Rectangular Coordinates and Graphs les cls Linear Functions Chapter 2 Quiz EA Equations of Lines; Curve Fitting ‘Summary Exercises on Graphs, Circles, Functions, and Equations Grapks of Basic Functions Graphing Techniques Chapter 2 Quiz Function Operations and Compasition 4 oe = Beetore 1995, individuals conducted business ouside their regular employment by holding garage sales, placing classified ads in the newspaper, and posting flyers. This changed dramatically in 1995 when eBay launched a business revolution that allows millions of people to buy and sell online each day. As a result of this increased entrepreneurial activity, the net worth of small businesses in the United States jumped 100% from $2.7 trillion to $5.4 trillion be- tween 1995 and 2005. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau.) In this chapter we introduce the concept of a function, which allows us to pair a variable, such as the year 2005, with exactly one other variable, such as a net worth of $5.4 trillion. Creating and analyzing functions provides valuable information about business- related activities. In Example 9 of Section 2.4 we analyze how a lin- ear function can be used to model cost, revenue, and profit.182 CHAPTER 2 Graphs and Functions 2.1 Rectangular Coordinates and Graphs Ordered Pairs » The Rectangular Coordinate System « The Distance Formula « The Midpoint Formula « Graphing Equations ‘VHS rentalisales DVD rentalvsales bs theme parks sports tickets movie tickets 823 sm 520 543 $50 $30 ‘Source: PicewaterhouseCoopets Polls Ordered Pairs — The idea of pairing one quantity with another is often en- countered in everyday life. For example, a numerical grade in a mathematics course is paired with a corresponding letter grade. The number of gallons of gasoline pumped into a tank is paired with the amount of money needed to purchase it, Another example is shown in the table, which gives the dollars the average American spent in 2005 on entertainment. For each type of entertain- ‘ment, there is a corresponding number of dollars spent. Pairs of related quantities, such as a 96 determining a grade of A, 3 gallons of gasoline costing $10.50, and 2005 spending on CDs of $20, can be expressed a5 ordered pairs: (96, ). (3,$10.50), (CDs,$20). An ordered pair consists of two components, written inside parentheses, in which the order of the compo- nents is important. [SEER warns onvereo pairs Use the table to write ordered pairs to express the relationship between each type of entertainment and the amount spent on it. (a) DVD rentals/sales (b) movie tickets Solution (a) Use the data in the second row: (DVD rentals/sales, $71). (b) Use the data in the last row: (movie tickets, $30). INOW TRY EXERCISE 9, <] In mathematics, we are most often interested in ordered pails whose compo- nents are numbers. Note that (4,2) and (2,4) are different ordeed pairs because the order of the numbers is different. The Rectangular Coordinate System As mentioner in Section R.2, ‘each real number corresponds (o a point on a number line. Ths ilea is extended to ‘ordered pairs of real numbers by using two perpendicular numbrr lines, one hori- Zontal and one vertical, that intersect at their zero-points. This pant of intersection is called the origin. The horizontal line is called the x-axis, and he vertical line is, called the y-axis. Stating atthe origin, on the x-axis the positiveaumbers go tothe right and the negative numbers go to the left. The y-axis haspositive numbers going up and negative numbers going down, The «-axis and y-axis together make up a rectangular ecrdinate system, or Cartesian coordinate system (named for one of its inventors, René Descartes; the other coinventor was Pierre de Fermat). Theplane into which the coordinate system is introduced is the coordinate plane or xy-plane. The x-axis and y-axis divide the plane into four regions, or quairants, labeled as shown in Figure 1. The points on the x-axis and y-axis belongio no quadrant.Beso | aaa Ha unite Cee ee [sani ca) pid) Figure Poy \ | 99 PE foal Rory yd 42, R) = T= POP Figure 2.1 Rectangular Coordinates and Graphs 183 Each point P in the xy-plane corresponds to a unique ordered pair (a,b) of real numbers. The numbers @ and b are the coordinates of point P. (See Fig- ture 1.) To locate on the xy-plane the point corresponding to the ordered pair (3.4), for example, start at the origin, move 3 units in the positive x-direction, ‘and then move 4 units in the positive y-direction, (See Figure 2.) Point A corre- sponds to the ordered pair (3,4). Also in Figure 2, B corresponds to the ordered pair (—5,6), C to (2,4), D to (4,~3), and E to (—3,0). The point P corre- sponding to the ordered pair (a,b) often is written P(a,b) as in Figure 1 and referred t6 as “the point (a, 6). The Distance Formula Recall that the distance on a number line be- ‘tween points P and Q with coordinates x, and x2 is (P,Q) = |x) x2 = [x2 — mil. ection R2) By using the coordinates of their ondered pairs, we can extend this i the distance between any two points in a plane. Figure 3 shows the points P(~4,3) and R(8,—2). To find the distance be- tween these points, we complete a right triangle asin the igure. This right ti gle has its 90° angle at (8,3). The horizontal side of the triangle has length (P,Q) = |8 — (~4)| = 12. Definition of distance ‘The vertical side ofthe triangle has length 4(Q,R) = |3 - (-2) By the Pythagorean theorem, the length of the remaining side of the tangle is ViDtF F = Vid + 25 = VIG) = 13. ection 15) ‘Thus, the distance between (~4,3) and (8, ~2) is 13, ‘To obtain a general formula for the distance between two points in & coordi- nate plane, let P(x),y,) and R(x,y2) be any two distinet points in a plane, as shown in Figure 4, Complete a triangle by locating point Q with coordinates (t,y:). The Pythagorean theorem gives the distance between P and R as PR) = Veg — i? + Ga = > Note Absolute value bars are not necessary in this formula, since for all eal numbers a and b,|a ~ bl = (a ~ BY ‘The distance formula can be summarized as follows. PNreaize en Suppose that P(xy,):) and R(%.)3) are two points in a coordinate plane. Then the distance between P and , written d(P, R), is given by d(P,R) = Vey — 4) + 2 = ‘That is, the distance between two points in a coordinate plane is the square root. of the sum of the square of the difference between their x-coordinates and the ‘square of the difference between their y-coordinates.184 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions 'Y LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS In analyte geometry and calculus, the stance formulas euended to (0 ois in space. Points in space can be represented by ordered triples. The stance between thew pins (Gx yezd and rn) 8) is given by the expression ar.) Qk) “a, \P,0) +410, R) =P, 8) Figure 6 Fears Although our derivation of the distance formula assumed that P and R are rot on a horizontal or vertical lin, the result is true for any wo points. [GEESE usin tHe vistance roRmuta Find the distance between P(—8,4) and Q(3, -2). Solution According to the distance formula, dP.Q)=VB-COPR+ 2-4 « AP + (6 = Vi2i +36 = Visi. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 11(a). <4] A statement of the form “If p, then q” is called a conditional statement. The related statement “If q, then p” is called its eonverse. In Section 1.3 we studied the Pythagorean theorem. The converse of the Pythagorean theorem is also a true statement: If the sides a, b, and c of a triangle satisfy a? + 6 = c?, then the triangle isa right triangle with legs having lengths a and b and hypotenuse hav- ing length c. We can use this fact to determine whether three points are the vertices of a right triangle. DETERMINING WHETHER THREE POINTS ARE THE VERTICES OF A RIGHT TRIANGLE Are points M(—2,5), M(12,3), and Q(10, ~11) the vertices of a right triangle? Solution A triangle with the three given points as vertices is shown in Figure 5. This triangle isa right triangle ifthe square of the length of the longest side equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other iwo sides. Use the distance for- ‘mula to find the length of each side of the triangle 4(M.N) = V2 — COPE FG — 3) = Vi196 + 4 = 200 aM, 0) = V0 = (—2)F + Tl — SP = Vids + 256 = W400 = 20 aN, 0) = V0 = RFF Tl = 3F = Va + 196 = 7200 The longest side has length 20 units. Since (/200)* + (200)? = 400 = 20%, the triangle is a right triangle with hypotenuse joining M and Q. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 19. <] Using a similar procedure, we can tell whether three points are collinear, that is, ie on a straight line. Three points are collinear ifthe sum of the distances between two pairs of the points is equal to the distance between the remaining pair of points. See Figure 6.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates and Graphs 185 DETERMINING WHETHER THREE POINTS ARE COLLINEAR Are the points (~1,5), (2,4), and (4,~10) collinear? Solution The distance between (~1,5) and (2, ~4) is VET = 3+ [5 = (CaP = V94 BI = V90 = 3V10. Geetion 7) The distance between (2, ~4) and (4, ~10) is VGO= a + [-4 = CIOF = V4 + 36 = V0 = 210. ‘The distance between the remaining pair of points (~1,5) and (4,—10) is VET = 4 +B — COP = VI5 + 225 = V250 = SV, Because 3/10 + 2/10 = 5V/10, the three points are collinear. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 25. |» Note In Exercises 79-83 of Section 2.5, we examine another method of | determining whether three points are collinear. The Midpoint Formula The midpoint formula is used to find the co- ordinates of the midpoint of a line segment. (Recall that the midpoint of a line ‘segment is equidistant from the endpoints of the segment.) To develop the mid- point formula, let (x),y,) and (x,,)2) be any two distinct points in a plane, (Although Figure 7 shows x, < x2, no particular order is required.) Let (x,y) be the midpoint of the segment connecting (x;,);) and (x2,)). Draw vertical lines from each of the three points to the x-axis, as shown in Figure 7. Since (x.y) is the midpoint of the line segment connecting (x,,y;) and (xz, y2), the distance between x and x, equals the distance between x and x, 80 oer wy tx = Oe ‘Adi x: add, (Section 1.1) ntm = AF, Divide by 2: rewrie, ny Similarly, the y-coordinate is “+=, yielding the following formula. MIDPOINT FORMULA ‘The midpoint of the line segment with endpoints (x...) and (x2,y2) has coordinates tm ty 2 ey) ‘That is, the x-coordinate of the midpoint of a line segment is the average of the x-coordinates of the segment’s endpoints, and the y-coordinate is the average of the y-coordinates of the segment’s endpoints,186 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions SEES usine THe mioroint FoRMULA Use the midpoint formula to do each of the following. (@) Find the coordinates of the midpoint M of the segment with endpoints (8-4) and (6, 1). (b) Find the coordinates ofthe other endpoint B of a segment with one endpoint A(~6, 12) and midpoint M(8, —2), Solution (2) The coordinates of M are (“2 (b) Let (x, y) represent the coordinates of B. Use the midpoint formula twice, 3 as follows. sevulueof A xvave of value of value ofA yeh 2 yes na ye 16 The coordinates of endpoint B are (22, - 16). [NOW TRY EXERCISES 11(b) AND 31, (SEE +Prvvine THE MIDPOINT FORMULA TO DATA Figure 8 depicts how a graph might indicate the increase in the number of MeDonald’s restaurants worldwide from 20,000 in 1996 to 31,000 in 2006. Use the midpoint formula and the two given points to estimate the number of restau- rants in 2001, and compare it to the actual (rounded) figure of 30,000. Number of McDonald's Restaurants ‘Worldwide (in thousands) % Restaurants (in thousands) 1996 2006 Year Sour MeDonais Comm Hoare Figure2.1 Rectangular Coordinates and Graphs 187 Solution ‘The year 2001 lies halfway between 1996 and 2006, so we must find the coordinates ofthe midpoint of the segment that has endpoints (1996, 20) and (2006, 31). (Here, y is in thousands.) By the midpoint formula, ths is 1996 + 2006 20 + 31 2° 2 ) (2001, 25.5). ‘Thus, our estimate is 25,500, which is well below the actual figure of 30,000 (This discrepancy is due to MeDonald’s having an average increase of 2000 new stores per year between 1996 and 2001, and then an average increase of only 200, stores per year between 2001 and 2006. Graphs such as this can be misleading!) [Now TRY EXERCISE 37. Graphing Equations Ordered pairs are use to express the solutions of equations in two variables. When an ordered pair represents the solution of an equation with the variables x and y, the xvalue is written frst. For example, we Say that (1,2) isa solution of 2x — y = 0, since substituting { for x and 2 for y in the equation gives a true statement. a&wey 21) = 2 0=0 Te [RESUMES #1NOING onoeRED Pains THAT ARE SOLUTIONS OF EQUATIONS For each equation find atleast thre ordered pairs that are solution (@ y= 4x1 @ x-Vy @ye-4 Solution (2) Choose any real number for x or y and substitute in the equation o get the corresponding value ofthe other variable, For example, let x = ~2 and then ety =3. 4x yea 1 Lave ye -B— 1 Mobily yao Subtract lex Divide by 4 ‘This gives the ordered pairs (2, ~9) and (, 3). Verify that the ordered pair (0, —1) is also a solution, () v= Vy = 1 Given equation l=Vy=1 term T= y— 1 Square both sides. (ection 1.6) dey One ordered pair is (1,2). Verify that the ordered pairs (0,1) and (2,5) are also solutions of the equation,188 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions (©) A table provides an organized method for determining ordered pairs. Here, we let x equal —2, —1,0, | and 2 in y = x? — 4, and determine the corre. sponding y-values. Five ordered pairs are (~2, 0), 1. ~3) (0,4). (1, 3), and (2,0), [NOW TRY EXERCISES 43(3),47(a), AND 49(a). ‘The graph of an equation is found by plotting ordered pairs that are solu- tions of the equation. The intercepts of the graph are good points to plot first. An x-intercept is an x-value where the graph intersects the x-axis. A y-intercept is a y-value where the graph intersects the y-axis.” In other words, the intercept is the x-coordinate of an ordered pair where y= 0, and the y-interceptis the y-coordinate of an ordered pair where x = 0. A general algebraic approach for graphing an equation follows. GRAPHING AN EQUATION BY POINT PLOTTING ‘Step 1 Find the intercepts. ‘Step 2. Find as many additional ordered pairs as needed. ‘Step 3. Plot the ordered pairs from Steps 1 and 2. ‘Step 4 Connect the points from Step 3 with a smooth line or curve. (SESE craPriin equations Graph each equation from Example 7. (@) y=4r-1 b) x=Vy=T Oy Solution (@) Step 1 Lety = 010 find the x-intercept, and let x = 0 to find the y-intercept. ya4ar-1 4e-1 O=4e-1 40) — 1 l= 4x yro-l ‘These intercepts lead to the ordered pairs (},0) and (0,—1). Note that the intercept yields one of the ordered pairs we found in Example 7(a). The intercepts are sometimes defined as ordered pairs, such as (3,0) and (0,4) instead of numbers, like x-intreep 3 and intercept 4, In this text, we define them as muibers.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates and Graphs 189 Step 2 We use the other ordered pairs found in Example 7(a): (~2, ~9). (1,3). ‘Step 3 Plot the four ordered pairs from Steps 1 and 2 as shown in Figure 9. Step 4 Connect the points plotted in Step 3 with a straight line. Ths line, also shown in Figure 9, is the graph of the equation y = 4x (b) For x= Vy ~— 1, the y-intercept 1 was found in Example 7(b). Solve x= VO— TI for the a-intercept. Since the quantity under the radical is negative, there is no x-intercept. In fact, y — | must be greater than or equal 1000, so y must be greater than or equal to 1, We start by plotting the ordered pairs from Example 7(b), then connect the points with a smooth curve as in Figure 10. To confirm the direction the curve will take as x increases, we find another solution, (3, 10) (©) In Example 7(c), we found five ordered pairs that satisfy (2,0), (1, -3), (0, —4), (1, -3), @, 0). ssimtercept ysimtefeeptsitereept Plotting the points and joining them with a smooth curve gives the graph in Figure 11. This curve is called a parabola and will be studied in detail in later chapters. INOW TRY EXERCISES 43(b), 47(5), AND 49(b). | £3 To graph an equation such as yrar-l from Example 8(a) on a calculator, we mus first solve it for y (if necessary). Here the equation is already in the correct form, y = 4x ~ 1, so we enter 4x — 1 for Y,. The intercepts can help determine an appropriate window, since we want them to appear in the graph. A good choice is often the standard viewing window, 4 which has X minimum = —10,X maximum = 10,Y minimum = ~ 10, ¥ maxi- mum = 10, with X scale = 1 and Y scale = 1. (The X and Y scales determine the spacing of the tick marks.) Since the intercepts here are very close to the ori- a gin, we might choose the X and Y minimum and maximum to be —3 and 3 in- Figure 12 stead, See Figure 12.190 CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions ‘ematician and philosopher René Descartes may have come up with the i of using rectangular coordinates in developing the branch of mathematics known as analytic geometry: Another story...says that the initial flash of analytic ‘geometry came to Descartes when watching a fly craw ing about on the ceiling near a comer of his room, It ‘struck him tha the path ofthe fly on the ceiling could be described if only one knew the relation connecting the fly's distances from two adjacent walls FOR DISCUSSION OR WRITING 1, What are some other situations where objects are located by using the concept of rectangular coordinates? 2, How are latitudes and longitudes similar to the Cartesian coordinate system? René Descartes (1596~1650) By Exercises Concept Check Decide whether each statement in Exercises 1-5 is true or false. If the statement is false tll why 1, The point (~1, 3) lies in quadrant ITT of the rectangular coordinate system, 2. ‘The distance from (xy, y;) 0 (xs 92) is given by the expression Vin WPF 3. The distance from the origin to the point (a,b) is Va® +B. 44 The midpoint ofthe segment joining (ob) and (34,~36) has coordinates 5. The graph ofy = 2r +4 has intercept ~2 and yintercept P)6 ta your own word, tthe steps for graphing an eqvation In Exercises 7-10, give three ordered pairs from each table2.1 Rectangular Coordinates and Graphs 191 9. Percent of High School 10. Number of Viewers of the ‘Students Who Smoke Super Bow! i993 | 3 1997 378 95 | 35 1998 900 wor | 37 199 87 io99 | 38 2000) a5 zor [28 2001 m3 po Ey Source: Advertising Age. Sources Comers for Diese Conia nd Prevention, For the points P and Q, find (a) the distance d(P, Q) and (b) the coordinates of the mid- point of the segment PQ. See Examples 2 and 5(a). , P(-S,-7), (-13,0) 12. P(=4,3), 0(2,-5) 13. P(8,2), 06,5) 14, P(-8,4), 0G, -5) 1S. P(-6,-5), 016, 10) 16. P(6,~2), O14,6) an P3V3,4V3), (V2, -V3} 18, P(-V3,8V3). 0(8V7.—V3) Determine whether the three points are the vertices ofa right triangle. See Example 3. 19. (~6,—4), (0, =2).(=10,8) =8), (0,4), (-4,—7) DL (—4,1). (144), (-6, -1) =5), (1,7), 8,15) 23. (=4,3).(2,5).(-1,-6) 24, (-7,4), (6-2), 0-15) Determine whether the three points are collinear. See Example 4. 25, (0,—7).(-3,5),(2,-15) 26. (—1,4),(=2, 1), (114) 21. (0,9), (-3,-7),(2,19) 28, (-1,-3),(-5,12), (1-1) 29. (-7,4), (6-2), (-1,0) 30. (4,3), (2,5), (-1.4) Find the coordinates of the other endpoint of each segment, given its midpoint and one endpoint. See Example 5(b). 31, midpoint (5,8), endpoint (13, 10) 32, midpoint (~7,6), endpoint (~9,9) ‘33, midpoint (12,6), endpoint (19, 16) 34, midpoint (~9, 8), endpoint (16,9) 35. midpoint (a, 6), endpoint (p,q) fatberd’ 2° 2 endpoint (b,d) 36, misgin (1192 CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions Solve each problem. See Example 6. 37. Bachelor's Degree Attainment "The graph shows a straight line that approximates the percentage of Americans 25 years and older ‘who eamed bachelor’s degrees or higher during the years 1990-2006. Use the mid= point formula and the wo given points to estimate the percent in 1998. Compare your ‘9 answer withthe actual percent of 24.4, 1990 1998 "ibe Yeur Source S, Ces Be, 38, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families ‘Average Monthly Payment to (TANF) "The graph shows an idealized TANE Frege Redeiow linear relationship for the average monthly 4 payment to needy families in the TANF a program. Based on this information, what $500 was the average payment to families in so >on? ea E 00, sca 2000 ta "abe Year Source: Aisin for Cen so Foie 39. Poverty Level Income Cutoff The table lists how poverty level income cutoffs (in dollars) for a family of four have changed 1970 3968, ‘overtime, Use the midpoint formula to ap proximate the poverty level cutoff in 1987 a. Eg to the nearest dollar. 1990) 13,359 72000 17,603 2008 19,157 Source? US, Census Bursa. Public College Enrollment Enrollments in public colleges for recent years are shown in the table. Assuming a linear relationship, estimate the enrollments for (a) 1998 and 1995 11,092 (by 2004. 2001 12,233 2007 13,555 Sours: U.S. Census Buea. 41, Show that if Mis the midpoint of the segment with endpoints P(x,y)) and Qtvs.y2) then d(P,M) + dl.) = d(P,) and d(P,.M) = aM, 0), 42. ‘The distance formula as given in the text involves a square root radical. Write the distance formula using a rational exponent,Ee Center-Rat ‘¥ LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS ‘Thecircle x+y! = Lisealed the unit circle tis important in inter- retin the trigonometric or cirewlar functions that appear in the study of calculus, Cy Figure 13 22 Circles 193 For each equation, (a) give a table with at least three ordered pairs that are solutions, ‘and (b) graph the equation. (Hint: You may need more than three points for the graphs in Exercises 47-54.) See Examples 7 and 8. 4 6) = 3x- 12 44, 6y = ~6x + 18 45, 2x + 3y 46, 3x -2y = 6 Mynx 48 y= +2 y= VE=3 50. y= VE-3 si. y=|x-21 82, y= [x +4] Sy aa 54, y= 2 Concept Check Answer the following. 56. Ifa vertical line is drawn through the point (4,3), where will it intersect the x-axis? 56. Ifa horizontal line is drawn through the point (4,3), where wil i intersect the y-axis? 57, If the point (a,b) is in the second quadrant, in what quadrant is (a, ~b)? (a,b)? (a,=b)? Ga)? '58, Show that the points (~2,2), (13,10), (21, ~5), and (6, ~13) are the vertices of @ shombus (all sides equal in length), 59, Are the points A(1, 1), B(5,2), C(3,4), and D(—1,3) the vertices of a parallelogram (opposite sides equal in length)? of a rhombus (all sides equal in length)? (60, Find the coordinates of the points that divide the line segment joining (4,5) and (10, 14) into three equal parts Form = General Form » An Application Center-Radius Form _ By definition, a circle is the set of all points in a plane that lie a given distance from a given point. The given distance is the radius of the circle and the given point isthe center. ‘We can find the equation ofa circle from its definition by using the distance formula, Suppose that the point (fh, is the center and the circle has radius 1, where r > 0. Let (x,y) represent any point on the circle. See Figure 13. Now apply stance formula from Section 2.1, with (?, ) = (x,y) and (x,y) = (ra 92) Vea = xP + 2 Viv =F FO =r (WP + (y— BES PP Square both sides. Geeton 1.6) 1 Gedtion 2.1) If a circle of radius r > 0 has center (h, k) at the origin, (0, 0), then the equation of this circle is x? + y? = r?, CENTER-RADIUS FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE ‘Accircle with center (0, k) and radius r has equation n+ bE, which is the center-radius form of the equation of the circle. A circle with center (0, 0) and radius r has equation vty1194 CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions FINDING THE CENTER-RADIUS FORM Find the center-radius form of the equation of each circle described. (a) center at (~3, 4), radius 6 (b) center at (0, 0), radius 3 Solution (a) Use (4, ) = '—3, 4) and r = 6. (e-AP + — BPP Cenmerraius form [x- (-3F + 9-4)? = 6 Substitute. &+3P + ~ 4? =36 (b) Because the center is the origin and r = 3, the equation is Payer? Ptyos x4 ya, NOW TRY EXE co GE GRAPHING ciRcLes Graph each circle discussed in Example 1. @ (+ 3P + (y—4F 36 P+ yr RD Solution (a), Writing the equation as &-(-3F + 0-4" = 6 gives (—3, 4) as the center and 6 as the radius. The graph is shown in Figure 14, saya? =36 Figure 14 Figure 15 (b) The graph is shown in Figure 15, NOW TRY EXERCISES I(t) AND 5(6)22 Circles 195 2 The circles graphed in Figures 14 and 15 of Example 2 can be generated con a graphing calculator by first solving for y and then entering two functions Y, and Y2, See Figures 16 and 17, 1 24436-G3F y= ee 3 aaa] ler asi is Ter “a 22 4-6-4 Y2= 9-7 ‘The graph ofthis circle has ‘The graph ofthis cizle has equation (e+ 3)?+ 0-4 = 36, equations? 49? = 9, Figure 16 Figure 17 Because of the design of the viewing window, it is necessary to use a square ‘viewing window to avoid distortion when graphing circles, Refer to your owner's ‘manual to see how to do this. = General Form Suppose that we start with center-radius form (x ~ A? + ( — &? =r? of the equation of a circle and rewrite it so that the binomials are expanded and the right side is 0. oH +o Deh + P+ y? = Dyk + © Square each binomial ey subsraet *, Seetion R3) at + y? + (—2h)x + (=2y + (h? +k? — 1°) =O Properties of real numbers tf t (Gaton 2) ¢ d e If > 0, then the graph of this equation is a circle with center (h, #) and radius r, as seen earlier. This isthe general form of the equation of a circle. GENERAL FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE ‘The equation Pty tertdy +e=0, for some real numbers ¢, d, and e, can have a graph that is a circle or a point, or is nonexistent. Starting with an equation in this general form, we can complete the square to get an equation of the form (x HP + (y— BF =m, for some number m.196 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions ‘There are three possibil 1. If m > 0, then r Vm ies forthe graph based on the value of m. 'm, and the graph of the equation is a circle with radius 2. If m = 0, then the graph of the equation is the single point (/, 3. If m < 0, then no points satisfy the equation and the graph is nonexistent, FINDING THE CENTER AND RADIUS BY COMPLETING THE SQUARE Show that x? ~ Gx +)? + 10y + 25 = Ohas a circle as its graph, Find the cen- ter and radius. Solution We complete the square twice, once for x and once for y. Gr + y+ Idy + 25=0 G?-6x ) + (7 + loy 25 al ‘Add 9 and 25 on the left to complete the two squares, and to compensate, add 9 and 25 on the right. (x? = 6x + 9) + (9? + 10y + 25) va) =a 25 + 9+ 25 Complete the square Gedion 14) &- 3h + +5P=9 Foctor. (Section R4) Since 9 > 0, the equation represents a circle with center at (3, ~5) and radius 3. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 19. FINDING THE CENTER AND RADIUS BY COMPLETING THE SQUARE Show that 2x? + 2)? — 6x + 10y = I has e circle as its graph. Find the center and radius. Solution To complete the square, the coefficients of the x*- and y*-terms must bel 28 + 2y4- 6 + y= 1 2G ~ 3x) + 207 + 5y) (p-2+ 2) +2(e+5+%) mG) Complete the square. 1. Group the terms; factor out 2, 18 Factor; simplify on the right, Divide both sides by 2. ‘The equation has a circle with center at (8, —§) and radius 3 as its graph NOW TRY EXERCISE 23.22 Circles 197 [EEBIIDIEEENY rermininc WHETHER A GRAPH ISA POINT OR NONEXISTENT ‘The graph of the equation x? + 10x + y? — 4y + 33 nonexistent. Which is it? Oiis either a point or is Solution We complete the square for x and y. 22+ 10x + y? = 4y + 33-=0 2+ lr y?— dy = 33 Subiract 38, [oopaa mt [Leaf -« (2 + 10x + 25) +? = dy +4) = 33 + 25 +4 Complete the square (+5 + - 2 = -4 Factor add Since ~4 < 0, there are no ordered pairs (x, y), with x and y both real numbers, satisfying the equation. The graph of the given equation is nonexistent; it con~ tains no points. (If the constant on the right side were 0, the graph would consist of the single point (~5, 2).) INOW TRY EXERCISE 25. <4] An Application Seismologists can locate the epicenter of an earthquake by determining the intersection of three circles. The radii ofthese circles repre~ sent the distances from the epicenter to each of three receiving stations. The cen- ters ofthe circles represent the receiving stations. [ERBEIIIER Loci THE EPICENTER OF AN EARTHQUAKE Suppose receiving stations A, B, and C are located on a coordinate plane atthe points (1,4), (3, ~1), and (5,2). Let the distance from the earthquake epicen- ter to each station be 2 units, 5 units, and 4 units, respectively. Where on the co- ordinate plane is the epicenter located? Solution Graph the three circles as shown in Figure 18. From the graph it ap- pears that the epicenter is located at (1, 2). To check this algebraically, deter- mine the equation for each circle and substitute x = 1 and y = 2. Station A: Station B: Station C: (1 + YAP = 4] (e+ 3 + + 1 = 25|(x- 5)? + & - 2 = 16 (17 + -4P = 4] + 3 +O + P= 25/1 - 57 + 2-2 = 16 O44 16+9=25 16 +0=16 4=4 25 = 25 16 = 16 ‘The point (1,2) does lie on all three graphs; thus, we can conclude’ that the epicenter is at (1,2). Figure 18 [NOW TRY EXERCISE 37. 4)198 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions KES ESIEIM iss Prcips is tte morning vaio personaly on Xt Satellite Radio's Simties on Six Decades channel, Phlash is an expert on U.S. ‘geography and loves traveling around the country to strange, out-of-the-way locations. The photo shows Phlash (seated) visiting a small Arizona settle- ‘ment called Nothing. (Nothing is, so small that it’s not named on current ‘maps.) The sign indicates that Nothing is 50 mi from Wickenburg, AZ, 75 mi from Kingman, AZ, 105 mi from Phoenix, AZ, and 180 mi from Las ‘Vegas, NV. FOR DISCUSSION OR WRITING Discuss how the concepts of Example 6 can be used to locate Nothing, AZ, ‘on a map of Arizona and southern Nevada. EX@rCis@S 5, serises 1-12, (0) ind the center rads form ofthe euation of ech cele, and (©) graph it. See Examples 1 and 2. 1. center (0,0), radius 6 2 center (0,0), radius 9 3. center (2,0), radius 6 4, conter(0,~3),radius7 —S. center(—2,5),radius4 6, center (4,3), radius 5 7. center (5, —4), radius 7 8, center (~3, ~2), radius 6 9. center (0,4), radius 4 10. center (3,0), radius 3 11. center (V2, V2), radius V2 12, center (~V3, ~ V3), radius V3 Connecting Graphs with Equations In Exercises 13-16, use each graph to determine ‘the equation ofthe circle in (a) center-radius form and (b) general form. Ty 16.22 Circles 199 17. Concept Check Which one of the two screens is the correct graph of the circle with center (—3, 5) and radius 4? ¥ A B. wo ais = hs -s is =o Flo E218. When the eqution ofa circle is writen in the form (e—WP +(y— KP =m, | ‘how does the value of m indicate whether the graph is a circle or a point, or is nonexistent? Decide whether or not each equation has a circle as its graph. Ift does, give the center ‘and the radius. Ifitdoes not, describe the graph. See Examples 3-5. WX bor HR +I=O — - Bat Hy HEr—Gy+16=0 Wty a+ y= 4 BP + y= 12 + 1y = -25 23, de? + dy? + dy 16y—19=0 24, Oe +! + IDE IBY 23=0 25. x8 + y+ 2x 6y +40 26, x8 + y+ de ~ By +32 27, 8 + - 6x — by + 18=0 2B. ty + art ay+8=0 29. 9x! + 9y* + 36x = =32 30, 4x? + ay + 4 — 4y T= 0 “RELATING CONCEPTS200 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions Epicenter of an Earthquake Solve each problem. See Example 6. 37. Suppose that receiving stations X, ¥, and Z are located on a coordinate plane at the points (7,4), (-9, ~4), and (~3, 9), respectively. The epicenter of an earthquake is dorormined to be 5 units from X, 13 units from ¥, and 10 units from Z, Where on the coordinate plane is the epicenter located? 38. Suppose that receiving stations P, Q, and R are located on a coordinate plane atthe points (3, 1), (5, ~4), and (~1, 4), respectively. The epicenter of an earthquake is determined to be V5 units from P, 6 units from Q, and 2V‘10 units from R. Where (on the coordinate plane is the epicenter located? 39, ‘The locations of three receiving stations and the distances tothe epicenter of an earth- quake are contained in the following dee equations: (x ~ 2)? + (y — 1 = 25, (e+ 2)? + (= 2 = 16, and (x ~ 1) + ( + 2)? = 9, Determine the location of the epicenter 40, ‘The locations of three receiving stations and the distances tothe epicenter of an earth- {quake are contained in the following three equations: (x ~ 2)' + (y ~ 4)? = 25, (c= DP + (+ 3)? = 25, and (x + 3)? + ( + 6 = 100, Determine the location ofthe epicenter Concept Check Work each ofthe following. 41, Find the centerradius form of the equation ofa circle with center (3,2) and tangent to the x-axis. (Hint: A line tangent (oa circle means touching it at exactly one point) 42, Find the equation of a circle with center at (~4,3), passing through the point (5,8) ‘Write it in center-radis form. 43. Find all points (x,y) with x = y that are 4 units from (1,3). 4, Find al points satisfying x + y = Othat are 8 units fom (2,3). 5) Find the coostnaes of al points whose distance from (1,0) is VTO and whose sistance from (5,4) s VI. Find the equation of the citle of smallest adi tat contains te pins (1) and (3,2) within o on its boundary 46. 447, Find all values of y such that the distance between (3,y) and (~2,9) is 12. 48. Suppose that a circle is tangent to both axes, is in the third quadrant, and has ra- dius V2. Find the center-radius form of its equation. 49. Find the shortest distance from the origin to the graph of the circle with equation x? = 16x + y* — Lay + 88 = 0, ‘50, Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line y = 1 and the circle centered at (3,0) with radius 2.23 Functions 201 EF Relations and Functions = Domain and Range » Determining Functions from Graphs or Equations « Function Notation » Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions Relations and Functions — Recall from Seetion 2.1 how we described one quantity in terms of another. * The letter grade you receive in a mathematics course depends on your numerical scores. ‘The amount you pay (in dollars) for gas at the gas station depends on the number of gallons pumped. ‘+ The dollars spent on entertainment depends on the type of entertainment. ‘We used ordered pairs to represent these corresponding quantities. For example, (3,$10.50) indicates that you pay $10.50 for 3 gallons of gas. Since the amount ‘you pay depends on the number of gallons pumped, the amount (in dollars) is called the dependent variable, and the number of gallons pumped is called the independent variable. Generalizing, if the value of the variable y depends ‘on the value of the variable x, then y is the dependent variable and x is the independent variable. Independent variable 71 Dependent variable ry Gy) Because we can write related quantities using ordered pairs, a set of ordered pairs such as {(3, 10.50), (8, 28.00), (10, 35.00)} is called a relation RELATION A relation is a set of ordered pairs ‘A special kind of relation called a function is very important in mathematics and its applications. FUNCTION A function is a relation in which, for each distinct value of the first component of the ordered pairs, there is exactly one value of the second component. > Note The relation from the beginning of this section representing the ‘number of gallons of gasoline and the corresponding cost is a function since. each x-value is paired with exactly one y-value, You would not be happy, for example, if you and a friend each pumped 10 gal of regular gasoline at the same station and your bill was $35 while his bill was $30.202 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions F revaives * yolues Fis fonction, 4 seatues "yates 7 isnot a funtion, Figure 19 [ESRI oc cioING WHETHER RELATIONS DEFINE FUNCTIONS Decide whether each relation defines a function. F = {(1,2),(-2,4),(3, -D} G = {(0,0.,.2.0,3),2.3)} H={(-4,1),(-2,D-2,0)} Solution Relation F is a function, because for each different x-value there is exactly one y-value. We can show this correspondence as follows, {1,.—2, 3} cvalues of # 42, 4,—T} ysvatues of F As the correspondence below shows, relation G is not a function because one first component corresponds to more than one second component. { {1.2.3} p-values of G values of G In relation H the last two ordered pairs have the same x-value paired with two different y-values (~2 is paited with both 1 and 0), so His a relation but not a function. In a function, no two ordered pairs can have the same first component and different second components. Different y-values vY H={(-4,0,(-2,0,(-2,0)} Nota fonction es jOW TRY EXERCISES 1 AND 3. Relations and functions can also be expressed as a correspondence or ‘mapping from one set to another, as shown in Figure 19 for function F and relation H from Example 1. The arrow from 1 to 2 indicates that the ordered pair (1,2) belongs to F—each first component is paired with exactly one second component. In the mapping for relation H, which is not a func- tion, the first component — > is paired with two different second compo- nents, | and 0 Since relations and functions are sets of ordered pairs, we can represent them using tables and graphs. A table and graph for function F is shown in Gruph of F Figure 20. Figure2023 Functions 203 Finally, we can describe a relation or function using a rule that tells how to determine the dependent variable for a specific value of the independent vari- able. The rule may be given in words: for instance, “the dependent variable is twice the independent variable.” Usually the rule is an equation: Dependent varisble —> y = 2x, <— Independent variable This is the most efficient way to define a relation or function. > Note Another way to think of ‘ function relationship is to think of the (laput.) | independent variable as an input and the dependent variable as an output. This is illustrated by the input-output (function) machine for the function defined by 3 ym 2x, (Opa) Fnetion machine Ina function, there is exactly one value of the dependent variable, the second component, for each value of the independent variable, the first com- Ponent. This is what makes functions so important in applications. Domain and Range For every relation there are two important sets of clements called the domain and range. PEMEEOE Ns (@) {3,-1), 4,2), 4,5), 6.8) ) = © = a | 0 5 Solution (@) The domain, the set of x-values, is {3,4,6); the range, the set of y-values, is, {=1,2,5,8}. This relation is not a function because the same a-value, 4, is paired with two different y-values, 2 and 5. (b) The domain is {4,6,7,~3}; the range is {100, 200, 300}. This mapping defines a function. Each x-value corresponds to exactly one y-value.204 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions (©) This relation is a set of ordered pairs, so the domain is the set of x-values {-5,0,5} and the range is the set of y-values {2}. The table defines a function because each different x-value corresponds to exactly one y-value (even though itis the.same y-value. INOW TRY EXERCISES 9, 11, AND 13. As mentioned previously, the graph of a relation is the graph of its ordered pairs, The graph gives a picture of the relation, which can be used to determine its domain and range. ([SESRIMIIIENS F1NoING DOMAINS AND RANGES FROM GRAPHS Give the domain and range of each relation. (a) : ) domain, © ¥ (@) y 3 Solution (2) The domain is the set of x-values, {— 1,0, 1,4}. The range is the set of y-values, {3, ~1, 1,2} (b) The x-values of the points on the graph include all numbers between —4 and 4, inclusive. The y-values include all numbers between ~6 and 6, inclusive. Using interval notation, the domain is[-4,4] and the range is [~6, 6]. (©) The arrowheads indicate that the line extends indefinitely left and right, as well a5 up and down. Therefore, both the domain and the range include all real numbers, written (—2:, 0) (@) The arrowheads indicate that the graph extends indefinitely left and right, as ‘well as upward, The domain is (~2", Note Graphs that do not represent functions are still relations. Remember | that all equations and graphs represent relations and that all relations have | a domain and range. ‘The vertical line test is a simple method for identifying a function defined by a graph, It is more difficult deciding whether a relation defined by an equa: tion or an inequality is a function, as well as determining the domain and range. ‘The next example gives some hints that may help. [SESEIIIENE (EN IEVING FUNCTIONS, DOMAINS, AND RANGES Decide whether each relation defines a function and give the domain and range. @yart4 (b) y= V2e=7 © @) ysx-1 (ey 1 Solution (a) In the defining equation (or rule), y = x + 4, y is always found by adding 4 tox, Thus, each value of x corresponds to just one value of y andthe relation defines a function; x can be any real number, so the domain is {x |x is a real number} or (=, 22). Since y is always 4 more than x, yalso may be any real ‘number, and so the range is (=)23 Functions 207 (b) For any choice of x in the domain of y = V2 — T, there i exactly one cor- responding value for y (the radical is a nonnegative number), so this equa- tion defines a function. Refer to the agreement on domain stated previously. ‘Since the equation involves a square root, the quantity under the radical sign cannot be negative. Thus, 2e— 120 Solve the inequality: (eetion 1.7) WEL At x24, divideby? = Bq Divide by and the domain of the function is [4,c:). Because the radical is a nonnega- tive number, as x takes values greater than or equal to 5, the range is y = 0, that is, (0,2) See Figure 22. (©) The ordered pairs (16,4) and (16,—4) both satisfy the equation »? = x. Since one value of x, 16, corresponds to two values of y, 4 and —4, this equation does not define a function, Because x is equal to the square of y, the values of x must always be nonnegative. The domain of the relation is [0,2.). Any real number can be squared, so the range of the relation is (2,0), See Figure 23. (@) By definition, y is a function of x if every value of x leads to exactly one value of y. Substituting particular value of x, say 1, into y =x — 1, corresponds to many values of y. The ordered pairs (1,0), (1,1), (1, -2), (1, =3), and so on, all satisfy the inequality. For this reason, an inequality rarely defines a function. Any number can be used for x or for y, so the domain and the range of this relation are both the set of real numbers, (—=, 2), (©) Given any value of x in the domain of 5 = we find y by subtracting 1, then dividing the result into 5. This process produces exactly one value of y for each value in the domain, so this equation defines a function. The domain includes all real numbers except those that make the denominator 0. We find these numbers by setting the de- nominator equal to 0 and solving for x x10 %=1 Add |, Section 1.1) ‘Thus, the domain includes all real numbers except 1, written as the interval (—=,1) U (1,2). Values of y can be positive or negative, but never 0, because a fraction cannot equal 0 unless its numerator is 0. Therefore, the range isthe interval (~=,0) U (0,2), as shown in Figure 24. NOW TRY EXERCISES 27, 29, AND 35. | In summary, we give three variations of the definition of function208 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Funetions "¥ LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS (One ofthe most important concepts in ales, that ofthe limit of funeton is defined using funeion notation: i fe) = (read the Limit of fla) as Yapproaches ais equal to £7) means thatthe values off) become as close as we wish 0 when we choose values of x sufclently love toa VARIATIONS OF THE DEFINITION OF FUNCTION 1. A function is a relation in which, for each distinct value of the first ‘component of the ordered pairs, there is exactly one value of the second component. 2. A function is a set of ordered pairs in which no first component is repeated. 3. A funetion is a rule or correspondence that assigns exactly one range value to each distinct domain value. Function Notation When a function fis defined with a rule or an equation using x and y for the independent and dependent variables, we say “‘y is a function of x” to emphasize that y depends on x. We use the notation y=fe), called function notation, to express this and read f(x) as “f of x2” The letter f is the name given to this function. For example, if y = 9x ~ 5, we can name the function f and write fla) = 9x = 5. Note that f(x) is just another name for the dependent variable y. For example, ify = f(x) = 9x — 5 and x = 2, then we find y, or (2), by replacing x with 2. fQ)=9+2-5=13 ‘The statement “if x = 2, then y = 13° represents the ordered pair (2,13) and is abbreviated with function notation as f= 13. Read f(2) as “fof 2” or “fat 2.” Also, AY=90=S=—5 and f-3) = H(-3) - $= 32. “These ideas can be illustrated as follows. neds Defining expression y = YQ) = 9-5 ‘Value of the function Name ofthe independent variable » Caution The symbol f(x) does not indicate “f times x,” but represents the yevalue for the indicated x-value, As just shown, f(2) is the y-value that Corresponds to the x-value 2 (GRRE UsINc FUNCTION NoTATION Let fla) = —x? + Sx — 3 and g(x) = 2x + 3. Find and simplify each of the following. fa) f2) () fq) ©) g(a +1)23 Functions 209 Solution @ fl) == + 5-3 fe) =224+5+2-3 Replacex with 2 = 4+ 10-3 Apply the exponent; multiply. Section R.2) - ‘Add and subract, ; the ordered pair (2,3) belongs to f mt sr-3 Gg? + 5q 3 Replace xwithg. © gx) = 2e +3 g(a + 1)=2( + I) +3 Replace xwitha + 1 =a +243 =2a+5 ‘The replacement of one variable with another variable or expression, asin parts (b) and (c), is important in later courses. Functions can be evaluated in a variety of ways, as shown in Example 7. (ERS UsINc FUNCTION NOTATION For each function, find /(3). (@) fl) =3x-7 (b) f= {(-3.5), 0,3), 3,1), 6,-D} © comin ‘Range @ 6 tos 2 Solution @) fo) =3— £0) = 3G) = 7 Replace x with 3. $3) =2 (b) For f= {(—3,5),(0,3),(3,1),6,-D}, we want f(3), the y-value of the ordered pair where x = 3. As indicated by the ordered pair (3,1), when x= 3,y = 1,803) (©) In the mapping, the domain element sO) =5 is paired with 5 in the range, so210 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions %, (@) To evaluate f(3), find 3 on the x-axis. See Figure 25. Then move up until the graph of f is reached. Moving horizontally to the y-axis gives 4 for the corresponding y-value. Thus, f(3) = 4, BS fy = fir) | a4 If a function fis defined by an equation with x and y (and not with function notation), use the follov ‘steps to find f(x). Fire 25 EINES ena i0) Consider an equation involving x and y. Assume that y can be expressed as a function f of x. To find an expression for f(x): ‘Step I. Solve the equation for y. Step 2. Replace y with flx). (SEE Wat ING EQUATIONS USING FUNCTION NOTATION ‘Assume that y is a function fof x. Rewrite each equation using function notation. Then find f(—2) and fla). @ y=" 41 ) x= 4 Solution @ vere fo) +1 Loran, Now find f(—2) and fla). FED=COWH 1 Lee =441 flat ia © xo4y= Solve fry (eeton 1.1) way x45 xo5 ya 2 stunipy by ts aviteny a 1 Sia a_b fe ge-Z © Gecion R5) Now find f(—2) and f(a). yp bars -2 Lex =a. [NOW'TRY EXERCISES 62 AND 67]increasing. yp decreasing. ‘constant. Figure 26 2.3 Functions 211 Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions Informally speaking, a function increases on an interval of its domain if its graph rises from left to right on the interval. It decreases on an interval of its domain if its graph falls from left to right on the interval. Its constant on an interval of its domain if its graph is horizontal on the interval. For example, look at Figure 26. The function increases on the interval [2,1] because the y-values continue to get larger for x-values in that interval. Similarly, the function is constant on the interval [1,4] because the y-values are always 5 for all x-values there. Finally, the function decreases on the inter- val [4,6] because there the y-values continuously get smaller. Notice that the yevalues produce the shape of the graph. The intervals refer to the x-values where the y-values either increase, decrease, or are constant, ‘The formal definitions ofthese concepts follow. INCREASING, DECREASING, AND CONSTANT FUNCTIONS Suppose that a function fis defined over an interval J. If x, and x, are in J, (a) increases on Iif, whenever x; < x, flr) < flea); (b) fdecreases on I if, whenever x, fleas (©) fis constant on /if, for every x; and x, fl) = fla). Figure 27 illustrates these ideas. St)» fs) Whenever) flea), Foreveryxjand.xy iff) = Jl) {fla)ax*s Ainceases on (0. and decreases on =, 0), Figure 28 ‘is decreasing o Figue27 |> Note To decide whether a function is increasing, decreasing, or constant | on an interval, ask yourself “What does y do as x goes from left to right?” ‘There can be confusion regarding whether endpoints of an interval should be included when determining intervals over which a function is increasing or decreasing. For example, consider the graph of y = f(x) = x° + 4, shown in Figure 28. Is it increasing on [0, ), or just on (0, %)? The definition of increasing and decreasing allows us to include 0 as a part of the interval / over which this function is increasing, because if we let x, = 0, then f(0) < flrs) whenever 0 inthe bloodstream increasing? decreasing? (© When does the level of the drug in the bloodsteam reach its maximum value, and how many unis are inthe bloodstream atthat time? Hous () When the deug eaches its maximum level in the bloodstream, how many adéitional hours are required forthe level to drop to Graphing Linear Functions = Standard Form Ax + By = C » Slope « Average Rate of Change « Linear Models. Graphing Linear Functions We begin our study of specific functions by looking at linear functions. The name “linear” comes from the fact that the graph of every linear function is a straight line. LINEAR FUNCTION ‘A function fis a linear function if, for real numbers a and b, Soe) = ax +b. If a0, the domain and the range of a linear function are both (—22,2:). If 4 = 0, then the equation becomes f(x) = b. In this case, the domain is (~=:,-2) and the range is {b).218 CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions In Section 2.1, we graphed lines by finding ordered pairs and plotting them, Although only two points are necessary to graph a linear function, we usually plot a third point as @ check. The intercepts are often good points to choose for sraphing lines. [SXESZIMEESEWY GRAPHING A LINEAR FUNCTION USING INTERCEPTS Graph f(x) = -2x + 6, Give the domain and range. Solution The x-intercept is found by letting f(x) = 0 and solving for x. Jo = ~2e +6 0=-2r+6 x53 Add 2: divide by 2 The x-intercept is 3, so we plot (3,0). The y-intercept is flO) = -2(0) + 6 = 6, ‘Therefore another point on the graph is (0,6). We plot this point, and join the two points with a straight line to get the graph. We use the point (2,2) as a check. See Figure 31. The domain and the range are both (==, ‘The corresponding calculator graph is shown in Figure 32. 25 Figure 32 [Now TRY EXERCISE 9. <| ‘A function of the form f(x) = b is called # constant function, and its graph is ahorizontal line. [SSIES cearsiinc a HoRIZONTALLINE Graph f(x) = 3. Give the domain and range. Solution Since f(x), or y, always equals ~3, the value of y can never be 0. This ‘means that the graph has no x-intercept. The only way a straight line can have no intercept is for it to be parallel to the x-axis, as shown in Figure 33 on the next page. The domain of this linear function is (~~); the range is {~3}.Figure 35 24 Linear Functions 219 Figure 34 shows the calculator graph. 0 -0 ho Horizontal Tine “0 Figure 35 Figure 3 [Now TRY EXERCISE 17. (SEEIUIEN crarsin averricat une Graph x = —3, Give the domain and range of this relation. Solution Since x always equals ~3, the value of x can never be 0, and the ‘graph has no y-intercept. Using reasoning similar to that of Example 2, we find that this graph is parallel to the y-axis, as shown in Figure 35. The domain of this relation, which is nora function, is {~3}, while the range is (—, 2). NOW TRY EXERCISE 19. Examples 2 and 3 illustrate that a linear function of the form y = B has as its graph a horizontal line through (0, ), and a relation of the form x = a has as its graph a vertical line through (a,0). Standard Form Ax + By = C Equations of lines are often writen inthe form Ax + By = C, called standard form, > Note The definition of “standard form” is, ironically, not standard from fone text to another. Any linear equation can be written in infinitely many | different, but equivalent, forms. For example, the equation 2x + 3y = 8 can be written equivalently as 3 = 2 xt Sy a4, dx + by = 16, 2e + ay — ay a 0, 3y and 50 on. In this text we will agree that ifthe coefficients and constant in a linear equation are rational numbers, then we will consider the standard form tobe Ax + By = C, where A = 0,4, B, and C ate integers, and the greatest common factor of A, B, and C is 1. (If two or more integers have a greatest ‘common factor of I, they are said to be relatively prime.)220. CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions [SISTER crapnine ax + ay = cwithc= Graph 4x ~ Sy = 0. Give the domain and range. Solution Find the intercepts. 4(0) — Sy=0 Lavo. 4x ~ 3(0) = 0 Lery=0. Y =O ysintercep X= 0° intercept ‘The graph of this function has just one inter- ‘cept—at the origin (0,0). We need to find an ad- Caution When using the slope formula, it makes no difference which point is (x1, ys) or (x3, ¥2); however, be consistent. Start with the x- and ‘y-values of one point (either one) and subtract the corresponding values of the other point. Be sure to write the difference of the y-values in the numerator and the difference of the x-values in the denominator. The slope of a line can be found only if the line is nonvertical. This guarantees that x2 % 2, so that the denominator 2 ~ xi # 0. Itis not possible to Gefine the slope of a vertical line. (PaaS ‘The slope of a vertical line is undefine FINDING SLOPES WITH THE SLOPE FORMULA Find the slope of the line trough the given points (a) (—4,8), (2,-3) (b) (2,7), (2,—4) (©) (5,-3), (-2,-3) Solution (a) Letx,; = —4,y, = 8, and x, = 2, 2 = ~3. Then -8=-ll and run Ar=2-(-)=6. tise = Ay = ‘The slope is run ‘The same slope results. (b) If we use the formula, we get of 2-27 0° m Undefined The formula is not valid here because Ax = — x) =2-2=0.A sketch would show that the line through (2,7) and (2,~4) is vertical. As mentioned above, the slope of a vertical line is undefined.222 CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions "Y LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS ‘The derivative of function provides formula for determining the slope of ine tangent tos cuve Ifthe slope is postive on given interval, then the funtion is increasing ter; fis negative, then the funtion is decreas ing, andi is, the the fonetion is (©) For (5,~3) and (2, ~3), NOW TRY EXERCISES 35, 39, AND AL Drawing a graph through the points in Example (c) would produce a horizontal tine, which suggests the following generalization. PART ‘The slope of a horizontal line is 0. ‘Theorems for similar triangles can be used to show that the slope of a line is independent of the choice of points on the line. That is, slope is the same no ‘matter which pair of distinct points on the line are used to find it. (IEE FN THe sLoPE FROM AN EQUATION Find the slope of the line y= ~4x — 3, Solution Find any two ordered pairs that are solutions of the equation. Ifx= ~2, then y= -4(-2)-3=5, and ifx=0, then y= -4()) -3 = — so two ordered pairs are (—2, 5) and (0, ~3). The slope is tise _ -3-5 _-8 mun 0—(=2) 2 Notice that the slope is the same as the coefficient of x in the equation. In Section 2.5, we show that this always happens if the equation is solved for y. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 45, |] Since the slope of a line is the ratio of vertical change (rise) to horizontal change (run), if we know the slope of a line and the coordinates of a point on the line, we can draw the graph of the line. [EEEUIIEE GRAPHING A LINE USING A POINT AND THE SLOPE Graph the line passing through (1, 5) and having slope — Solution First Jocate the point (—1, 5) as shown in Figure 39 on the next page. Since the slope of this line is $$, a change of —$ units vertically (that is, 5 units down) corresponds to a change of 3 units horizontally (that is, 3 units to the right) ‘This gives a second point, (2,0), which can then be used to complete the graph,Sales of DVD Players (2008, 19:8) 24 Linear Functions 223 Because %, another point could be obtained by starting at (— and moving 5 units up and 3 units to the left. We would reach a different second point, but the graph would be the same. Confirm this in Figure 39. NOW TRY EXERCISE 53. € Figure 40 shows lines with various slopes. Notice the following important concepts: 1. A line with a positive slope rises from left to slope right 5 ° 2, A line with a negative slope falls from left to), — right, x 3. When the slope is positive, the function is I dine increasing. See espe 4. When the slope is negative, the function is decreasing. Figure 40 Average Rate of Change We know thatthe slope of a line is the ratio of the vertical change in y to the horizontal change in x. Thus, slope gives the average rate of change in y per unit of change in x, where the value of y depends on the value of x. If fis a linear fonction defined on [a,b], then ® - average rate of change on fa, 6] = £2 —S, “The next example illustrates this idea, We assume a linear relationship between sand y. [GRSZIUITESN (TeRPRETING SLOPE AS AVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE In 2001, sales of DVD players numbered 12.7 million. In 2006, estimated sales of DVD players were 19.8 million. Find the average rate of change in DVD. player sales, in millions, per year. Graph as a Tine segment and interpret the result. (Source: www.thedigitalbits.com) Solution To use the slope formula, we need two ordered pairs. Here, if x = 2001, then y = 12.7, and if x = 2006, then y = 19.8, which gives the or- dered pairs (2001, 12.7) and (2006, 19.8). (Note that y i in millions.) 198 = 12.7 _ 7.1 = 142 2006 - 20015 average rate of change = ‘The graph in Figure 41 confirms that the line through the ordered pairs rises from left to right and therefore has positive slope. Thus, sales of DVD players increased by an average of 1.42 million each year from 2001 to 2006. [NOW TRY EXERCISE 75.224 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions Linear Models In Example §, we used the graph ofa line to approximate real data. Recall from Section 1.2 that this is called mathematical modeling. Points on the straight line graph model (approximate) the actual points that correspond tothe data A linear cost function has the form Clx) = mx + b, Linear cost function where x represents the number of items produced, m represents the variable cost per item, and b represents the fixed cost. The fixed cost is constant for a particular product and does not change as more items are made. The variable cost per item, which increases as more items are produced, covers labor, materials, packaging, shipping, and so on. The revenue function for selling a product depends on the price per item p and the number of items sold x, and is given by RG) = px. Revenue function Profit is described by the profit function defined as P(x) = R(x) ~ C(x). Profit function WRITING LINEAR COST, REVENUE, AND PROFIT FUNCTIONS ‘Assume that the cost to produce an item is a linear function and all items pro- duced are sold, The fixed cost is $1500, the variable cost per item is $100, and the item sells for $125. Write linear Functions to model (@)cost, (b)revenue, and -—_ (©) profit. (@) How many items must be sold for the company to make a profit? Solution (@) Since the cost function is linear, it will have the form Cle) = mx +b, with m = 100 and b = 1500. That is, Cx) = 100x + 1500, (b) The revenue function is RQ) = p= 15x. Ler = 125, (©) Using the cost and revenue functions found in parts (a) and (b), the profit function is given by PG) = RG) ~ Cts) Aga ™ 125x — (100x + 1500) 25x ~ 100" ~ 1500 Sx — 1500.Algebraic Solution (@) To make a profit, P(x) must be positive, From part (©), P(x) = 25x — 1500. Thus, P(x) > 0 2Sx—1500>0 Ply) = 25x ~ 1500 25x > 1500 Add 1500 co each side (ection 1.7) x > 60. Divide by 25 Since the number of items must be a whole num- ber, at least 61 items must be sold for the company to make a profit. Exercises 24 Linear Functions 225 Graphing Calculator Solution (@) Define Y, as 25X — 1500 and graph the line. Use the capability of your calculator to locate the intercept. See Figure 42. As the graph shows, yevalues for x less than 60 are negative, and Jevalues for x greater than 60 are positive, so at least 61 items must be sold for the company to make a profit, Y, = 25K ~ 1500 1500. too ‘en Figure #2 NOW TRY EXERCISE 89. Concept Check Match the description in Column I with the correct response in Column I, Some choices may not be used. + 1, alinear function whose graph has y-intercept 6 +2, avertical line +3, a constant function + 4, a linear function whose graph has x-intercept ~2and y-intercept 4 5, a linear function whose graph passes through the origin 66. a function that is not linear Graph each linear function. Identify any constant functions. See Examples I, 2, and 4 7. #0) = 10. f() 13, 3y —4e=0 16. fe) 1 0 AL fl) = 5x B. fle) = 3x +6 ©. fi) = Df) = E.xty B fa)=3e+4 G. 2 - x Give the domain and range. &fe)=—r +4 9. fle) ML. 4x + 3y=9 12, 2x + Sy= 10 14, 3x + 2y=0 15. flu) = 3x 17. fe) 18. fl) = 3 Graph each vertical line, Give the domain and range ofthe relation. See Example 3, Wx=3 2, -3r4+6=0 20, x= 4 2, 2x +4=0 23, -x+5=0 243435226 CHAPTER 2. Graphs and Functions Match each equation with the sketch that most closely resembles its graph. See Examples 2 and 3. y= 5 26. Mex 28. x= -5 Ay By Gy Dy — [Q1use a graphing calculator to graph each equation in the standard viewing window. See Examples 1-4. Wy=3e+4 Wye -%+3 BL Gytdy—6 32, -2e+5y=10 3B. Concept Check tC a waka ses 25 fr every 10 fon the heional, which of the Me following expres is lope (or grade? Tere are several comect choices) 5 A2 BS D. 25% je... 1 10 BF RR Gsm nase 34 Concept Check Ifthe pitch of a roofs}, how many feet inthe horizontal diretion correspond to a rise of 4 ft? ——— Find the slope of the line satisfying the given conditions. See Example S 135, through (2, ~1) and(—3,~3) 36. through (5,—3) and (1,—7) 37. through (5,9) and (2,9) 38. through (2,4) and (6,4) 39, through (5, 1) and (4, 1) 40, through (3, 5) and (4, 5) 41. vertical, through (4, ~7) 42, vertical, through (~8, 5) [B)43. Which of the following foms ofthe slope formula are comet fra ie containing Points (x), y,) and (3, y2}? Explain. Acm=2o 2B me Cm aB— 9% Dp, m= Bo a ante “om yoy £2944, can the graph of atiner function have undefined slope? Explain. Find the slope ofeach tine ard sketch the graph See Example 6 45-3045 46, y=20-4 a7. 2y= ar $8, 4) = 5x 49, 5: 2y-10 50. 4+ y= 12 LE)st. Explain in your own words whats mean bythe slope of ine. 2)52, Explain now to graph a ine esing a point on te Tne and the slope of he ine24 Linear Functions 227 Graph the line passing through the given point and having the indicated slope. Plot two points on the line, See Example 7. 53, through (~1,3),m = ‘54, through (—2,8), m= 2 $5 toon on = ; 2 twas (~4,4)n=0 Concept Check For each given slope in Exercises 59-64, identify the line in A~F that could have this slope. ot ans oo 1 wt as “Ya unend AY Bo a» ee 4. 7 a= DR RY R > Concept Check Find and interpret the average rat of change iustrated in each graph « : 66. ; ge «0 43 3 an 4 si . Ss o1r?se* 12 3 6 Yer Month a 3 6 y Percent of Pay Raise [Number of Named Homcanes » 5B 69, Concept Check For constant function, isthe average rate of change positive, negative, o zero? (Choose one.)228 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions Solve each problem. See Example 8, 70. (Modeling) Olympic Times for $000 Meter Run The graph shows the winning times (in minutes) atthe Olympic Games forthe men's 5000 m run together with a linear approximation of the data. ‘Olympic Times for 5000 Meter Run (in minutes) 150 us 0 nas ns no 910, 98 190, "s20'""” sao" 1960'°"s250"°™"2600 Soc: Unie Ses Oye Comite. (a) An equation for the linear model, based on data from 1912-2004 (where x represents the year), is y= =.0187s + 50.60. Determine the slope. (See Example 6.) What does the slope of this line represent? Why is the slope negative? () Can you think of any reason why there are no data points forthe Years 1916, 1946, and 19447 (©) The winning time for the 1996 Olympic Games was 13.13 min. What does the ‘model predict? How far is the prediction from the actual value? (Modeling) US. Radio Stations The graph shows the number of U.S. radio stations onthe air along withthe graph of a linear function that models the data, U.S. Radio Stations umber of stations 5 1830 "19601870 "1980 1800 "2000 Year Sour: Noa Asset of rods, Ba) Discus the predictive accuracy ofthe linear function, (b) Use the two data points (1950,2773) and (1999, 12,057) to find the approximate slope of the line shown, Interpret this number.24 Linear Functions 229 ‘72. Cellular Telephone Subscribers ‘The table gives the number of cellular telephone subscribers (in thousands) from 2000 through 2005. (a) Find the change in subscribers for 2000-2001, 2001-2002, and so on. (b) Is the change in successive years approximately the same? Ifthe ordered pairs in the table were plotted, could an approximately straight ine be drawn through them? 2000 109,478 2001 128,375 2002 140,766 2003 158,722 2004 182,140 2005) 207,896 Source: US. Census Boreas, 73. Food Stamp Recipients The graph provides Food Stamp Recipients 1 good approximation of the number of food 7 stamp recipients (in millions) from 1994 through 2004, (a) Use the given ordered pairs to find the average rate of change in food stamp recipients per year during this period. (b) Interpret what a negative slope means in this situation, z a Year Source: US. Cems Be 74, Olympic Times for 5000 Meter Run Exercise 70 showed the winning times for the ‘Olympic men’s 5000 m run, Find and interpret the average rate of change for the fol lowing periods (a) The winning time in 1912 was 14.6 min; in 1996 it was 13.1 min. (b) The winning time in 1912 was 14.6 min; in 2000 it was 13.6 min. College Freshmen Studying Computer Science In 2000, 3.7% of all U.S. college freshmen listed computer science as their probable field of study. By 2004, this figure had decreased (0 1.4%, Find and interpret the average rate of change in the percent per year of freshmen listing computer science as their probable field of study, (Source: Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA.) 76, Price of DVD Players When introduced in 1997, a DVD player sold for about $8500. In 2007, a DVD player could be purchased for $90. Find and interpret the average rate of change in price per year. (Source: World-Import.com) 71. Sales wf DVD Players In 1997, 315 million that is, 315,000) DVD players were sold, In 2006, sales of DVD players reached 19.788 million. Find and interpret the average rate of change in sales, in millions, per year. Round your answer to the nearest hundredth. (Source: www.thedigitalbits.com) 18,230 CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions RELATING CONCEPTS For individual or collaborative investigation (Exercises 78-87) The table shows several points on the graph of a linear function. Work Exercises 78-87 in order, to see connections between the slope formula, the distance formula the midpoint formula, and lin- ear functions. 78. Use the fits two points inthe table to find the slope of the line. 79, Use the second and third points in the table to find the slope of the line, 80, Make a conjecture by filing in the blank: If we use any two points ona line to find its slope, we find that the slope is | imall cases. | 81. Use the distance formula to find the distance between the frst two points inthe | table. | 82. Use the distance formula to find the distance between the second and fourth points in the table. | 83. Use the distance formula to find the distance between the frst and fourth points inthe table ‘84, Add the results in Exercises 81 and 82, and compare the sum to the answer you found in Exercise 83. What do you notice? $5. Fill in the blanks, basing your answers on your observations in Exercises |. 81-84: If points A, B, and C lie on a tine in that order, then the distance | between A and B added to the distance between and ___is equal to the distance betwe and ‘86. Use the midpoint formula to find the midpoint ofthe segment joining (0, ~6) and (6,12). Compare your answer to the middle entry in the table. What do you notice? If the table were set up to show an s-value of 4.5, what would be the correspon- ding y-value? (Modeling) Cost, Revenue, and Profit Analysis A firm will break even (no profit and no loss) as long as revenue just equals cost. The value of x (the number of items produced and sold) where C(x) = R(x) is called the break-even point. Assume that each of the following can be expressed as a linear function. Find (@) the cost function, (b) the revenue function, and _(¢) the profit function. (@) Find the break-even point and decide whether the product should be produced based (on the restrictions on sales. See Example 9. Fixed Cost | Variable Cost | Price of Item 88 $500 so $35 Nomore than 18 units ean be sol. . 89, S180 st $20, Nomore than 30 units ean e sol, 90. $2700 3150 {$280 No more than 25 units cam be sol, st $1650 $400 $305 All units produce ean be solCHAPTER 2 Quiz 231 92, (Modeling) Break-Even Point The manager of « small company that produces toof tile has determined thatthe total cost in dollars, CLs), of producing « units of tile is given by C(x) = 200x + 1000, while the revenue in dollars, R(x), from the sale ofx units of ile i given by R(x) = 240x (@) Find the break-even point and the cost and revenue atthe bresk-even point (B) Suppose the variable cost is actually $220 per unit, instead of $200, How does this affect the break-even point Is the manager beter off or not? QUIZ (sections 2. A) For the points A(~4, 2) and B(—8, ~3), find d(A, B), the distance between A and B, 2 ooar College Envlinct St gar | lien in allon) ‘ments in two-year colleges for selected ‘years are shown in the table. Use the mid- 1980 450 point formula to estimate the enrollments ~ggq aa for 1985 and 1995. 2000 5.80) Sours: Sasica Abstract ofthe United Staves. 3. Sketch the graph of y = x" + 4 by plotting points 4, Sketch the graph of x? + y? = 16 8. Determine the radius and the coordinates of the center of the circle with equation byt art By 43 <0. For Exercises 6-8, referto the graph of flx) = le + 3) 6. Find (-1). 7. Give the domain and the range off 8. Give the largest interval over which f is (a) decreasing, (b) increasing, (€) constant. 9. Find the slope ofthe Tine through the given points. (a) (1,5) and (5, 11) (by (—7, 4) and (~1, 4) (©) (6,12) and (6, ~4) 10. Aging of College Freshmen The graph Percent of College Freshmen Age 18 shows a straight line segment that approxi- ‘or Younger on December 31, ‘mates the results from an annual survey of college freshmen. Determine the average * rate of change from 1982 to 2002, and in- bp texpret the result ™ : @3 r « at kT hota Yeur Sine: Higher ction Reseach iv,232. CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions Point-Slope Form = Slope-Intercept Form = Vertical and Horizontal Lines » Parallel and Perpendicular Lines = Moc Any other fheline (9) 3) Fed point igure 3 ling Data + Solving Linear Equations in One Variable by Graphing Point-Slope Form In the previous section we saw that the graph of a linear function is a straight line. In this section we develop various forms for the ‘equation of a Tine. Figure 43 shows the line passing through the fixed point (xi,y0) having slope m. (Assuming that the line has a slope guarantees that itis not vertical.) Let (x,y) be any other point on the line. Since the line is not verti- cal, x — x: x 0. By the definition of slope, the slope of this line is you me (xx) = yy) Multiply both sides by x — n or y— y= mlx — x). ‘his result is called the point-slope form of the equation of a line. Neato The line with slope m passing through the point (x,y:) has an equation yoy = me ~ x), the point-stope form of the equation of a line. [SESUEE usin tHe poin-stoPe FORM (GIVEN A POINT AND THE SLOPE) Find an equation of the line through (—4, 1) having slope ~3. Solution Here x; = —4,y; = 1, and m = —3, mx =x) Point slope form Sf = (4) = 4) = m= 3 3x + 4) y- 153-12 Distbuive popeny (ection R2) y= —3x— 11 Add | ection 1.1) ES Figure 44 shows how a graphing calculator supports the result of Example 1. The display at the bottom of the screen indicates thatthe point (~4, 1) lies on the graph of y = ~3r ~ 11. We can verify that the slope is ~3 using the discus- sion that follows Example 2. =‘¥ LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS A standard problem in callus sto find th equation ofthe ine tangent ‘curve at given pont. The desiative (cee Looking Ahead Caleulus on ge 222) is used to find the slope of the desire Ine, and then the slope and the given poinc are used in the poit- slope form to solve the robe, 10 eae 2 E6875 Figure 45 25 Equations of Lines; Curve Fitting 233 (EES sine THE PoInt-sLoPe FORM (GIVEN TWO POINTS) Find an equation of the line through (—3,2) and (2, ~4). Solution Find the slope first. <4-2_ 6 =Ca) Ss Trsslone mis —$ Either (—3,2) or (2, ~4) can be used for (x,,;). We choose Definition of lope yay = mbe— x) Point-slope form pode Se 3] naam § S(y — 2) = —6(x + 3) Multiply by 5. Sy - 10= 6x ~ 18 Distibutive propery 6 8 y Aaa 10; divide by 5 3.5 = Verify that we get the same equation if we use (2,—4) instead of (—3,2) in the point-slope form, [NOW TRY EXERCISES. <] ES The screen in Figure 45 supports the result of Example 2, = Slope-Intercept Form Asa special case of the point-slope form of the ‘equation of a line, suppose that a line passes through the point (0,), so the line has y-intercept b. If the line has slope m, then using the point-slope form with x; = Oand yy = D gives x — x) m(x ~ 0) yom yr intercept Since this result shows the slope of the line and the y-intercept, it is called the slope-intercept form of the equation of the line. This is an important form, since linear functions are written this way. Bream ‘The line with slope m and y-intercept b has an equation mx + by the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line.234 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions fp Shinget Sunits 0.2) F sehanges 1 unit Figure a6 FINDING THE SLOPE AND y-INTERCEPT FROM AN EQUATION OF A LINE Find the slope and y-intercept of the line with equation 4x + Sy = —10, Solution Write the equation in slope-intercept form. 4r+ Sy = 10 Sym 4x — 10 Subiract 4x yo —Se=2 divisewys t t nob ‘The slope is —$ and the y-intercept is —2. USING THE SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM (GIVEN TWO POINTS) Find an equation of the line through (1, 1) and (2, 4). Then graph the line using the slope-intercept form. Solution In Example 2, we used the point-slope form in a similar problem. Here we use the slope-intercept form. First, find the slope. ante 21 1 Now substitute 3 for m in.y = mx + b and choose one of the given points, say (1,1), to find the value of b Definition of slope ym me +b Slope-itercept form 1=30) +b maaxwhy=t intercept —s b = 2 Solve for ‘The slope-intercept form is y= 3x ~ 2. The graph is shown in Figure 46. We can plot (0, ~2) and then use the definition of slope to arrive at (1, 1). Verify that (2, 4) also lies on the line, INOW TRY EXERCISE 13 [SESIIIIIIE F1NoING AN EQUATION FROM A GRAPH Use the graph of the linear function f shown here to complete the following. (@) Find the slope, y-intercept, and x-intercept. (b) Write the equation that defines f25 Equations of Lines; Curve Fitting 235 Solution (a) The line falls 1 unit each time the x-value increases by 3 units. Therefore, the slope is t= —}. The graph intersects the y-axis at the point (0, ~1) and intersects the x-axis at the point (3, 0). Therefore, the intercept is —1 and the x-intercept is ~3. (b) Because the slope is —3 and the y-intercept is — defining fis follows that the equation fa)= NOW TRY EXERCISE 41, ] > Note Another way to find the x-intercept in Example 5 is to solve the | equation f(x) = 0. Verify this. Vertical and Horizontal Lines In the preceding discussion, we as- ‘sumed that the given line had slope. The only lines having undefined slope are vertical ines. The vertial line through the point (a,b) passes through all points cof the form (a,y), for any value of y. Consequently, the equation ofa vertical line through (a0) is.x = a, For example, the vertical line through (~3,9) has equation x = ~3. See Figure 35 in Section 24 on page 219 for the graph of this equation. Since each point on the y-axis has x-coordinate 0, the equation of the y-axis is x = 0. The horizontal line through the point (a,b) passes through all points of the form (x,b), for any value of x. Therefore, the equation of a horizontal line through (a,b) is y = b. For example, the horizontal line through (1, ~3) has equation y = ~3. See Figure 33 in Section 2.4 on page 219 for the graph of this equation. Since each point on the a-axis has y-coordinate 0, the equation of the x-axis is y WMA enero ‘An equation of the vertical line through the point (a,) is x ‘An equation of the horizontal line through the point (a,b) is y = b. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines We use slope to decide whether ‘or not two lines are parallel. Since two parallel lines are equally “steep.” they should have the same slope. Also, two distinct ines with the same “steepness” are parallel. The following result summarizes this discussion236 CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions PARALLEL LINES ‘Two distinct nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope. ‘Slopes are also used to determine whether two lines are perpendicular. When- ever two lines have slopes with a product of ~1., the lines are perpendicular. Peres ‘Dwo lines, neither of which is vertical, are perpendicular if and only if their slopes have a product of ~ 1. Thus, the slopes of perpendicular lines, neither of which is vertical, are negative reciprocals. For example, if the slope of a line is ~ }, the slope of any line perpendicular to it is 3, since —3($) = -1. (Numbers like —} and $ are called negative reciprocals of each other.) A proof of this result is outlined in Exercises 70-77. FINDING EQUATIONS OF PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES Find the equation in slope-intercept form of the line that passes through the point (3,5) and satisfies the given condition. (@) parallel to the Tine 2x + Sy ~ 4 (b) perpendicular to the line 2x + Sy = 4 Solution (a) Since we know that the point (3,5) is on the line, we need only find the slope to use the point-slope form, We find the slope by writing the equation of the given line in slope-intercept form. (That is, solve for y.) wt Sy=4 sy Det 4 Subtract 2s 5 y +4 pwvisewys soe The slope is — 3, Since the lines are parallel, — 3 is also the slope of the line whose equation is to be found. Y— y= MG = x) Pointstope form 2 yr Smo 5-39 na3yes w= 5-224 disittve propery 2,3 : yorget ye Aus=25 Equations of Lines; Curve Fitting 237 (b) In part (a) we found that the slope of the line 2x + Sy = 4 is —3, so the slope of any line perpendicular to itis §. NOW TRY EXERCISES 47 AND 49. ye-pt We can use a graphing calculator to support the results of Example 6. In Figure 47(a), we graph 2m and -2r+72 x75 from part (a). The lines appear to be parallel, giving visual support for our result, ‘We must use caution, however, when viewing such graphs, asthe limited resolu- tion of a graphing calculator screen may cause two Tines to appear to be parallel even when they are not. For example, Figure 47(b) shows the graphs of yo2x+6 and = y=201x-3 in the standard viewing window, and they appear to be parallel. This is not the case, however, because their slopes, 2 and 2.01, are different, To support the result of part (b), we graph 2.4 eee sits andy y 2° 2 If we use the standard viewing window, the lines do not appear to be perpendi- ee Figure 48(a). To obtain the correct perspective, we must use a square 1g window, as in Figure 48(b).. <0 y=201x-3 "Those lines ae not pall, bot, appear tobe. o) Feu 10] ots is 10 10 A standard window + Asquare window OO) © Figure 40 .238 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions ‘A summary of the various forms of linear equations follows. yemetb ‘Slope-Tntereept Form ‘The slope and y-intercept can Slope ism. be easily identified and used to intercept is b Quickly graph the equation YH = me =) | Poine-Slope Form ‘This form is ideal for finding the Slope ism. equation ofa line if the slope Line passes through (x91). | and point on the line or two points on the line are known, ‘a+ iy=C | Standard Form “The sand inereps canbe {the cctciensandcon- | found qi and redo Santareratonal, then, | graph the equation The slope and Carcexpresed as ela: | tnstbeeaelate. tiely prime integers, with 420) Soi (#0) imercepis f(A * 0) yinercepis§ (Bs 0) yao Horizontal Line 1 te graph intersects only the Slope is 0. y-axis, then yis the only vari- eimteroept is b ‘ble in the equation. x=a Vertical Line Ifthe graph intersects only he Slope is undefined. seaxis, then xis the ony vari- intercept is ble in the equation. Modeling Data We can write equations of lines that mathematically de- scribe, or model, real data if the data changes at a fairly constant rate. In this ‘case, the data fit a linear pattern, and the rate of change is the slope of the line. (ERSZIUIEE FINDING AN EQUATION OF A LINE THAT MODELS DATA Average annual tution and fees for in-state students at public 4-year colleges are shown in the table for selected years and graphed as ordered pairs of points in Figure 49, where x = 0 represents 1996, x = 4 represents 2000, and so on, and. 1y represents the cost in dollars. This graph of ordered pairs of data is called a ‘scatter diagram. 1996 1998 a 3 2000 3 noon | 446i 3 poor | se 20s | 5836 a Source: US. National Center for Figure 49 cation Statics: College Bod.25 Equations of Lines; Curve Fitting 239 (a) Find an equation that models the data. (b) Use the equation from part (a) to predict the cost of tuition and fees at public 4-year colleges in 2008. Solution (2) Since the points in Figure 49 lie approximately on a straight line, we can vite a linear equation that models the relationship between year x and cost y. We choose two data points, (0, 3151) and (10, $836), to find the slope of the line. 5836 — 3151_ 2685 _ w-0 7 10789 The slope 268.5 indicates thatthe cost of tuition and fees for in-state stu dents at public 4-year colleges increased by about $269 per year from 1996 t0 2006. We use this slope, the y-intereept 3151, and the slope-intercept form to write an equation ofthe line, yom +b Slope-intercept form y = 268.5x + 3151. (b) The value x = 12 corresponds to the year 2008, so we substitute 12 for x. y= 268.5 +3151 Mode! from par (a) y= 268.5(12) + 3151 Lear = 12 y = 6373 According to the model, average tuition and fees for in-state students at public 4-year colleges in 2008 would be about $6373, [NOW TRY EXERCISE SH) AND ().€ > Note In Example 7, if we had chosen different data points, we would have gotten a slightly different equation. However, all such equations should be similar FINDING A LINEAR EQUATION THAT MODELS DATA ‘The table below and graph in Figure 50 on the next page illustrate how the percent of women in the civilian labor force has changed from 1960 to 2005. Year | 1960 | 1965 | 1970 | 1975 | 1980 | 1985 | 1990 | 1995 |2000 | 2005 % Women | 3771393 1433 1463 1515 1545 1575 1589 1599 Source: US. Burea of Labor Stats. (a) Use the points (1960,37.7) and (2000, 59.9) to find a linear equation that models the data. (b) Use the equation to estimate the percent for 2005. How does the result com- pare to the actual figure of 59.3%?240. CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions | 165 19701975 1900 198s 090 NRSAROORIER Year Suc US, Bares of Lato Satis, Figure 50 Solution (a) The slope must be positive, since the scatter diagram in Figure SO rises from left to right. Using the two given points, the slope is 59.9 = 37.7 _ 22.2 2000 = 1960 40 Now use either point, say (1960,37.7), and the point-slope form to find an ‘equation. yy =m — x) Pointstope form Y— 37.7 = 555(¢ = 1960) m= 585, = 1960, y, = 37.7 595 y — 31.7 = S55x — 1087.8 Distributive propery y= 555x — 1050.1 as377, (b) To use this equation to estimate the percent in 2005, let x = 2005 and solve fory. xy = .555(2005) — 1050.1 = 627 ‘This figure of 62.7% is 3.4% greater than the actual figure of 59.3%, INOW TRY EXERCISE 57. <] ‘The steps for fitting a curve to a set of data are summarized here. UNA Lea cd ‘Step 1 Make a scatter diagram of the data. Step 2. Find an equation that models the data. For a line, this involves selecting two data points and finding the equation of the line through them,Y=-4X47 10 25 Equations of Lines; Curve Fitting 241 © In Example 8, choosing a different pair of points would yield a slightly ) + Itis continuous on its entire domain, (—",%). ‘The squaring function, f(x) = 2, pairs each real number with its square; its graph is called a parabola. The point (0, 0) at which the graph changes from decreasing to increasing is called the vertex of the parabola, See Figure 57. Figure 37 + fle) = 2 decreases on the interval (2,0) and increases on the interval (0,2). © Itis continuous on its entire domain, (~%,.250 CHAPTER? Graphs and Functions ‘The function defined by f(x) = x is called the cubing function. It pairs with each real number the cube of the number. See Figure 58. Domain: (—,)) Range: faye? 10) ho 10 Figure 58 fla) = 2 increases on its entire domain, (—s, 0), * Iis continuous on its entire domain, (—2, =). The Square Root and Cube Root Functions The square root function, f(x) = Vx, pairs each real number with its principal square root. See Figure 59. : (0,00) Range: [0,%) fa ae 10 Figure 39 + fla) = Vx increases on its entire domain, [0,), * Itis continuous on its entire domain, [0,).26 Graphs of Basie Functions 251 ‘The cube root function, f(x) = ‘x, pairs each real number with its cube root, See Figure 60. Domain: (2,22) Figure 60 © flx) = Vr increases on its entire domain, (—%,%). © It is continuous on its entire domain, (—™,) The Absolute Value Function — The absolute value function, f(x) = ||, which pairs every real number with its absolute value, is graphed in Figure 61 and defined as follows. fe)= ee Oa sae value fc =x ifx<0 _ ‘That is, we use |x| = x if x is positive or 0, and we use |x| = —x if xis negative, Figure 61 ‘* f(x) = |x| decreases on the interval (—2», 0] and increases on [0,). + Ttis continuous on its entire domain, (—=, 2).252 CHAPTER2 Graphs and Functions Piecewise-Defined Functions The absolute value function is de- fined by different rules over different intervals of its domain, Such functions are called piecewise-defined functions. [SSIES cearrainc precewise-periNeD FUNCTIONS Graph each function. -2v +5 (a) fl) = {; +1 Algebraic Solution (a) We must graph each interval of the domain sepa- rately. 1f.x = 2, the graph of flx) = ~2x + 5 has an endpoint at x = 2. We find the corresponding yvalue by substituting 2 for x in ~2x-+ 5 t0 get y = 1. To get another point on this part of the graph, we choose x= 0, so y= 5, Draw the graph through (2,1) and (0,5) as a partial line with endpoint (2,1), Graph the function for x > 2 similarly, using Fld) =x + 1. This partial line has an open end= point at (2,3). Use y=x+ 1 to find another point with x-value greater than 2 to complete the ‘raph, See Figure 62 2x +5if lept ite>? fied A\ 4 it New Figure 62 (b) Graph f(x) = 2x + 3 for x <1. Forx > 1, graph s(t) = =x +6. The graph consists of the two pieces shown in Figure 64. The two partial lines meet at the point (1,5). ifx<2 ifr>2 w+3 -x+6 _ ifrs (0) fa) = { ena Graphing Calculator Solution (@) By defining -2X + 5)(X <2) and Y= K+ IK >2) and using dot mode, we obtain the graph of f shown in Figure 63. Remember that inclusion ot exclusion of endpoints is not readily apparent when observing a calculator graph. This decision must be made using your knowledge of inequalities. 2 ot made Figure 63 (b) Figure 65 shows an alternative method that can be used to obtain a calculator graph of this function. Here we entered the function as one expression OX +3K SI + (-X + HK > 1), Figure 65 NOW TRY EXERCISE 23.'¥ LOOKING AHEAD TO CALCULUS. “The greatest integer function is used in calculus as aclasic example of how the limit of function may not exist a a patculae value in its domain. Fora limi to exis, both the le and righ hand mite mui be equal, We can see from the graph ofthe greatest integer function tha for an integer value such 883, a8 approaches 3 feom he let, fueton values are all 2, while a.x approaches 3 fom the it function ‘ales ae all 3 Since the let and righthand limits re diferent, the limit sx approaches 3 does not exis ‘The dot indica that he raph continues indefinitely in he same pater, Figure 67 2.6 Graphs of Basic Functions 253, Another piecewise-defined function is the greatest integer function. Cao ‘The greatest integer function, f(x) ~ [x], pairs every real number x with the greatest integer less than or equal tox. -5,[m] = 3, and [-6.9] = 7. In general, if For example, [8.4] = SG) = [x], then. for-2=x<-l, fe) =-2, for-1=x<0, fa) =-1, forOsx<1, fix) = 0, forl=x<2, fl)=1, for2

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