Biochemistry of reproductive tissues

The biochemistry of reproductive tissues involves the study of the molecular and cellular processes
that occur in the tissues and organs responsible for reproduction. These tissues include the Testes,
ovaries, uterus, placenta, and associated glands and ducts.
1. Testes
The testes are the primary male reproductive organs responsible for producing sperm and
hormones such as testosterone.
Hormone Production
Testosterone: Synthesized from cholesterol in the Leydig cells of the testes. Testosterone is
essential for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, spermatogenesis, and
libido.
Androgens: Other androgens, such as dihydrotestosterone (DHT), are also produced and play
roles in male reproductive physiology.
Biosynthesis of androgens
Cholesterol is the precursor for the synthesis of androgens. It is first converted to pregnenolone
which then forms androstenedione by two pathways--either through progesterone or through
17– hydroxypregnenolone (Fig 1). Testosterone is produced from androstenedione. The
production of androgens is under the control of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH).
Active form of androgen: The primary product of testes is testosterone. However, the active
hormone in many tissues is not testosterone but its metabolite dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
Testosterone, on reduction by the enzyrne5 s-reductase forms DHT. This conversion mostly occurs
in the peripheral tissues (Fig 2). Some workers consider testosterone as a pro hormone and
dihydrotestosterone the more potent form as the hormone.
Physiological and biochemical functions of androgens
1. Sex-related physiological function: The androgens, primarily DHT and testosterone,
influence:
 Growth, development and maintenance of male reproductive organs.
 Sexual differentiation and secondary sexual characteristics.
 Spermatogenesis.
 Male pattern of aggressive behavior.
2. Biochemical functions: Many specific biochemical effects of androgens that ultimately
influence the physiological functions stated above are identified. Androgens are anabolic in nature.
 Effects on protein metabolism: Androgens promote RNA synthesis (transcription) and
protein synthesis (translation). Androgens cause positive nitrogen balance and increase the
muscle mass.

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  Effects on carbohydrate and fat metabolisms: Androgens increase glycolysis fatty acid
synthesis and citric acid cycle.
 Effects on mineral metabolism: Androgens promote mineral deposition and bone growth
before the closure of epiphyseal cartilage.

2. Ovaries
The ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs responsible for producing eggs (ova) and
hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.

Hormone Production
Estrogens: Synthesized from cholesterol through a series of enzymatic steps involving the
conversion of androstenedione to estrone and then to estradiol. Estrogens are responsible for the
development of secondary sexual characteristics and the regulation of the menstrual cycle.
Progesterone: Produced from cholesterol in the corpus luteum after ovulation. It prepares the
endometrium for potential implantation of an embryo and supports early pregnancy.
Synthesis of estrogens
Estrogens synthesis occurs from the precursor cholesterol (Fig 2). Estrogens are produced by
aromatization (formation of aromatic ring) of androgens. The ovary produces estradiol (E2) and
estrone (E1) while the placenta synthesizes these two steroid hormones and estriol (E3). The
synthesis of estrogens is under the control of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH).
Physiological and biochemical functions of estrogens
1. Sex-related physiological functions: The estrogens are primarily concerned with
 Growth, development and maintenance of female reproductive organs.
 Maintenance of menstrual cycles.
 Development of female sexual characteristics.
2. Biochemical functions: Estrogens are involved in many metabolic functions.
 Lipogenic effect: Estrogens increase lipogenesis in adipose tissue and, for this reason,
women have relatively more fat (about 5%) than men.
 Hypocholesterolemic effect: Estrogens lower the plasma total cholesterol. The LDL
fraction of lipoproteins is decreased while the HDL fraction is increased. This explains the
low incidence of atherosclerosis and coronary heart diseases in the women during
reproductive age.
 Anabolic effect: Estrogen in general promote transcription and translation. The synthesis
of many proteins in liver is elevated.

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  Effect on bone growth: Estrogens like androgens promote calcification and bone growth.
It is believed that decalcification of bone in the postmenopausal women leading to
osteoporosis is due to lack of estrogens.
 Effect on transhydrogenase: Transhydrogenase is an enzyme activated by estrogen. It
is capable of transferring reducing equivalents from NADPH to NAD+. The NADH so
formed can be oxidized. It is explained that in the women after menopause due to
deficiency of estrogens the transhydrogenase activity is low. This results in the diversion
of NADPH towards Lipogenesis-causing obesity.
Synthesis of progesterone
Progesterone is synthesized and secreted by corpus luteum and placenta. Progesterone as such, is
an intermediate in the formation of steroid hormones from cholesterol (Fig 1). LH controls the
production of progesterone.
Biochemical functions of progesterone
1. Progesterone is essentially required for the implantation of fertilized ovum and maintenance of
pregnancy.
2. It promotes the growth of glandular tissue in uterus and mammary gland.
3. Progesterone increases the body temperature by 0.5-1 .5oF. The exact mechanism of this
thermogenic effect is not clearly known. The measurement of temperature was used as an indicator
for ovulation.

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Fig 1: Biosynthesis of major adrenocoticosteroids.

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Fig 2: Biosynthesis of steroid sex hormones

3. Uterus
The uterus is a key organ in the female reproductive system, providing the site for implantation
and development of the embryo.

Endometrial Cycle
The occurrence of menstrual cycle is a good example of coordination among the hormonal
functions. In humans, the menstrual cycle is under the control of FSH, LH, estrogens and
progesterone. The cycle normally varies between 25 and 35 days in length, with a mean of 28 days.
The menstrual cycle can be divided into two phases-follicular phase and luteal phase (Fig. 3).
1. Follicular phase: Follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) causes the development and maturation
of ovarian follicles. As the follicle enlarges, estradiol progressively rises and reaches its peak value
24 hours before LH and FSH attain their respective maximum levels. LH surge or peak initiates
ovulation-release of ovum from the ruptured follicles. The levels of progesterone are low during
follicular phase
2. Luteal phase: After the ovulation occurs, the ruptured follicles form corpus luteum and start
producing progesterone and estradiol. The predominant hormone of luteal phase is progesterone
which prepares the endometrium of uterus for implantation of the fertilized ovum. LH maintains
the corpus for a few days. ln the absence of implantation, the corpus luteum regresses and sheds
endometrium causing menstruation and another new cycle begins. The luteal phase is always fixed,
with "14 + 2 days in length. The observed variations in the length of menstrual cycle are due to
changes in the follicular phase. In case of implantation of the fertilized ovum, human chorionic
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gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the cells of implanted early embryo. hCG stimulates corpus
luteum to synthesize progesterone. This continues till the placenta starts making high quantities of
progesterone

Fig 3: Hormonal pattern in women during menstrual cycle (FSH-Follicle stimulating hormone;
LH-Luteinizing hormone).
4. Placenta
The placenta is a vital organ that forms during pregnancy, providing oxygen and nutrients to the
developing fetus and removing waste products.
Hormone Production
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): Produced by the placenta shortly after implantation, hCG
supports the corpus luteum, ensuring continued production of progesterone.
Progesterone and Estrogens: The placenta takes over the production of these hormones from the
corpus luteum to maintain pregnancy.
Human Placental Lactogen (hPL): Helps regulate maternal metabolism to ensure an adequate
supply of nutrients to the foetus.
5. Associated Glands and Ducts
Prostate Gland
Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA): A protein produced by the prostate gland that liquefies semen,
allowing sperm to swim freely.
Acid Phosphatase: An enzyme that helps in the breakdown of semen coagulum.