Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

2.2: Polynomial Functions

Polynomials are a broad class of functions used to model many real-world phenomenon. They have
remarkably predictable behavior which can be deduced from understanding the structure of a polynomial
expression. This section expand upon the groundwork of A.2, and generalizes what we learned about
quadratics in 2.1

Learning Goals. By the end of this section, students will be able to...

• define and recognize polynomial functions,

• sketch the graph of power functions,

• identify and report the end behavior of polynomial functions,

• find the zeroes of a polynomial and their multiplicities,

• identify turning points of a polynomial from its graph,

• graph a given polynomial function.

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Polynomial Function

We learned in A.2 that a polynomial expression is one of the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0

A polynomial function is just a function f (x) which equals a polynomial expression.

All the vocabulary such as degree, leading term, leading coefficient, and constant term all apply
just as they did before. And also as before, the domain of a polynomial function is

Example: What is the degree, leading coefficient, and constant term of the following polynomial functions:
p(x) = 3x4 + 14x2 + 2x − 5

Before we move on to examine the shape of the graphs of polynomials, it will help to examine the function
analogue of monomials

Definition. A power function is a function of the form f (x) = axn , where n is a positive integer

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Even Power:
Power functions of even degree are
characterized by the following:
- f (−1) = f (1) = 1
- f (0) = 0
- x2 > x4 > x6 > ... on (0, 1)
- x2 < x4 < x6 < ... on (1, ∞)

Odd Power:
Power functions of odd degree are
characterized by the following:
- f (−1) = −1
- f (0) = 0
- f (1) = 1
- x > x3 > x5 > ... on (0, 1)
- x < x3 < x5 < ... on (1, ∞)

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Major Takeaway: The end behavior of a power function is determined by the . The
end behavior means what are the function’s outputs for very very large positive/negative inputs.

For notation, we write

f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ to mean that ‘as x gets close to infinity, f(x) gets close to infinity’

Draw a sketch of axn for the indicated values of a and n, and use this to characterize the end behavior

n even n odd

a>0

a<0

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Leading Term Test: For a polynomial function f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + .a1 x + a0 , the end
behavior of f (x) is the same as the end behavior of g(x) = an xn

So to determine the extreme behavior of any polynomial, all that matters is the .

This will be the first major helpful tool in graphing general polynomial functions. The dominance of
the leading term is a very important fact in calculus and analysis more generally. The next key tool will
be finding the so-called zeroes of a polynomial

Definition. The zeroes of a polynomial f (x) are the real numbers c such that f (c) = 0

This is equivalent to saying that c is an x−intercept of f (x), and also that (x − c) is a factor of f (x).

It is a fact that a polynomial of degree n has at most . This is an immediate

consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, which we will cover in 2.6
They can have less, but never more.

Example: Find the zeroes of f (x) = x3 + x2 − 4x − 4

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

An important concept relating to zeroes of a polynomial is called the zero’s multiplicity. This is basically
the number of times that a zero appears as a factor.

Definition. The multiplicity of a zero c of a polynomial f (x) is m when the factor (x−c) appears exactly
m times when f (x) is fully factored. ie, when f (x) = (x − c)m q(x) with q(c) ̸= 0.

What are the multiplicities of the zeroes of f (x) = x3 + x2 − 4x − 4?

When a multiplicity is even, then the function touches the x-axis at the zero.
When the multiplicity is odd, the function crosses the x-axis at the zero.

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Sketch a graph of f (x) = x3 + x2 − 4x − 4.

Keep in mind the following:
(1) The leading term test
(2) The zeroes of f (x) and their multiplicity
(3) The y-intercept of f (x)

Definition. A turning point is a point on the graph of a function corresponding to the local extrema.
These are places where the function either switches from increasing to decreasing or from decreasing to
increasing.

It is a fact that a polynomial of degree n has at most turning points.

Given a graph, finding turning points is easy. It is exactly the same as finding local extrema. However,
finding turning points from a function’s expression can be very difficult. For now, we do not have any real
tools to do this. The method for finding the turning points of a function from its expression is a key skill
taught in calculus.

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Graphing Polynomial Functions

The following steps should be taken when graphing a given polynomial function:

(1) Determine end behavior

(2) Find and plot the zeroes and their multiplicities
(3) Find and plot the y-intercept
(4) Between each pair of zeroes, determine the sign of f (x)
(5) Connect everything with continuous smooth curves

Step 4 is actually redundant if multiplicities in step 2 were calculated properly, but it can help to double
check.

Problem. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x3 + 2x2 − 50x − 50

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Math-115 Chapter 2: Polynomials and Rational Functions Fall 2024

Application

(problem 85 in textbook from section 2.2) From a rectangular 8 × 15 piece of cardboard, four congruent
squares with sides of length x are cut out, one at each corner. The resulting crosslike piece is then folded
to form a box.
(a) Find the volume V of the box as a function of x
(b) Sketch the graph of y = V (x)

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