CAPS 12 DEFINITIONS

Paper 1: Physics

Newton's laws and application of Newton's laws

Normal force, N, is the force or the component of a force which a surface exerts on an object with which
it is in contact, and which is perpendicular to the surface.

Frictional force, f, is the force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the
surface.

Static frictional is the force that opposes the tendency of motion of a stationary object relative to
force, f s , a surface.

Kinetic frictional is the force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to a surface.
force, f k
Weight is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface.

Newton's laws

Newton's first law A body will remain in its state of rest or motion at constant velocity unless a non-zero
of motion: resultant/net force acts on it.

Newton's second When a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction
law of motion: of the force at an acceleration directly proportional to the force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.

Newton's third law When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts a force
of motion: of equal magnitude in the opposite direction on the first
body.

Newton's Law of Each body in the universe attracts every other body with a force that is directly
Universal proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
Gravitation: the distance between their centres.

Momentum and Impulse

Momentum i s the product of an object's mass and its velocity.

Newton's second The resultant/net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of
law of motion in momentum of the object in the direction of the resultant/net force.
terms of
momentum
Impulse is the product of the resultant/net force acting on an object and the time the
resultant/net force acts on the object.

The impulse- F net Δt = mΔv.

momentum
theorem
A closed/an a system on which the resultant/net external force is zero (A closed/an isolated system
isolated system (in excludes external forces that originate outside the colliding
Physics), bodies, e.g. friction. Only internal forces, e.g. contact forces between the colliding
objects, are considered)
The principle of The total linear momentum of a closed system remains constant (is conserved).
conservation of
linear momentum:

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 Projectile Motion in One Dimension (1D)

A projectile an object upon which the only force acting is the force of gravity

Work, Energy and Power

Work The work done on an object by a constant force F is F Δx cos θ , where F is the
magnitude of the force, Δx the magnitude of the displacement and θ the angle
between the force and the displacement.

The work-energy The net/total work done on an object is equal to the change in the object's
theorem: kinetic energy OR the work done on an object by a resultant/net force is equal to
the change in the object's kinetic energy.
In symbols:
W net = Δ K = K f - K i .

A conservative i s a force for which the work done in moving an object between two points is
force independent of the path taken. Examples are gravitational force, the elastic force in a
spring and electrostatic forces (coulomb forces).

A non-conservative is a force for which the work done in moving an object between two points depends
force on the path taken. Examples are frictional force, air resistance, tension in a
chord, etc.

The principle of The total mechanical energy (sum of gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy)
conservation of in an isolated system remains constant. (A system is isolated when the resultant/net
mechanical energy: external force acting on the system is zero.)

Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended

Doppler Effect (relative motion between source and observer)

The Doppler effect is the change in frequency (or pitch) of the sound detected by a listener because the
sound source and the listener have different velocities relative to the medium of sound
propagation.

Electrostatics and Electric field and Electric Circuits

Coulomb's law: The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge (Q 1 ) on
another point charge (Q 2 ) is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between them.

An electric field. is a region of space in which an electric charge experiences a force. The direction of
the electric field at a point is the direction that a positive test charge would move if
placed at that point

The electric field at The electric field at a point is the electrostatic forceexperienced per unit positive
a point charge placed at that point

Ohm's law: The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current in
the conductor at constant temperature.

Rms for an The rms value of AC is the DC potential difference/current which dissipates the

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alternating voltage same amount of energy as AC
or an alternating
current

Optical Phenomena and Properties of Materials

Photo-electric effect

The photoelectric is the process whereby electrons are ejected from a metal surface when light of
effect suitable frequency is incident on that surface.
Threshold as the minimum frequency of light needed to emit electrons from a certain metal
frequency, f o , surface.

Work function, W o is the minimum energy that an electron in the metal needs to be emitted from the
metal surface.

Emission and absorption spectra

An atomic is formed when certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation that passes through a
absorption medium, e.g. a cold gas, is absorbed
spectrum
An atomic is formed when certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation are emitted due
emission spectrum to an atom's electrons making a transition from a high-energy
state to a lower energy state

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 Paper 2: Chemistry

GENERAL THEORY

Structure of functional group

Homologous
series Structure Name/Description

Only C-H and C-C

Alkanes C C
single bonds

C C
Carbon-carbon
Alkenes
double bond
C C Carbon-carbon
Alkynes
triple bond

C X
Halogen atom
Haloalkanes bonded to a
saturated C atom
(X = F, Cℓ, Br, I)
Hydroxyl group
lcohols C O H bonded to a
saturated C atom
O
Aldehydes Formyl group
C H

O Carbon l group
Ketones C C C bonded to two C
atoms
O
Carboxylic acids Carboxyl group
C O H

O
Esters C O C

Molar volume of 3
1 mole of any gas occupies 22,4 dm at 0 °C (273 K) and 1 atmosphere (101,3
gases kPa).

Dfferent Dipole-dipole Forces between two polar molecules

intermolecular forces:
forces (Van Induced dipole Forces between non-polar molecules
der Waal's forces or London
forces): forces
Hydrogen Forces between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently
bonding bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine – a special case of
dipole-dipole forces

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Boiling point The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point.

Melting point: The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the melting point.

Vapour pressure The stronger the intermolecular forces, the lower the vapour pressure.

Rates and equilibrium

ΔH > 0 for endothermic reactions, i.e. reactions in which energy is released.

ΔH < 0 for exothermic reactions, i.e. reactions in which energy is absorbed.

factors that nature of reacting substances,

affect the surface area,
rate of concentration (pressure for gases),
chemical temperature
reactions, , the presence of a catalyst

catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative path of lower activation
energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation energy.

the factors pressure (gases only),

that influence concentration
the position of
temperature.
an equilibrium
+
auto-ionisation the reaction of water with itself to form H 3 O
of water -
ions and OH ions.

Definitions
Organic Chemistry

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Boiling point The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a substance equals
atmospheric pressure
Melting point: The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at
equilibrium.
Vapour pressure The pressure exerted by a vapour at equilibrium with its liquid in a closed
system.
Organic molecules are molecules containing carbon atoms.

Molecular formula A chemical formula that indicates the type of atoms and the
correct number of each in a molecule.

Structural formula A structural formula of a compound shows which atoms are attached
to which within the molecule. Atoms are represented by their chemical
symbols and lines are used to represent ALL the bonds that hold the atoms
together.

Condensed This notation shows the way in which atoms are bonded together in the molecule,
structural formula but DOES NOT SHOW ALL bond lines.

Hydrocarbon: Organic compounds that consist of hydrogen and carbon only

Homologous series A series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general formula
OR in which one member differs from the next with a CH 2 group

Saturated Compounds in which there are no multiple bonds between C atoms in their
compounds hydrocarbon chains.

Unsaturated Compounds with one or more multiple bonds between C atoms in their
compounds : hydrocarbon chains.

Functional group A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the

physical and chemical properties of a group of organic
compounds.

Structural isomer Organic molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural
formulae.
Chain isomers Same molecular formula, but different types of chains
Positional isomers Same molecular formula, but different positions of the side chain,
substituents or functional groups on the parent chain

Functional isomers Same molecular formula, but different functional groups

Hydrohalogenation: The addition of a hydrogen halide to an alkene

Halogenation The reaction of a halogen (Br 2 , Cℓ 2 ) with a compound

Hydration The addition of water to a compound

Hydrogenation The addition of hydrogen to an alkene

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 Dehydrohalogenatio The elimination of hydrogen and a halogen from a haloalkane
n of haloalkanes:
Dehydration of Elimination of water from an alcohol
alcohols:
Cracking of alkanes: The chemical process in which longer chain hydrocarbon molecules are broken
down to shorter more useful molecules.

Hydrolysis The reaction of a compound with water

Macromolecule A molecule that consists of a large number of atoms

Polymer: A large molecule composed of smaller monomer units covalently bonded to
each other in a repeating pattern

Monomer: Small organic molecules that can be covalently bonded to each other in a
repeating pattern

Polymerisation A chemical reaction in which monomer molecules join to form a

polymer

Addition A reaction in which small molecules join to form very large molecules by
polymerisation : adding on double bonds

Addition polymer : A polymer formed when monomers (usually containing a double

bond) combine through an addition reaction

Condensation Molecules of two monomers with different functional groups undergo

polymerisation condensation reactions with the loss of small molecules, usually water

Condensation A polymer formed by two monomers with different functional groups that are
polymer linked together in a condensation reaction in which a small molecule, usually
water, is lost

RATES AND EQUILIBRIUM

heat of reaction the energy absorbed or released in a chemical reaction.

(ΔH)
exothermic reactions reactions that release energy.

endothermic reactions that absorb energy.

reactions
activation energy the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place.

activated complex the unstable transition state from reactants to products.

reaction rate the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.

positive catalyst a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing a permanent change

a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative path of lower

activation energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation energy.

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 open system continuously interacts with its environment, while a closed system is
isolated from its surroundings.

reversible reaction: A reaction is reversible when products can be converted back to reactants.

Chemical equilibrium a dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of
the reverse reaction

Le Chatelier's When the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will re-
principle: instate a new equilibrium by favouring the reaction that will oppose the
disturbance.

Acids and Bases

Arrhenius theory
An acid +
is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H )/hydronium ions
+
(H 3 O ) when it dissolves in water.

A base -
is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH ) when it dissolves in
water.

Lowry-Brønsted
An acid +
is a proton (H ion) donor.

A base +
is a proton (H ion) acceptor.

Strong acids +
ionise completely in water to form a high concentration of H 3 O ion

Weak acids +
ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of H 3 O ions.

Strong bases -
dissociate completely in water to form a high concentration of OH ions.

Weak bases -
dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of OH
ions

Concentrated contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to

acids/bases the volume of water

Dilute acids/bases contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion

to the volume of water.

Conjugate acid-base -
When the acid, HA, loses a proton, its conjugate base, A , is formed.
pairs -
When the base, A , accepts a proton, its conjugate acid, HA, is formed.

ampholyte or a substance that can act as either a s a n acid or a s a base.

amphiprotic
substance
Hydrolysis the reaction of a salt with water.

Equivalence point of is the point at which the acid /base has completely reacted with the
a titration base/acid.

Endpoint of a titration is the point where the indicator changes colour.

Kw the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water or the ionic product of
+ - 14
water or the ionisation constant of water, i.e. K w = [H 3 O ][OH ] = 1 x 10 by
298 K.

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 auto-ionisation of + -
the reaction of water with itself to form H 3 O ions and OH ions.
water

Electrochemical Reactions

Galvanic cell a cell in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. A galvanic
(voltaic) cell has self-sustaining electrode reactions

Electrolytic cell a cell in which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.
-
i.t o. e transfer
Oxidation a loss of electrons.
Reduction a gain of electrons.

i.t.o oxidation nrs:

Oxidation An increase in oxidation number

Reduction A decrease in oxidation number

Oxidising agent A substance that is reduced/gains electrons.

Reducing agent A substance that is oxidised/loses electrons.

Anode The electrode where oxidation takes place

Cathode The electrode where reduction takes place

an electrolyte a solution/liquid/dissolved substance that conducts electricity through the

movement of ions

Electrolysis The chemical process in which electrical energy is converted to

chemical energy OR the use of electrical energy to produce a chemical change.

Chemical Industry
The fertiliser industry (N, P, K)

eutrophication is the process by which an ecosystem, e.g. a river or dam, becomes

enriched with inorganic plant nutrients, especially phosphorus and
nitrogen, resulting in excessive plant growth. As plant growth becomes
excessive, the amount of dead and decaying plant material increases
rapidly.

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 4. GENERAL INFORMATION

4.1 Quantities, symbols and units

The most common quantities, symbols and SI units used in introductory Physics are listed
below.
A quantity should not be confused with the units in which it is measured.

Preferred Alternative Unit

Quantity Unit name
symbol symbol symbol
mass m kilogram kg
position x, y metre m
displacement x, y s metre m
-1
velocity vx , vy u, v metre per second m∙s
-1
initial velocity vi u metre per second m∙s
-1
final velocity vf v metre per second m∙s
-2
acceleration a metre per second per second m∙s
acceleration due to -2
g metre per second per second m∙s
gravity
time (instant) t second s
time interval t second s
energy E joule J
kinetic energy K Ek joule J
potential energy U Ep joule J
work W joule J
work function W0 joule J
power P watt W
-1
momentum p kilogram metre per second kg∙m∙s
force F newton N
weight w Fg newton N
normal force N FN newton N
tension T FT newton N
friction force f Ff newton N
coefficient of friction μ, μ s , μ k (none)
torque τ newton metre N∙m
wavelength λ metre m
frequency f ν hertz or per second Hz or s
-1

period T second s
-1
speed of light c metre per second m∙s
refractive index n (none)
focal length f metre m
object distance s u metre m
image distance s' v metre m
magnification m (none)
charge Q, q coulomb C
-1
newton per coulomb or N∙C or
electric field E -1
volt per metre V∙m
electric potential at
VP volt V
point P
potential difference V, V volt V
emf E ε volt V
current I, i ampere A
resistance R ohm Ω
internal resistance r ohm Ω
magnetic field B tesla T
2
2 T∙m or
magnetic flux Φ tesla∙metre or weber
Wb

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