fluidity of cell membranes
Base material of sex hormones
Emulsification of fats during digestion
Structure: characterized by a carbon skeleton
Ex. Cholesterol

Sources of Fats and Oils

HYDROGENATION PROCESS It is the process of converting oil to fats to break the
carbon-carbon multiple bonds in the oil and form a saturated compound. Ex. solid shortening
and oleomargarine from oils of corn, peanut, or soybean ( can cause cholesterol buildup in the
blood, leading to heart disease.

SAPONIFICATION PROCESS It is the process of hydrolyzing fats and oils into glycerol and
their constituent fatty acids by water. If treated with an alkali, the reaction produces soap.
NOTE: In the commercial manufacture of soap, glycerol is removed but not in homemade
soaps. Homemade soaps contain a mix of glycerol and sodium stearate.

hospholipids ➔ consist of an alcohol (usually glycerol) combined with fatty acids, and a
phosphate ester. ➔ important source of natural emulsifiers marketed as lecithin. ➔ removed
from oil during the degumming and refining operations Sterols ➔ Found in both animal and
vegetable oils ➔ Cholesterol -primary animal fat sterol and may also be found in vegetable oils
in trace amounts Phytosterols- plant sterols, vegetable sterols Stigmasterol and sitosterol are
the best-known vegetable oil sterols P

USED OF FATS AND OILS

They keep our skin and hair healthy.
2. They make the food tasty.
3. They are sources of energy.
4. They are used as fuel by the body.
5. They help in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins like Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
6. They provide insulation.
7. They protect internal organs and repair tissues.