Nano Particles
Nano Particles
Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one dimension is
less than approximately 100 nanometers. A nanometer is defined as one millionth of a
millimeter -approximately 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair.
Based on physical and chemical characteristics, some of the well-known classes of
nanoparticles are given as (1) Carbon-based nanoparticles (Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes
- CNTs), (2) Metal-based nanoparticles, (3) Ceramic, (4) Semiconductor, (5) Polymeric, and (6)
Lipid-based NPs.
Sources, Properties and Application of fullerene
Introduction and Sources of Fullerene
A fullerene is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other
shapes. Fullerenes were discovered experimentally for the first time in September 1985. The
Buckminster fullerene, named after the American architect Buckminster Fuller or buckyballs,
as its structure resembles the geodesic dome made by him. Other fullerenes were discovered
shortly afterwards with more and fewer carbon atoms; they ranged from 18 atoms to up to
hundreds of atoms. Among them, the Buckyball containing 60 carbon atoms is the most popular.
Buckminster fullerene is resembling the balls used in football. Cylindrical fullerenes are also
called carbon nanotubes (buckytubes). Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is
composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings.
Structure of Fullerene
Properties of Fullerene
Oxidation of the molecule has also been observed; nevertheless, oxidation is irreversible.
Fullerenes are extremely strong molecules, able to resist great pressures—they will bounce
back to their original shape after being subject to over 3,000 atmospheric pressure. Theoretical
calculations suggest that a single C60 molecule has an effective bulk modulus of 668 GPa
when compressed to 75% its size. This property makes fullerenes become harder than steel
and diamond, whose bulk moduli are 160 GPa and 442 Gpa, respectively. An interesting
experiment shows that Fullerenes can withstand collisions of up to 15,000 mph against
stainless steel, merely bouncing back and keeping their shapes. This experiment resembles the
high stability of the molecule. Delocalized pi electrons in Fullerenes are known to provide
exceptionally large nonlinear optical responses. Fullerenes have shown particular promises in
optical limiting and intensity-dependent refractive index.
Applications of Fullerene
Due to its versile properties, it is used in various applications.
1. It has properties of high electron affinity and superior ability, so, it is used in solar cells.
2. It is used in Hydrogen gas storage
3. Fullerene is utilized to provide hardness and strength properties to metal and alloys without
seriously compromising their ambient temperature ductility.
4. With low cost, fullerene is used to convert synthetic diamond.
5. Due to its excellent optical characteristics, it is used in preparation various scientific tools such
as atomic force, scanning electron and scanning tunnelling microscope and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI).
6. It is used in medical devices for drug delivery vehicle and also, tissue engineering and tumour
cure.
7. It is also used in preparation of electronic parts, such as biosensors, semiconductors chips,
memory card, phtonica, optoelectronics, etc.
8. Inorganic based fullerenes are used for coating to reduce friction and improve wear resistance
in various mechanical parts such as ball bearing, chain, gear, pump, screw, artificial joints, etc.
9. It is used in water purification filter, fuel cell, photovoltaic cells.
Sources, Properties and Application of Fullerol
Structure of Fullerol
Properties of Fullerol
As electron donating hydroxyl group is introduced into fullerene, it reduced the electronegativity
of fullerenes and hence, reduces its toxicity to the organism and improves biocompatibility. It has
good oxidation resistance. Fullerols have high adhesion to metal, alloys, and semiconductors
surfaces. It has extreme chemical and thermal stability. The refraction index of fullerol is low. It
has also luminescence properties i.e. their transparency in visible and infrared spectrum regions is
high; light-absorption in near-by ultraviolet spectral region is strong; in the far light-spectrum
region such films are opaque.
Applications of Fullerol
1. Fullerol is used for the scavenger of water-soluble free radicals and antioxidant in biological
system.
2. Fullerol has several biomedical actions such as, bone destruction treatment via osteogenesis
enhancing, osteoclastic suppression and inflammation inhibition, vertebral bone marrow lesion
treatment, radiculopathy treatment via suppressing the inflammatory responses of DRG and
neuronal apoptosis.
3. It is also used as phase-transfer agent, anti-bacterial agent, anti-cancer agent, preventing and
treating agent for inflammatory bowel disease, in cosmetics, drug delivery, orthopaedic
research and gene probe.
4. Gd-C82(OH)n (Gadolinium- containing fullerol) is used in medical field, as fluorescent
coordination compounds of metal ions, physiological reagent,
5. Due to its luminescence properties, fullerols is used for the optical applications.
Bottom up Method
This approach is employed in reverse as NPs are formed from relatively simpler substances,
therefore this approach is also called building up approach. Examples of this case
are sedimentation and reduction techniques. It includes sol gel, CVD, spinning, pyrolysis and
biochemical synthesis.
(a) Sol gel technique: The sol – a colloidal solution of solids suspended in a liquid phase. The gel
– solid macromolecule submerged in a solvent. Sol-gel is the most preferred bottom-up method
due to its simplicity and as most of the nanoparticles can be synthesised from this method.
Examples are metal alkoxides and metal chloride nanoparticles.
(b) Spinning: The synthesis of nanoparticles by spinning is carried out by a spinning disc reactor
(SDR). It contains a rotating disc inside a chamber/reactor where the physical parameters such as
temperature, pressure, etc. can be controlled. The spinning causes the atoms or molecules to
fuse together and is precipitated, collected and dried. Polymers are converted to their
nanoparticles using this technique.
(c) Chemical vapour decomposition (CVD): Chemical vapour deposition is the deposition of a
thin film of gaseous reactants onto a substrate. The deposition is carried out in a reaction chamber
at ambient temperature by combining gas molecules. A chemical reaction occurs when a heated
substrate comes in contact with the combined gas. This reaction produces a thin film of product
on the substrate surface that is recovered and used. Substrate temperature is the influencing
factor in CVD. The advantages of CVD are highly pure, uniform, hard and strong
nanoparticles. The disadvantages of CVD are the requirement of special equipment and the
gaseous by-products are highly toxic. Examples of CVD are iron nanoparticles, nickel foam, and
gallium vapour.
(d) Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis is the most commonly used process in industries for large scale production
of nanoparticle. It involves burning a precursor with flame. The precursor is either liquid or vapor
that is fed into the furnace at high pressure through a small hole where it burns. The combustion
or by-product gases are then air classified to recover the nanoparticles. The advantages of
pyrolysis are simple, efficient, cost effective and continuous process with high yield. Titanium
oxide nanoparticles are prepared using this method.
(e) Bio-synthesis: Biosynthesis is a green and environmental friendly approach for the synthesis
of nanoparticles that are nontoxic and biodegradable. Biosynthesis uses bacteria, plant extracts,
fungi, etc. along with the precursors to produce nanoparticle instead of convention chemicals for
bioreduction and capping purposes. The bio-synthesized nanoparticles have unique and enhanced
properties that find its way in biomedical applications. Some examples of nanoparticle production
include using bacteria for gold, silver, cadmium, zinc, magnetite, and iron NPs.
Applications of nanomaterial
Nanomaterials have created a high interest in recent years by virtue of their unusual mechanical,
electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Some examples are given below:
Nanoparticles as potent antimicrobial agent: All metal oxides are being currently used in mostly
biomedical application, including antibacterial, antivirus and antifungal activities, due to their
excellent properties such as: large surface‐ area‐ to‐ volume ratio as compared to the bulk
equivalents
Nanoparticles in electrochemical sensors and biosensors: Nanoparticles such as oxide, metal and
semiconductor nanoparticles have been utilized for constructing electrochemical sensors and
biosensors, and these nanoparticles play diverse roles in different sensing systems
Nanoparticles in medicine and healthcare: Nanoparticles have been utilised newly to develop
the present imaging techniques for in vivo diagnosis of biomedical disorders. Metal oxides are
being used for diagnosis therapy, and increasing immunoassay system for antibodies treatment.
Nanoparticles, as drug delivery systems, are capable to uplift the several crucial properties of free
drugs, such as solubility, in vivo stability, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution and enhancing their
efficiency
Nanoparticles in agriculture: Nanoparticles are used into agriculture industries for delivery
systems for pests, nutrients and plant hormones and nano-sensors. These products are utilized in
proficient use of agricultural natural assets like water, nutrients and chemicals during precision
farming.
Nanoparticles as catalysis: Nanostructured metal clusters and colloids of mono- or plurimetallic
composition have a special impact in catalytic applications. They may serve as precursors for new
type of heterogeneous catalysts (Cortex-catalysts) and have been shown to offer substantial
advantages concerning activity, selectivity and lifetime in chemical transformations and
electrocatalysis (fuel cells).
Nanoparticles in textile: It is also used in textiles. Silver nanoparticles in fabric are used to
kill bacteria, making clothing odor- resistant. CNTs can produce waterproof and tear-resistant
fabrics. Nano-polymer is also used in plastics, paint and coatings in textile industries.
Biodegradable Polymer
Biodegradable polymers are a specific type of polymer that breaks down after its intended
purpose to result in natural byproducts such as gases (CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic
salts. These polymers are found both naturally and synthetically made, and largely consist of
ester, amide, and ether functional groups. Examples are Polylactide acid (PLA), Polyglycolic
acid (PGA), copolymer of poly lactide acid and Polyglycolic acid, Nylon – 2, Nylon – 6,
Dextran, etc.