CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

1.1 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which

the aircrafts are designed. These depend on many factors such as customer and
manufacturer demand, safety protocols, physical and economic constraints etc...
For some types of aircraft, the design process is regulated by national
airworthiness authorities. Among the fundamental elements of the design
process are the establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis, analysis,
construction, testing and evaluation.
Aircraft design is a compromise between many competing factors and
constraints and accounts for existing designs and market requirements to
produce the best aircraft. The design method to be followed from the start of the
project to the nominal end can be considered to fall into three main phases.
These phases are illustrated in Figure. In some industrial organizations, this
phase is referred to as the ‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary
design phase, a document is produced which contains a summary of the
technical and geometric details known about the baseline design. This forms the
initial draft of a document that will be subsequently revised to contain a
thorough description of the aircraft. This is known as the aircraft ‘Type
Specification’.

Figure 1.1 Design Methodology

1
1.2 DESIGN PROCESS

Figure 1.2 Design process

2
1.3 PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are
carried out in sequence. They are
• Conceptual design
• Preliminary design
• Detailed design

1.3.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

The design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements)for a
new airplane, or much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement
some pioneering, innovative new ideas and technology. In either case, there is a
rather concrete good towards which the designers are aiming. The first steps
towards achieving that goal constitute the conceptual design phase. Here, within
a certain somewhat fuzzy latitude, the overall shape, size, weight and
performance of the new design are determined.

During the conceptual design phase, the designer is influenced by such

qualitative as the increased structural loads imposed by a high horizontal tail
location through the fuselage, and the difficulties associated with cut-outs in the
wing structure if the landing gear are to be retracted into the wing rather than
the fuselage or engine nacelle.
1.3.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the
configuration layout (indeed, if major changes were demanded during this
phase, the conceptual design process have been actually flawed, to begin with.
It is in the preliminary design phase that serious structural and control system
analysis and design take place.

1.3.3 DETAIL DESIGN

The detail design phase is literally the nuts-and-bolts phase of airplane
design. The aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance and flight control
analysis have all been finished with the preliminary design phase. The airplane
is now simply a machine to be fabricated. The pressure design of each
individual rib, spar and section of skin now take place. The size of number and
location of fasteners are determined. At the end of this phase, the aircraft is
ready to be fabricated.

3
1.3.4 BLOCK ARRAY FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

Figure 1.3 Conceptual design

4
Figure 1.4 Aircraft design configuration

5
 CHAPTER 2

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AIRPLANES

The following types of aircraft are taken for the study

 HOMEBUILT PROPELLER DRIVEN
 SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
 TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
 AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES
 BUSINESS JETS
 REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE
 TRANSPORT JETS
 MILITARY TRAINERS
 FIGHTERS
 MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT AIRPLANES
 FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES
 SUPERSONIC CRUISE AIRPLANES
Among this one aircraft is chosen for the study on its specification and
performance

2.1 HOMEBUILT AIRCRAFT

Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are

constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These
aircraft may be constructed from "scratch," from plans, or from assembly kits.
Homebuilt aircraft are generally small, one to four- seat sports planes
which employ simple methods of construction. Fabric-covered wood or metal
frames and plywood are common in the aircraft structure. Fiberglass and other
composites as well as full aluminum construction techniques are also being
used.

2.2 SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT

Single engine propeller aircraft are well-suited for short missions under
300 km. They can easily access smaller airports with shorter runways,
increasing the number of airstrips they’re able to reach within their ranges. They
6
are also known as light aircrafts. They are mainly used for freight transport,
sightseeing, photography and other similar roles as well as personal use.
These aircrafts are nowadays used for training of pilots for the commercial
passenger aircrafts. Using these aircrafts these aircrafts they acquire their pilot
license
2.3 TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT

Causal observation of twin-engine propeller aircraft reveals that most

configurations consist of a forward wing with nacelle-mounted engines on each
side and a single tail empennage. However, about a third of the aircraft are of
various engine and airframe arrangements. The alternative ways in which a
twin- engine propeller-driven aircraft can be put together (excluding bi-planes
and helicopters.). Aircraft are arranged in nine categories, as much as possible,
with similar configuration traits. Each configuration category is identified with a
sample aircraft.

2.4 AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES

An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that was built for agricultural use
usually the aerial application of pesticides (crop-dusting) or fertilizer in these
roles they are referred to as "crop dusters" or "top dressers". Agricultural
aircraft are also used for hydroseeding. Agricultural aircraft are typically small,
simple, and rugged. Most have spraying systems attached to the trailing edges
of their wings, and pumps are usually driven by wind turbines.

2.5 BUSINESS JETS

A business jet, private jet or bizjet is a jet aircraft designed for

transporting small groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other
roles, such as evacuation of causalities or express parcel deliveries, and some
are used by public bodies, government officials or the armed forces.

2.6 REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE

A regional airliner or a feederliner is a small airliner that is designed to

fly up to 100 passengers on short-haul flights, usually feeding larger carriers'
airline hubs from small markets. This class of airliners are typically flown by
the regional airlines that are either contracted by or subsidiaries of the larger
airlines. Regional airliners are used for short trips between smaller towns or
from a larger
7
city to a smaller city. Federline, commuter, and local service are all alternative
terms for the same class of flight operations.

2.7 COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT AIRPLANE

An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passenger and air cargo. Such
aircraft are most often operated by airlines. An airliner is typically defined as an
airplane intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial
service. The largest of them are wide-body jets which are called also twin-aisle.
These are usually used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major
cities. A smaller, more common class of airliners is the narrow-body or single-
aisle used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their
wide-body counterparts.

2.8 MILITARY TRAINER

A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight

training of pilot and aircrews. The use of a dedicated trainer aircraft with
additional safety features—such as tandem flight controls, forgiving flight
characteristics and a simplified cockpit arrangement—allows pilots-in-training
to safely advance their real-time piloting, navigation and warfighting skills
without the danger of overextending their abilities alone in a fully featured
aircraft.

2.9 FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air

combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose
main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its
speed, maneuverability, and small size relative to other combat aircraft.

2.10 MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT AIRPLANES

Military transport aircraft or military cargo aircraft are typically fixed

wing and rotary wing cargo aircraft which are used to airlift troops, weapons
and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military
operations around the surface of the planet, usually outside the commercial
flight routes in uncontrolled airspace.

8
 Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used
for delivering airborne forces during World War II and towing military gliders.
Some military transport aircraft are tasked to perform multi-role duties such as
aerial refueling and, rescue missions, tactical, operational and strategic airlifts
onto unprepared runways, or those constructed by engineers.

2.11 FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES

A flying boat is a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land

on water, that usually has no type of landing gear to allow operation on land. It
differs from a floatplane as it uses a purpose-designed fuselage which can float,
granting the aircraft buoyancy. Flying boats may be stabilized by underwing
floats or by wing-like projections (called sponsons) from the fuselage. Their
advantage lay in using water instead of expensive land-based runways, making
them the basis for international airlines in the interwar period. They were also
commonly used for maritime patrol and air-sea rescue.

2.12 SUPER CRUISE AIRCRAFT

Super cruise is sustained supersonic flight of a supersonic aircraft with a

useful cargo, passenger, or weapons load performed efficiently, which typically
precludes the use of highly inefficient afterburners or "reheat". Many well-
known supersonic military aircraft not capable of super cruise must maintain
supersonic flight in short bursts typically with afterburners. Aircraft such as the
SR-71 Blackbird is designed to cruise at supersonic speed with afterburners
enabled.

9
 CHAPTER 3

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS AND

PERFORMANCE

CREW
A group of people who work on and operate an aircraft.

PASSENGERS

A traveler on a public or private conveyance other than the pilot and crew.

EMPTY WEIGHT

The empty weight of an aircraft is the weight of the aircraft without including
passengers, baggage, or fuel.

PAYLOAD

The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport – passengers, baggage,

freight etc.

TAKE OFF WEIGHT

It is the maximum weight at which the pilot is allowed to attempt to take off due
to structural or other limits.

LANDING WEIGHT

It is the maximum aircraft gross weight due to design or operational limitations

at which an aircraft is permitted to land.

WING LOADING

It is the total weight of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing.

10
WING AREA

It is the projected area of the wing planform and is bounded by the leading
trailing edges and the wing tips.

WING SPAN

The maximum distance between the two wing tips and id denoted by b.

THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

It is a dimensionless ratio of thrust to weight or a vehicle propelled by such an

engine that indicates the performance of the engine or vehicle.

WINGSWEEP BACK ANGLE

The angle at which a wing is either swept backward or occasionally forward from
its root.

ASPECT RATIO

It is the ratio of wing span to its mean chord. It is also equal to the square of the
wing span divided by the wing area.
Aspect ratio = b2/s

THRUST

It is the force exerted by the engines on the airframe to overcome drag and is
measured in Newton (N).

POWER

It is the rate at which work is done.

WET THRUST

It is the augmented thrust with the usage of afterburners or liquid injection.

CRUISE SPEED

The speed at which combustion engines have an optimum efficiency level for fuel
consumption and power output.

11
RATE OF ASCENT (CLIMB)

The rate of positive altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

RATE OF DESCENT (SINK)

The rate of negative altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

ABSOLUTE CEILING

It is the altitude where maximum rate of climb is zero is the highest altitude
achievable in steady, level flight.

SERVICE CEILING

It is the altitude where the maximum rate of climb is 100 ft/min and it’s
represented the practical upper limit for steady, level flight.

RANGE

It is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between take-off and landing, as
limited by fuel capacity in powered aircraft.

ENDURANCE

It is the maximum length of time that an aircraft can spend in cruising flight as
long as the fuel is available.

STALLING VELOCITY

It is the velocity below which an aircraft will descend, or ‘stall’, regardless of its
angle of attack.

TAKEOFF DISTANCE

It consists of two parts, the ground run and the distance from where the vehicle
leaves the ground until it reaches 50 ft or 15 m. The sum of these two distances
is considered the take-off distance.

LANDING DISTANCE
It is the distance required to bring the aircraft to a stop under ideal conditions,
assuming the aircraft crosses the runway threshold at a height of 50 ft, at the
correct speed

12
 CHAPTER 4

PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEETS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
It’s the collection of data of various airplanes to consolidate the data for the
airplane that I design. Around 10 aircraft with their design parameters are
compared.

4.2 AIRCRAFT FOR REFERENCE

 BOEING 717-200 HGW

 ANTONAV AN-10
 DOUGLAS DC-7
 AIRBUS A 318
 BOEING 737-500
 BOEING 737-300
 AIRBUS A319
 AIRBUS A220-300
 BOEING 377
 AIRBUS A320-l00

13
 CHAPTER 5

COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND

SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE
DESIGN

5.1 CONSOLIDATION OF DATA

Dimensions:

S. No AIRCRAFT NAME LENGTH HEIGHT WING WING

(m) (m) SPAN(m) AREA
(m^2)
1 BOEING 717-200 HGW 37.77 8.87 28.48 93
2 ANTONAV AN-10 34 9.8 38 121
3 DOUGLAS DC-7 34.21 9.65 38.86 152.1
4 AIRBUS A 318 31.44 12.56 34.1 122.4
5 BOEING 737-500 31 i i.1 28.9 91.04

6 BOEING 737-300 33.4 11.1 28.9 91.04

7 AIRBUS A319 33.84 11.76 35.8 122.4
8 AIRBUS A220-300 38.71 11.5 35.1 112.3
9 BOEING 377 33.63 11.66 43.05 164.3
10 AIRBUS A320-l00 37.57 11.76 35.8 124

Table 5.1

14
Weight Configuration:

S. No AIRCRAFT NAME MAXIMUM

EMPTY WEIGHT TAKEOFF WEIGHT
(kg) (kg)

1 BOEING 717-200 HGW 37.77 8.87

2 ANTONAV AN-10 34 9.8
3 DOUGLAS DC-7 34.21 9.65

4 AIRBUS A 318 31.44 12.56

5 BOEING 737-500 31 i i.1

6 BOEING 737-300 33.4 11.1

7 AIRBUS A319 33.84 11.76

8 AIRBUS A220-300 38.71 11.5

9 BOEING 377 33.63 11.66
10 AIRBUS A320-l00 37.57 11.76

Table 5.2

15
5.2 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION

5.2.1 MAX SPEED vs LENGTH

Graph 5.1 Max Speed Vs Length

Length – 15.6 m

16
5.2.2 MAX SPEED vs HEIGHT

Height – 4.6 m
Graph 5.3 Max Speed Vs Height

5.2.3 MAX SPEED vs WING AREA

Graph 5.4 Max Speed Vs Wing Area

Wing Area – 26.5 m

17
 5.2.4 MAX SPEED vs WING SPAN

Wing span – 14.8 m

Graph 5.5 Max Speed
Vs Wing Span

18
 5.1.1 MAX SPEED vs EMPTY WEIGHT

Graph 5.7 Max Speed Vs Empty Weight

Empty Weight – 5500 kg

MAX SPEED vs MAX TAKE OFF WEIGHT

MTOW (kg)

Graph 5.8 Max Speed Vs Max Take Off Weight

Max Take Off Weight – 7900 kg

19
5.1.2 MAX SPEED vs PAYLOAD WEIGHT

Graph 5.9 Max Speed Vs Payload Weight

Payload Weight – 880 Kg

20
5.1.3 MAX SPEED vs THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

Graph 5.10 Max Speed Vs Thrust to Weight Ratio

Thrust to Weight Ratio – 0.28

5.1.4 MAX SPEED vs RANGE

Graph 5.11 Max Speed Vs Range

Range – 3800 km
21
22
5.1.5 MAX SPEED vs SERVICE CEILING

Graph 5.13 Max Speed Vs Service Ceiling

Service Ceiling – 14400

23
5.2 DESIGN PARAMETERS FROM GRAPH

IMPERIAL
FLIGHT PARAMETERS SI UNIT VALUE VALUE
UNIT

LENGTH m 34.557 ft 113.37

HEIGHT m 10.976 ft 36.01

WING AREA m2 123.388 ft2 1328.137

WING SPAN m 35.424 ft 116.22

MTOW kg 60600 lb 133600.1

EMPTY WEIGHT kg 35593.7 lb 78470

PAYLOAD WEIGHT kg 15983.5 lb 28236.48

3
THRUST kn 122.69 lbf 27581

MAX. SPEED Km/hr 754.317 miles/ hr 468.71

SERVICE CEILING m 10160.1 km 33333.66

RANGE km 5484.2 km 5484.2

MAX.CRUISE Km/hr 754.317 miles/ hr 468.71

Table 5.3

24
 CHAPTER 6

WEIGHT ESTIMATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

To find the weight of the following parameters of an aircraft.

 Takeoff Weight (WTO)
 Fuel Weight (WF)
 Empty Weight (WE)

The following are the data which is obtained from the graph to proceed for the
Weight estimation.

 Max Speed =468.7 miles/hr (754.3 km/hr)

 Takeoff weight =133600.13 lbs (60600 kg)
 Service ceiling (S.C) = 6.313 miles (10160.1 m)
 Range = 3407.6 miles (5484 km)
 Takeoff Distance (T.D) = 0.447 miles (0.72 km)
 Landing Distance (L.D) = 0.646 miles (1.04 km)
 Payload = 28236.483 lbs (15983 kg)

RCR = R – [T.D + L.D + 2 x (S.C)]

Rcr = [5484 – (0.72 + 1.04 + (10.16))]

Where,
R – total range = 2199 km
T.D – Take off distance = 0.66098 km
L.D – Landing distance = 0.47481 km
Service ceiling = 9.659 km

Rcr = 3393.881 miles

25
6.2 MISSION PROFILE:

Fig 6.1 MISSION PROFILE

Description:

0-1 - Engine Start & Warm up 6-7 - Descent

1-2 - Taxing 7 - 8 - Landing, Taxi, Shutdown
2-3 - Take off
3-4 - Climb
4-5 - Cruise
5-6 - Loitering

26
6.3 MISSION FUEL FRACTION:

The following tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 will be used for getting the values for the specified aircraft types.

Table 6.1 Suggested Fuel Fraction for Several Mission Phases

27
Table 6.2 Suggested value for L/D, Cj, Cp, ηp for several mission
phases

28
Table 6.3 Regression line constant A & B

29
6.4 CALCULATION

Phase 1: Engine start and Warm-up

Begin weight is W0. End weight is W1 . The ratio 𝑊0 = 0.990
𝑊1

Phase 2: Taxi
Begin weight is W1. End weight is W2. The ratio 𝑊2 = 0.990
𝑊1

Phase 3: Take-off
Begin weight is W2. End weight is W3. The ratio
𝑊3

𝑊2
= 0.990

Phase 4: Climb
Begin weight is W3. End weight is W4. The ratio
𝑊4 = 0.970
𝑊3

Phase 5: Cruise
Begin weight is W4. End weight is W5. The amount of fuel used during cruise
can be found from Brequet’s range equation mentioned below.
Rcr = [ 𝑉 ]cr [𝐿]cr ln [𝑊4]
𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊5

Rcr = [ R – (T + L + (2 X service ceiling))] = 3393.881

Rcr = [ 𝑉 ]cr [𝐿]cr ln [𝑊4]

𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊5
860
5461.92 = [ ] [13] ln [𝑊4]
0.5 𝑊5
Where,

𝐶𝑗 = 0.4
V – speed (from graph) = 860 km/hr

𝐿
𝐷
= 13

𝑊
5
= 0.856
𝑊

30
Phase 6: Loitering
Begin weight is W5. End weight is W6. The ratio W6/W5 can be
estimate from the Brequet’s endurance equation which is mentioned
below.

Elt= [ 1 ]lt [𝐿]lt ln [𝑊5]

𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊6

0.16 = [ 1 ] [12] ln [𝑊5]

0.4 𝑊6

The mission profile assumes no range credit during loiter.

𝐶𝑗 = 0.4
𝐿
𝐷
= 14

𝑊
6
= 0.969
𝑊 ,,,

Phase 7: Descent
Begin Weight is W6. End Weight is W7. No credit is taken for range.
However, a penalty for fuel used during descents from high altitudes
needs to be assessed. Typically, the ratio

𝑊7
𝑊6 = 0.990

Phase 8: Landing, Taxi and Shutdown

Begin Weight is W14. End Weight is W15. Typically, the ratio

𝑊8
𝑊7
= 0.992

31
Mission Fuel – Fraction (𝑴𝒇𝒇)
The Overall mission fuel-fraction, Mff can now be computed as

𝑀𝑓𝑓 𝑊0 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊6 𝑊7 𝑊8
= 𝑊1 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊6 𝑊7

= (0.990) (0.990) (0.990) (0.970) (0.757) (0.686) (0.990)(0.99)

𝑴𝒇𝒇 = 0.765

Maximum Take-off Weight (WTO)

WTO =133600 lbs

Payload Weight (WPayload)

WPayload = 28236.483lbs

Crew Weight (WCrew)

WCrew = (90) * Number of crew

= (90) * 2

WCrew = 400 lbs

Weight of Fuel (Wf)

Wf = Wf used + Wres
Wf used:
Wf used = (1 - 𝑀𝑓𝑓) * WTO
Where, 𝑀𝑓𝑓 = 0.765
WTO=133600.13lb

Wf used = (1 - 0.479) * 60600

Wfused =313762.6 lbs

32
Weight of Fuel Reserve (Wres)

Wres = 10-15 % of fuel used

= 10 % of fuel used

Wres = 3137.63 lbs

Wf = Wfused + Wres
= 31376.3 + 3137.63

Wf = 34513.93 lbs

Weight of Trapped Fuel Oil (WTFO)

WTFO = 0.5 % of WTO

WTFO = 668 lbs

Weight of Operative Empty (WOE Tent)

WOE Tent = WTO - Wf – WPayload
=133600.13 –34513.93 – 28236.483

WOE Tent = 70849.717 lbs

Weight of Empty (WE Tent)

WE Tent = WOE Tent – WTFO – WCrew
=59860.01– 668 – 400
\
WE Tent = 69781.72 lbs

Weight of Actual (WE Actual)

WE Actual = inv log10 [ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10𝑊𝑇𝑂 − A
𝐵
]
A = 0.0833; B = 1.0383
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 133600.13 − 0.0833
= inv log10 [ 1.0383 ]

WE Actual = 71862.58 lbs

Difference Between WE Actual and WE Tent

WE Actual - WE Tent = 71862.58 – 69781.72

33
 WE Actual - WE Tent = 2080.86 lbs

Percentage of Error
% Error = [ 𝑊𝐸 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑊𝐸 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊𝐸 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
] * 100

71862.58−69781.72
=[ 71862.58 ] * 100

% Error = 2.89 %

RESULT

PARAMETERS SI UNIT (Kg) IMPERIAL UNIT (lbs)

Take-off Weight (WTO ) 60600 133600.13
Fuel Weight (WF ) 15655.25 34513.93
Empty Weight (WE ) 158429.87 71862.58

34
 CHAPTER 7
POWERPLANT
SELECTION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
An airplane, an object which is Airborne. It is the
multidisciplinary area where Aerodynamics, Structures, Propulsion,
control & stability place a major role in the formation of an aircraft.
Unlike automobile engines, these engines are Air-breathing engines
which use atmospheric air as the medium for airborne. There is a
different kind of engines equipped with an aircraft,

7.2 TYPES OF ENGINES

1. Piston engine 2. Turbofan

3. Turboprop 4. Turbojet
5. Ramjet 6. Scramjet

7.3 THRUST REQUIRED CALCULATION

𝑻𝑹
= )𝑪
𝑾𝟎
𝒂(𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙

Table 7.1
𝑻𝑹
= 𝒂(𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙)𝑪 𝒂 𝒄
𝑾𝟎
Jet trainer 0.488 0.728
Jet fighter (dogfighter) 0.648 0.594
Jet fighter (other) 0.514 0.141
Military cargo/ bomber 0.244 0.341
Jet transport 0.267 0.363

𝒂 =0.267 ;
From above table for Jet Transport,
c =0.363

35
From Result of Weight Estimation, 𝑾𝟎 = 1 3 3 6 0 0 . 1 3 𝒍𝒃𝒔

36
From Graph, 𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐09.53 𝒎/𝒔
𝑻@𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝑲

𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙
W.K.T,
𝑴𝒎 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝒂𝒙

=
𝟐09.53
𝟑𝟒𝟎

= 0.616

⇒
𝑻𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟕 × 𝟎. 616𝟎.𝟑𝟔𝟑
𝑾𝟎

⇒
𝑻𝑹 = 133.12 𝑲𝑵
𝑻⁄ CALCULATION:
𝑾
𝑻
𝑻𝑹 = 𝑾𝑻𝟎( )
𝑾

⇒
𝑻 =
𝑻𝑹
� 𝑾𝟎
�

=
𝟏33.12×𝟏𝟎𝟑
594486
⇒
𝑻
�
�

37
 𝑻
= 𝟎.
�
�𝟐24

The thrust produced should be 10% more than the required thrust.
Hence, thrust required is T= 146.43 KN
Therefore, Thrust required for single engine is 73.21 KN.

7.4 SELECTION OF ENGINE

Choice of the engine is a Turbofan for obvious reasons such as
higher operating fuel economy & efficiency for high payloads.

A list of engines with weight and thrust matching our requirements are
hosen and are tabulated below
Table 7.2 Comparison of different engines

Dry SFC Tota

Name of the Name of
S.N Engine Thrus (lb/ l
O Aircraft the type t hr- Thru
Engine
(KN) lbf) st
(KN)
RR R715-A1
BOEING
1 Turbofan 18.9 0. 82.3
717-200 5
HGW
CFM56-5B
AIRBU 0.44
2 Turbofan 18.32 106
S A 318 lb/hr-
lbf

CFM56-3C-1 0.5 lb/hr-

3 BOEING 737- Turbofan 18.2 89
500 lbf
BOEING 737-
CFM56- 1.09
4 300 Turbofan 16.7 98
3C-1 lb/hr-
lbf
CFM56-5B 0.5 lb/hr-
5 AIRBUS A319 Turbofan 16.11 110
lbf

38
7.5 DETAILS ABOUT THE ENGINE

The CFM56-3C-1 is a series of medium thrust turbofan engines designed

specifically for commercial passenger aircraft.

Figure 7.1 CFM56-3C-1

The CFM International CFM56 (U.S. military designation

F108) series is a Franco-American family of high-bypass turbofan
aircraft engines made by CFM International (CFMI), with a thrust
range of 18,500 to 34,000 lbf (82 to 150 kN).
CFMI is a 50–50 joint-owned company of Safran Aircraft
Engines (formerly known as Snecma) of France, and GE Aviation (GE)
of the United States. Both companies are responsible for producing
components and each has its own final assembly line.
GE produces the high-pressure compressor, combustor,
and high-pressure turbine, Safran manufactures the fan, gearbox,
exhaust and the low-pressure turbine, and some components are made
by Avio of Italy and Honeywell from the US. The engines are
assembled by GE in Evendale, Ohio, and by Safran in Villaroche,
France. The completed engines are marketed by CFMI. Despite initial
export restrictions, it is the most used turbofan aircraft engine in the
world, in four major variants.

39
7.6 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

PW545C ENGINE
 Thrust (kg) : 1792.6
 Specific Fuel Consumption
((kg/h)/kgm) : 0.199
 Bypass Ratio : 4.12
 Overall Pressure Ratio :12.5
 Overall Length (m) : 1.74
 Approximate Fan Diameter (m) :0.69

7.7 CONCLUSION

The preferable choice of engine, from the above, would be CFM56-3C-1

engine is selected and it gives 89 KN of thrust. It is a Twin turbofan engine
equipped and also it meets our thrust required calculation 146.43 KN which
also suits our demand of weight and power.

40
 CHAPTER 8

WING, AIRFOIL & TAIL SELECTION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter explain the selection of wing, types of wing and

calculation of wing design parameter

8.1.1 WING SELECTION

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary

component of the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its
lifting capabilities are in general, a function of the thickness of the airfoil
section that is used in the wing structure. The first step towards designing the
wing is the thickness estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn, depends
on the critical Mach number of the airfoil or rather, the drag divergence
Mach number corresponding to the wing section.

8.1.2 TYPES OF WINGS

Wings are differentiated from there wing configuration by the following
 Swept back wing
 Delta wing
 Tapered wing
 Based on the aspect ratio and based upon position

Figure 8.1 Wing types

41
8.1.3 THE POSITION OF WING
The location of the wing in the fuselage (along with the vertical axis)
is very important. Each configuration (Low, High and mid) has its own
advantages but in this design, the Low-wing offers significant advantages
such as
• Uninterrupted Passenger’s cabin.
• Placement of Landing gear in the wing structure itself.
• Location of the engine on a low-wing makes Engine-overhaul easier.
• Permits usage of the Wing carries through the box which alone can
admit the amount of fuel that we require to carry.
• Landing gear usually becomes high in such wing configurations and
therefore, provides greater ground clearance and reduces the amount of
fuselage upsweep that is to be provided.
• Low wing affects the flow over the horizontal tail to a minimum extent.
• The low-wing requires that some amount of dihedral angle is provided
for lateral stability. As of now, the dihedral angle is assumed to be 5
degrees, but it may be subject to change in the stability analysis.
8.1.4 WING GEOMETRY DESIGN

• The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the

Wing loading (W/S), Aspect Ratio (b2/S), Taper ratio (λ) and the
Sweepback angle at quarter chord (Λqc).

• The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is

used to find the Wing Area S (from W/S). The value of S also enables us
to calculate the Wingspan b (using the Aspect ratio). The root chord can
now be found using the equation.

Croot
The tip chord is given
by,

𝐂𝐭𝐢𝐩 = 𝜆 ∗ 𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭
42
 • Wing planform

Figure 8.2 wing planform

the shape of the wing as viewed from directly above - deals with airflow in
three dimensions and is very important to understanding wing performance
and airplane flight characteristics. Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback
are factors in planform design that are very important to the overall
aerodynamic characteristic of a wing

8.2 WING DESIGN CALCULATION

8.2.1 ASPECT RATIO (A.R)

𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛=
A.R 2
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 10.17 (From Graph 5.1)

Wing span, b = √𝐴. 𝑅 ∗ 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = √10.17 ∗ 123.39

b= 35.42 m
Where,
Wing Area, S = 123.39 m2

43
8.2.2 ROOT CHORD (CR)
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 35.42
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 10.17
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
C R= =

CR = 3.48 m

8.2.3 TAPER RATIO (𝝀)

𝜆 = 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑
𝑇𝑖𝑝 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 (𝐶𝑡)
(𝐶𝑅)

𝜆 = 0.2
Where,
Taper ratio,
0.2 = Ct
3.48

Ct = 0.69 m

8.2.4 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD – MAC (𝑪̂ )

MAC, 𝐶̂ =
x CR x ( 1+1+𝜆
𝜆+𝜆 2
2
3
)
Where

𝜆 = 0.2
, CR = 3.48 m

MAC, 𝑪̂ = 2.39
m

44
8.2.5 VOLUME OF FUEL WEIGHT

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓
Volume of fuel weight =
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
15655.25
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 801
Volume of fuel weight = 19.54 m3
Where,
Weight of fuel =15655.25 kg
Density of fuel = 801 kg/m3

8.2.6 THICKNESS OF ROOT CHORD (CR) AND TIP CHORD (Ct)

x 𝐶̂ 2 x 0.375 x b
𝑡
𝑐
20 % of Volume of fuel weight =
Where

𝐶̂ = 2.39 m
, 20 % of Volume of fuel weight = 0.3448 m3

𝒕
b = 35.42 m
�
= 0.029
�
Thickness of Root chord (TR): TR = 0.029 x CR
= 0.029 x 3.48

TR = 0.1 m

Thickness of Tip chord (Tt): Tt = 0.029 x Ct

= 0.029 x 0.69

Tt = 0.022 m

Table 8.1 Wing design result

S.NO DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS VALUES

1 Wing Area S (m2) 123.39
2 Aspect Ratio 10.17
3 Span b (m) 35.42
4 Taper ratio (λ) 0.69
5 Root Chord (m) 3.48
6 Tip chord (m) 0.022
7 Mean chord (m) 2.39

45
8.3 AIRFOIL SELECTION

8.3.1 AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

The airfoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the airplane. The
airfoil affects the cruise speed, landing distance and take off distance, stall
speed and handling qualities and aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of
flight.

Airfoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,

design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio,
lift curve slope, characteristic
curves.

The following are the airfoil

geometry and definition:

Chord line: It is the straight

line connecting leading edge
(LE) and trailing edge (TE).

Chord (c): It is the length of

chord line. Figure 8.3 Airfoil

Thickness (t): measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it (subsonic

typically 12%).

Camber (d): It is the curvature of the section, perpendicular distance of

section mid-points from chord line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).

The angle of attack (α): It is the angular difference between the chord line and
airflow direction.

The following are airfoil categories:

1. Early it was based on trial & error.

2. NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930’s.
3. NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for
increased CLmax.

46
4. NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of
laminar flow.
5. Modern it is mainly based on the need for improved aerodynamic
characteristics at speeds just below the speed of sound.

NACA 4 Digit

 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).

 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).

 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 5 Digit

 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.

 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord
from LE).
 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord)

47
NACA 6 Digit

 1st digit: identifies the series type.

 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).

 3rd digit: indicates an acceptable range of CL above/below design

value for satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).

 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.

 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)

From above calculations the one chosen is the NACA 2410 which
have the suitable lift coefficient for the current design.
Hence,

48
8.3.2 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY SELECTION
8.3.2.1 NACA 2410:

Figure 8.4 Geometry of NACA 2410 Airfoil

8.3.3 Performance curves for the chosen airfoil NACA 4415

Graph 8.1 cl v/s cd

Graph 8.2 cl vs alpha

49
Graph 8.3 cl/cd vs alpha
Graph 8.4 cd vs alpha

Graph 8.5 cm vs alpha

50
 8.4 HIGH LIFTING DEVICES

In aircraft design and aerospace engineering, a high-lift device is a

component or mechanism on an aircraft's wing that increases the amount of
lift produced by the wing. The device may be a fixed component or a
movable mechanism which is deployed when required. Common movable
high-lift devices include wing flaps and slats. Fixed devices include leading-
edge root extensions and boundary layer control systems, which are less
commonly used.
8.4.1 TYPES OF DEVICES
Flaps
• Slots & Slats
• Boundary layer control and blown flaps • Leading edge root extension.

For the current design, the slotted flap is selected. ∆ of the slotted flap for
different configurations is given in the table below:

Table 8.2 High lift device lift coefficient

S.No HIGH LIFT DEVICE ∆𝑪𝑳

1 Plain flap 0.7 - 0.9
2 Split flap 0.7 - 0.9
3 Fowler flap 1 - 1.3
4 Slotted flap 1.3 Cf/C
5 Double slotted flap 1.6 Cf/C
6 Triple slotted flap 1.9 Cf/C
7 Leading edge flap 0.2 - 0.3
8 Leading edge slat 0.3 - 0.4
9 kruger flap 0.3 - 0.4

Note: Cf/C – Flap chord

51
CALCULATIONS

CLmax Required (takeoff) = 1.51+ 1.4 = 2.91

CLmax Required (landing) = 1.51 + 1.8 = 3.31

Figure 8.5 Types of flaps

52
8.5 TAIL SELECTION

8.5.1 INTRODUCTION
The tail of an aero plane is called by various names, such as
“empennage” and “stabilizer.” The preferred term is “stabilizer,”
because it is at least partially descriptive of the component’s function.
However, the stabilizer provides not only stability but also some of the
airplane’s control. The tail of an airplane is designed to provide both
stability and control of the airplane in pitch and yaw. There are many
different forms an aircraft tail can take in meeting these dual
requirements of stability and control. Most tail designs have a
horizontal winglike structure and one or more vertical or near-vertical
structures. Whenever practical, these structures are identified as the
horizontal and vertical stabilizers, although some designs do not
conveniently fit such a description. The many types of airplane tail
design include, but are by no means limited to, the conventional, T-
tail, cruciform-tail, dual- tail, triple-tail, V-tail, inverted V-tail,
inverted Y-tail, twin-tail, boom- tail, high boom-tail, and multiple-
plane tail designs.

8.5.2 CONVENTIONAL TAIL DESIGN

The conventional tail design is the most common form. It has
one vertical stabilizer placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage
and one horizontal stabilizer divided into two parts, one on each side
of the vertical stabilizer. For many airplanes, the conventional
arrangement provides adequate stability and control with the lowest
structural weight. About three-quarters of the airplanes in operation
today, including the Airbus A300, the Boeing 777 and 747, and the
Beech Bonanza A-36, use this arrangement.

8.5.3 T-TAIL DESIGN

In the T-tail design, a common variation of the conventional tail,
the horizontal stabilizer is positioned at the top of the vertical
stabilizer. The horizontal stabilizer is then above the propeller flow, or
prop wash, and the wing wake. Because the horizontal stabilizer is
more efficient, it can, therefore, be made both smaller and lighter. The
placement of the horizontal stabilizer on top of the vertical stabilizer
can also make the vertical stabilizer more aerodynamically efficient.
53
By making the

54
vertical stabilizer more effective, its size may be reduced. However,
the horizontal stabilizer in the T-tail layout imposes a bending and
twisting load on the vertical stabilizer, requiring a stronger, and
therefore, a heavier, structure. These loads are avoided in the
conventional design. There is also the possibility that at the high pitch
angle usually associated with landing the airplane, the horizontal
stabilizer of the tail will be immersed in the slower and more turbulent
flow of the wing wake.

8.5.4 DUAL-TAIL DESIGN

The dual-Tail design, in which the two vertical stabilizers are
placed at the ends of the horizontal stabilizers, was at one time fairly
common on large flying boats and twin-engine propeller-driven
bombers such as the North American-25. In some cases, this
arrangement is attractive, because it places the vertical stabilizers in
the prop wash of wing-mounted propellers. The result is the
maintenance of good directional control during low-speed operations.
The positioning of the two vertical stabilizers at the ends of the
horizontal stabilizers allows for a smaller, lighter, and more
aerodynamically efficient horizontal stabilizer. However, the overall
weight of a plane with a dual- tail design is greater than that of a plane
with the single conventional- tail design. The dual tail is part of the
design of the Republic Fairchild A-10 ground-attack airplane, in which
the plane’s two jet engines are mounted to the rear of the fuselage.

When this airplane is viewed from

55
Figure 8.6 types of tail

56
 the rear and slightly to either side, the engine exhausts, blocked
by the vertical stabilizer, are not easily visible.

8.5.5 TRIPLE-TAIL DESIGN

The triple-tail design, with two vertical stabilizers placed at the
ends of the horizontal stabilizers and one mounted on the fuselage, is
attractive when the height of the vertical stabilizer must meet certain
restrictions, such as hangar-door height. Certainly, this was the
important consideration in the design of the Lockheed Constellation,
one of the most significant passenger airplanes of the late 1940′s.
Another well-known example of the triple-tail design is the Grumman
E-2 Hawkeye.

8.5.6 V-TAIL DESIGN

The V-Tail, sometimes called the “butterfly” tail, has had
limited application in airplane design, the most significant of which
has been by the Beech Company in the Beech-craft Bonanza V-35.
Clearly, the usual definition of horizontal and vertical stabilizers has
no application to the V tail. The intended advantage of the V-tail
design is that two surfaces might serve the same function as the three
required in the conventional tail and its variants. Removal of one
surface then would reduce the drag of the tail surfaces as well as the
weight of the tail region. However, wind tunnel studies by the National
Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) have shown that for the
V tail to achieve the same degree of stability as a conventional tail, the
area of the V tail would have to be about the same size as that of the
conventional tail.

8.5.7 INVERTED Y-TAIL DESIGN

The inverted Y tail is actually a conventional tail with a noticeable
droop to the horizontal stabilizers. In other words, the outer ends of the
horizontal stabilizers are lower than the ends attached to the fuselage.
The F-4 Phantom, originally a mainstay of the McDonnell Company,
used the inverted Y tail to keep the horizontal surfaces out of the wing
wake at high angles of attack. It is interesting to note that the tips of
the horizontal stabilizers on the first McDonnell Navy fighter, the F-
2H Banshee, were bent decidedly upward.

57
8.5.8 TWIN-TAIL DESIGN
The twin tail is a feature of various air superiority fighters used by both
the U.S. Navy (the F-14 Tomcat) and the U.S Marine Corps (the F/A-18
Hornet). Although both the F-14 and F/A-18 designs have a superficial
resemblance, they also have important differences. The tilt angle of the
vertical stabilizer of the F14 is more pronounced than that of the F-18, so
much so that it approaches that of the V tail on the Beech Model V-35
Bonanza. With two vertical stabilizers, the twin tail is more effective
than the conventional single tail of the same height.

8.5.9 BOOM-TAIL DESIGN

Boom tails are used when an aircraft’s fuselage does not extend
entirely back to the horizontal stabilizer. In both the Lockheed P-38
Lightning fighter of World War II and the Fairchild C-119 cargo
plane, engines were mounted on the booms. In the case of the C-119,
the twin boom allowed easy access to the rear of the fuselage for
loading and removing cargo. The twin boom has also been used for an
airplane with engines mounted in the fuselage, with one engine,
known as the tractor, in the nose of the airplane and one engine,
known as the pusher, in the rear of the airplane. Because the thrust of
both engines is along the centerline of the airplane, it is much easier in
this arrangement to compensate for the loss of one engine than it is in
the wing-mounted engine installation. Both the Cessna Sky master and
the new Adam 309 have fuselage-mounted engines. In the case of the
Adam 309, the horizontal stabilizer is raised to avoid propeller wake
from the pusher, or rear-mounted, engine.

CONCLUSION

The airfoil which I have selected for root, mean, tip chords are
all with 11% thickness to chord ratio. The Double slotted flaps taken
for high lifting device, will provide maneuverability for the fighter.
In my Design Project aircraft are equipped with cruciform Tail
Design. As mentioned above the cruciform tail design will give better
stability performance to the aircraft.

58
 CHAPTER 9

FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION

9.1 FUSELAGE SELECTION

The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It

provides space for personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the
accessories. The power plant, wings, stabilizers, and landing gear are
attached to it.

Figure 9.1 commercial passenger aircraft

There are two general types of fuselage construction—welded

steel truss and monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in
smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some helicopters.

The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin,

or covering, to carry various loads. The monocoque design may be
divided into three classes—monocoque, semi-monocoque, and
reinforced shell.

 The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame

assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage.
However, the skin

59
 carries the primary stresses. Since no bracing members are
present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage
rigid.
 Semi-monocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight
problem of monocoque construction. In addition to having
formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semi-monocoque
construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members.

 The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete

framework of structural members. Different portions of the same
fuselage may belong to any one of the three classes. Most are
considered to be of semi monocoque-type construction.

 The semi-monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of

aluminum alloy, although steel and titanium are found in high-
temperature areas. Primary bending loads are taken by the
longerons, which usually extend across several points of support.
The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members
known as stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight
than longerons.

The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads,

frames, and formers. The heavier vertical members are located at
intervals to allow for concentrated loads. These members are also
found at points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the
wings and stabilizers. s

The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as
fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape
and for attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons hold the
bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the stringers.
All of these joins together to form a rigid fuselage framework.
Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from
bending the fuselage.

There are a number of advantages in using the semi-monocoque fuselage.

 The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design
and construction of a streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength
and rigidity of the structure.

60
 The main advantage of the semi-monocoque construction is that
it depends on many structural members for strength and rigidity.
Because of its stressed skin construction, a semi-monocoque fuselage
can withstand damage and still be strong enough to hold together.

Figure 9.2 Semi monocoque fuselage construction

Points on the fuselage are located by station numbers. Station 0 is

usually located at or near the nose of the aircraft. The other stations are
located at measured distances (in inches) aft of station 0. A typical
station diagram is shown. On this particular aircraft, fuselage station
(FS) 0 is located 93.0 inches forward of the nose.

9.2 LANDING GEAR

In aviation, the undercarriage or landing gear is the structure

(usually wheels) that supports an aircraft and allows it to move across
the surface of the earth when it is not in flying. So, more importance is
to be given as it carries the entire load on the ground.

61
 Figure 9.3 landing gear

9.2.1 OVERVIEW
The design and positioning of the landing gear are determined
by the unique characteristics associated with each aircraft, i.e.,
geometry, weight, and mission requirements. Given the weight and
CG range of the aircraft, suitable configurations are identified and
reviewed to determine how well they match the airframe structure,
flotation, and operational requirements.

The essential features, e.g., the number and size of tires and
wheels, brakes, and shock absorption mechanism, must be selected in
accordance with industry and federal standards discussed in the
following chapters before an aircraft design progress past the concept
formulation phase, after which it is often very difficult and expensive
to change the design.
The purpose of Landing Gears is to move the aircraft on the
ground. After take-off, the landing gear is retracted, before landing it
is extended and locked into position.

62
 Liebherr provides a system architecture for gear actuation
control, steering control, wheel and brake integration and position and
status control, as well as system integration, series production and of
course product support.

Figure 9.4 landing gear sketch

Liebherr acquired knowledge and experience based on the

realization of different landing gear programs. The integration of
various technologies and use of new material for individual landing
gear concepts lead to competitive products:
• Landing Gear Systems
• Nose Landing Gear Subsystem
• Main Landing Gear Subsystem
• Brake and Brake Control Subsystem
• Research and Development Technology

63
9.2.2 LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENTS
Landing Gear Arrangement Three basic arrangements of the landing gear
are used:
• Tail wheel type landing gear (also known as
conventional gear)
• Tandem landing gear
• Tricycle-type landing gear.

9.2.3 TAIL WHEEL-TYPE LANDING GEAR

Tail wheel-type landing gear is also known as conventional gear
because many early aircraft use this type of arrangement. The main
gear is located forward of the center of gravity, causing the tail to
require support from a third wheel assembly. A few early aircraft
designs use a skid rather than a tail wheel. This helps slow the aircraft
upon landing and provides directional stability. The resulting angle of
the aircraft fuselage, when fitted with conventional gear, allows the
use of a long propeller that compensates for older, underpowered
engine design. The increased clearance of the forward fuselage offered
by tail wheel type landing gear is also advantageous when operating in
and out of non- paved runways. Today, aircraft are manufactured with
conventional gear for this reason and for the weight savings
accompanying the relatively light tail wheel assembly.

9.2.4 TANDEM LANDING GEAR

Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear. As the
name implies, this type of landing gear has the main gear and tail gear
aligned on the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Sailplanes commonly
use tandem gear, although many only have one actual gear forward on
the fuselage with a skid under the tail. A few military bombers, such as
the B-47 and the B-52, have tandem gear, as does the U2 spy plane.
The VTOL Harrier has tandem gear but uses small outrigger gear
under the wings for support. Generally, placing the gear only under the
fuselage facilitates the use of very flexible wings.

64
9.2.5 TRICYCLE-TYPE LANDING GEAR
The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the
tricycle- type landing gear. It is comprised of the main gear and nose
gear. Tricycle- type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft with
the following benefits:

9.2.5.1 Allows more forceful application of the brakes without

nosing over when braking, which enables higher landing
speeds.
9.2.5.2 Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially
during landing and ground manoeuvring.
9.2.5.3 Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft
centre of gravity is forward of the main gear, forces acting
on the centre of gravity tend to keep the aircraft moving
forward rather than looping, such as with a tailwheel-type
landing gear.

9.2.6 STEERING
The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled landing
gear varies by aircraft, but there are several types of steering.

9.2.6.1 RUDDER STEERING

9.2.6.2 DIRECT STEERING
9.2.6.3 TILLER STEERING
9.2.7 CONFIGURATION SELECTION
The nose wheel tricycle undercarriage has long been the
preferred configuration for passenger transports. It leads to a nearly
level fuselage and consequently the cabin floor when the aircraft is on
the ground. The most attractive feature of this type of undercarriages is
the improved stability during braking and ground manoeuvres. Under
normal landing attitude, the relative location of the main assembly to
the aircraft CG produces a nose-down pitching moment upon
touchdown.

65
 Figure 9.5 Landing gear schematic diagram

This moment helps to reduce the angle of attack of the aircraft

and thus the lift generated by the wing. In addition, the braking forces,
which act behind the aircraft CG, have a stabilizing effect and thus
enable the pilot to make full use of the brakes. These factors all
contribute to a shorter landing field length requirement.
The primary drawback of the nose wheel tricycle configuration is
the restriction placed upon the location where the main landing gear can
be attached. With the steady increase in the aircraft Takeoff weight, the
number of main assembly struts has grown from two to four to
accommodate the number of tires required to distribute the weight over a
greater area.

66
9.2.8 LANDING GEAR DISPOSITION
The positioning of the landing gear is based primarily on
stability considerations during taxiing, lift-off and touchdown, i.e., the
aircraft should be in no danger of turning over on its side once it is on
the ground.

Compliance with this requirement can be determined by examining the

Takeoff/landing performance characteristics and the relationships
between the locations of the landing gear and the aircraft CG.

9.2.9 STABILITY AT TOUCHDOWN AND DURING TAXING

Static stability of an aircraft at touchdown and during taxiing
can be determined by examining the location of the applied forces and
the triangle formed by connecting the attachment locations of the nose
and main assemblies.

Whenever the resultant of air and mass forces intersects the

ground at a point outside this triangle, the ground will not be able to
exert a reaction force which prevents the aircraft from falling over. As
a result, the aircraft will can’t over about the side of the triangle that is
closest to the resultant force/ground intersect.

9.2.10 BRAKING AND STEERING QUALITIES

The nose assembly is located as far forward as possible to
maximize the flotation and stability characteristics of the aircraft.
However, a proper balance in terms of load distribution between the
nose and main assembly must be maintained.

When the load on the nose wheel is less than about eight
percent of the maximum Takeoff weight (MTOW), controllability on
the ground will become marginal, particularly in cross-wind 21
conditions. This value also allows for fuselage length increase with
aircraft growth.

CONCLUSION

Semi-monocoque and Tri-cycle type landing gear has been selected for
my commercial passenger aircraft

67
 CHAPTER 10

LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION

10.1 LIFT ESTIMATION

Component of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft perpendicular

to the flight direction.

Figure 10.1 lift representation

10.1.1 LIFT COEFFICIENT (CL)

 Amount of lift generated depends on:

– Planform area (S), air density (𝜌), flight speed (V), lift

𝐿 = 1 𝜌𝑉2𝑆𝐶
coefficient(CL)

2
𝑠 𝐿

 CL is a measure of lifting effectiveness and mainly depends upon:

– Section shape, planform geometry, the angle of attack
(𝛼), compressibility effects
(Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

68
 10.1.2 GENERATION OF LIFT

 Aerodynamic force arises from two natural sources:

– Variable pressure distribution.

– Shear stress distribution.
 Shear stress primarily contributes to overall drag force on aircraft.
 Lift mainly due to pressure distribution, especially on main lifting
surfaces, i.e., wing.
 Require (relatively) low pressure on upper surface and higher
pressure on the lower surface.
 Any shape can be made to produce lift if either cambered or
inclined to flow direction.
 Classical airfoil section is optimum for high subsonic lift/drag ratio.

1
10.2.1 LIFT AT TAKE-OFF
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉2𝑆𝐶
2
𝑠 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3

Vstall = stalling speed = 69.99 m/s
V = 0.7*1.3*Vstall = 63.69 m/s
2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V =√
𝜌𝑠𝐶𝐿

63.69 = √
2 𝑋 60066.63
1.225 𝑋 20.41𝑋 𝐶𝑙

s = wing area = 20.41 m2

CLmax = coefficient of lift = 1.186
1
𝐿= X 1.225 X (63.69)2 X 20.41 X 1.186
2
L = 60141.780
N

69
 10.2.2 LIFT AT CRUISE

1
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉2 𝑆𝐶
2 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

ρ = Density at 14400 m = 0.622 Kg/m3

V = Vcruise = cruising speed = 209.53 m/s
s = wing area = 20.41 m2
2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V=√
𝜌𝑠𝐶𝐿

233.3 = √
2 𝑋 60066.63
0.622 𝑋 20.41 𝑋 𝐶𝑙

CLmax
Cruising Lift Coefficient = 0.086

1
𝐿= X 0.622 X (233.3)2 X 20.41 X 0.088
2
L = 30402.93
N

10.2.3 LIFT AT LANDING

1
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉2𝑆𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
𝑠

ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3

Vstall = stalling speed = 69.99 m/s

V = 0.7*1.2*Vstall = 58.79m/s
s = wing area = 20.41 m2
2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V=√
𝜌𝑠𝐶𝐿

58.79 = √
2 𝑋 60060.63
1.225 𝑋 20.41 𝑋 𝐶𝑙

CLmax = Maximum coefficient of lift = 1.390

70
 1
𝐿=
2 X 1.225 X (58.79)2 X 20.41 X 1.309
L = 60057.99 N

10.3 DRAG ESTIMATION

DRAG

• Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force

which is parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).
• It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
• It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while the
lift is the desired component.

10.3.1 DRAG COEFFICIENT (CD)

• Amount of drag generated depends on:

1.Planform area (S), air density (𝜌), flight speed (V),
drag coefficient (CD)
2.CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly
depends upon:
i. Section shape, planform geometry, the angle of attack,
compressibility effects
(Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

10.3.2 DRAG COMPONENTS

• SKIN FRICTION

1.Due to shear stresses produced in the boundary layer.

2.Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of
boundary layers.

71
 Figure 10.2 skin friction drags

• FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG

1. Due to static pressure distribution around the body
- component resolved in direction of motion.

2. Sometimes considered separately as forebody and

rear (base) drag components.

Figure 10.3 form drag

WAVE DRAG
1. Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and
supersonic speeds.

2. The result of both direct shock losses and the

influence of shock waves on the boundary layer.

72
 Figure 10.4 wave drag

Figure 10.5 Typical streamlining effect

73
 16ℎ
( 𝑏 )2
∅=
1+
16ℎ
( )2
h = service ceiling = 16500 m 𝑏

16 𝑋 16500 2
( 11.07 )
b = Wing span = 11.07 m

∅=
16 𝑋 16500 2
1+( 11.07 )

∅ = 0.99

10.4.1 DRAG AT TAKE-OFF

1
∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉2𝑆[𝐶𝐷 ]
+ 𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)
2
𝑂

ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3

Vstall = stalling speed = 69.99 m/s
V = 0.7*1.3*Vstall = 63.69 m/s
s = wing area = 20.41 m2
CLmax = coefficient of lift = 1.186
CDO = 0.003
∅ = 0.99
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.8

1 0.99𝑋1.186^2
AR = Aspect Ratio = 8.25
𝐷= 𝑋 1.225 𝑋(63.69) 2
𝑋 20.41 [0.003 + ]
𝜋 𝑋 0.8(8.25)
2
D = 10.19266 N

10.4.2 DRAG AT CRUISE

1
∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 ]
2 𝜋𝑒(𝐴𝑅)
𝑆[𝐶𝐷𝑂 +
2

74
 ρ = Density at max altitude = 0.622 Kg/m3
Vcruise = cruising speed = 233.3 m/s
s = wing area = 20.41 m2
CL = cruising lift coefficient = 0.088
CDO = 0.003
∅ = 0.99
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.8
AR = Aspect Ratio = 8.25

1 0.99 𝑋 0.0882
𝐷 = 𝑋 0.622 𝑋(233.3)2𝑋 ]
𝜋 𝑋 0.8(8.25)
20.41[0.003 +
2
D = 2418.415 N

10.4.3 DRAG AT LANDING

1 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉2𝑆[𝐶𝐷 ]
2 𝜋𝑒 ( 𝐴𝑅 )
𝑂 +

ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3

Vstall = stalling speed = 69.99 m/s
V = 0.7*1.2*Vstall = 58.79 m/s
s = wing area = 20.41 m2
CLmax
Maximum coefficient of lift = 1.390

CDO = 0.003
∅ = 0.99
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.8
AR = Aspect Ratio = 8.25

1 0.99 𝑋 1.3902
𝐷 = 𝑋 1.225 𝑋(58.79)2𝑋 20.41 ]
𝜋 𝑋 0.8(8.25)
[0.003 +
2
75
 D = 4077.66957 N

RESULT

CONDITION LIFT (N) DRAG (N)

TAKE OFF 60141.780 10.19266

CRUISE 30402.93 2418.4154

LANDING 60057.99 4077.66957

76
 CHAPTER 11

THREE VIEWS OF COMMERCIAL PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

Figure 11.1 Side View OF COMMERCIAL PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

Figure 11.2 Top View of COMMERCIAL PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

Figure 11.3 Front View of COMMERCIAL PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

77
Figure 11.4 Isometric View of COMMERCIAL PASSENGER
AIRCRAFT

78
 CHAPTER 12
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

WEIGHT

PARAMETERS SI UNIT (Kg) IMPERIAL UNIT (kg)

Take-off Weight (WTO) 6123 13498.9
Fuel Weight (WF) 1381.3 3045.46
Empty Weight (WE) 3367.83 7423.81

WING TYPE

Swept back wing with dihedral monoplane configuration mounted as a low

wing.

ENGINE TYPE

 CFM56-3C-1 engine is selected and it gives 89 KN of thrust.

 It is turbofan engines equipped with 2 engines
 It meets our thrust required calculation 146.43 KN

AIRFOIL CHOSEN

 The chosen airfoil is - NACA 2410

FUSELAGE TYPE

A semi-monocoque fuselage has been constructed.

EMPENNAGE TYPE

Conventional tail plane configuration is mounted.

79
LANDING GEAR

Retractable Tri-cyclic landing gears is constructed.

LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION

CONDITION LIFT (N) DRAG (N)

TAKE OFF 60141.780 10.19266

CRUISE 30402.93 2418.4154

LANDING 60057.99 4077.66957

80
DISCUSSION
The Takeoff Weight estimated as 1623 Kg which most efficient for
passenger aircraft. Monoplane design was selected since it reduces weight
of aircraft and more lift is generated compared to other wing configuration.
Swept back wing design configuration was selected since it reduces drag,
make aircraft more stable and produce more lift distribution. Low wing
configuration was selected to carry passenger with less disturbance of
aircraft. Conventional tail design was selected. CFM56-3C-1 engine is
selected and it gives 89 KN of thrust mounted under wing.
The lift at takeoff was evaluated as 60141.780 N which is most
required for takeoff among other conditions such as cruise and landing.
Drag at takeoff was evaluated as 10.19266 N which should be less than
landing condition. The performance of aircraft was evaluated and
compared with the optimum value found. The takeoff distance was
1256.78 m and landing distance was 325.8 m.

81
 CHAPTER 13

CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION

The preliminary design of single engine commercial passenger aircraft is

done and the various design considerations and performance parameters
required are calculated and found out. The obtained design values are not
necessarily a define reflection of the airplane’s true and conceptualized
design, but the basic outlay development has been obtained.

The final design stays true to the desired considerations of the

commercial passenger aircraft that can provide high performance and
considerable reduction in run-way distance. This is no ideal design and is
highly subjected to improvisations and innovations to make the design as
ideal as possible.

During the onset of our work, we faced various phases of the project that
made us understand how challenging the process of designing is so as to
make a perfect design. A lot of efforts have been put into this project and
as much as we have learnt at the same time.

FUTURE WORK
In the future the design elements will be put into more of tests. The
structure of the aircraft will be more refined. Analysis of various
components of the aircraft will be performed. A finite element analysis
(FEA) on aircrafts structure is to be done and various structural materials
and components will be undertaken to find ideal elements and material
for aircrafts performance.

The next step would be wind tunnel testing of the aircraft at various flight
regimes. Then the final structure and specification of the aircraft will be
finalized which will be ideal first prototype.

82
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