4.

Storage for EVs

Ashok Jhunjhunwala, [email protected]
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 1

4.1 Introduction to Battery
parameters

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 2

EV Battery (rechargeable electric batteries)
Is a storage of Energy (electric) for an Electric Vehicles
◦ Replaces a petrol-tank in a ICE vehicle: storage of fuel (petrol) used to drive a vehicle
As discussed in Chapter 1, even taking into account four-times higher drive
efficiency of EV vis-à-vis ICE engine, Battery
◦ weight 10-12 times higher than filled petrol-tank per km of drive
◦ size 5 to 6 times higher than petrol tank required per km of drive
◦ costs is much-much higher than an empty petrol tank

◦ But cost of petrol per km much higher than electricity costs per km
Battery has much higher CAPEX, but EV has much lower OPEX
◦ Why is battery costs so high? Let us understand Battery
https://doi.org/10.1039/B810104N

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 3

Understanding Battery Parameters
Consider a Battery of 48 Volts with a Capacity C of 15 kWh
◦ Battery capacity can also be defined by its Ampere-hour (Ah)
◦ Battery Ah = C/voltage = 15000 Wh / 48V ≈ 300 Ah
◦ or a Battery C = Battery voltage * Battery Ah

State of Charge (SoC) of battery is a measure of percentage of battery charged

◦ SoC of 0% means discharged battery; SoC of 100% is fully charged battery (having 15 kWh energy)

◦ Output Voltage of a Battery-pack varies with its SoC

◦ For a 48V Li-Ion battery, voltage varies from 43 to 56V depending upon the State of Charge (SoC)
◦ 43V when SoC is near zero and 56V when SoC is near 100%

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 4

Charging and Discharging at C-rate of battery
For a 15-kWh battery
◦ 1C charge / discharge rate means pumping in or taking out power at 15kW
◦ can charge or drain the battery fully (SoC 0% and 100%) in 1 hour

◦ 2C rate implies push-in / pull-out power at twice the battery capacity rate, that is at 30kW
◦ battery will charge/discharge in 30 minutes
◦ 4C Rate: 60 kW charge / discharge rate - fully in 15 minutes
◦ 0.1C Rate: 1.5 kW or charge / discharge in 10 hours

For a battery of 15 kWh

◦ if a vehicle requires power of 30 kW, battery is used at 2C-rate

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 5

Assignment 4.1
1. A 34 kWh battery is charged at SoC of 64%. What is energy it contains.

2. A 34 kWh capacity battery is voltage 350V. What is its capacity in Ah

3. A 3.5V battery is at 2.7V at SoC of 0% and 4.3V at SoC of 100%. This implies the
voltage of the battery lies in between 3.5 ± Δ% volts. What is Δ?
4. Assuming SoC is linear function* of voltage, what is (a) SoC at 4V and (b) voltage at
SoC of 64%?
5. Petrol volumetric Energy Density in kWh/l and gravitational in kWh/kg
6. Coal volumetric Energy Density in kWh/l and gravitational in kWh/kg
* It is actually not a linear function (discussed later).

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 6

Defining EV Battery Life
Consider a battery with a capacity of C to start with; Over time the capacity
decreases due to
◦ Aging or time: Calendar life (typically 1% to 2% of capacity loss per year)
◦ Charge-discharge cycles: as batteries are charged / discharged, battery capacity decreases

Battery Life
◦ When the capacity becomes 80% (or 70%) of C, it may be termed as End of Life of battery
◦ implying the battery will no longer give range required by EV and therefore needs to be replaced

◦ For 15kWh battery: End of life capacity is 12kWh (80%) or 10.5 kWh (70%)
◦ these batteries can no longer be used in EV’s as the range decreases, but may be considered for
other applications (second life of the battery)

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 7

Revisiting Battery Energy Capacity
Battery designed for certain Energy Capacity (C) in kWh = V * Ah /1000
◦ Comes from cell capacity defined in Ampere-hour (Ah)
◦ Capacity is product of nominal voltage (V) and (current * hours) or Ah rating

Depth of Discharge (DoD): For long-life, never fully emptied or fully charged
◦ Leaving certain energy at the bottom during discharging and empty at the top
◦ Useably energy each charge-discharge cycle is typically x% (may be 85%) of total capacity

Also, Battery Capacity reduces with each charge-discharge cycle

◦ When battery capacity remaining or SoH is y% (typically 80%) of initial capacity, the range
gets proportionately reduced: battery life for EV is OVER and it needs replacement

So at end of its cycle life, useable capacity = x*y*C = 0.8*0.85 C = 0.68C

Chapter 3.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 8

Second-life of EV battery and aftermath
Once the batteries reach 70%-80% of their initial capacity, they can be used in
Fixed Storage applications
◦ like UPS and Inverters or grid-storage
◦ While Mobile / EV batteries are constrained in terms of Size and Weight, Fixed storage is
not as constrained
◦ Batteries can be used to about 50% of its capacity: number of cycles from 80% to 50% may be as
much as from 100% to 80%

Aftermath of second-life of batteries

◦ Recycling: recover all materials with ZERO effluent and build new batteries
◦ Electronic gadgets / smartphones / lap-tops batteries may be too small for second life
usage and may directly go for recycling

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 9

Battery Pack made using Battery Cells
Life of a battery-pack is primarily dependent on life-cycle of the battery-cells
◦ Cycle-life of a battery cell is a fundamental parameter, depending upon its chemistry,
◦ but also on many other factors such as
◦ C-Rate of charging – discharging
◦ Temperature of its charging – discharging and also its storage temperature
◦ Depth of discharge (DoD): % SoC left at top and bottom

Most Li-Ion battery functions best (have maximum number of life-cycles)

◦ when its temperature of its usage is 25°C
◦ when its C-rate is less than 0.1C
◦ when battery charge-discharge is in between SoC of 10% and 80%

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 10

Factors affecting Battery cell life-cycles
A Li Ion cell Rate of charging / discharging
manufacturer ◦ Higher C rates adversely impact the

No of Cycles
battery life. Higher the charging rate
guarantees 1000 lower will be the life of battery
cycles under the ◦ When specified at C/2 rate and if
conditions like charged at 3C rate, battery life may get 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

reduced by a factor of five or more C Rate

◦ 1000 cycles when
charged at C/2,
discharged at C rate
@ 25°C with 85%
DoD

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 11

Temperature Dependence of life
Higher temperature (40°C or more)
implies smaller number of life-cycles
◦ Lower temperature is equally problematic
(less than 0°C is as bad)

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 12

Battery cell cycle-life is also impacted by
Depth of Discharge (DOD): percentage of
battery used
◦ Life-cycles decreases with increasing DoD

◦ Also, on where it is operated at, say for 85% DoD

No of cycles
◦ Top SoC window: SOC range of 0% to 85%
◦ Bottom SoC Window: SoC of 15% to 100%
◦ Or a middle window: SoC of 5% to 90%

80% 100% DoD

Extent of dependence on various parameters
depends upon battery chemistry

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 13

To Sum up
Battery Capacity (C)
Battery Costs
Battery life: dependence on rate of charging
/ discharging, Temperature, DOD
Other key Parameters
◦ SoC
◦ DoD
◦ EoL
◦ C-rate
◦ Cycle Life
◦ Aging : Calendar life

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 14

Assignment 4.2
1. Suppose a Battery Life is defined as 2000 cycles when used in standard conditions.
The standard conditions are “charged at 0.5C, discharged at 1 C at 25°C with 0.85
DoD”. Assume that one cycle is counted as 1+x, whenever standard operating
conditions are violated. Assume,
I. x is 0.25 for every degree variation in temperature from 25°C
II. x is 0.5 for every 0.01 increment of DoD from 0.85 and
III. x is 0.1 for every % increment of charge rate from 0.5C and
IV. x is 0.05 for every % increment of discharge rate from 1C.
Build a spread sheet to compute life of the battery, when usage is (a) 85% case in
standard condition, (b) 10% case at charge rate c1, discharge rate d1, temperature
t1 and DoD equal to h1 and (c) 5% case at charge rate c2, discharge rate d2,
temperature t2 and DoD equal to h2. Make conditions in (i) to (iv) variables.

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 15

Assignment 4.2 (contd)
2. Using above, determine the life-cycle of battery, when only changes are
(i) c1 and c2 are 1C, (ii) d1 and d2 are 2C, (iii) t1 and t2 are 35°C, (iv) h1 and h2 is
0.90,
(v) changes in (i),(ii), (iii) and (iv) combined,
(vi) c1, d1, t1 and h1 as in (v) and c2, d2, t2 and h2 are 1.5C, 3C, 45 °C and 0.95
respectively.
3. Useable Capacity of a battery depends on three parameters. Name them.

4. State True and False

a) Li Ion Battery does not work at 45 °C
b) Best temperature for Li Ion Battery is 35°C
c) Charge Rate of 2C visavis charge rate of 1C hurts battery life for all Li Ion batteries
d) DoD of 85% is the best value to maximise battery life

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 16

4.2 Why Li Ion Battery?
Which Lithium-Ion Battery!

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 17

Chemical Battery History Batteries

Rechargeable Vs one-time Primary Secondary

charged battery Silver,

Heavy duty Nickel
◦ EV uses only rechargeable Zinc carbon
zinc chloride
Alkaline Lithium mercury
oxide
cadmium

◦ Used in mobiles, laptops

(flashlights, (radios, (hearing aid, Nickel metal
(photoflash)
◦ Also in some instruments, toys toys) recorders) watches) hydride

Lead acid

Rechargeable Lithium ion

Batteries:
Reversible Lithium ion
Chemical polymer

reactions

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 18

Parameters to select EV battery
Costs per kWh
Battery selected to match vehicle
Specific Energy density (Wh/kg) requirement
◦ in terms of Energy required to travel certain
Vol. Energy density (Wh/litre) range, influencing battery size
Life-cycles at certain C-rate and ◦ In terms of instantaneous Power requirement,
temperature at certain DoD influencing C-rate
◦ Weight and Size (volume)
Capacity and DoD usable ◦ Capital costs and Life-cycles for battery
replacement
C-rate usable ◦ Time to recharge battery
Safety and safe-disposal ◦ Safety and safe-disposal

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 19

 Li Ion is obvious
choice for EVs
◦ Li-Ion stands out on
Wh/kg and the
number of cycles
◦ Touches 300Wh/kg
today
◦ Slightly dated data

https://batteryuniv
ersity.com/

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 20

Battery Chemistry
Most popular large batteries used to
be Lead-Acid till a few years back
◦ Ni-Cad and Ni-M Hydride came up later

Li-Ion Battery cells emerged

◦ First for cell-phones and lap-tops
◦ Then became dominant for EVs
◦ And the increasing energy density and falling
prices made it dominant today

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 21

Cost-driver: Energy-density continuously increasing
Gravimetric ED of NMC and NCA cells is in between 250 to 300 Wh/kg today
◦ Towards 400 to 500 Wh/kg in coming years: NMC with Graphite-Silica anode

Volumetric Energy Density of NMC cells touching 500 Wh/litre

◦ Other variants of Li-battery may emerge to drive energy density higher

Cost of battery inversely related to its energy density Energy Density Cell-price
◦ Main driver of cost reduction (Wh/kg) per kWh
2011: 80 $800
◦ Higher energy-density: lower use of materials like Lithium,
Cobalt, Nickle, Manganese, Graphite 2015: 140 $275

2018: 220 $140

2020: 310 $110

Chapter 1.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 22

Electrochemical battery
Consists of: Cathode, Anode and Electrolyte
◦ Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons and thus
electrically charged: Ion flow made possible with an electrolyte

◦ A Separator which acts as insulator (electrically isolates the

electrodes) but allows the movement of ions
◦ Charging: Electrons (in electrolyte) move through Separator
inside the battery towards cathode -- creates voltage potential Battery symbol
between cathode and anode Cathode is positive and
anode is negative
◦ Discharge: Current from positive cathode through external
electric circuit (load) to negative anode

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 23

Li-Ion Battery Chemistries
Cathode Anode Characteristics
LCO (LiCoO2) Graphite Used in cell-phones; Cobalt-rich and expensive
NMC* (LiNix Graphite Most commonly used EV battery; NMC811 has minimal Cobalt,
MnyCozO2) Nickle rich version attempts even smaller Cobalt
NCA Graphite Similar to NMC; less expensive, lower number of cycles; used by
(LiNiCoAlO2) Tesla as its battery size is large
LFP Graphite Safer than NMC; limited by specific energy; used to be dominant in
(LiFePO4) China, now on way-out
NMC LTO LTO anode gives much longer life-cycles and temperature
(Li4Ti5O12) tolerance, SAFE, but poor-specific-energy; high costs
LFP LTO Similar to NMC-LTO

* Sometime with LMO (LiMn2O4) mix; reduces Cobalt and costs, but less temperature-tolerant

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 24

Comparisons of Li-Ion Chemistries
Li-Ion Cell LCO/Graphite or NMC/Graphite LFP/Graphite NMC/LTO LFP/LTO (Nb
Chemistry NCA/Graphite doped)
Spec. Energy 150 -300 160-325 90-120 (150 with 60 -100 50 -80
density (Wh/kg) Silica in anode)
Charge/discharge 0.5C/1C 1C/1C (2C with 1C/2C (4C with 4C/4C 5C/10C
rates Silica in anode) Silica in anode)
Life-cycles 1000 2000 (8000 with 3000 (4000 with 10000 20000
Silica) Silica)
safety Cell < 55°C Cell < 55°C safer safest safest
Cell costs / kWh $120 $145 $200 $500 High

China has set a target for all EVs to have 350 Wh/kg by 2020, 400 Wh/kg by 2025 and 500 Wh/kg by 2030
Most of the world uses NMC/ Graphite except some uses NMC/ LTO for buses with top-up charging

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 25

 The Eight Asks of a Battery
1. High specific energy: Long runtime in most appliances, build batteries with
high ampere-hour (Ah)
2. High specific power: Batteries made for power tools and electric
powertrains provide high load capabilities, but the specific energy is low

3. Affordable price: Materials, refining processes, manufacturing, quality

control and cell matching add manufacturing cost; volume production helps
a bit. Single cell use requires no cell matching: lowers costs
4. Long life: High initial Investment OK in countries with low interest rate: if
battery life can be 20 years, low cost per year. Depends on battery design as
well as usage temperature, charge-times and harsh discharge rates

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 26

5. Safety: High specific energy systems are often reactive and unstable. When
used correctly, brand-name Li-ion is very safe
6. Wide operating range: Cold temperatures slow the electrochemical
reaction of all batteries. Li-ion cannot be charged below freezing. High heat
shortens battery life and compromises safety
7. Toxicity: Nickel and lithium-based batteries contain little toxic material, but
they still pose a hazard if disposed carelessly
8. Fast charging: Lithium batteries should be charged at 1C or slower. Fast
charge possible only if batteries built for it, be in good condition and at
room temperature. Aged and mismatched cells hurt during fast charging
◦

Plus Low self-discharge: long storage and instant start-up. Self-discharge

increases with temperature and age. Also a long shelf-life with minimal
performance degradation

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 27

Six parameters of six Chemistries

LCO LMO NCA

NMC LFP LTO

https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/types_of_lithium_ion

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 28

To Sum Up
Battery-Chemistries for EVs for some time to come will be
◦ NMC-Graphite
◦ NCA-Graphite

Gravitational Energy Density (or Specific Energy) touching 300 Wh/kg

◦ Cell-cost touching about $100 / kWh
◦ New cells will have higher energy density, and therefore lower costs

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 29

Assignments 4.3
1. True of False
a) Li Ion cells offer higher resistance at higher temperatures.
b) Specific Energy of Li-Sulphur batteries is higher than Li Air batteries.
c) Lower the energy density safer is the battery chemistry.
d) Growth of dendrites is one of the reasons responsible for internal short
circuits that occur in Li Ion batteries.
e) Recent research on NMC Li Ion chemistries focus on increasing the cobalt
content.
f) Ni content in NMC811 is lower than in NMC111.

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 30

4.3 Batteries in Future
https://batteryuniversity.com/

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 31

New Batteries
Need to compete with existing cells
◦ In terms of specific-energy, costs, number of cycles and temperature-range
Li-Ion Batteries with Nickle-rich Cathode and Silica in anode pushing up ED
◦ NMC111 to NMC433 to NMC532 to NMC622 to NMC811 to Nickle-rich Cathode
Li-polymer (often pouch cells): Solid-electrolyte (dry) – plastic like film
◦ Poor conductivity at room temperature; requires 60°C to enable current-flow
◦ Alternatively use gelled electrolyte: gives slightly higher specific energy, thinner

Future: Lithium-Sulphur, Lithium Ion with solid-electrolyte, Graphene

Supercapacitors, Redox-flow, Aluminium-graphite, solid-state batteries and
Hydrogen fuel cells

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 32

 Chemistry Lithium-air Lithium-metal Solid-state Lithium Lithium-sulfur Sodium-iron
Future Type Air cathode with lithium Lithium anode; graphite
Li-S
Lithium anode; polymer Lithium anode; sulfur
Na-ion
Carbon anode;
Batteries anode cathode separator cathode diverse cathodes
Voltage per cell 1.70–3.20V 3.60V 3.60V 2.10V 3.6V
Specific Energy 13kWh/kg theoretical) 300Wh/kg 300Wh/kg (est.) 500Wh/kg or less 90Wh/kg
https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/bu

Charging Unknown Rapid charge Rapid charge 0.2C (5h) Unknown

_218_summary_table_of_future_batteries

Discharging Low power; inferior when High power band Poor conductivity when High power Unknown
cold cold (2,500W/kg)
Cycle life 50 cycles in labs 2,500 100, prototypes 50, disputed 50 typical
Packaging Not defined Not defined Prismatic Not defined Not defined
Safety Unknown Needs improvement Needs improvement Protection circuit Safe; shipment by air
required possible
History Started in 1970s; renewed Produced in the 1980s Similar to Li-polymer New technology; R&D Ignored in the 1980s
interest in the 2000s. R&D by Moli Energy; caused that started in 1970 by Oxis Energy, Bosch in favor of lithium; has
by IBM MIT, UC, etc. safety recall and others. renewed interest
Failure modes Lithium peroxide film stops Dendrite growth causes Dendrite growth causes Sulfur degrades with Little research in this
elect movement with use. electric short with usage electric short; poor low cycling; unstable when area
Air-impurity cause damage temperature performan hot, poor conductivity
Applications Not defined; potential for EV, industrial and EES, wheeled mobility; Solar-powered Energy storage
EV portable uses also talk about EV airplane flight in
August 2008
Comments Borrowed from Good capacity, fast Similar to lithium-metal; May succeed Li-ion Low cost in par with
“breathing” zinc-air and charge and high power may be ready by 2020; due to lower cost and lead acid. Can be fully
fuel cell concept keep interest high EVs in 2025 higher capacity discharged

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 33

Other Lithium Batteries I
Lithium-air (Li-air)
Theoretical specific energy of 13kWh/kg, on par with gasoline: also other
metal-air (like Al-air) -- called breathing air batteries
◦ Even if we hit quarter: equivalent to gasoline because EV has higher efficiency
◦ Only 50 cycles today
Lithium-metal (Li-metal)
Has been demonstrated with a capacity of 300 Wh/kg. Decent cycle-life (2500
cycles) and rapid Charge.
◦ Challenges: uncontrolled lithium deposition causing dendrite growth that induces safety
hazards by penetrating the separator and producing an electrical short. A solution to
inhibit the growth of dendrite may be imminent. Also need other precautions including
non-flammable electrolytes, safer electrode materials and stronger separators.

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 34

Other Lithium Batteries II
Solid-state Lithium
Anode with pure lithium and solid polymer electrolyte or a ceramic separator.
High Energy Density
Challenges: problem of metallic filament (dendrite) formation even with dry
polymer and ceramic separators. Plus poor conductivity at cool temperatures,
difficulty to diagnose problems within the cell and low cycle count (100 cycles)
Lithium-sulfur (Li-S)
high specific energy of 550Wh/kg and specific power of 2,500W/kg, have good
cold temperature discharge. The battery is environmentally friendly; sulfur, the
main ingredient, is abundantly available. Reasonable costs
Challenges: Poor charging and cycle life

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 35

Other similar batteries
Sodium-ion (Na-ion)
Sodium-ion (inexpensive Sodium) lower-cost alternative to Li-ion, can
be completely discharged. Poor specific energy of 90Wh/kg, but low
cost. Development needed to improve the cycle count and solve large
volumetric expansion when fully charged
Lithium-manganese-iron-phosphate (LMFP)
Capacity 15% over LFP, specific energy 135Wh/kg and 5000 cycle life.
Inexpensive.

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 36

Alternative to Lithium Batteries
Flow- Battery: Long Life, High Capital Cost – may be considered for fixed
applications in countries where interest rate is low

Fuel-cell: requires Hydrogen delivery, Costs per km – requires further

technology work

Super-capacitors: very high-rate charging / discharging, expensive per Wh

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 37

 Chemistry Supercapacitor Flow Battery Fuel Cell
Type Double-layer capacitor. Stores energy Rechargeable; pump operated, Combining hydrogen and oxygen
Future by static charge as opposed to electrolyte stored in tank produces electricity
electrochemical reaction
Voltage per cell Limited at 2.30–2.75V 1.15–1.55V 0.6–0.8V
https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/bu
_217_summary_table_of_alternate_batteries

Specific Energy 5Wh/kg (typical) 40Wh/kg 40Wh/kg

Activation Instant sluggish ramp-up sluggish ramp-up
Charging 1–10s; simple charging, current stops Overnight charge Hydrogen feed through tank
when full
Discharging Very high power Low load current Low load current
Cycle life 1 million; 10–15 years 10,000 cycles; 20 years. 2,000–4,000h; stationary 40K hrs
Maintenance Low maintenance High High
Failure modes Exceeding voltage limits lowers High corrosion. Vanadium keeps Stack damages by freezing and
service life corrosion under control heat; capacity fade by cycling.
Packaging Mostly in cylindrical formats Large systems; 20kWh and up Large, also portable
Environment Broad temperature range. Non-toxic. Functions more like a refinery Must have correct moisture
than a battery content. Cannot freeze.
History GE experimented in 1956; Standard First patent in 1954. Current William Grove, developed in
Oil discovered double layer in 1966; types patented in 1986 1839; space program 1960s
NEC commercialized it in 1978
Applications Memory backup, generator start, Large energy storage system; Forklift, EV, UPS, portable usage
large MW systems. Flywheel compete economical with large size in military
Comments Expensive per Wh. Some argue to Capacity set by tank size; can be Clean but expensive; poor power
spend the money on a larger battery enlarged if so needed band
Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 38
To Sum Up
Li Ion batteries with its high Specific Energy, low-cost and decent cycle-life is
here to stay as a primary EV Battery for quite some time
◦ Currently it is NMC and NCA: will keep improving
◦ Early gains through Silica in Anode and Nickle rich Cathode

Versions of Lithium Ion Batteries may emerge over next five to seven years
◦ Should watch for Lithium-metal, Solid-state Lithium and Lithium Sulphur
◦ But the big gain could be Lithium Air if it can be cracked

Other batteries may be useful for stationary applications

◦ Unless Fuel cells have a breakthrough and become dominant for EVs

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 39

4.4 Li Ion Battery Cells

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 40

Li Ion Battery Cell construction
Every Cell (also called element) has Cylindrical cells: 18650 (18 mm
◦ Some Container: Cylindrical / Pouch / diameter and 65 mm length)
Prismatic ◦ solid body without terminals with capacity 2.2
◦ Cathode and Anode / 3.8 Ah at 3.7 Volts
◦ Separator between cathode and Anode ◦ Larger battery 26650 with solid body with
large threaded terminals now available
◦ Electrolyte in between Cathode and Anode
◦ 21700 defined by Tesla (discussed later)
◦ LiPF6 used as Electrolyte
◦ Terminals Higher energy-density than pouch and
prismatic
◦ But number of cycles are usually less
◦ Spot-welding enough to make a pack

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 41

Pouch Cells: soft, flat body, 90 to 95% Li-Ion (NMC) Battery voltage
packing efficiency: Laser / Ultrasonic ◦ 2.7V when SoC is 0% and 4.3V when SoC is
welded 100%; nominal voltage: 3.7V
◦ Cells available at 24 Ah, 44/50 Ah and higher
◦ Used in larger vehicles
◦ Used to cost higher than cylindrical cells
Prismatic Cells: semi-hard plastic case with
large threaded terminals
◦ Cells from 7 Ah, 15 Ah, 24 Ah, 30 Ah, 40 Ah,
44, 50 Ah
◦ Used in two-wheelers and three-wheelers
◦ Can be spot-welded, Laser-welded and
Ultrasonic welded

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 42

Cylindrical Batteries
18mm in diameter and 65mm the length. The
larger 26650 cell measures 26mm in diameter
◦ 18650 cells: Energy Cells started with 2.2Ah →
2.8Ah → 3.1Ah → 3.4Ah. Preparing for 3.9Ah
◦ 18650 volume of 16cm3 with capacity of around
3Ah (Capacity close to 11 Wh)

◦ 21700 volume of 24cm3 with capacity of 6Ah

◦ Doubling capacity with 50% additional volume
◦ 26650 diameter of 26mm: not as popular as 18650
◦ 32700 and 46800 (Tesla) being talked about
https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/types
_of_battery_cells

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 43

Prismatic Cells
Introduced in the early 1990s, today
satisfies the demand for thinner sizes

Improves space utilization and allows

flexible design

But more expensive to manufacture, less

efficient in thermal management. Allow for
some swelling.

Chapter 4.0 Fundamentals of Electric Vehicles: Technology & economics 44