MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

Introduction: Meaning & Definition, Role, Classification – Purpose of communication –

Communication Process – Characteristics of successful communication – Importance of
communication in management – Communication structure in organization – Communication in
conflict resolution - Communication in crisis. Communication and negotiation. Communication
in a cross-cultural setting

Module 2: (6 Hours)
Oral Communication: Meaning – Principles of successful oral communication – Barriers to
communication – Conversation control – Reflection and Empathy: two sides of effective oral
communication. Modes of Oral Communication. Listening as a Communication Skill, Nonverbal
communication.

Module 3: (8 Hours)
Written Communication: Purpose of writing – Clarity in writing – Principles of effective
writing – Approaching the writing process systematically: The 3X3 writing process for business
communication: Pre writing – Writing – Revising – Specific writing features – Coherence –
Electronic writing process.

Module 4: (12 Hours)

Business Letters and Reports: Introduction to business letters – Types of Business Letters -
Writing routine and persuasive letters – Positive and Negative messages Writing Reports:
Purpose, Kinds and Objectives of reports – Organization & Preparing reports, short and long
reports Writing Proposals: Structure & preparation. Writing memos
Media management: The press release – Press conference – Media interviews
Group Communication: Meetings – Planning meetings – objectives – participants – timing –
venue of meetings.
Meeting Documentation: Notice, Agenda, and Resolution & Minutes.

Module 5: (10 Hours)

Case Method of Learning: Understanding the case method of learning – Different types of
cases – Difficulties and overcoming the difficulties of the case method – Reading a case properly
(previewing, skimming, reading, scanning) – Case analysis approaches (Systems, Behavioural,
Decision, Strategy) – Analyzing the case – Dos and don’ts for case preparation – Discussing and
Presenting a Case Study

Module 6: (6 Hours)
Presentation skills: What is a presentation – Elements of presentation – Designing & Delivering
Business Presentations – Advanced Visual Support for Managers
Negotiation skills: What is negotiation – Nature and need for negotiation – Factors affecting
negotiation – Stages of negotiation process – Negotiation strategies
Module 7: (8 Hours)
Employment communication: Introduction – Composing Application Messages - Writing CVs
– Group discussions – Interview skills
Impact of Technological Advancement on Business Communication – Technology-enabled
Communication - Communication networks – Intranet – Internet – e mails – SMS –
teleconferencing – videoconferencing

Practical Components:
• Demonstrate the effect of noise as a barrier to communication
• Make students enact and analyze the non-verbal cues
• Give exercises for clarity and conciseness in written communication.
• A suitable case is to be selected and administered in the class sticking to all the guidelines of
case administering and analysis.
• Demonstrating using Communication
Managerial Communication – Module 1

Module 1: (6 Hours)
Introduction: Meaning & Definition, Role, Classification – Purpose of communication –
Communication Process – Characteristics of successful communication – Importance of
communication in management – Communication structure in organization – Communication in
conflict resolution - Communication in crisis. Communication and negotiation. Communication
in a cross-cultural setting

Meaning & Define of Communication

 The word “Communication” is derived from the Latin word “Communis” which means
common. It stands for a natural activity of all human beings to convey opinions, feelings,
information and ideas to others through words (written or spoken), body language or
signs.

Essential features of communication.

 Communication is a dynamic process
 Communication is unavoidable
 Communication is systematic and universal
 Communication is as essential to any business as blood is to the human body. Therefore,
it is an unavoidable phenomenon.
 Communication is a continuous process which includes various events and activities that
are inter-related and inter-dependent.
 Communication is complete and effective only if there is two-way traffic.
 Communication is systematic where every component of the process is affected by every
other component.
 Communication is a universal phenomenon where all living creators communicate in
their own ways and styles.

Basic principles of communication.

 It should be complete.
 Communicated statements should be concrete and specific and not vague.
 The message communicated should be clear whether oral or written

Classification of Communication:

 Intrapersonal communication:
It is talking to oneself in one’s own mind.

 Interpersonal communication:
It is the exchange of messages between two persons.

 Group communication:
It can be among small or large groups, like an organization, club or classroom, in which
all the individuals retain their individual identity.

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 Mass communication:
It occurs when the message is sent to large groups of people. In this process, each person
becomes a faceless individual with almost no opportunity for personal response or feedback.

 Verbal communication:
It means communicating with words, written or spoken. Verbal communication consists
of speaking, listening, writing, reading and thinking.

 Non-verbal communication:
It includes using of pictures, signs, gestures and facial expressions for exchanging
information between persons. It is done through sign language, action language, or object
language.

 Formal Communication and Informal Communication:

 Formal Communication
Formal communication refers to the communication that flows along a formal
organizational structure. This flow of communication is created along an
officially recognized position to ensure smooth, orderly and timely flow of
information.
 Informal Communication :
The communication that takes place outside the formally prescribed network or
channel is known as Informal communication. Informal communication is
spontaneous and has no set of rules and regulations. It takes any direction and is
also called a Grapevine.
Grapevine communication.

Grapevine refers to informal communication that flows in any direction and has
no set of rules and regulations. It is the communication that flows outside the
prescribed network or channels. It is also referred to as the unofficial talk about
matters related to the organization’s work programs, status, individual managers,
management’s policies and plans, company’s performance and success, and such
other matters that circulate among the members of the organization.

 Internal and External Communication.

 Internal Communication:
 Internal communication refers to the flow of communication within the
organization in a well defined pattern of hierarchy. The internal
communication may take different directions such as downward
communication, upward communication and horizontal or lateral
communication.

 External Communication:
 The communication that flows between the organizations and outside is
known as external communication. External communication may be inward or
outward. Inward communication refers to the communication received by the
organization from its customers, other organizations, govt departments, etc.

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Outward communication refers to the messages going out from an

organization to its suppliers, customers, government departments, etc…

 Audio-Visual communication and Organizational communication

 Audio – Visual communication are the methods of non-verbal communication.
Visual methods are those which can be seen as pictures, colours, signs, designs, etc.
whereas audio methods are those which can be heard such as bells and whistles.
 The communication that flows within an organization for smooth running of the
business is known as organizational communication. The two most important media
of communication in an organization are formal and informal communications.
 Upward communication and downward communication.
 Upward communication or Vertical communication that flows from the
subordinates to their superiors. The purpose of upward communication is to get
the feedback regarding the performance of the job, to encourage the employees to
express their views, opinions and discuss their problems if any.
 The communication that flows from the superiors to the subordinates is known as
downward communication. The purpose of downward communication is for
educating and training employees, issuing instructions, advising and counseling.

Purpose of Communication:

Broadly speaking, in business we communicate to provide following ideas:

 Information:
Information is versatile to business organizations. Without information no business can
perform its operations smoothly and compete with their competitors in the market. The
communication objective is to provide information required and supply the same through
spoken or written language or through symbols, signs or signals. Communication aims at
sharing and understanding information.

 Communication to Inform:
Communication to inform is directed by the desire to expose, develop and explain the
subject. It focuses on the subject of communication.

 Communication to Persuade:
The communicator may seek primarily to persuade the reader. In such a form of
communication the focus is on the receiver and not the message. Persuading means the act
of influencing the other person to change their attitudes, beliefs, feelings or thoughts. In
business, the seller may persuade the buyer to buy their products. The executives may
persuade the workers to accept any changes or in collections from customers persuasion,
takes place. Communication skills and ability is essential for persuading. Using proper
words and symbols, persuasion can be done effectively.

 Order:
Order is the direction issued by management to subordinates as to what to do and what
not to do. Order is a downward communication which flows from higher authorities to
subordinates. The objective of communication is to make the language of order simple and
straight, clear and complete.

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 Suggestions:
Upward communication is very much essential for creating and maintaining good
atmosphere in an organization. Through upward communication, the employees can make
suggestions to their superiors. A well-operated suggestion scheme is an effective morale
builder.

 Counseling:
Counseling is a form of advice with professional touch by a man of greater knowledge and
skill. Counseling is required to those personnel's who have problems in domestic or at jobs
and consequently disturbed. Services of specialists are engaged for this purpose. They
receive career guidance, medical advice, legal advice, etc. Communication for counseling is
mostly oral and is a two-way communication.

Process of communication/ Elements of communication

 Sender: The communication begins from the sender who wants to transmit the message
to another person.
 Encoding: Putting the message into appropriate words, symbols or gestures is known as
encoding.
 Message: The idea or information in the physical form is known as message.
 Channel: The channel or medium is the method used for transmitting the message.
 Receiver: The receiver is the person to whom the message is sent and he perceives the
message and attaches some meaning to the message.
 Decoding: The receiver gets the message through decoding– by receiving, understanding
and interpreting the message
 Feedback: The reversal in the communication process is feedback whereby, the receiver
expresses the response of the sender’s message

Encoding Decoding
Sender process Process Receiver
Channel

1. The linear Concept of Communications.

2. The Shannon-Weaver Model.
3. The Two-way communication process.

Principles of effective communication or what are the characteristics of successful

communication?

 An organization must follow certain principles in order to make communication effective.

The principles of communication also called as the 7 C’s of communication are:

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1. Completeness:
Every business letter must deal with its subject. It should not leave out facts or
information which is relevant to the subject matter.

2. Correctness:
The information given in the message must be accurate and not false or misleading. It is
necessary to safeguard the reputation of the business organization.
In spoken form of communication, grammatical errors are not uncommon. The speaker
tends to forget the number and person of the subject of the verb if the sentence is too
long. Sometimes even the sequence of tense is wrong. And most frequently the use of the
pronoun is incorrect especially in indirect narration.
For Example:
He said to me that I will surely go there.
He told me that he would surely go there.
As you are an experienced manager, we are sure you can resolve the conflict.
Being an experienced manager, we are sure you can resolve the conflict.

3. Conciseness:
In business and professional communications, we should be brief and be able to say
whatever we have to say in minimum words. We should avoid being repetitive. We
sometimes believe erroneously that by repeating whatever has been said, we add
emphasis to our message. Try to use single words for wordy phrases.
For example:
Wordy: At this point of time
Concise: Now, or at present
Wordy: In due course of time
Concise : Soon
Wordy: Not very far from here
Concise: Nearby, or close by

4. Courtesy:
In conversational situations, meetings and group discussions, an effective speaker
maintains the proper decorum of speaking. One should say things with force and
assertiveness without being rude. Courtesy demands that we do not use words that are
insulting or hurtful to the listener.
A courteous businessman will always say “please” when he wants a favour. And “thank
you” when he receives the favour.

5. Concreteness:
Concreteness means being specific, definite in describing events and things. It also means
the vivid description of an event or state. Avoid using vague words. In oral
communication we cannot draw figures, tables, diagrams, or illustrations to make our
statements vivid and concrete. But we can choose precise words and speak with proper
modulation and force to make their sound reflect the sense.

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6. Clarity/ Clearness:
The principle of clarity is most important in all communications, especially when you are
involved in face to face interaction. It is not always easy to verbalise ideas accurately on
the spot during conversations, presentations, or any other form of interaction.
There should be no ambiguity or meaningless words. The writer must express clearly
whatever he has to say.

7. Comprehensiveness:
The letter should cover everything pertaining to the subject; issue discussed or answers in
the particular letter. Points should be properly adjusted. The writer should comprehend every
point that is of value in the body of the letter.

Candidness:
 In all business transactions, our view of a matter should be honest and sincere. We should
speak and listen without prejudice or bias. Our guiding principle should be fairness to self
and to others involved in the situation. For example, when we qualify our observation
with the words “ My honest opinion” or “Frankly speaking”, we are trying to be candid,
open hearted and sincere.

Importance of Communication in Management:

Every organization needs an effective communication system to enable it to function and
flourish. In an organization, communication is a means.
 To increase employees job performance and effectiveness by updating their knowledge.
 To promote employees’ sense of belonging and commitment.
 To effect changes smoothly.
 To motivate and create a sense of identification with the organization’s goals
 To inform and convince employees about decisions and the reasons behind those
decisions.
 To develop employees a clear understanding of their roles and future growth
opportunities in the organization
 To empower employees with information on development and activities.
Hence, an active communication system is vital for the good health of the
organization. If there is a continuous sharing of ideas and interactive meetings between
the management and workers, the overall atmosphere of understanding and goodwill
would prevail in the workplace. If decision making is transparent employees would
understand reasons for those decisions and accept and implement them even if they affect
them adversely.
Communication Structure in Organizations:

 In Business organizations, the effectiveness of a communication system depends upon the

extent to which the necessary information (required for decision making) reaches the
concerned person (who needs that information) at the right time (when the information is
needed). This network of information supports the overall functioning of management by
integrating and coordinating the work force for achieving organizational objectives.
 Hence every organization creates a network (Channel) for information to pass through its
different levels of authority and functional heads and units.
 Vertical Communication:

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In organizations there are well-defined lines/ routes for passing on communication. At the
boardroom level, policy decisions are taken. From there, downward information and
instructions are sent to senior managers or a group of senior managers.

 The senior managers ensure that the policy decisions are easily understood, implemented,
sustained, monitored, reviewed and reported as feedback. Any information on feedback
(performance data or employee’s experience or suggestions) is in turn sent upward.
 In this organizational system of communication, the key links are managers and
supervisors. They pass on information upwards and downwards.
 Managers and supervisor are also responsible for carrying out follow up action on the
required lines. In all large organizations, the HRD/HRM or personnel department
manages the circulation of information among employees. Personnel managers are in
constant touch with all sections of employees. They are able to identify needs; guide on
policy matters and supervise infrastructural arrangements.
 Still when an organization has too many hierarchical levels, managers face a lot of
difficulty to reach the ground level employees and shop-floor employees. In all such
situations, communication tends to be slow in reaching and delayed in getting absorbed
and acted upon. The cost of this inevitable delay caused by the sheer size of the structure
of the organization may sometimes be too high.

 Horizontal Communication:
Also known as peer communication, it is usually needed within the organization in
relation to the following cases:

 Geographical location of divisions:

In a large setup, divisions may be based on geographical areas. Such divisions may be
known just by numbers or single letters.

 Functional organizations:
Normally business and industrial organizations form divisions on the basis of different
functions, such as production, marketing, finance, personnel and training and
development. All such divisions function independently and yet remained linked with
each other through peer-group communication and work flow information. With the
growth of technology and size of organizations, the widespread production of goods and
services needs to be coordinated through the channel of horizontal communication.
From the stage of selection of raw material to that of a finished product, numerous
processes are involved in completing the given task of production. At each stage of the
production process, the job of a work-group depends upon the timing and form of work
received from the preceding work group. Any failure in the smooth work flow adversely
affects the performance at successive stages of production.

Conflict Management Styles/Techniques

Conflict expert Kenneth Thomas notes that there are several basic reactions that can be thought
of as styles, strategies or intentions for dealing with conflict.

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Assertiveness: Desire to satisfy one’s own concerns/priorities.

Co-operativeness: Desire to satisfy the other person’s concerns.

As shown in the figure these approaches to managing conflict are a function of both how
assertive one is in trying to satisfy one’s own or one’s group concerns and also how cooperative
one is in trying to satisfy those of the other party or group.

1. Avoiding (Withdrawal): The avoiding style is characterized by low assertiveness of

one’s own interests and low cooperation with the other party. Avoidance can provide
some short-term stress reduction from the rigors of conflict it doesn’t really change the
situation.
2. Accommodating (Smoothing): This style is low in assertiveness and high on
cooperativeness. Parties are accommodative cooperative and prepared to make reasonable
sacrifices for resolving the conflict. The emphasis is on the common interest of the
conflicting groups and the de-emphasis on their differences. This technique can be used
with a temporary solution which is needed in the short run.
3. Competing (Dominance): A competing style tends to maximize assertiveness for one’s
own position and minimize cooperative responses. In doing so one tends to frame the
conflict in strict win-lose terms. Full priority is given to one’s own goals, facts or
procedures.
The competing style holds good when someone has a lot of power and you don’t have to
interact with the other party in the future.
4. Compromising: Compromise combines immediate levels of assertiveness and
cooperation. Thus it is itself a compromise between pure competition and pure
accommodation.
Compromise isn’t so useful for resolving conflicts that stem from power asymmetry,
because the weaker party may have little to offer the stronger party.
5. Collaborating: In the collaborating mode, both assertiveness and cooperation are
maximized in hope that an integrative agreement occurs that fully satisfies the interests of
both parties.
It probably works best when the conflict is not intense and when each party has
information that is useful to the other.
Effective collaboration can take time and practice to develop, it frequently enhances
productivity and achievement.

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Conflict Prevention Strategies:

Preventing conflict is also a proactive approach (taking action in advance to deal with a few
potential causes of conflict). Prevention means anticipating potential causes of conflict and
taking quick action to turn them into positive forces for better understanding and co-
operation.Two main strategies for prevention of conflicts are suggested:

1. Participative Decision-Making: Everyone concerned in a common task must be

involved in order to reduce breeding grounds for conflict. Whenever problems arise,
everyone must be involved in finding alternative solutions. Such participation and the
resultant sense of shared responsibility for a solution help prevent conflicts.

The solution reached through participative decision making may be more acceptable and
pragmatic than one imposed from above. Representative groups from various levels of an
organization can be formed for dealing with grievances, work norms and deviations from
them, procedures for employee assessment, performance criteria, etc., before these issues
arise in the guise of problems in order to prevent unhealthy conflict.

2. Collaboration and Team Building: An emphasis on collaboration and team building

also helps to change the potential causes of conflicts into positive co-operation factors.
The main emphases of collaboration are on identifying common goals, recognizing each
other strengths and planning strategies for achieving these goals by working together.

Goal conflicting strategies (Intra conflicts): These strategies aimed reducing the
conflicts with in an individual.

1. Approach- approach conflict: This conflict arises when an individual attracted by the
both positive aspect of goal.
+ Person
+

2. Approach- avoidance conflict: When manager has simultaneously attracted and

repelled with the options of the goals.
Person + and

3. Avoidance-avoidance conflict: When managers are repelled by both negative

options.
_ Person
_

Resolving conflict: These strategies emphasize the importance provided to both parties involved
in the conflicts.
a. Lose-Lose: Both parties lose the benefits involved in the negotiations.
b. Win-lose: Dominant party wins the deal and weak party looses
c. Win-Win: Most desired output, where both party gain.

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Crisis Communication:
 A crisis may be the result of a catastrophe or the result of circumstances with potential for
adverse public relations.
Our reaction to events can be more important than the events themselves. It is important to
know how members of a team react when something goes wrong. If an action request has
been somehow overlooked, do they put their hand up, admit the error and get on with fixing
it? Or do they keep quiet, process the request late and hope that nobody notices?
 The second approach occurs mostly in those firms where internal communication is poor,
and where the people at the top are feared rather than respected. Many companies are
damaged more by their reaction to a crisis than by the crisis itself. Some of the worst
corporations react to a crisis by covering up; second they lash out at anyone and
everyone; third they seek refuge in legal action and fourth; they forget to keep their staff
and customers informed.

 By pretending there is no problem, they guarantee that it gets worse. Problems don’t
solve themselves; people do.

When good corporations face a crisis or a problem, they take 6 steps and it is worth trying
to engage in this approach:
 Get the facts
 Communicate action
 Review stance and processes
 Take a market survey
 Change behavior and practices
 Get the new message across and work on positive communication.

 Patience is the key. In most areas of working life, disputes and conflicts arise from time
to time and can become a crisis. These conflicts need to be tackled. An important first
tactic is to explore the possibility that there are some deep problems within the office.
Avoid “tit for tat” reactions. Yelling at someone increases the level of conflicts. Don’t
force an end to conflict, let the group work on the conflict. Crushing people today can
ruin them for tomorrow. This can be quite a loss, so hesitate and think before you use
heavy criticism to end conflicts.

 Resolving conflict harmoniously is not a matter of being weak or letting other walk over
you within the office. The best way to assert yourself is a straight way. Gather the right
and talk about it; do not hesitate. While being assertive with a problematic situation, try
to keep a steady friendly gaze into the other person’s eye. Eye contact is very important.
If you look at the ceiling cover your mouth, look anxiously back and forth, you will be
misunderstood.

NEGOTIATION

Negotiation is a process involving two or more people of either equal or unequal power,
meeting to discuss shared and/ or opposed interests in relation to a particular area of mutual
concern. Or

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Negotiation is a process of bargaining in which two parties, each of whom have something
that the other wants, try to reach an agreement, on mutually accepted terms.

Nature of Negotiation:

The following points make the nature of negotiation quite clear:

 Negotiation requires two parties who have an equal interest in an agreed action/result.
 Negotiation involves discussion, not instruction, orders or power/influence/ authority.
 Negotiation is a form of communication where the objective is agreement.

When a manager deals with other manager or customer or with a employee or supplier he/she
tries to reach a agreement through discussion, persusation, and argument. In other work he/she
negotiates.

NEED FOR NEGOTIATION:

The need for negotiation depends upon the situation. Some of the situations that require
negotiation are:

1. Whenever two or more persons are involved in deciding a matter and they have different
opinions regarding the outcome, the way to overcome disagreement is by negotiating.
2. Negotiation takes place only when the concerned parties are willing to meet and resolve
the concerned issue by discussion, not force/authority.

Formal situations of Negotiation:

 A pre announced meeting of the two parties.
 Both the parties are aware of what is going to be discussed, i.e. the agenda has been
already fixed.
 Generally, more than two persons are involved, the ideal number being three, i.e. the two
concerned persons and the third is a negotiator.
 The roles of each party are fixed, i.e. one person puts fourth his suggestions and reasons
to justify the same, the second person acts as a softener, and the third that is the
negotiator closely follows the discussion and puts in a point that is being missed out.

 Formal negotiation is simpler to handle as meeting between the two parties is fixed
beforehand and the parties have enough time to prepare their bargaining steps.

Informal situations of negotiation

 Unannounced casual meeting between just two persons where there is no time for
discussion or for studying the strength or weakness of the other side.

Situation not requiring Negotiation.

The types of situation not require negotiation.
 When one party readily accept or agrees to other.
 When one or two parties refuses or even consider or discuss for proposal

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Stages/Steps in the Negotiation Process:

A. Preparation phase.
1. Preparing and Planning
 Assessing other parties’ strength and weakness.
 Setting objective of negotiation.
 Knowing real issues: subject matter and clarity of issues.
 Know limitations.
B. Negotiating phase.
2. Exchanging initial views
3. Exploring possible compromise
4. Searching for common ground
5. Securing agreement
C. Implementing the agreement

FACTORS AFFECTING NEGOTIATION:

Place of Negotiation:
The place of negotiation influences the process of negotiation. Choosing a place like your own
home boosts the confidence as you are in your home ground, i.e your area of strength. This
ensures that whatever information or relevant matter is required during the course of negotiation
is available easily.

Time for Negotiation:

The time for negotiation should be fixed after taking into consideration the convenience of both
the parties. Sufficient time should be allocated for smooth exchange of ideas through the
different stages of negotiation, mainly: exchanging initial views, exploring alternative solutions,
searching for a common solution, reaching on a mutual agreement. In order to be effective
negotiations should be timely, i.e. it should be done before the situation gets out of hand.

Subjective Factors:
The final outcome may also determine by subjective factors relating to influence and persuasion.
 Individual relationships and repport between two person.
 Fear of authority and higher connections.
 Future and practical considerations when personal relationships are at stake, the
negotiator may not wish to win the argument at the cost of the relationship.
 Mutual obligations; memories of past influence.
 Personal considerations.

Persuasive Skills
It includes range of skills for convincing other people of the need to accept or agree to a course
of action. It helps in resolving issues on which there is a difference of opinion, but that need
solutions that are in the interest of all.

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COMMUNICATION IN CROSS CULTURAL SETTINGS:

All are influenced by cultural background which impacts on all aspects of life family
structures, beliefs about religion and spirituality, social interactions, dress, gender roles of
men and women etc. The concepts of culture and language are intertwined and, in many
ways, difficult to separate.
It is also important not to assume that all people from that community will behave in the same
way or have the same communication needs. Individuals will vary in terms of their values and
beliefs, education levels, life experience, level of literacy, strength of commitment to their
cultural norms and degree to which they use ethno-specific services.

CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
Managers looking for global business opportunity often jon formal classes to get a fell for local
cultures. Sensitivity to local cultures is necessary to stay in business.For instance dinner
diplomacy in China is often more effective than boardroom meeting for securing business.

Meeting and Social visits.

Differences in cultures are seen in the way people from different cultures behave on meeting
someone for the first time.

Group behavior
Cultural differences are also noticeable in the way people in groups act when they are joined by a
new person.

Paying visit.
Visiting is a formal act. Calling out the name of the host of a house is usually considered
improper in most culture.

Addressing others.
Different cultures have different ways in which people address each other.

DEVELOPING CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE

Our attitudes, values, beliefs, social behavior, and language crystallize in the crucible of culture.
Therefore, to be able to act and respond correctly in intercultural situations, it is important to
know the other individual cultural back ground.

High-context culture

In a high-context culture, there are many contextual elements that help individuals understand
the rules. Much is taken for granted while communicating. A person who does not know the
unwritten rules of the culture may find communication confusing.

Low-context Cultures:

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In a low-context culture, very little is taken for granted. Therefore, explicit statements and
explanations are required. The chances of misunderstanding by those outside that culture are
minimized.

Time as a Cultural Factor:

Monochronic Time:

Monochronic time means doing things in a sequential manner, one thing at a time.

Examples: North-America, Germany.

 Do one thing at a time
 Concentrate on the job at hand
 Think about deadlines and what must be achieved.
 Put the job first
 Seldom borrow or lend things
 Emphasize promptness

Polychronic time:

In a polychronic culture, human relationships are valued more than time. Polychronic people do
not hurry to get things done, and they get things done in their own time.

Example: France
 Polychronic Cultures:
 Do many things simultaneously.
 Are highly distractable and subject to interruptions.
 Think about what will be achieved.
 Put relationships first.
 Borrow and lend things more easily
 Base promptness on relationship factor

Space as a Cultural factor:

 Different cultures vary in their concern for space and social relationships within it.
Concern for space primarily suggests personal body space. But it also relates to space in
other situations such as in one’s room, in traffic and in the office.
 People are extremely sensitive to any intrusion into their personal space by others. But
the area of personal territory differs from culture to culture and relationship to
relationship. This concern for space may extend to the level of territorial possessiveness.
In fact perhaps all territorial feuds and wars result from an overzealous concern for space.
This is often seen in offices, where some individuals with territorial tendencies fight for
exclusive use of their office desks, behaving as if they possessed the desk when they are
simply not using it.
 People of high territoriality tend to be from low-context cultures. People of low
territoriality tend to have less sense of ownership of personal space and, accordingly,
boundaries have less meaning for them.

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Managerial Communication – Module 1

 This cultural analysis should help us understand an individual’s actions in the context of
the type of culture to which he or she belongs.
 For example: the reason for a person being late to a meeting may not be laziness or lack
of respect, but rather his or her having a polychronic cultural background and a more
flexible attitude towards timings.

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Managerial Communication – Module 2

Module 2: (6 Hours) Rs-11

Oral Communication: Meaning – Principles of successful oral communication – Barriers to
communication – Conversation control – Reflection and Empathy: two sides of effective oral
communication. Modes of Oral Communication. Listening as a Communication Skill, Nonverbal
communication.
What is Oral Communication?
Oral communication, also Known as verbal communication, is the exchange of verbal messages
between sender and receiver. It is more immediate than written communication. It is more
natural and informal. The study of human behavior shows that 70% of our life is spent
communicating. Out of the total time spent in communicating, normally, 45% relates to listening,
30% to speaking, 16% to reading and 9% to writing. Thus, 75% of our time, we spend in
listening and speaking. Therefore people in business learn to use this time to their best advantage
for creating and sustaining good relationship through their ability to listen and speak effectively.

Oral communication refers to spoken words through face to face or through electrical devices
such as phone, teleconferencing, public address system etc.
Examples: Interview, public speech, meetings

Making Oral communication effective:

 The words should be pronounced correctly and clearly.
 The message to be effective must be presented in a logical sequence.
 The tone of the message should be according to the situation so that the message
appeals to the heart of the people.
 The person speaking must have self confidence, only then it overcomes inner
inhibitions and comes out with sufficient knowledge of the subject.
 In order to maintain the attention of the listener and create interest, the sound of the
voice should not be steady and flat.
 The message to be presented must be concise and complete. It should neither be
overloaded nor under loaded

PRINCIPLES OF SUCCESSFUL ORAL COMMUNICATION

Purpose
The purpose of talking effectively is to be heard and understood by the listener.

Simple words
It is important to use language that is free from long – winded sentences, clichés and old
fashioned words and phrases. It is best to employ commonly used words and short and simple
sentences.

Rhythm and tone

 Our language should have the commonly used words, and short and simple sentences.
 The pitch of our voice should take into consideration the distance between the listener
and the speaker.
 The tone should be marked by the accent of Sincerity and confident tone

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 An effective speaker learns to control and use his tone and body language to support the
message communicated by words.
 Verbal 7%, tone of voice 38% and visual 55%

Pace of speaking
 The spoken word is short lived. The listener cannot turn back to the spoken words as the
reader can.
 Listener has to listen closely and attentively. There should be a due correlation between
the pace of speaking and the rate of listening.
 Converse slowly with semantic pauses.

Fluency
Fluency usually means ease as a condition of speaking. But a fluent speaker is one who is heard
with ease. The listener does not have to strain his mind to receive, register, and interpret the
message heard. No long pauses and nonstop rushing through words.

Therefore, a speaker has to be very careful about his words and the manner of speaking them. In
oral communication, the manner of speaking is at many times more important than the words,
which communicate only 7% of the total message. Albert Mehrabiam’s research reveals
astonishing facts about how exactly different factors contribute to a speaker’s total message ---
 Verbal 7%
 Tone of Voice 38%
 Visual 55%
 An effective speaker therefore learns to control and use his tone and body language to
support the message communicated by words.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION

Oral communication is characterized by seven Cs - Candidness, clarity, completeness,
conciseness, concreteness, correctness and courtesy. Oral communication should provide a
platform for fair and candid exchange of ideas. The effective communicator should follow the
following:
• Consider the objective
• Think about the interest level of the receiver
• Be sincere
• Use simple language
• Brief and precise
• Give full facts
• Use polite words and tone
• Cut out insulting message
• Allow time to respond
• Say something interesting and pleasing to the recipient.

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ADVANTAGES
Oral communication Written communication
Demands ability to think Never know if the message is ever read
A word once uttered cannot be taken back Impersonal and remote
Hard to control voice pitch and tone Immediate feedback is not available
Very difficult to be conscious of our body Time consuming
language. Many people do not like reading and writing
official or business messages

Disadvantages
Oral communication Written communication
Demands ability to think Never know if the message is ever read
A word once uttered cannot be taken Impersonal and remote
back Immediate feedback is not available
Hard to control voice pitch and tone Time consuming
Very difficult to be conscious of our Many people do not like reading and writing official
body language. or business messages

COMMUNICATION BARRIER:
 Any type of hurdle, blockade, stoppage, bottleneck, etc in the way of effective
communication is called Barrier to communication. These barriers make the
communication incomplete, unforceful and ineffective. The management must identify
such barriers and overcome it; otherwise it becomes difficult to discharge their functions
smoothly and efficiently.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION:
The barriers can be divided into four groups:
1. Semantic barriers
2. Physical barriers
3. Organizational barriers
4. Psychological barriers

 Semantic Barriers:
The problems in the process of encoding and decoding the message into words or other
impressions are considered as semantic barriers. Poor grammar, different language, poor
vocabularies are examples of semantic barriers.

 Poor Vocabulary:
The usage of inappropriate words and inadequate words will not make the idea to be
communicated clear. It is not possible for the communicator to convey the message in the
right sense.

 Different Language:
In an organization, if the employees do not have a common language it becomes a barrier
to convey the ideas and feelings.

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 Different context for words and symbols:

There are certain words and symbols which have several meanings. So, the receiver must
know the context of words and symbols, there is a possibility of misinterpretation and
misunderstanding

 Physical Barriers:
The obstacles that prevent a message from reaching the intended recipient are known
as Physical barriers. Some of the physical barriers are as follows:
1. Noise: Noise is any disturbance that reduces clarity of communication. Noise
distracts the person communicating and acts as a barrier to communication.
2. Improper time:
The message must be conveyed at proper time otherwise it loses its effectiveness. For
instance, if the superior asks his subordinate to attend some urgent work during
closing hour of work, it may cause resentment in the subordinate who is in a hurry to
catch a bus to reach his house
3. Distance:
The distance between the sender and the receiver acts as a barrier in the
communication process. If the distance is more, the communication will be
ineffective unless proper use of fax or telephone or any other media is made.
4. Overload information:
If the information is overloaded, the reader’s attention gets distracted. The theme of
the message is diluted.

 Organization Barriers:
1. Rules and regulations of the organization:
Due to rigid rules and regulations relating to communication, there is a delay of
message and it is a discouragement to employee in conveying their innovative ideas
and creativity.
2. Hierarchical Relationship:
Hierarchical i.e, formal superior- subordinate relationship restricts the free flow of
communication in an organization. Specially, upward communication is intentionally
distorted.
3. If meetings are not conducted:
If organizations are not conducting staff meetings often, it lacks free flow of
communication and widens the communication gap between persons.
4. Choice of Channel:
Due to wrong selection of channels to communicate, it becomes a barrier. For
example if written communication is used to communicate to the illiterates, it will not
convey any message to them. It becomes useless.

 Psychological Barriers:
1. Perceptions:
Based on needs, motives, experience we perceive certain things and ignore certain things.
Different people with different perceptions may misinterpret the message conveyed to
them.

2. Attitude:

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The attitude of superiors and subordinates also affects the flow of communication. If the
superiors lack confidence in themselves it may filter the communication. The
subordinates’ attitude also affects the communication.

3. Poor listening:
Poor listening is one of the barriers which retards the communication flow and prevents
understanding of the real meaning of the message conveyed.

4. Egotism:
A person with egoism loses his level of understanding person’s emotions, attitudes,
feelings etc, which results in hindrance of the communication process.

5. Emotions:
A person with negative emotions cannot think rationally and cannot communicate
effectively to others and at the same time cannot receive the message as it is. For
effective communication one requires affection, compassion and a silent mind.

6. Using appropriate channels:

Wrong choice of channels to communicate is one of the barriers to communication. This
can be overcome by using appropriate channels depending upon different situations. For
instance, to communicate most confidential matters, the best form of communication is
oral communication. Similarly one must use symbols, pictures to communicate
effectively to illiterates who cannot read and understand written communication.

7. Improving the skill of listening:

Effective listening is an essential requirement for effective communication. While
listening one must concentrate on the speech and they must not be selective and partial
listeners, but total and deep listening is essential.

8. Improving upward communication:

To make communication effective, it is essential that it must be understood by the
receiver and get feedback from them regarding this. In an organization, feedback is
possible only if there is upward communication system. So, management is required to
improve upward communication and encourage subordinates to express freely their
opinions and problems if any.

Conversation control:
It means that with practice, one can control his own conversation, and in time be able to
influence others and encourage them to respond in a positive way. Conversation control involves
skill of listening and talking in a positive and meaningful way at an appropriate time.

Sequential Conversation:
When we converse in a skillfully controlled way, we make statements that are in sequence to
what is said by the other person. There is a logical link between the statements made by the
speaker and the listener. The listener receives carefully what is being said and waits for his
proper chance to join in to say clearly and forcefully what he has to say. But he carries forward
the conversation in a connected and sequential form. In this way, within a short time, ideas and
thoughts are developed in a structured pattern.
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Empathy
Empathy is the intellectual identification with or vicarious experiencing of the feelings, thoughts,
or attitudes of another.

Reflecting:
Reflecting on someone’s statement means that you must first understand the underlying feeling
exactly and accurately and then speak in such a manner that the other person feels that you have
indeed seen the issue from his point of view. The purpose of reflecting on something is to help
the other person see his feelings and ideas with greater clarity and precision.
CONVERSATION CONTROL
It involves skills of listening and talking in a positive and meaningful way at an appropriate time.
It includes Techniques of changing the direction of conversation smoothly. The ability to allow a
discussion without interruption. Conversation control helps to carry on and conclude our
conversation effectively on a note of satisfaction as a mutual understanding and agreement.

Application of conversation control skills

• How to sell or buy
• How to negotiate
• How to interview
• How to participate in a meeting
• How to disagree without being rude
• How to compliment/praise
• How to respond to personal criticism Skills needed for effective oral communication.

Conversation control does not mean that you can control someone's conversation. What it does
mean is that with practice you can control someone's conversation. What it does mean is that
with practice you can control your own conversation, and should b able to influence others, and
encourage them to respond in a positive and relevant way.

• Interacting with people in meetings in a convincing way

• Being able to react to criticism in a confident manner
• Developing skills in interviewing
• Learning how to get correct information quickly

Controlling the direction of conversation

All conversations contain facts and opinions. The real purpose of conversation to exchange
feelings and facts. In positive situations, where the facts and opinions being discussed converge,
the conversation is smooth and both the parties are in relative accord with each other. But in the
negative situation, the skill of the conversationalist lies in realizing the reasons for divergence,
tensions and complications.
Direction of conversation

Rejection: if your point is completely turned down, it means there is no possibility of further
discussion on the issue. Hence the conversation comes to an end. For example candidate asks an
invigilator for more time to finish an examination; the request would be rejected summarily.

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Disagreement: there is a willingness to continue with the discussion, but disagreed with suitable
reasons.

Consideration: The point of consideration is when the other person does not reject your proposal
and wants further discussion or examines it in order to be convinced of its validity. At this point,
you should offer more information to enable the other person accept your proposal. Agreement:
This is positive expression of acceptance of the idea or proposal by both parties. It all can lead to
further action.

Commitment: This is the conclusion of a successful conversation. The opinions or proposals

discussed are accepted and achieved the goal of conversation. Managing negative responses
• Avoid completely rejecting the other person's arguments
• Do not use negative expressions
• Assure the other person that you keep their concerns in mind
• Summarize whatever been discussed never get desperate, frustrated when confronted with
rejection

Ability to notice Cues and clues

• Cues and clues together with signs and signals point out what is important and what is not.
• A cue is a key word or phrase a person uses when he/she wants to indicate that something
is important to him/her.
• A clue is a word or a set of words that someone else gives to us.
• In written messages the writer can draw the reader's attention by highlighting important
words, but in oral communication, the listener's attention to the importance or
unimportance is drawn by not only the choice of words, but also the tone of speaker's voice
or some other signals such as facial expression, eye contact, body movements and gestures.
• These cues and clues flow out from speaker to listener consciously and unconsciously.
They show the direction of emphasis that the speaker or the listener pays to the content of
the message.
• In our conversation there are always some key words. These key words act as cue to other
persons to draw their attention to what we consider important.
• Cues are what we give to others about our view of things and clues are what others give us
about their views of things. Generally, people give most important clues unconsciously;
through what is called 'leakage' the body talk that involves a whole lot of non-verbal
signals.

Recognizing cues and clues

• Cue is what we give out to quivers to point out what we hold as important part of our
conversation
• Clues are what we receive from others on matters they regard as important.

Interpreting signs and signals

• Conversation is composed of verbal and visual indicators.
• Verbal indicators involve cues given and clues received
• Visual indicators consist of signs given and signals received. While speaking, we all
unconsciously keep moving our hands, eyes, head and other parts of the body. All this non-
verbal acts reflect the state of our mind.

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• Signs consist of visual indicators such as frown, smile, and eye movements and so on we
give to others. Signals are behavioral indicators others give us. For example drinking of
water every 15 minutes during a speech is a sign of thirst given by speaker to the
audience. But to the audience it may act as a signal of the speaker's nervousness.

TYPES OF CONVERSATION
• Parallel conversation
• Sequential conversation

Parallel conversation
We engage in conversation to find out facts, or know the issues and this aim can be fulfilled
when we take interest in what is initially sated by him. And the other person seek further
information on what is originally stated by asking questions and exploring the meaning of the
messages indicated by clues and non-verbal signals. But if we do not do so,

The two parallel statements cannot meet and therefore, cannot be linked together.
For example:
X : It is necessary that we increase our export
Y : I think it is most important for us to reduce our manpower immediately.

Sequential conversation
• Converse in a skillfully controlled way, we make statements that are in sequence to what
is said by the other person.
• There is a logical link between the statements made by the speaker and listener.
• This conversation between two persons always fruitful. This is possible only when the
other person attaches some value to what is said by the speaker.

Reflection and empathy

• Body language should show real interest in listener
• Make eye contact
• Speak as person with genuine feeling of concern for the other person.
• Time taken to communicate
• Purpose of communicating with the listener
• For example: Suppose we arrange the conference or seminar when the chief guest of the
seminar says" Can I take a leave I have an important appointment" you can say "we need
your valuable presence" this reply reflects the importance of the chief guest presence.
Reflecting someone's statement needs to be done most carefully.
• You must first understand the underlying feeling exactly and accurately. Then speak in
such a manner that the other person feels that you have indeed seen the issue from his/her
point of view.
• Your body language should show your real interest in him/her.
• Sense of time as skill: In oral communication, the speaker should always keep in mind the
time taken to communicate. The time limits announced in formal oral activities should be
strictly observed. The audience should not feel rushed through any part of your
conversation or presentation.

Summarizing
• Able to recognize, analyze, and evaluate what the other person said.
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• It is to pick out the central thought, the main theme or the essential idea.
• Summarizing is of great value and is the skill most needed for negotiating or solving a
problem.
• In written communication, we have full text before us and we summarize carefully going
through the text at least twice or thrice. In case of oral communication, summarizing is the
act of recognizing the leading cues and clues during the course of communication and
making them to understand the underlying feelings and emotions.
• For example before concluding the meeting the superior can highlight the important
thoughts discussed during the meeting.

APPLICATIONS OF CONVERSATION CONTROL

Meetings
• Meetings are yet another medium of oral communication.
• Message can be easily and understandably communicated through the medium of
meetings.
• It is concerned with ensuring that people communicate clearly to resolve problems and
make the best of opportunities.
Agenda as a control
• For formal meetings, the first requirement is to prepare a complete agenda of the issues to
be discussed in order of their sequence of discussion.
• It will indicate issues which will be taken up and how and in what time they will be
covered
• A carefully prepared agenda is the first means of controlling the proceedings of a
meeting.
• An agenda helps in fixing, at the outset, the duration of the meeting by allotting
appropriate time for discussing each item.
• An advance circulation of agenda papers to enable members of the meeting understands
the issues and prepares them to present their viewpoint.

The chairperson
• A person whose role is to direct and conduct the proceedings in an orderly manner.
• Should be able to use his skills of controlling conversation by focusing on important issues
and meaningful solutions.

The procedure
• Agenda should be signed and approved by chairperson
• The chairperson begins the meeting by reading the agenda
• And in case no objections to any of the issues are received, the minutes are taken as
approved and signed by the chairperson.
• Discussion has to be meaningful and controlled
• The speaker can summarize what is being said at the end of the meeting
• During the discussion the disagreements should be expressed carefully
• Above all, the skills of avoiding parallel conversation and ensuring linked sequential
conversation and disagreeing without offending is basic for the smooth conduct of
business in a meeting.

To be assertive without being aggressive

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• To be assertive is to be confident. To be assertive, you should not say yes when you want
to say no. Instead say no in a positive and firm manner.
• To use skill of assertive conversation communicate, with firmness, convey to the other
person what you want and why. Indicate your response or opinion without hesitating in
simple clear words.
• To communicate with firmness, convey to the other person what you want why.

Conversational attack and controlled response

• In business, rudeness and discourtesy should never be allowed to creep into
communication
• Never use strong abusive language that will complicate the situation.
• Negotiating through conversation control teaches us self discipline. It trains us to convey
to others that we really realize, understand and fully appreciate their feelings, views and
grievances.
• It requires the skills of managing and controlling the interaction between two sides.
• In negotiation both the sides try to present a case tactfully and win.
• The strategy involves the skill of showing that you understand the other persons point/position
without necessarily agreeing with it.

TWO SIDES OF EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION:

 Listening and presenting are the two sides of effective oral communication. Listening is
an important component of conversation control. To be able to understand and appreciate
the other person, one should allow him to express freely, without being interrupted and
listen carefully. Hence to improve one’s skills of conversation control one should know
whether one is a good or poor listener.

 Poor listeners tend to annoy and disturb the speaker. Therefore, cut out habits such as
interrupting, or showing little interest in what is being discussed. If you find that you tend
to disturb the other person constantly by putting in “yes” “but” and “ifs”; it is advisable to
practice avoiding this behavior. Try to encourage the other person by your body language
and expression. Indicate that you feel interested and understand what is being discussed.

 Be an effective presenter: The other side of oral communication is the ability to present
one’s viewpoint. In order to be an effective presenter try to present facts, not opinions;
keep to the point; keep the listener’s interest in mind; support arguments with suitable
examples; and ask for feedback and answer questions honestly.

 Make eye contact and avoid being vague, unfocussed, with little eye contact,
discouraging questions, showing lack of confidence and not getting to the point. By
practicing these basic skills of good listening and effective presentation one can gain
conversation control and be successful in one’s role as manager, negotiator, or in any
other situation involving conversation or discussion.

Oral communication takes place through the following Modes:

Face-to-face:
A face-to-face communication may be between two or more people. It takes the form of speech,
small meetings or an interview. Immediate feedback is possible under this type of
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communication. In case of discussions or persuasion, face-to-face communication is most

suitable

Tele conferencing:
Teleconferencing is popularly used when two or more people are thousands of Kms away from
one another. It eliminates unnecessary travel by executives and ensures long distance
communication. Through teleconferencing they can hear and see each other talk with one another
as if they are sitting in one room together.

Telephone:
In the present world, telephone is one of the most widely used communication media. The urgent
matters are dealt with a phone. A telephone helps people to come into contact even at a great
distance.
It saves time and immediate feedback is also possible. However, it lacks visual feedback and is
very difficult to hold the receiver’s attention for a long time.

Voice Mail:
In cases where the receiver is not available over phone for a period of time, telephone tag the
electronic message system of voice mail is used. It allows to leave the message by the sender
with the receiver who picks it up later on. This type of media is useful when one way
information is to be conveyed. Moreover it saves time and money.

LISTENING
Define listening and hearing? Name the elements in the listening process. Mention any six
principles of good listening and four barriers of effective listening.

Listening is defined as “Receiving messages in a thoughtful manner and understanding the

meaning in the messages”.

It is also defined as “the ability to understand and respond effectively to oral communication”.
Hearing is the first step in listening. It takes place when sound waves strike the ear. It doesn’t
involve understanding the message.

• It is the mental process of paying attention to what is heard

• Hearing involves ears, but listening involves the ears, eyes, heart and mind.
• It is an essential component of communication
• Listener focuses his or her attention on what is essential in the communication
• At the same time tries to understand, interpret and register what is received
Listening as a management tool
• Listening to benefit from the valuable views, perceptions.
• To take best possible decisions
• To provide opportunities to others to express their suggestions

The four steps of listening are:

1. Hearing
2. Interpretation
3. Evaluation
4. Response
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Six principles of good listening:

1. Avoid external distraction while listening to somebody.
2. Put you mind free from presumptions.
3. Ensure that you are free from negative emotions.
4. Be patient and don’t haste into making premature judgment and evaluation
5. Do not be a selective or partial listener
6. Show that you are interested

The barriers to effective listening are

 Distraction in one’s mind
 Noise
 Emotional excitement
 Overload of the message

List the various steps of Listening

 Concentrate so that the message reaches the mind.
 Acknowledge – show the speaker that you are listening
 Respond- provide feedback when necessary
 Exercise emotional control – be free from pre conceived notions, judgments etc
 Sense-listen not only for content but also for understanding its meaning correctly
 Structure- create a structure of all that is spoken so there would be a flow of thoughts that
could be remembered
 Metacommunication is an implied meaning conveyed by the choice of words, tone of
voice, fumbling, silence or omission. It is a message communicated not through words,
but along with words
 Kinesic Communication is a message conveyed through non-verbal acts. Kinesic
communication is also known as body language or body talk.
Good listeners Poor listeners
• Do not interrupt • Over - talkative
• Remain patient • Inattentive
• Make eye contact • Interrupt
• Show interest • Impatient to talk
• Look attentive • "yes, but.." approach
• Concentrate • Poor concentration
• Ask open questions • Very critical

GUIDELINES FOR IMPROVING LISTENING SKILLS

• Speak less listen more: The purpose of listening is to know what the speaker wants
to say or to learn from the speaker. Listening is an act of cooperation in the sense that
it takes advantage of other's knowledge and experience.
• Do not be a sponge: It is not necessary to listen on every word of the speaker's.
Instead, it is more important to get the main point, theme, central idea and concentrate
on it. Observe body language: Effective listeners do not pay attention .only to what is
being said, but also notice how it is said. They observe the body movements keenly.

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• Focus on the speaker: Facing the speaker and making eye contact make the speaker
feel that the listener is interested in what he or she is saying.
• Separate the ideas from the speaker: Effective communicators are not conditioned
by their personal impressions and prejudices, but are able to focus on the content of
what is being spoken. Listen for what is left unsaid: Careful attention to what is not
said, in addition to what is said, can tell the listener a lot about the speaker's feelings
and attitude towards the subject of discussion Avoid becoming emotional: Good
listeners remain calm and do not become emotionally charged or excited by the
speaker's words.
• Do not jump to hasty conclusions: Listeners should allow the speaker to conclude
his or her point. Only then should try to interpret and respond to it.
• Empathesize with the speaker: Effective listeners keep in mind the speaker's point
of view and understand the state of the speaker.
• Respect the speaker as a person: It is important to listen with respect for the other
person. Do not allow the speaker to feel hurt, ignored or insulted.

Written Communication:
 Written communication comes in a variety of forms. It includes written words, graphs,
charts, reports, diagrams, pictures, etc. Usually written communication takes the form of
letters, memos, reports, notices and circulars.

Non Verbal Communication:

 Communication through symbols is called Non-Verbal communication. It may be in
writing or oral. Written non verbal communications are pictures, maps, charts and graphs.
Oral non-verbal communication is conveying meaning through facial expressions or
gestures.

Know your body language in action:

 Develop self awareness by visualizing yourself as others see you by interpreting
your body movements and gestures.
 Try to develop positive gestures and expressions to present yourself as you
wish to be seen by others-confident, pleasing and a well meaning team worker.
 Do not give conflicting non verbal clues
 Convey sincerity through your tone of voice and facial expression.
 Use symbols, non verbal cues, expressions and so on to reinforce and clarify the
meaning of the message.
 Maintain eye contact with the audience.
 Smile genuinely to reflect feelings of delight
 Avoid power posturing signals
 Make a lasting good impression

LISTENING:
 Listening means receiving a message in a thoughtful manner so that the meaning in the
message is understood. Listening involves making an effort to get the speaker’s full
meaning.
 Listening plays a very important role in business communication. It is an important
event in the communication process. Poor listening leads to misunderstanding.
Therefore, to
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achieve success in one’s career, effective listening is a must. For effective listening, clear
mind and a free heart from negative emotions like jealousy and anger is very essential.
 In management, we often come across committees, meetings and conferences. As we
know that a manager spends most of his time in communication with his subordinates,
outside agencies like govt, customers, competitors, etc. When a manager communicates,
we do not mean that he is only giving orders, most of the time he spends listening to
others.
 In committee meetings or conferences, a manager must be a good listener, only then he
can take appropriate decisions. Usually in meetings or conferences every person
exchange and express their views or opinions. Every person must cultivate the habit of
listening to others, whether they are interested or not in the subject matter of the meeting.

Tasks of Listening:
 Concentrate on the message:
The listener should concentrate on main points that the speaker is trying to convey and
should look for hidden messages. He should mentally summarize the message.

 Determine the purpose of the message:

Both the written and oral message has a purpose. Determining the purpose of the message
helps the listener to decide on the mode to listen to the message.

 Use positive thinking:

The listener should understand that he has enough time later to evaluate the material. He
should not be distracted by the speaker’s physical appearance, manner of speaking, or
manner of dressing, etc.

 Keep an open mind:

When the listener listens with an open mind it benefits both the speaker and the listener
as the speaker will believe that what he or she is saying is worthwhile and the listener
may acquire valuable information.

 Use feedback:
Feedback is the listener’s response to the speaker. The speaker may volunteer to share
more information if the feedback received is positive.

 Minimize taking notes:

The listener will not be able to concentrate fully on listening if he attempts to record
everything what is being said. Only the main points should be noted

 Analyze the total message:

The listener should observe the speaker’s action and facial expression and should also
listen to his or her tone. This will help in analyzing the message more accurately.

 Do Not Talk:
The listener should not talk while listening otherwise he will not be able to use all the
elements of effective listening.

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Various Approaches of listening:

 Appreciative: To relax and enjoy the listening experience
 Emphatic: To support and understand the emotions of the speaker
 Discerning: To gather complete and accurate information
 Comprehensive: To organize information and understand the meaning of the message.
 Evaluative: To critique information and make a decision.
Good listeners Poor listeners
 Do not interrupt  Over – talkative
 Remain patient  Inattentive
 Make eye contact  Interrupt
 Show interest  Impatient to talk
 Look attentive  “yes, but..” approach
 Concentrate  Poor concentration
 Ask open questions  Very critical

Various types of Listening:

 Attentive Listening:
It is a type of listening wherein, the listener pays attention on the words that are being
said. When a person is listening to presentations, lectures, instructions, it requires
attentive listening so that the information and ideas received are understood and stored in
the memory.

 Selective Listening:
Selective listening means not taking the message as it is. The listener tries to identify
himself with the situation either partially or wholly. He selects the desired part and
ignores the undesired part of the message.

 Active or Emphatic Listening:

It is a type of listening where the listener listens intensively to understand the person
completely, i.e. both emotionally as well as intellectually. In other words, it refers to
listening not only through ears, but also through eyes and the heart.

 Pretending Listening:
This type of listening is nothing but like just hearing. That is, a person who is listening
just pretends to be listening through facial expressions. When he or she is actually not
listening.

 Critical or evaluative listening:

This type of listening is required when we are listening to political speeches, sales talks,
elocution contests, etc. It means, a person who is listening should evaluate and judge on
the message and decide whether to act upon it or not.

 Appreciative Listening:
In this type of listening, a person listens and appreciates the person’s ideas and opinions.
An appreciative listener is free from egoism. Listening to music and poetry requires
appreciative listening.
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Benefits of Listening:
 It helps in obtaining more information
 It helps in learning more about people and how their minds work
 It facilitates good relationship with people
 It helps in obtaining suggestions and new ideas.
 It helps in understanding the problem clearly and solving the same.

Differences between Hearing and Listening:

Hearing:
 Hearing takes place when sound waves strike the ears
 It is just enough if you repeat the message what you have heard
 Hearing is the first step in listening. Without hearing to the message, we cannot proceed
with interpreting evaluating and response
Listening:
 Listening is more than hearing. In listening, we not only hear but also understand the
message clearly.
 We need to interpret, evaluate and respond to the message
 Hearing is one of the step or element in the process of listening

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Definition - Nonverbal communication is the wordless message received through the medium of
gestures, signs, bodily movements, facial expressions, tone of voice, color, time, space and
choice of words.
• Unworded messages are transmitted by non-verbal clues and signs. They exist in the form
of Meta communication and kinesic communication.
• Some non-verbal message usually accompanies the verbal message. The verbal and the
non verbal together form the total meaning of the message communicated.
• They exist in the form of meta communication and kinesic communication

Meta communication
• A meta communication is an implied meaning conveyed by the choice of
words, tone of voice, silence or omission.
• It is a message communicated not through words, but along with words.
• Ex: Try to reach the airport well on time
• The remark offers sound advice, and also implies that the concerned person is habitually
late.
Kinesics communication
• Kinesics communication is a message conveyed through non-verbal acts in the form of
body movements such as gestures, smiling, postures or style of dressing.
• Kinesics communication is also known as body language or body talk.
• Body language reveals a lot about the encoder and this person's attitude and feelings
about the message being transmitted.
• Body language of the decoders also reveals a lot about them and their feelings; but most
important, it frequently tells the encoder the extent to which the decoders are accepting or
not accepting the message.
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Leakage
A nonverbal message conveyed through bodily movements is known as leakage. A successful
receiver is able to observe and interpret the leakage.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NONVERBAL CO MM UNI CATION

a. Subconscious
i. We are often not aware of the messages we send
ii. We process, interpret, and respond subconsciously
iii. Tone of voice, posture, facial expressions, gestures

b. Contextual
i. Depends on the situation in which it occurs
ii. Consider the special circumstances around actions

c. Ambiguous
i. Open to interpretation and often confusing
ii. Happens quickly
d. Cultural
i. Tone of voice, eye contact, handshakes
ii. Different common gestures can offend culture to culture

Non-verbal act Possible un-worded idea

• A subordinate looks at his watch while • Your time is over, go
you are talking away
• An executive is always late for the • I am always very busy
meeting • I want to show my sense of
• A speaker prefers to speak from the floor, equality with audience
not the dais

FORMS/ CLASSIFICATION OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. Kinesics - Kinesics is what we commonly called body language and refers to those
movements of our body that communicate meaning. Ekman's classification of body movements
are as follows:
Emblems- When the movement of body parts represents ideas as icons or mages, the
communicative act is emblematic. It pictures the meaning non verbally through physical image.
Ex: A circle made with the thumb and the index finger and the rest of the fingers stretched out is
an emblem for OK in American culture and represents a coin for Japanese culture. Illustrators-
These are movements of hands and arms for representing size, shape, frequency or speed of
something.
Ex: Widely stretched arm shows enormous size
Body manipulators-These are acts of touching one's own body or an object for no reason. Ex:
fidgeting with jewellery or touching one's buttons
These are unintentional acts which are usually considered as clues of nervousness, anxiety or
boredom.
Regulators - These are eye movements. Ex: Rolling eyes are associated with restlessness, staring
eyes communicate threat, wide open eyes show wonder or shock.

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2. Proxemics studies the use of space: both interpersonal space and the space within rooms,
buildings, precincts and cities. The use of space varies enormously between different cultures
and is a constant source of confusion in intercultural communication. According to nature of
relationship, there are 4 distinct zones.
• Public zone- is the widest territory between the speaker and the audience. The
speaker speaks from a raised platform and at a distance of 10 to 15 feet from the
audience.
• Social zone- is the space maintained between people who are known to each other
in a formal way. All business transactions are treated as social transactions.
Distance- 4 to 10 feet.
• Friendly zone - is the distance we observe at business parties and informal
business gatherings. Distance - 1.5 to 4 feet
• Intimate zone- is the closest zone and exist between people who are close
relatives/friends and family members. Distance- 6 to 18 inches.

3. Facial expressions/ face facts

• Smile shows the interaction has been pleasant for both the parties
• Positive impression made by a smiling face
• Positive body movements and gestures
• Avoid appearing nervous and aggressive

Positive gestures
• When we speak hands should move freely
• Gestures are natural
• Give strength to our words
• Includes positive listening, good speaking gestures
• Avoid putting your hand inside your pockets

Negative gestures
It involves body movements, postures, gestures such as shaking, tapping, looking at the watch
which expresses disinterest of the message. Signs of nervousness
• Hands in pockets
• Scratching
• Biting nails
• Wringing hands
• Crossing arms or legs
• Looking at the ceiling
• Straitening the tie
• Speaking too fast
• Setting the hair with hands

Gestures showing aggressiveness

• Staring
• Pointing at someone
• Folding both arms
• Bending over someone
Gestures showing rudeness
• Shake hands too hard
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• Whisper at a social gathering

• Work while someone talks to you
• Yawn
• Start gathering and folding papers before meeting is over.
Gestures showing self importance
• Eye closed while talking
• Pursed mouth
• Steeping the fingers
• Waving glasses or key ring while talking

Gestures showing lack of good sense

• Chewing pens
• Wringing hands
• Wiping hands across face
• Setting your watch strap
• Banging the table instead of laughing at a joke Gestures showing superiority of position
• Not responding or acknowledging other's greeting
• Staring
• Shouting orders
• Crushing hand shake
• Reclining in the chair

Lateral gestures
Wordless message through body language and facial expressions, there are other wordless signs
of power, position, taste and culture such as decoration and size of the office, dress, grooming
and so on. They are

• Physical setting - An executive position of power is generally seen from the size of his
office - room , the kind of furnishing, the size and color of the room
• Dress - clothes and shoes - It proclaims a person. It is one of the first things others notice
about you. Your clothes, their texture, color; design, style and stitching speak about your
taste and aesthetic sense. Look impressive not gorgeous. Never be overdressed for the
occasion. Select your clothes according to the nature of your job.
• Personal space - It indicates the level of formality, informality, intimacy or distance
between the speaker and the listener. In business, you should observe the personal
territory that each individual wishes to enjoy.

ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Ability to act as a victim of power posturing

In the power posturing superiors or colleagues, you must have felt a strange sense of being
dominated. Suppose your boss, known for his arrogance and strictness, quietly enters into your
room from his side office and stands holding your chair behind you. You feel deeply nervous and
upset. And finally he says "So, What's on? in a high voice. In such a state of nervousness you
should learn to manage your body talk. Do not allow your nervousness to be leaked out. Don't
say nothing sir. It reveals you are doing nothing, wasting your time. Handle the situation
carefully.

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Avoid the double cross

• Do not sit at the edge of the seat
• You can cross your legs while sitting but do not fold your arms at the same time that will
make you look very defensive
Use comfort gestures skillfully
• There are comforting body gestures such as touching earlobes or back of the neck or
stroking hair. These acts restore confidence.
• But do them passingly that others do not take them as leakage of your nervousness or
anxiety.

Reassuring standing postures

• When you are standing try to keep nervousness away by standing up in an easy- form
• Your feet apart by 9 to 10 inches
• This posture will give you firm balanced footing.
•
GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Watch and read the non-verbal clues

• Interpret non-verbal clues in relation to the situation and culture accurately
• Be careful about false non-verbal clues
• Respond, but do not react to non-verbal signals with self control.

Know your body language in action

• Do not give conflicting non-verbal clues
• Convey sincerity through your tone and facial expression
• Make eye contact
• Smile genuinely to reflect your feelings
• Avoid power posturing signals
• Remember the first impression is the last impression.

Touching and its context

• Touching has a limited communicative symbolism
• It conveys intimacy and closeness. But the act of touching has its meaning, in relation to
its context.

Communication breakdown
• To keen to talk about our own point of view
• When you don't consider whether the other person is understanding
• Same point is being repeated

Lack of rapport
• Harmony between speaker and listener
• Speaker and listener should be on the same wavelength
• The non-verbal language used by the speaker should reflect the body language of
the other person.

Steps to establish rapport

• Develop the habit of talking less and listening and observing more
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• Do not dominate discussion

• Keep your natural pace of others
• Let your pace and the other's be nearly the same
• Try to establish rapport between you and the other person during the first few minutes
• Do not introduce any controversial issue.
• Avoid harsh criticism

 Physical Appearance:
Appearance makes the first impression. Lack of neatness or cleanliness, carelessness,
clumsyness make a negative impression, state of health is a very important factor in a
persons’ appearance; no amount of cosmetics can hide lack – lustre eyes and poor skin.
Poor health is easily reflected in the appearance.

 Paralanguage:
The tone, pitch, quality of voice and rate of speaking convey emotions that can be
accurately judged regardless of the content of the message. Silence can be a positive or
negative influence in the communication process. It can create tension and uneasiness or
a peaceful situation. Silence can also be judgmental by indicating favor or disfavor,
agreement or disagreement

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Managerial Communication – Module 3
Module 3: Rs-10
Written Communication: Purpose of writing – Clarity in writing – Principles of effective
writing – Approaching the writing process systematically: The 3X3 writing process for business
communication: Pre writing – Writing – Revising – Specific writing features – Coherence –
Electronic writing process.
Module 3

WRITTEN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

 Writing is a mode of communicating a message for a specific purpose. Written

communication in business covers:
 Downward communication: Memos, circulars etc..
 Upward communication: Complaints, suggestions etc..
 Outward communication: Deeds, legal contracts etc..;
 Written communication needs a lot of imagination and effort to arrive at finished product.
Writing reveals one’s ability to think clearly and to use language effectively. The ability
to communicate information in a simple, concise, and accurate written form reflects a
manager’s professional competence.
 Advantages:
o Permanent record.
o Easy to understand.
o Less prone to errors.
o Wide access
 Disadvantages:
o Involve time.
o Not suitable for illiterates.
o Involves more formalities.
o Immediate feedback is not possible.
Skills required in written communication
 Check the grammar, punctuation and spelling.
 Make sentences and paragraphs effective.
 Follow the principles of sound organization- clarity, simplicity and directness of style

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PURPOSE OF WRITING
1. Writing to Inform
 When the writer seeks to provide and explain information, the writing is
called informative writing.
 It is also called expository writing because it expresses ideas and facts.
 Focus of informative writing is on the subject or the matter under discussion.
 Informative writing presents information not opinions
 Purpose – to educate and not persuade.
 Its written with maximum objectivity
Checklist
o Does it focus on the subject under discussion?
o Does it primarily inform rather than persuade?
o Does it offer complete and exact information?
o Can the information be ascertained?
2. Writing to persuade
 It aims at convincing the reader about a matter which is debatable.
 It expresses opinions rather than facts.
 It is also called as argumentative writing because it supports and argues a certain
viewpoint or position.
 Focus is on the reader.
 Purpose-to convince the reader
Check list
o Does it focus on the reader?
o Does it basically seek to convince?
o Does it support its view point by giving information or valid reasons?
o Does it finally evoke the intended response from the reader
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING
1) ACCURACY
To achieve accuracy, the writer should check and double check:
 All facts and figures
 The choice of words

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 The language and tone
Whether a communication is formal or informal, one should always write “between you and me”
not “between you and I”. Hence communication should be guided by rules of grammar, correct
choice of words and appropriateness of the word for the subject, audience, and purpose of a
particular piece of writing.

 Follow the rules of grammar

 Pay attention to punctuation marks
 Check words for spelling and usage
A message should be communicated correctly in terms of grammar, punctuation, and spellings.
 Concord-Rule of concord or agreement
o The verb must agree in number and person with its subject. A singular
verb should be used with a singular subject and a plural verb with a plural
subject.
Example: It is correct to say, “She comes from Jaipur” but incorrect to
say, “They comes from Jaipur”.
o Compound subjects require a plural verb.
Example: The boy and girl are singing.
o When a collective noun(class, team) is used in the sense of a single unit or
as a whole, the verb used with it is singular.
Example: Our class has won the match.
 Dangling modifier
o Dangling modifier is a word or a phrase that modifies a word not clearly
mentioned in the sentence. When the name of the doer of action is not
clearly stated in the introductory phrases, the phrase then modifies the
subject that appears in the independent clause that follows.
Example: Having completed the homework, the radio was switched on.
(subject of the introductory phrase is not mentioned and hence we have a
dangling modifier)
Mary having completed the homework, the radio was switched on.
 Unnecessary shift in tenses

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o Tense should be consistent within the sentence and from sentence to
sentence.
Example: He usually makes sensible moves although he often changed his
mind.
(Shift from present tense to past tense)
 Prepositions
o Expression of time
 ‘At’ denotes a specific moment or point in time
Ex: The meeting begins at 3.00 pm
 ‘On’ is used for a particular day.
Ex: My sister’s wedding is on Monday.
 ‘In’ is used with future tense and ‘after’ with the past tense
Ex: She will come back in an hour
Ex: She came back after an hour
 Prepositions are not needed if the point of time is qualified by an
adjective
Ex:I go to temple on everyday(wrong)
I go to temple everyday (right)
o Expression of place
 In- used before the names of large places such as capital cities,
countries and states.
Ex: I live in Bangalore
 At- used before villages and smaller town.
Ex: My friend lives at Hassan.
2) BREVITY
Brevity lies in saying only what needs to be said and leaving out unnecessary words or details.
Brevity is not to be achieved at the cost of clarity. Being brief does not mean saying less than
what the occasion demands. To achieve brevity
 Avoid wordiness: Wordiness can also be avoided by changing long
clauses into phrases.

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Ex: The vast majority of farmers in India are poor in a greater or lesser
degree
Most Indian farmers are quite poor.
 Develop logical paragraphs-One idea per paragraph.
 Control paragraph length- Adopt sub paragraphs if too long.
Language, Tone and level of formality
 Language – To ensure that a piece of writing is understood by the target audience, it is
essential to use language that is commonly understood. Standard English includes the
most commonly used and accepted words. It should follow the rules of grammar,
sentence construction, punctuation, spelling, paragraph construction and so on.
 Tone – Tone refers to the feelings created by words used to communicate a message. The
tone of a piece of writing depends on the relationship between the writer and those who
receive the message.
 Level of formality – Reflects the attitude of the writer towards the subject and audience.
It may be informal, semiformal or strictly formal.
Informal tone
A writer uses an informal tone for social or personal communication and for informal writing.
Deviations from Standard English change the tone of writing from formal to informal or very
formal. The informal tone includes the use of slang, colloquialisms and regional words.
 Colloquialisms: These are casual words or phrases used in informal writing.
Example- “guy” for a person, “kids” for children, “flunk” instead of fail.
 Slang: It consists of informal words, phrases or meanings that are not regarded as
standard and are often used by a specific profession, class and so on. Example – Ad
for advertisement.
 Regional words: These are used primarily in a particular geographical area. Words
such as “verandah”, “portico”, “bazaar”.
Semi – formal tone
It lies somewhere between informal and academic. It is expressed mostly through standard
English and is written according to the accepted rules of grammar, punctuation and spelling with
a few contractions that add a sense of informality.
Strictly formal tone

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It is scholarly and uses words that are long and not frequently spoken in everyday conversation.
The construction of the sentence and paragraph is also academic and literacy in its tone.
Positive language
 Letters, memos and other written formats should accentuate positive thoughts. Negative
language is bound to distance the reader.
o Negative: Your faulty fan motor will be replaced
o Positive: We are sending a new fan motor with one year guarantee.
You - attitude
 You – attitude is the reader’s point of view. In good business writing the author should
write from the reader’s point of view by emphasizing the benefits and interests of the
reader.
o Author’s emphasis: To reduce office work and save time, we are introducing a
new system of registration.
o Reader’s emphasis: To facilitate your registration process, we are changing our
system of registration.
Natural language
 Letters and memos must be written in the language of everyday speech. We should avoid
using clichés and dull expressions.
Ex: use “I” or “We” instead of “The undersigned”
Active voice
 Choose the active voice to help the reader understand the main message at the very
beginning of the sentence. Readers prefer active voice for its directness, faster pace and
clarity.
o Active: Packaging often describes the product’s look and feel to the buyer.
o Passive: The product’s look and feel is often described to the buyer by its
packaging.
3) CLARITY
 An important requirement for effective writing to recognize the needs, expectations, fears
and attitudes of the audience or receiver and the reader of the written message.
 The writer must keep in mind that the structure of his thoughts has to follow the structure
of language, that is, the format of sentences, paragraphs, and the composition as a whole.

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 Writers must follow the principles of unity, coherence that bind words into sentences,
sentences into units, or paragraphs and paragraphs into essays (the full composition).
SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO BUSINESS WRITING
i. Purposeful
It conveys information and solves problems. You should have a definite purpose to fulfill in each
message.
ii. Persuasive
Its goal is to make the audience accept the message.
iii. Economical
It is concise and doesn’t waste the reader’s time. Length is not rewarded.
iv. Reader-oriented
It focuses on the receiver, not the sender. You will concentrate on looking at a problem form the
reader’s perspective instead of seeing it from your own.

GUFFEY’S 3-X-3 WRITING PROCESS

Do All Writers Follow the Same Steps?

 Writers have different composition styles.
 The order of writing steps may vary.

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 The process is recursive, not linear.
 Collaboration and working with a computer affect the writing process.
Do Short Messages Require a Writing Process?
The steps may be condensed or performed rapidly, but good writers consider them all.
Phase 1: Prewriting
Team members work closely to determine purpose, audience, content, organization
Phase 2: Writing
Team members work separately.
Phase 3: Revising
Team member’s work together to synthesize, but one person may do final proofreading.
PHASE 1: ANALYZING AND ANTICIPATING: AUDIENCE, PURPOSE
1. Analyze the task
Write with a team and compose by yourself
Identify the purpose
Ask yourself two questions (1) why am I sending this message? (2) What do I hope to achieve?
Messages may have primary and secondary purposes. The primary purpose of sending business
messages are typically to inform and persuade. A secondary purpose is to promote goodwill.
Most business messages do nothing more than informs. They explain procedures, announce
meetings and create messages to persuade like selling products, convince managers.
Select the right channel
After identifying the purpose of your message you need to select an appropriate channel,
selection depends on following factors
 How important is the message?
 How much feedback is required?
 How fast is feedback needed?
 Is a permanent record necessary?
 How much can be spent?
 How formal and confidential is the message?
2. Anticipate the audience
A good writer anticipates the audience for a message: What is the reader like? How will that
reader react to that message? This helps to make decisions about shaping the message. You will

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discover what kind of language is appropriate, whether you are free to use specialized technical
terms, whether you should explain everything.
3. Adapting to Task and Audience: Eight Steps
i. Spotlight audience benefits
Empathic communicators envision the receiver and focus on benefits to that person.
Ex: The warranty starts working for you immediately.
ii. Cultivate the “you” view.
The most successful messages are receiver oriented.
Ex: You will receive your order.
Your account is now open.
iii. Don’t Use sensitive language, avoiding gender, race, age, and disability biases.
Avoid gender biased language by leaving out the words man or women or by changing to a
gender free word. You need to indicate racial or ethnic identification only if the context demands
it. Specify age only if it is relevant.
Ex: Gender biased Improved
Female doctor, cleaning women doctor, cleaner
iv. Be conversational but professional.
Use familiar, precise and conversational words
Ex: Your report was excellent, not Your report was totally awesome!
v. Express your thoughts positively.
Certain negative words create bad impression because they appear to blame or accuse readers.
You express option to the reader what can be done instead of what can’t be done.
Ex: Negative positive
The problem cannot be solved without the The problem can be solved with the help of
help of top management top management
vi. Be courteous.
Maintaining courteous tone involves not just guarding against rudeness but also avoiding words
that sound demanding. Expressions like you should, you must, and you have to should be
avoided
Ex: Please complete the report, not
You must complete the report!

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vii. Simplify your language and use familiar words.
Use short, familiar words and avoid using big words.
Ex: salary not remuneration
begin not commence or initiate
viii. Use precise, vigorous words.
Strong verbs and concrete nouns give readers more information and keep them interested. Using
familiar but precise words helps receivers understand better.
Ex: fax me, not contact me
buy staples, not get those things for me
PHASE 2: ORGANIZING AND WRITING BUSINESS MESSAGES
1. Research
Smart business person would begin writing a message after collecting all the needed information.
Before writing, conduct formal or informal research to collect or generate necessary data.
Formal Research Methods
 Access electronically – Internet, databases, CD-ROMs
 Search manually – books, articles, and other secondary sources
 Investigate primary sources – interviews, surveys, focus groups
 Experiment scientifically – tests with experimental and control groups
Informal Research and Idea Generation
Most routine tasks – such as composing e-mail, memos, and letters require data that you can
collect informally. It can be done using the following techniques:
 Look in office files.
 Talk with your boss.
 Interview the target audience.
 Conduct an informal survey.
 Brainstorm for ideas.
2. Organizing Data
Organizing data involves grouping and patterning. Well organized messages group similar items
together; ideas follow a sequence that helps the reader understand relationships and accept the
writer’s views.
Listing and outlining

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In developing simple messages, some writers make a quick scratch list of the topics they wish to
cover. Writers often jot this scratch list in the margin of the letter or memo. Alphanumeric
outlines show major and minor ideas; decimal outlines show how ideas relate to one another. The
familiar alphanumeric format uses Roman numerals, letters and numbers to show major and
minor ideas. The decimal format, which takes a little getting used to, has the advantage of
showing how every item at every level relates to the whole. Both outlining formats force you to
focus on the topic, identify major ideas, and support those ideas with details, illustrations or
evidence.
Grouping ideas into patterns.
Two organizational patterns provide plans of action for typical business messages: The direct
pattern and indirect pattern. The primary difference between the two patterns is where the main
idea is placed. In the direct pattern the main idea comes first followed by details, explanation or
evidence. In the indirect pattern the main idea is placed after the details or explanations.
Direct pattern for receptive audiences
In preparing to write any message, you need to anticipate the audience’s reaction to your ideas
and frame your message accordingly. When you expect the reader to be pleased, interested then
use the direct pattern. That is, put your main point, the purpose of your message in the first or
second sentences.
Indirect pattern for unreceptive audiences
When you expect audience to be uninterested, unwilling, displeased then use indirect pattern. In
this pattern you don’t reveal the main idea until after you have offered explanation and evidence.
3. Composing
Once you have researched, organized data, you are ready to begin composing. As you begin
composing, keep in mind that you are writing the first draft, not the final copy. As you take up
each idea, imagine that you are talking to the reader. In writing first draft leave double space so
that you have room for changes.
Creating Effective Sentences
Recognize phrases and clauses.
Sentences must have subjects and verbs and must make sense. Clauses have subjects and verbs,
but phrases do not. Because clauses’ and phrases, the key building blocks of sentences, are
related groups of words.

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Managerial Communication – Module 3
Use short sentence
Effective sentences are short and stress important ideas. Sentences of 20 or fewer words have the
most impact.
Emphasize important ideas.
Place an important idea at the beginning of the sentences. Emphasize an important idea that act
as a subject in a sentence and provide explanations and details.
Use the active voice for most sentences.
In the active voice subject performs an action and sentences are direct and easy to understand. In
the passive voice subject receives an action.
Ex: Active voice - Anand selected new computer
Passive voice – New computer selected by Anand
Use the passive voice to deemphasize the performer and/or to be tactful.
Although we prefer active verbs in business writing, passive verbs are useful in certain instances.
For example when the performer is unknown or insignificant, use passive voice.
Avoid dangling and misplaced modifiers.
A modifier dangles when the word or phrase it describes missing from its sentences.
PHASE 3: REVISING MESSAGES
It means improving the content and sentence structure of the message. Proofreading involves
correcting its grammar, spelling, punctuation, format and mechanics. Evaluating is the process of
analyzing whether the message achieved the purpose.
1. Editing
A stage of the writing process in which a writer strives to improve a draft by correcting errors
and by making words and sentences clearer, more precise, and more effective.
Keeping it clear
One of the first revision tasks is assessing the clarity of your message. To acieve clarity, resist
the urge to show off or be fancy. Remember that your goal is not to impress an reader. Instead,
the goal of business writing is to express not to impress. This involves two simple rules (1) keep
it simple (2) keep it conversational.
Keep it conversational
Clarity is further enhanced by language that sounds like conversation. This does not mean that
your letters and memos should be chatty or familiar. This means avoiding Jargons and technical

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Managerial Communication – Module 3
terms. Business messages should sound warm, friendly and conversational, not stuffy and
formal.
Keep it concise
Another revision task is making certain that a message makes its point in the fewest possible
words. Single words can be replaced by wordy propositional phrases.
Ex: Later instead of - at a later date
Revising for vigor and directness
We can reduce wordiness and improve vigor by (1) kicking the noun habit and (2) dumping trite
business phrases
Kicking the noun habit
Some writers addicted to nouns, needlessly transforming verbs into nouns. This will increase the
sentence length, slows the reader and muddies the thought.
Ex: Wordy noun Phrase Verb
Conduct a discussion of discuss
Give consideration to consider
Dumping trite business phrases
In business writing writers should not repeat the stale expressions that other writers have used
over the years. Your writing should sound fresh and more vigorous if you eliminate the
unnecessary phrases.
Ex: Trite Phrase Improved version
As per your request as you request
Enclosed please find enclosed is
Revising for readability
To help receivers anticipate and comprehend ideas quickly, two special writing techniques are
helpful: (1) parallelism (2) highlighting
To achieve parallelism, match nouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, phrases with phrases and
clauses with clauses. Avoid mixing active voice with passive voice verbs.
Ex: Not parallel Improved
The policy affected all vendors, suppliers The policy affected all vendors,
and those involved with consulting suppliers and consultants.

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Managerial Communication – Module 3
One of the best ways to improve comprehension is through graphic highlighting techniques.
Readers not only understand your message more rapidly and easily but also consider your
efficient and well organized. Headings help writers to organize information and enable readers to
absorb important ideas. Spot light important items by setting numerals, bullets, capital letters,
bold face and italics.
2. Proofreading
Correcting grammar, spelling, punctuation, format, and mechanics. Locate sentence subjects to
see whether the verb agree with the subject. Make sure the introductory clauses are followed by
commas. Double check your use of semicolons and colons. Compare all names and numbers
with their sources because inaccuracies are not immediately visible. A safe proofreading method,
is reading from a printed copy is more likely to find errors and to observe the tone. “Things
really look different on paper”. Read very sentence to catch bad line endings, strange page
breaks and unusual spacing.
How to Proofread Complex Documents
 Allow adequate time.
 Print a copy preferably double-spaced.
 Be prepared to find errors.
 Read once for meaning and once for grammar/mechanics.
 Reduce your reading speed.
3. Evaluating
As part of applying finishing touches, take a moment to evaluate your writing. How successful
will this message be? Does it say what you want it to? Will it achieve your purpose? How will
you know if it succeeds? The best way to judge the success of the communication is through
feedback. Encourage the receiver to respond to your message. The feedback will be helpful to
know how to modify future efforts to improve the communication technique.
ELECTRONIC WRITING PROCESS

1. Note Taking: Skeletonize your notes as you take them in the library. Use abbreviations,
such as J. for Journal. Then on your desktop computer, record the notes to a file. Next,
use the word-processing feature called search and replace to search for each occurrence
of J. and replace it with Journal. Do the same with your other abbreviations.

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Managerial Communication – Module 3
2. Searching: Especially if you are writing a lengthy research paper or working on a long-
term project at work, place your research data in a database. Put similar topics under one
heading. Later, when you are writing, seek out that heading to see your sources.
3. Word-Polishing: If your word processor doesn’t have a built-in dictionary, load separate
packages now that help you find the right word when you are stumped. Load stand-alone
grammar- and style-checkers if your word processor doesn’t have them. Be careful,
however, of too much reliance on these checkers. Grammar-, style-, and punctuation-
checkers have different capabilities; they seldom catch the same errors.
4. Outlining: Another valuable feature is an outline, which may be a separate program or
part of a word-processing package. Outlines allow you not only to outline your thoughts
quickly but also to rearrange sections rapidly, change levels and so on. Usually you can
import text from other files to the outline and you can send the outline to other files.
5. Changing Defaults: Open your word-processing software. Do some setting up as you
create your new file. This setup will enhance document appearance on your screen and
layout later. These commands can alter the appearance on the screen and/or affect the
printed output. Check margin widths, typeface and size requirements for body and
heading text, headers and footers and page numbers to each page of the document.
6. Using Multiscreens: If your word processor supports division of the screen into two or
more parts (called windows) split your screen and place your outline in one window.
Then start writing your draft in the other window. Split windows also work well for
entering superscript numbers for citations with the text in one window and entering the
footnote or endnote in the other window.
7. Searching and Replacing: As you edit or revise, take advantage of the search-and-
replace function of your word processor. Find a word you now realize you misspelled,
such as convence, and replace it with convince. Most search-and-replace functions allow
you to choose between individual decisions on each occurrence or an entire text search-
and-replace.
8. Linking: Data in your database can be transferred to another program – say a spreadsheet
– for statistical analysis and graphical presentation. While these statistical analysis and
graphical-presentation steps should occur before you start writing, the results of the steps
find their way into the manuscript initially as you draft and later as you revise. You can

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Managerial Communication – Module 3
ask some “smart” word-processing software to realize you are updating data in a
spreadsheet and to automatically bring that new data to the manuscript as you work on it
over time.
9. Adding Attribution: Most word-processing software facilities adding footnotes or
endnotes. For example, a superscript number is inserted into the text and then the
footnote or endnote is filled in for insertion at the correct location.
10. Using E-Mail: Electronic Mail or e-mail is a system of electronic correspondence by
which users send and receive messages over a network of computer and
telecommunication links. It provides a “store-and-forward” service.
COHERENCE
Like well made sentences, well made paragraphs move the reader logically and smoothly from
point to point. They clearly indicate how the different bits of information’s are related to each
other, in terms of logic and the writer’s apparent purpose. This quality of enabling readers to
proceed easily through your message, without side trips and backward shifts is called coherence.
Presenting information in a logical order helps coherence.
 Repeat a key idea or key words.
By repeating key words from one sentence to the next you can make smooth connections
of successive ideas.
Ex: Next month we plan to launch a promotion for our new Web site. The promotion will involve
newspaper and TV campaigns.
 Use a pronoun.
Pronouns refer to words previously used, they make good transitions between ideas.
Ex: Considerable interest is being shown in our extended certificates of deposit. They are more
profitable when left on deposit for long periods.
 Use an appropriate transitional expression.
These words bridge thoughts and give a clue to the nature of the connection between what
has been said and what will be the said next.
Ex: furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly

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 20
Module 4 :BUSINESS LETTERS AND REPORTS

Introduction

Letters are the most ancient and the most important of all mass communication media. A selling
medium on which the entire modern business structure depends. Letters enable to sell products,
to put out ideas, win goodwill and to incite action of various kinds.

In the restless world of business communication, letters are business. Letters are used for both
internal and external communication. Letters enable one person to reach another and thus ensure
two-way communication.Writing a letter is an art. It represents a written message sent by post,
sometimes, including an envelope, a postcard, an inland-letter.

 Letters and memos are brief pieces of communication.They are short most people hardly
think it necessary to spend much time planning them before writing.They tend to affect
the receiver’s feelings and thoughts with great immediacy and power.
 We should consider two questions before writing
1. What is the exact message?
2. What would be the receiver’s reaction? That is what would be the receiver’s
reaction – would he or she be pleases or displeased, interested or not interested?
Types of Letters:
A Letter may be:
1. Descriptive letter
2. Narrative Letter
3. Technical Letter
4. Legal letter
5. Domestic letter
6. Public letter
7. Private letter
8. Foreign letter
9. Confidential letter
10. Demi-official letter
11. Personal letter
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 12. Official letter
Writing routine good news letters
 Letters that please the receiver are called “good news”.
 Those that neither please nor displease but are received with interest are known as
“routine” letters.
A good news letter

A routine letter
Pleasant Details or Closing messages
news or explanatio or thoughts
idea
Major ideas nsDetails or Closing
A pleasant or interesting idea will always hold
explanatio the receivers attention. Hence, good news can be
though
given in the very first sentence, followed
ns by details and the final message.
ts

The basic plan of presenting ideas can be used in many business situations. These situations
include: (Types of routine letters)

1. Routine claim letters and “yes” replies

2. Routine request letters and “yes” replies
3. Routine order letters and “yes” replies

ROUTINE CLAIM LETTERS AND “YES” REPLIES

A claim is a demand or request for something which one has a right to have. Examples are a
refund, payment for damages, and a replacement for something defective. When a writer thinks
that because of guarantees or other specified terms and conditions, the request for adjustment
will be automatically granted without delay he or she writes the letter in the routine form.
The following sequence as follows
 Request action in the opening sentence
 Give reasons supporting the request or action
 End by appreciating or thanking the addressee for taking

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Guidelines for a “Yes” Reply
The yes reply grants the request but the writer does not use the word “grant”. Moreover, there is
no reference to the letter being answered as a claim, though these words are often employed for
referring to such letters. Phrases such as “your request is granted” or “we are granting your
request” may convey to the receiver “we see ourselves as superiors and in a position of power.
Therefore, words such as “grant” and “claim” are not used in the letter.
 Beginning tells the reason for writing the letter and states the main idea.
 The middle paragraphs mention the details of the good news
 The end draws the reader’s attention to the conditions if any.
ROUTINE REQUEST LETTERS AND “YES REPLIES
A letter to, say a vendor, requesting information about a product, should state clearly and
completely what information is desired. A request for information should not suggest that the
writer wants to place an order.
ROUTINE ORDERS AND THEIR “YES” REPLIES
Routine orders should be precise and detailed. In addition, they should be very clear about what
they expect by giving complete details of the desired product. This includes specifying the time
of delivery and mode of shipment.
Guidelines for writing “No” Reply
The goal of the person writing “no” reply is to reduce the negative emotions as much as possible.
The writer of a no reply cannot convey unfavorable decision in an unfavorable way if he or she
wants to retain the customer’s goodwill.
 Begin the letter that reader’s request was considered. Indicate in friendly tone the reasons
lead to a negative information or refusal.
 Give facts, reasons and factors for refusal
 In the same paragraph, mention the refusal
 The end seeks to maintain good business relations with an alternative course of action.
PERSUASIVE LETTER
Persuasion is used when the writer suspects that the reader will not be interested in the message
and the action to be taken. In such a situation, the writer may use the device of startling the

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reader by informing him or her about something unexpected at the beginning of the letter. The
letter should show how the reader will get benefited.
 Letters that arouse reader’s interest and induce them to act as directed are essentially
letters that sell ideas to others.
 Opening paragraph should catch the attention of the readers by using startling statement
 The middle section gives the details of the product, scheme or whatever is being
promoted
 The last paragraph acts as a remainder to the reader of the special benefits
Difference between persuasive letter and other business letters
i. They may not be dated. Persuasive letters can be used by the company for many months
ii. There may be no personal salutation because sales letter is not addressed to specific
person instead it will be written as: Dear reader or Dear valuable customer.
iii. There is usually a postscript message to remind and highlight the benefits or any other
important point.
iv. Most persuasive sales letters include some mention of further material to be received by
the reader. For example, the boxes with the word “important” or for further details refer
websites.

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 REPORT WRITING
What is a report?

A report can be defined as a communication in which the writer gives information to some
individual or organization because it is his/her responsibility to do so. It is an assigned
communication for a purpose and for a specific receiver /reader

Differences between reports and other forms of writing

 Other forms are subjective in nature

 Reports and projects generally draw on outside sources
 Report means article, or a project report or research writing
 Reports have a highly structured format
 Reports contain suggestions and conclusions
 Reports make use of tables and graphs
 Reports are usually proceeded by a summary

PURPOSE or OBJECTIVES OF A REPORT

Report is primarily a source of information to the management or an individual to help in

decision making. Purposes of a report are:

1. To give information about a company’s activities, progress, plans and problems.

2. To record events for future reference in decision making
3. To recommend specific action
4. To justify and persuade readers about the need for action in controversial situations.
5. To present facts to the management to help decide direction the business should choose.
KINDS OF REPORTS
Reports are of two kinds
1. Formal reports
A formal report is a report, which is prepared in accordance with the requirements of
established practices and is submitted to the person having official status.

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 2. Informal reports
Informal report is like informal communication and does not follow any official
procedure in reporting. These type of reporting disregards the formal structure of the
organisation.
Reports can also be classified as
1. Routine report – reports made by filling in a printed form(Job application form)
2. Letter report- report in the form of letters
3. Memo report – report in the form of memos
4. Progress report- Reports on the progress and status of a project
5. Periodic reports – reports for keeping records , made routinely at regular
intervals(balance sheet)
6. Laboratory reports – reports on the results of experimental work.
SHORT MANAGEMENT REPORTS
A short report is usually written either in the form of memorandum (memo) or in a letter.
Usually, reports meant for persons outside the company or clients are written in letterform. The
short report:-
 Uses the title page or just the report’s title as the heading or subject
 Is usually in direct order, beginning with a summary or a statement summarizing
the content
 Presents findings, analysis, conclusions and recommendations
Memos: - are used as internal messages in companies. They are informal and need very little
introductory or background information. Their goal is to address and solve an internal problem.
Letters: - are usually written to deal with smaller problems and are organized in an indirect
order. They usually end on a note of goodwill.
LONG FORMAL REPORTS: some of the elements of a long formal report are discussed
below.
1. The Title Page: it includes the following:-
 The heading which should be short , clear and unambiguous

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  The name and affiliation of the author
 The department and date of issue
2. Acknowledgements: - the writer of the report should thank everyone associated with the
assignment and preparation of the report. He or she should be generous in expressing
gratitude.
3. Cover Letter: - top management or project guides as a preface or foreword to a report,
reflecting the management’s policy and interpretation of the report’s findings, conclusions,
and recommendations, usually write the cover letter. It introduces the report and tells readers
why it is being sent to them.
4. Table of contents: - long reports must have a table of contents placed after the
acknowledgements and before the executive summary. The table of contents is an important
element in a long, formal report as it identifies the topics and their page numbers in the
report.
5. Abstract and executive summary: - an abstract or executive summary comes immediately
after the list of tables or table of contents or on/after the title page itself. Normally a report
has either an abstract or an executive summary, based on the length of the report and
expectations of readers. The summary consists of:-
 Context of the report
 Information regarding important findings, conclusions and recommendations
 Act as a time-saver.
Usually, management reports use executive summaries instead of abstracts. An abstract is a
summary of a report’s most important points. It can either be descriptive or informative and is
generally written in about 200 words and in one paragraph. An executive summary gives a more
detailed overview of a report than an abstract does. It can run into one or two pages.
Descriptive Abstract: a descriptive abstract only mentions the topics discussed in the report. It
does not give details on those topics. For details, the reader has to go through the report. Busy
executives have little patience with such a skeletal account of a report’s important conclusions
and recommendations.

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 Informative Abstract: - it discusses the main subject and presents conclusions and
recommendations. Formal reports and scientific, technical articles often use an informative
abstract.
Executive summary: - An executive summary covers all the major elements of a report’s
content:
 Background of the problem
 Major topics
 Important details
 Main conclusions
 Recommendations
 Discussion of how implementation of the recommendation would affect the company.
6. Introduction
It represents the following:
 Purpose or reason for the report
 Research method
 Grouping of data
 Background to report’s subject
7. Discussion and analysis of findings
This is the main body of the report. It discusses findings and analysis results.
i. Chronological Development:
The information can be arranged in the order in which the events happened. This is the simplest
method of presenting information—as a story with a beginning, middle and end. Chronological
development requires relatively little planning and organizing. The writer selects and arranges
the major topics in the order of their occurrence. Non-significant events are left out.
This method is usually used for writing short reports, progress reports describing the status of a
project and investigative reports that discuss investigations conducted over a long time and at
different places.
ii. Subject-wise Development:

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 The information can also be arranged according to the subjects or topics discussed within the
report. The subjects are grouped in a predetermined order. This arrangement makes the
presentation of information coherent and logical.
When a report involves the study of two or more variables acting upon something, the writer has
to arrange the discussion by subject. The writer could describe the effect of one variable on the
subject and then proceed in chronological order to determine the cumulative effect of the
variable on the subject.
The writer has to choose the sequence according to the variable he or she wants to recommend or
emphasize.
iii. Concept-wise Development:
The information can be organized “concept-wise”. This means that the writer develops his or her
argument and reasoning on the lines of his or her thoughts.
A report writer can arrange the report by following the logical sequence of the investigation. The
writer can develop the topic by describing each step in sequence with the step that follows it, in a
series of steps that builds up his or her argument. The logic of the argument guides the
organization of the report.
In the concept-wise method, the writer tells the reader how he or she arrived at the results and
why they are valid.
8. GLOSSARY
The glossary is the list of technical or special terms used in a report or technical paper and are
placed at the end of a report, before the index. It alphabetically lists words or phrases that need
special attention. It explains the usage of technical terms peculiar to the industry.
Ex: SEBI – Security exchange board of India
9. APPENDIX
The appendix is used to give a variety of information separately when its inclusion in the main
body could interfere with the smooth reading of the report. It usually includes the text of
questionnaires or other instruments of survey. Tables, flow charts, maps, summaries of raw data
and details of mathematical formulation are generally included in the appendix. Each appendix is
numerically or alphabetically labeled to help the reader identify the material.
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

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All published and unpublished sources of information used in preparing the report are listed in
the bibliography. All reference documents, previous reports, books, periodicals and even letters
written and received by the writer are mentioned in it. In using written material from secondary
sources, report writers must always mention the source of the information by citing it as a
footnote or endnote. Failing to document sources amounts to plagiarism.
Rules for bibliographies vary. In a report, the bibliography should conform to the style of
documentation followed by the concerned company, just as a technical article or paper conforms
to the form followed by the journal or society that is publishing the material. It is to be noted that
each reference to be cited in the endnotes is numbered consecutively as 1, 2, and 3 and so on.
11. INDEX
An index (plural indexes or indices) is an alphabetical list of subjects, names and so on, with
references to page numbers where they occur in the report or book. It is usually placed at the end.

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 PROPOSALS

Proposals are persuasive offersto solve problems,provide services, or sell equipment. Proposals
are vital to business organization success. It typically tells how a problem can be solved, what
procedure wil be followed, who will do it, how long it will take, and how much it will cost.

Proposals may be divided into two categories: solicited or unsolicited. When firms know exactly
what they want, they prepare a request for proposal specifying their requirements. Government
agencies and large companies are likely to use request for proposals to solicit competitive bids
on their projects.

Unsolicited proposals are written when an individual or firm sees a problem to be solved and
offers a proposal to do so. The most important point to remember about proposals whether
solicitd or unsolicited is that they are sales presentations.They must be persuasive, not merely
mechanical descriptions of what you can do.

(1) Emphasize benefits for the reader

(2) Detail your expertise and accomplishments

(3) Make it easy for the reader to understand and respond.

Proposals may be informal or formal; they differ primarily in length and format.

Components of Informal Proposals

Informal Proposals may be presented in short (two-to four page) letters. Sometimes called letter
proposals, they may contain six principal components: Introduction, Background, Proposal,
Staffing, Budget, and authorization request.

Introduction

Most proposals begin by briefly explaining the reasons for the proposal by highlighting the
writer’s qualifications. To make the proposal to be interesting, it should

 Hint at extraordinary results with details to be revelaed shortly

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  Promise low costs or speedy results
 Mention a remarkable resource (well known authority, new computer program, well-
trained staff) available exclusively to you.
 Identify a serious problem and promise a solution, to be explained later.
 Specify a key issue or benefit that you feel is the heart of the proposal.

Background, Problem, Purpose

This section identifies the problem and discusses the goals or purposes of the project. In an
unsolicited proposal your goal is to convince the reader that a problem exists. Thus, you must
present the problem in detail, discussing such factors as monetary losses, failure to comply with
government regualtions, or loss of customers. In a solicited proposal your aim is to persuade the
reader that you understand the problem completely.

Proposal, Plan, Schedule

In this step the proposal should contain a plan to solve the problem. This phase requires bit of
care and awareness about how much information to reveal. You need to be like a salesman initial
approach where he reveals only about the product and its uses. Much of the specifics about the
project should not be disclosed at this stage.Most proposal writers will include a calendar of
events/schedule for time based progress of the project.

Staffing:

When you submit a proposal to any agencies, they are interested to know about the expertiese,
qualification and track record of the leadership team. Also this step offers a chance to promote
the staff and their achievements. Most of them explain in detail about the team members and
their achievements. But some writer’s in order to avoid the risk of employee’s departure,
presents only the general details about the staff like employees strength, qualification in the
appendix section list.

Budget:

Budget represents the total cost of the project. Atmost care and detailed analysis of every
expenditure should be considered to arrive at the overall cost. Once we submit the proposal it
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becomes a binding factor on the stated cost without any chance for modification. You can write a
overall cost without explaining the details or one more way is to present the inidividual
expenditure of various activities and arriving at total cost.

Authorization Request:

Informal proposals usually wind up with a request to accept and authorize the proposal. Once
again you need to emphasize on key benefits and the last date on which the terms and conditions
of this proposal will end.

Components of Formal Proposals

Formal proposals differ from informal proposals not in style but in size and format. Formal
proposals respond to big projects and may range from 5 to 200 or more pages. To facilitate
comprehension and reference, they are organized into many parts. In addition to the six basic
components just described, formal proposals may contain some or all of the following front and
end parts.

Copy of RFP (Request for Proposal) A copy of RFP may be included in the opening parts of a
formal proposal. Large organisations have more than one RFP circulating and identification is
necessary.

Letter of Transmittal usually bound inside formal proposals, addresses the person who is
designated to receive the proposal or who will make the final decision.The letter describes how
you learned about the problem or confirms that the proposal responds to the enclosed RFP. This
persuasive letter briefly presents the major features and benefits of your proposal. Here you
should assure the reader that you are authorized to make the bid and mention the time limit for
which the bid stands. You may also offer to provide additional information and ask for action.

Abstract of Executive Summary highlights intended for specialists or for technical readers.An
executive summary also reviews the proposal’s highlights, but it is written for managers and so
should be less technically oriented.

Title Page includes title of the proposal, name of the client organization, RFP number, date of
submission, author’s name, and/or his or her organization.
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Table of Contents because most proposals don’t contain an index, the table of contents become
quite important. Table of contents should include all headings and their page numbers.

List of Figures Proposals with many tables and figures often contain a list of figures. This list
includes each figure or table title and its page number.

Appendix Ancillary material of interest to some readers goes in appendixes. Appendix A might
include resumes of the principal investigators or testimonial letters. Appendix B might include
examples or a listing of previous projects. Other appendixes could include audit procedures,
technical graphics, or professional papers cited in the body of the proposal.

Proposals in the past were always paper based and delivered by mail or special messener. Today,
however, companies increasingly prefer online proposals. Receiving companies may transmit the
electronic proposal to all levels of management without ever printing a page, thus appealing to
many environmentally consicious orgniazations.

Well-written proposals win contracts and business for companies and individuals. Many
companies depend entirely on proposal to generate their income, so proposal writing becomes
critical.

WRITING MEMOS
Memos are a form used by a person known to the receiver personally.
 Frequently written to persons within the office/ organization to communicate routine
matters.
 It is less formal in tone and does not have formal elements such as salutation or
complementary close.
 It directly sates the subject
How to write a memo
A memo addresses the subject under discussion immediately. It is short and written in a friendly
tone.
 Begins straight with the subject
 Short and written in a friendly tone
 Give necessary and sufficient information

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  Do not assume that everyone knows everything
 Be clear, concrete, and specific.
 Be pleasant rather than order
Uses of a memo Examples
 To provide information : Information regarding issues discussed in the meeting
 To issue instruction : Instruction to work related activities given by superior to
subordinate
 To convey policy decision : Decisions regarding working hours and payrolls
 To offer suggestions : Suggestions to improve performance through training
 To record/ report an agreement: Agreement with the suppliers
ESSENTIALS/CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUSINESS LETTERS/MEMOS
Simplicity
Simplicity in writing essentially means plainness and saying exactly what one means. The writer
should not bring in irrelevant details and information. Writer should be straight forward and
choose just one word instead of many whenever possible.
 One main subject in one letter
If we have to write about two different subjects to the same company, department at the same
time we should write two letters discussing each subject separately.
 One thought in one sentence
Each sentence should be formed so that it contains a single, complete thought.
 One idea in one paragraph
Each paragraph should open with a sentence that summarizes the central idea of the paragraph.
Clarity
Clarity of ideas: Ideas should be logically sequenced in a coherent way.
Clarity in form: Presentation of matter, paragraph divisions, layout, margins and spacing
between the lines should be done neatly.
Conciseness
It should be short. This means writing short letters, choosing short words, forming short
paragraphs and constructing short sentences. Give only relevant information in the fewest
possible words.

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Standard and neutral language
Should avoid jargons, technical terms and slang. They should eliminate hackneyed and old
fashioned words.
Sincerity and tone
The writers tone and sincerity reflect his or her personality.
 Confidence
Before writing a letter, the writer should have complete information on the subject and should be
certain about what he or she is saying, the letter will not be evasive or vaguely worded with
indirect expressions and passive verbs.
 Directness
Writer should say in a straightforward and courteous manner.
 Enthusiasm
The letter should make the reader feel that the writer is genuinely interested in him or her. The
writer should choose the word that shows interest in the reader.
 Humanity
Business letters are generally written in a stiff, formal and mechanical manner. Remember that
criticizing or apologizing should be done carefully, as should compliment.
Emphasis
Ideas must be placed in order of their importance. The main idea should be stated in the
beginning. Emphasis can be indicated also by repetition, use of punctuation or by using bold
letters and underlining.

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 Media Management

The Press Release

Before you write and issue a press release, ask “Is there news value in this story? And, “Does it
warrant a release?” Too often organisations feel obliged to write press releases using material
that is not newsworthy. Fact: if the journalist does not consider it newsworthy, it won’t get
coverage.
A press release is the quickest and easiest way to get free publicity. If well written, a press
release can result in multiple published articles about your firm and its products. And that can
mean new prospects contacting you asking you to sell to them. Talk about low-hanging fruit!

What's more, press releases are cost effective. If the release results in an article that (for instance)
appears to recommend your firm or your product, that article is more likely to drive prospects to
contact you than a comparable paid advertisement.

However, most press releases never accomplish that. Most press releases are just spray and pray.
Nobody reads them, least of all the reporters and editors for whom they're intended. Worst case,
a badly-written press release simply makes your firm look clueless and stupid.

Here are five rules to make sure that your press release actually drives prospects to contact you:

RULE #1: Use the press release as a sales tool. The idea is to communicate a message to
customers and prospects, through the vehicle of a print or online article, hopefully adding the
authority and credibility of the publication, website and/or reporter to the message.

RULE #2: Have a newsworthy story. To get your message communicated through the
publication, you need to convince the reporter/editor that your message (or the story surrounding
it) is newsworthy. So it's got to have appeal to the entire readership of the publication.

RULE #3: Write it like a reporter would write it. If your press release looks and feels like a
real article, reporters will often just file it as a story with minimal editing. Therefore, it's up to
you to make sure that your press release looks and feels like a real article. No biz blab!

RULE #4: Provide some good quotes. Even if your CEO is a complete idiot, don't make him
sound like one by providing a quote that's a series of business clich. Have him say something
memorable and personal, if possible.

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RULE #5: Contact your top outlets personally. In addition to sending a press release,
personally contact the reporters that you really want to cover the story. Send them something
personal. You might even want to rewrite the press release to fit their beat.

Press release checklist

 Assess if the story has news value and if a release is appropriate.

 Research the target press and media. Review publications to get a feel for the tone
and style. Identify deadlines.

 Identify the key facts – ask who, what, why, where, when, how?

 Draft a template structure for your story.

 Decide who should be quoted from your organisation and if third-party quotes would
be useful.

 Check whether a photo can support the release.

Press Conference

What is a Press Conference?

A press conference is a voluntary presentation of information to the media. In a press conference,

you decide what information is presented, how it is presented, and who presents it. It is an
opportunity to get your story on TV, radio or in the paper. To hold a press conference you
contact the media, pick a time and place, make a presentation and respond to reporters’
questions.

Define your goals

Before you plan a press conference you should be very clear about your goals. Being clear about
your goals will help you do a better job of planning the press conference. Some good reasons for
holding a press conference might include: • to get publicity about your efforts and problems; • to
get widespread media coverage; • to send a message to a decision maker about what you want; •
to get more people involved in your organization; • to develop the skills of your members; • to

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show the strength of your group. Whatever your organizational goals are, remember that you
have to have something newsworthy to announce, reveal, or talk about at your press conference.

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Major steps for setting up a press conference

• Clearly state a good reason for holding a press conference: the news you are going to
reveal has not been covered in the press yet, or there is an emergency, or an important new issue.

• Decide what message you want to deliver through the media. Outline your demands to a
decision maker (someone who has the power to give you what you want). Include information
about what people can do to help, and the date, time and place of your next action.

• Work out the location of the press conference. Find an appropriate place that is convenient
and has the facilities you need. Where you choose to have a press conference depends on your
needs and the specific circumstances of your situation. Dramatize your position by choosing a
good backdrop. If you decide to hold the press conference indoors, be ready to provide technical
assistance for reporters, such as phones, microphones, enough light, etc.

• Set the date and time of the press conference, taking into account reporters’ deadlines.
Usually the best days of the week to get news coverage are Tuesday through Thursday. Check to
see that there are no competing news events already scheduled at the time of your conference.

Invite the media. Send a press conference advisory to appropriate local media outlets at least a
week before the press conference. Follow up with a phone call two days before the press
conference to make sure that everyone received the advisory. Call them the day before to remind
them about the event.

• Invite guests. Make phone calls and send written invitations to prospective guests you want to
have at the press conference, such as other members of your group, allies, and friendly
politicians. available after press conference. Prepare your speaker with 30- second answers for
radio or TV, and quotable, simple messages for print reporters. Help your speaker practice with a
video camera or tape recorder.

• Prepare your spokesperson(s) to deliver your message. Generally, it’s good to have just one
or two speakers during a press conference so people don’t talk on top of each other, or mix the
message. Rehearse with the speaker(s) to make statements brief and clear and usually no longer
then ten minutes. The spokesperson should be experienced in the subject so s/he will be able to

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respond to questions after the statement. Often reporters will want to interview the spokesperson.
Let the press know that the speaker is available after press conference. Prepare your speaker with
30- second answers for radio or TV, and quotable, simple messages for print reporters. Help your
speaker practice with a video camera or tape recorder.

• Choose a moderator (facilitator) for the press conference. You will need a person to control
the process and keep reporters on the subject. If someone goes off subject, the moderator can
return the focus by saying such things as: “That’s an interesting point, but we are here today to
discuss...”

• Prepare background materials. Reporters and guests may wish to have a copy of written
statements or a press release. You can prepare a packet of factsheets, charts or graphs.

• Practice roles with the members of your group. It’s important that everybody understands
his/her role in the event. Think about what will happen all the way through the press conference,
and how it will look to reporters. The key question to ask is “what if..?” (What if reporters ask a
non-spokesperson member a question? What if your opponents show up and heckle?)

• Prepare visual aids. Charts, big maps, pictures or other props will help get your message
across. However, slide shows are difficult for TV, radio and print reporters to use.

Starting the press conference

Be ready to welcome TV reporters at least 15 minutes before the beginning of the conference.
They usually need time to set up their equipment. Meet everyone at the door and ask them to
sign in a guest book you’ve already prepared (you may need their addresses for the next event).
Give them your background material and a copy of the press statement. Start the press
conference as close to on time as possible and certainly not later then ten minutes after the
scheduled time, to respect those who came on time.

Running the press conference

The moderator welcomes everyone and briefly introduces the speaker(s). Remember that
statements shouldn’t be longer than 10-15 minutes. After the speakers are finished, ask for
questions. Make your answers simple, brief, and pointed. A little bit of humor will enliven the
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press conference, too. Good visual aids make your story more interesting, so be creative. The
moderator should end the press conference before things drag out too long. After your important
points are made, step in and conclude the proceeding. Thank everyone for coming and offer
additional information they can get in your office. Thank them for keeping readers, viewers, and
listeners informed about this important community problem.

Media Interviews

The news media help shape public opinion on health issues. A basic understanding of a reporter's
job and a few interviewing techniques can increase your effectiveness in communicating key
messages in interviews.

Most journalists are professionals and have degrees in journalism or related fields. Although
professionally trained as reporters, they are not necessarily content experts on every subject they
cover. They rely on experts for facts and commentary.

Reporters work in a competitive environment. Tight space, time constraints, and decisions made
by editors, directors, and producers ultimately determine what stays or gets cut from a story.
Reporters who write for monthly publications such as magazines have longer lead times, but
television reporters often get assignments in the morning to produce news stories for the evening
news. This means less time to research stories, interview sources, and write.

The reporter's purposes in an interview are to:

 Gain understanding of issues.

 Collect relevant facts.
 Obtain quotes from reputable sources.
 Balance opposing views.

Why Give Interviews?

Interviews require giving up a certain amount of control, which is why they make most people
uncomfortable. The tips in this chapter are aimed at helping you feel comfortable, confident, and

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in control of your message. Most of these principles apply regardless of the type of interview
(e.g., print, radio, or television). In fact, most of them apply to any kind of public speaking.

Dos & Don'ts of Interviewing

DO keep answers short. You may do a television interview for 30 minutes, but the average
soundbite is 10 to 20 seconds long, so be clear and concise.
DO communicate your messages. Answer questions, but don’t be distracted from
communicating your messages.
DO use firsthand examples and descriptive language. Communicating personal experiences
can be dramatic and powerful. Use them as often as possible. Describe an experience with a
patient or explain what influenced your position on an issue. Put statistics in meaningful terms,
such as "two thirds" instead of "more than 60 percent".
DO use plain English. Keep the audience in mind, and speak in terms familiar to them. Avoid
medical jargon, such as "prophylaxis," and "present to the emergency department". Don’t use
questionable humor (self-effacing humor is best), profanity, or any kind of derogatory language.
DO pause before answering. Take a brief moment to consider your response. Even for radio
and television, this pause will seem thoughtful and natural.
DO answer the questions. It's best to answer even tough questions, or your credibility with the
audience may be damaged. But remember, you're not obligated to agree to the interviewer’s
statements, and your mission is to deliver your messages.
DO take the high ground. Always respond in a positive way, and turn negative questions or
comments into positive statements. Reporters often will ask a negative question or plant a
buzzword in a question to get you to repeat it, if only in denial. This makes for colorful quotes.
Always respond by answering with positive statements and replacing objectionable words with
more acceptable terms. For example:
Scenario: A reporter interviews you about the preparedness of your emergency department.
Question: Isn’t it true that more than half of the nation’s emergency departments are staffed by
unqualified doctors.

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Answer: Actually, emergency physicians today are better trained than ever before. Most are
career specialists with considerable training and experience, and more than half are board-
certified in emergency medicine.
DO question facts, if necessary. If confronted with findings or statistics you’re not familiar with
or you believe may be incorrect, say, "I'm not familiar with those statistics so I really can't
comment on that matter" or "based on [cite other statistics], the most important thing to
remember is [statement that communicates your message]". If asked, for example, about a report
you haven’t read, be sure and say so, but use the question as an opportunity to communicate your
messages.
DO use body language effectively. Studies show that voice inflection and body language are
even more important than the words themselves when it comes to how messages are received.

To help people focus more on your messages, keep your arms loose, and gesture naturally. This
will help you appear calm and confident. Don't clasp your hands together, cross your arms or
legs, put your hands in your pockets, or adopt any posture that prevents you from moving
naturally. Strive for a relaxed, animated face. Avoid sympathetic nodding, which could be
interpreted as agreement. Smile, raise your eyebrows, and use natural expressions. (See the
chapter on .Speeches. for additional tips on delivery skills.)

DON'T ramble. Reporters often wait before asking their next question to encourage you to keep
talking. Deliver your message concisely then stop talking and wait for the next question. Become
comfortable with silence.
DON'T discuss hypothetical situations or unfamiliar matters. If asked about a situation or
case of which you have incomplete information, or about a hypothetical situation, respond by
discussing the issue instead. Say, "I can't respond to hypothetical situations, but if you’re asking
about the issue of [state the issue], it’s clear that [state your message]".
DON'T argue or interrupt. You don't have to agree, but don’t argue either. And don't interrupt.
Other guests are another matter. You may need to jump in when another guest is talking to
correct misinformation or to comment.
DON’T lose your temper. You can tell a reporter you prefer not to comment (explain why), but
never get angry. In taped interviews especially, viewers may see only your angry response and
not hear the question that prompted it.
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DON'T lie or bluff. If you don't know an answer, say so. You can damage your credibility by
speculating incorrectly. If you should know the answer but don't, offer to research the answer,
and then be sure to follow up.

Print Media

The print media includes daily newspapers, weekly newspapers, magazines, journals, trade
publications, and newsletters.

Face-To-Face Interviewing Tips

Print reporters are looking for quotes, so be sure your messages are quotable. One of the dangers
of a face-to-face interview is that you may relax too much. Be careful not to become too "chatty"
because you could accidentally mention something that plants a seed for a story you don’t want
printed.

Tip 1: Be prepared. Find out exactly what the reporter wants to discuss. Identify two or three key
messages you want published. Be aware that a preliminary question, for example, about the
protocols for treating abdominal pain, may signal that the reporter is doing a story about a missed
diagnosis. In cases like this, it is appropriate to say something like "I can’t comment on the
specifics of this patient’s case or what the hospital did, but I can describe the protocols for
diagnosing abdominal pain." Guard against having your statements inadvertently or
inappropriately used in legal cases.
Tip 2: Relax and be personable. Keep a good sense of humor.
Tip 3: Support your facts with written materials, if possible. Provide charts, news articles, and
data from reputable sources.
Tip 4: Be honest; avoid even the appearance of deception. Dishonesty, or the appearance of it,
can severely damage your reputation.
Tip 5: Use body language and facial expressions to help convey your message, even though
you're not on camera. This will help persuade your interviewer, who in turn may persuade the
readers.
Tip 6: If you want to speak "off the record" or "for background only," make sure the reporter
agrees. If you feel the reporter needs further clarification, and you want to be sure you won’t be

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quoted, say this is "off the record" or for "deep background and not to be attributed to me or
quoted," and "is that okay?" If the reporter agrees, then continue. Be aware, a reporter does not
have to honor this request.

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Group Communication:
Meetings Meaning:
A meeting is a gathering of two or more people that has been convened for the purpose of
achieving a common goal through verbal interaction, such as sharing information or reaching
agreement.
FIRST DECIDE IF YOU NEED TO HAVE A MEETING
Many meetings don't need to be held, and often those that are held are attended by more people
than necessary. Often times there are more efficient ways to "meet" your objectives without
holding a meeting. Some of these alternatives include: phone calls, conference calls,
memos/letters, postal mail, e-mails, teleconferencing, and listserves. First, one needs to decide if
a meeting is necessary. Before scheduling or attending your next meeting, clearly define the
objectives for yourself or the group if you are the person responsible for the meeting. To help
you think through your objectives, ask yourself the following four questions:
• Why am I scheduling or attending this meeting?
• What do I want to accomplish or gain?
• What information will be exchanged or decisions made?
• Who will be attending that I need to meet or gain their support?
Once you have clarified your objectives, you still need to determine if a meeting is the best way
to reach them. To make sure a meeting will be the best use of time and energy for all concerned,
determine if it will be used for at least one of the following reasons:
• To convey information to a group
• To solicit information from a group
• To answers questions
• To participate in group decision making
• To brainstorm ideas
• To solve problems
• To network
• To sell an idea, product, or service
• To show or provide support for others If you have determined a meeting is the best avenue to
carry out your team's objective, then you should begin to organize for an effective meeting
HOW TO ORGANIZE FOR A MEETING
Good meetings aren't accidents - they are the result of good planning. The time you spend
before will result in major benefits later by efficiently using the meeting time, accomplishing
objectives, and avoiding the need for follow-up meetings. When deciding to hold a meeting, you
should also decide who should attend and what is the purpose of the meeting. To help in
planning meetings, below is a checklist of major elements essential for meeting effectiveness.
Purpose:
Plan meetings with purpose. Define the purpose or objective of the meeting (e.g., to reach
consensus on how volunteer leaders should allocate their time).
Participant:
Who needs to attend this meeting to accomplish the purpose? Structure: How should the
meeting be organized to best accomplish the purpose? Some techniques may include: guest
speakers, videos, brainstorming sessions, panel sessions, discussion groups, demonstrations, etc.
Whatever technique is selected, it should have the greatest impact on the participants to attain the
meeting objective.
Location and Time
Select a meeting place that best matches the participant's needs, the objective, and the meeting
structure. When planning where to meet, give consideration to size, comfort, accessibility,
adequate parking, room acoustics, equipment needs, etc. Choosing a meeting time depends on
the availability of participants and meeting facilities. The anticipated length of the meeting
should also be a factor in deciding when to schedule the meeting.
Agenda
A meeting agenda should be prepared and distributed to participants at least three days prior to
the meeting day. An agenda is crucial to meeting success in three ways: 1) it clarifies the
objectives so people understand the meeting purpose and tasks; 2) distributing the agenda prior
to the meeting helps participants plan and prepare to make an effective contribution; and 3)
during the meeting, the agenda provides direction and focus for the discussion. There are a
variety of agenda styles but essentially they should contain at least the following elements: title
(e.g., evaluation review meeting), time (e.g. 8:00-10:00 a.m.) date, location, discussion items,
and names of persons responsible for covering each item. Some people prefer to include time

Page 28
allotments for each agenda item to improve meeting effectiveness (e.g. review minutes 1:05-
1:10).
Responsibilities:
There should be a mutual understanding of not only the meeting purpose, but also individual
assignments and how they fit into the total program. Those meetings that are more focused on
brainstorming or creativity may require little or no individual assignments. In task-oriented or
policy deciding meetings, it is best to prepare a written summary of assigned duties so
individuals know what their responsibility is for the meeting.
Confirmation:
If it is a first meeting or if the meeting is on a new day or time, individually contact all
participants a week to three days before the meeting day. Contact can be as simple as sending
everyone a friendly reminder through office e-mail, phone calls, or a post card reminder through
the mail. For regularly scheduled meetings, choose a location and meeting time and try not to
change it.
Planning does take a certain amount of time, however the burden of planning does not have to
fall fully on the leader's shoulders. The leader is responsible for seeing that the planning gets
done, not necessarily for doing it. Every step can be delegated. If you are responsible for
conducting the meeting and you chose to delegate the tasks of organizing the meeting, make sure
you are familiar with the agenda, objectives, and any relevant background information before the
meeting begins.
HOW TO RUN EFFECTIVE MEETINGS
The meeting leader or facilitator is responsible for setting the meeting tone, keeping the
discussion on track, and making sure everyone has a fair chance of being heard. The leader or
facilitator should also summarize relevant points and tie things together when the discussion
jumps around between interrelated topics.
Filling the role of leader or facilitator is no easy task, especially when personal agendas clash or
misunderstandings occur. Although a well-planned meeting will significantly reduce surprises
and meeting confusion, there is no guarantee everything will run smoothly, even with the best
planning. Here are some suggested guidelines on how to run effective meetings:

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• Begin on time and end on time - If you begin a meeting five to seven minutes after it was
scheduled, you are starting late. Starting a meeting late sends the message that it's okay to be late
and it shows a lack of respect and appreciation for those who make the effort to arrive on time.
Some people may have back-to-back meetings. Ending on time shows respect for participants
valuable time. However, no one ever complains if you are fortunate enough to end early
. • Use the Agenda - Review the agenda with participants at the beginning of the meeting and
ask them if any changes need to be made on time allocations or discussion content. Continually
refer back to the agenda throughout the meeting to keep discussion centered on the stated
purpose and specified agenda items. Post the agenda on an easel pad and tape it to the wall, this
way everyone can refer to the agenda when discussion seems to be getting off track.
• Use an Ideas Bin - A "bin" consists of blank sheets (one or two) torn from an easel pad and
taped to the wall. Any idea that is unrelated to the current topic is written on the easel pad paper
(i.e., placed in the bin). The bin serves two valuable purposes: 1) it stores valuable ideas for
consideration at an appropriate and convenient time, and 2) it allows discussion to stay focused
on the agenda topic. Using the bin is an effective way to keep discussion focused and it helps
people hold onto their thoughts and ideas without being disruptive to the meeting. Explain the
use of the bin at the beginning of the meeting. During the meeting the team leader or the
facilitator should record bin items as they come up, or participants should record their own bin
items when they feel discussion is getting off track.
• Establish and Use Ground Rules - Ground rules are explicit rules that the group agrees to
follow to helpthem facilitate productive discussions. Whether the group formulates the ground
rules or the meeting leader/facilitator presents them, all group members should reach consensus
on following the ground rules. The ground rules should be written down on easel pad paper and
taped to the wall for everyone to see. Ground rules lay out the expectations of "the way things
should be done at meetings." Ground rules are used to facilitate group interaction, not to restrict
it. The group can change the ground rules or add new ones based on group needs. Examples of
some typically used ground rules include: arrive and start on time; stick to the agenda; everyone
participates; be realistic when accepting follow-up tasks; focus on interests, not positions;
separate people from the problem; respect different viewpoints; share responsibility for
following the ground rules.

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• Control dominating individuals - Make sure each individual has a fair chance of expressing
ideas and opinions. Do not let one person dominate the discussion. Of equal importance is to
ensure that quiet participants are expressing their ideas and opinions. This may require the leader
or facilitator to directly call on the quiet member and ask them for their opinion or for any ideas
they would like to share.
• Bring Food - Food energizes and motivates people more effectively than any other meeting
tactic. Although many people still prefer the standard coffee and donuts, alternatives such as
fruit, juice, and bran muffins can be provided. For afternoon meetings, cookies, hard candy, fruit,
and cheese are several suggestions.
Summarize - Conclude the meeting by summarizing the discussion, decisions made, tasks
delegated, deadlines, and any action required by participants. Depending on the time available,
either address bin items or place them on the agenda for the next meeting. Include in the
summary any review plans for follow-up or the need to schedule any succeeding meetings. It is
far easier to schedule the next meeting while everyone is at the table then it is to wait and contact
each participant individually
Meeting Documentation

To actually start working on the development of the project, you will need to agree with your
team members what the overall goal is, who is going to do which part and when, and how the
parts are to be developed so that they can be combined later.

To get all of this information, and in agreement among 3-4 people, you must communicate!

Informal discussions happen all the time - you may well have several of these with your team
mates when writing up the Concept Study Report for your group project. At this stage though,
you need a more official, formal discussion so that all issues are noted.

When dealing with formal meetings, there is a specific procedure to be followed:

1. Let everyone involved know that you are requesting a meeting for a particular reason,
and give them the date, time and location for this. This is known as aNotice of
Meeting and can take the form of a memo, letter, poster and/or email communication.

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2. Before the meeting starts (sometimes given at the same time as the Notice of Meeting),
you need to let all those invited to attend the meeting what it is that's to be discussed and
the order that these items will be mentioned in. Known as an Agenda, this lets everyone
prepare for the meeting in advance so that they can bring up any important points at the
relevant time.

3. During the meeting itself, it is important that all points raised are noted so that a summary
of the full meeting is recorded. These are the Minutes and they should show what was
discussed, more especially what was agreed (or ruled out), and any action points - a note
of something that has to be carried out, by whom, and usually with a deadline.

4. A motion is a proposal that is put before a meeting for discussion and a decision. If a
motion is passed, it becomes a resolution. Resolutions are binding and should be
recorded in the minutes. An association’s rules will often provide details about how
motions should be dealt with and these should be observed.It is best practice for motions
to be placed on the agenda so that members have adequate time to consider them before
the meeting.

5. Resolutions become binding on the association that makes them, as long as the people
who made the decision have the authority to pass them. It is a good idea to always follow
up a resolution with a clear understanding of how the resolution will be implemented, by
whom and by which date. Generally, the chairperson does not put forward motions,
because he or she is primarily the facilitator of the meeting.

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 Module 5: Case Method of Learning
Syllabus:
1.0: Understanding the case method of learning
2.0: Different types of cases
3.0: Difficulties and overcoming the difficulties of the case method
4.0: Reading a case properly (previewing, skimming, reading, scanning)
5.0: Case analysis approaches (Systems, Behavioural, Decision, and Strategy)
6.0: Analyzing the case – Dos and don’ts for case preparation
7.0: Discussing and Presenting a Case Study

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1.0 : Understanding the Case Method of Learning:
What is a Case?

A case is a written account of real or simulated managerial problems, dilemmas and situations
calling for solutions. Analysis of cases is an exercise in critical understanding of concepts and
causes of problems and events.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CASE AND ITS ANALYSIS

 A good case study is based on critical management issues faced by organizations

 The subject matter of a case can focus on different aspects of management
 There is no right or wrong answers to the questions raised by the case study. The
proposed answers and solutions to the problem should be logically correct.
2.0: Different types of cases :
Broadly speaking a case can be –
1. Theoretical

2. Factual

Theoretical Cases

Case studies, which are meant for reading and clarifying theoretical concepts of a discipline,
such as, study of marketing, human relations and management, involving the so on is academic
case studies.
They are used as examples to concretize the abstract concepts of discipline .the interplay of ideas
are presented in the form of action, interaction and conflicts among persons involved in life-like
situations, described by the case.

Factual Cases

Case studies, which describe and illustrate an organization’s experience and errors to overcome
different problems, are real cases. They present the critical management issues with full facts and
figures. Their analysis requires a systematic approach to identification of the main problem.
Such factual case studies project corporate problems belonging to any functional areas of
management such as marketing, production, human relation etc.

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The case study requires the application of analytical reasoning to the main problem and its best
possible solution.

3.0: Difficulties and overcoming the difficulties of the case method :

1. Conquering a different learning style
The case method is well suited for individuals who like to deal with real life situations. The case
approach demands that you do extensive preparation outside the class room. This preparation
includes reading, note taking, conducting library research on data not given in the case or text
book, and organizing your thoughts.
2. Overcoming the fear of writing and speaking
One should develop a method for reading and analyzing a case and then writing a case analysis.
3. Developing your personal system of case analysis
Develop personal system of thinking and decision making. Learn how to think and analyse
information in a systematic way.

4.0 : Reading a case properly (previewing, skimming, reading, scanning):

There are four basic steps to properly reading a case:
 Previewing
 Skimming
 Reading
 Reviewing
Previewing
Previewing a case serves the main purpose of case analysis. Most of the cases are divided into
two parts i.e. text and supporting exhibits. As you look through the text, highlight key names of
the individuals and business and any proper noun that will give you valuable information needed
to understand the case. As you look at the illustrations and exhibits, carefully note their context
and relevance to the information.
In this stage resist the temptation to mark any items on the case. At this stage you are merely
sizing up the case to determine how you are going to read and dissect it.

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Skimming
Skimming involves previewing in great detail. Avoid the desire to read each word and especially
to underline or mark items in the text. As you skim look out for major ideas, issues, problems
and potential solution - anything that will help you in analyzing the case. The main objective of
this phase is to determine the thesis or key problems or issues in the case. Generally this
information is found at the beginning of the case. If it is not there then search until you get it.
Reading
Read at a comfortable pace and look for answers to questions, specific facts, or details that you
will need in deciding the solution. Resist underlining on the first reading because it is time
consuming and generally indicates you do not understand the information, if needed do it in
second reading. In this way, you are less likely to highlight unimportant information. During
your second reading, dissect and analyze the case from the standpoint of major issues, problems
and potential solution and look out for the key information that will benefit you in your case
analysis.
Reviewing
After absorbing the main points in the case, reviewing the case highlights and your attached
notes should be sufficient to refresh information in your mind. As you read the case, look for the
common elements that everyone examines, but also look for unexpected items that might give
you edge on cracking the case.
Work on understanding the flow of information from the beginning to the end, the technical
nature of elements as they are described, what character says and do, any discrepancies in their
actions. Constantly ask yourself “what is not being said here ” Finally look at all the aspect of the
case; pull them all together at the end.
5.0 : Case analysis approaches (Systems, Behavioural, Decision, and Strategy)
Cases require you to examine issues from the as-is world of reality, rather than the should-be
world of theory. Yet as you move through the analysis process you will join both the worlds
together and make to-be recommendations that will bring optimal closure to the case.
General Analytical Approaches
After reading the case, but before you begin your analysis, determine the specific analytical
approach you want to take selection of the approach will be the result of the type of you are

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encountering, and the support for your position that you will be able to offer. There are four
general approaches are often used are as follows:
 The systems approach
 The behavioral approach
 The decision approach
 The strategy approach
1. The System Approach
In this approach an organization is viewed as a system that converts inputs into outputs. As you
examine the problems, opportunities, and actions, try to get information on all components as
they interact with each other. This approach works with cases related to marketing, finance,
human resource, production and the aspects of management like planning, organizing,
controlling systems. A good analysis would start by viewing an organization from top to bottom
and seeking some of the following information:
What business is it in?
What technology does it use?
What market does it serve? Etc.
2. The Behavioral Approach
This approach focuses on the behavior of the people within an organization because it’s an
artificial entity, created by law, can’t think or act on its own. People in the organization are real
agents of behavioral action. A good analysis will examine both internal and external behavior to
an organization.
An individual trait, behavioral styles, values, acts committed by responsible people in the
organization yield valuable information. Information about corporate culture, organizational
change, human resource management practices and even executive selection procedure fits in the
behavioral approach.
3. The Decision Approach
This approach makes use of one or more decision-making tools and models that help in
identifying and evaluate alternatives.

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The various ratios and trend analysis, along with formulas and description of conclusions
resulting from their use requires financial and numerical data such as profitability ratios, liquidity
ratios, leverage ratios, activity ratios, shareholders return ratios. Etc
By using the various tools and models we can answer question like
How these alternatives are related?
Which costs are relevant or irrelevant?
Which costs are variable and fixed?
What then is the cash break even? Etc.
4. The Strategy Approach
This final approach is most often used with longer, formal cases and typically in business school
policy courses. The learning objective of such courses is to help managers develop strategic
thinking abilities as they prepare business and marketing plans. Using the strategy approach, a
manager analyzes a strategic fit between the goals and objectives of an organization. We
generally use SWOT analysis to identify internal and external strengths and weakness.
6.0 : Analyzing the case – Dos and don’ts for case preparation
Firstly, the case analysis requires you to understand the case and its context. It involves
comprehensive study of all those factors at the organizational level, which may be responsible
for affecting the working conditions and performance level. Therefore, to know the goals,
objectives, and the structure of the organization.
 First step – Study the case
First you study the case thoroughly. Start with quickly reading the important points of the case.
Understand the general drift and then re read the whole material slowly taking note of important
issues, facts, and ideas.
 Second step – Identify the problem
After what you have known about the case, the most important thing is your ability to identify
the main problem and discover relationships between the problems and the factors responsible
for it. Your critical insight should help you distinguish between the problem and the symptoms
of the problem .You should be able to identify the real problem, as distinguished from its
symptoms.

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  Third step – Define the problem
Formulate the problem in precise words.
 Fourth step – Identify causes of the problem
State relevant facts and establish logical links between them. Here, one should remember facts
are not opinions. Collect facts as your basic data obtained through investigation and study of
work–environment and other industry–related factors affecting the case -the problem of situation
to be resolved.
 Fifth step – Develop alternatives
Suggest alternative answers/solutions to the problem or question raised in the case. At least three
to five alternatives should be generated, ranging from “most viable” to “least viable”.
 Sixth step – Evaluate alternatives
Evaluate each alternative in terms of its relevance to the objective and the decision to be taken.
Compare the results and decide on the best course of action recommended by you.
 Seventh step – Develop plan of action
Work out a plan for implementation and check whether all aspects of the problem have been
addressed.
REQUIREMENTS FOR A CASE ANALYSIS
1. Thorough knowledge of the concerned subject
The first requirement being able to write analysis of a theoretical case is through knowledge of
the subject, you should be well aware of the subject matter of the case.
2. Ability to be analytical
For attempting case analysis, you have to go deeper into the situation described in the case. You
have to be searching and seeking answers for questions, we take ideas apart so that we can
discuss components of ideas separately. Then, we link the ideas, discovering relationships, and
interaction which we tie them together and finally examine validity of the logic we use to
establish relationships between ideas and their components.
3. Ability to do critical thinking
The ability to think critically is to go beyond the obvious and look for the truth underlying the
conflicts and statements that meet our eyes. It is an attitude of mind to question and accept things
only after examining the basis of our belief in them.

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4. Ability to evaluate
Ability to evaluate is a part of critical thinking. When we exercise judgment to establish
correctness or incorrectness of our view of things, we are being evaluative. To evaluate you have
to give reason for your judgment. For example, it is not enough to say that he/she is the most
effective communicator. You have to tell why and how he/she is the best communicator.
5. Ability to infer
You should be able to finally view the problem from a certain perspective. Here, the analysis
takes the position that effective communication is an act of total personality of the
communicator. The candidates should take enough time to understand the case thoroughly and
answer the questions.
DOS AND DON’TS FOR CASE PREPARATION
Dos of case analysis
1. Follow a logical clear and consistent path through case analysis. Your recommendation
should clearly be supported by analysis.
2. Recognize the difference between facts and inferences or supposition. Strive to base your
analysis on fact rather than suppositions.
3. Much of the material in case analysis is useless to your investigation, you learn to slice
through the fluff and make decision based on relevant information and facts.
4. Learn to trust your judgment, take a stand, and build necessary support for it.
5. Give yourself time to reread and edit your analysis, even second and third time.
Don’ts of a case analysis
1. Don’t expect a right conclusion to be available following the case study of a case. Your job is
to learn analyze problems and arrive at good solution.
2. Don’t tell the instructor that you need more information before arriving at a decision. Lack of
information is common with all the case. Working with incomplete information is good
practice.
3. Don’t expect case to cover a single discipline or to lend themselves to a solution by a given
theory or concept.

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4. Don’t be so short sighted that you decide on conclusion early in the analysis and become
locked into that conclusion.
5. Don’t feel that you have to solve all the problems in the case. Instead confront only the major
problems.
6. Don’t expect your instructor to give you clear instructions on what he/ she expects from the
analysis rather they want the best analysis from your side.

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