Gate-Level Minimization

Sheis Abolmaali

School of ECE
Semnan University
1
 Complexity of Digital Circuits
• Directly related to the complexity of the
algebraic expression we use to build the circuit.
• Truth table
– may lead to different implementations
– Question: which one to use?
• Optimization techniques of algebraic expressions
– So far, ad hoc.
– Need more systematic (algorithmic) way
• Karnaugh (K-) map technique
• Quine-McCluskey
• Espresso 2
 Two-Variable K-Map
• Two variables: x and y
– 4 minterms:
• m0 = x’y’  00
• m1 = x’y  01
• m2 = xy’  10
• m3 = xy  11

y y
x 0 1 x 0 1
0 m0 m1 0 x’y’ x’y
1 m2 m3 1 xy’ xy

3
 Example: Two-Variable K-Map
y
x 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

– F = m0 + m1 + m2 = x’y’ + x’y + xy’

– F=…
– F=…
– F=…
– F = x’ + y’
• We can do the same optimization by combining
adjacent cells.
4
 Three-Variable K-Map
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 m0 m1 m3 m2
1 m4 m5 m7 m6

• Adjacent squares: they differ by only one

variable, which is primed in one square and not
primed in the other
– m2  m6 , m3  m7
– m2  m0 , m6  m4

5
 Example: Three-Variable K-Map
• F1(x, y, z) =  (2, 3, 4, 5)
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0

• F1(x, y, z) = xy’ + x’y

• F2(x, y, z) =  (3, 4, 6, 7)
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1
• F1(x, y, z) = xz’ + yz 6
 Three Variable Karnaugh Maps
• One square represents one minterm with three
literals
• Two adjacent squares represent a term with two
literals
• Four adjacent squares represent a term with one
literal
• Eight adjacent squares produce a function that is
always equal to 1.

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 Example

• F1(x, y, z) =  (0, 2, 4, 5, 6)

y
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 0 1
x 1 1 1 0 1

F1(x, y, z) =
8
 Finding Sum of Minterms
• If a function is not expressed in sum of
minterms form, it is possible to get it using K-
maps
– Example: F(x, y, z) = x’z + x’y + xy’z + yz

yz
x 00 01 11 10
0

F(x, y, z) = x’y’z + x’yz + x’yz’ + xy’z + xyz

F(x, y, z) =
9
 Four-Variable K-Map
• Four variables: x, y, z, t
– 4 literals
– 16 minterms
z
zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 m0 m1 m3 m2
01 m4 m5 m7 m6
y
11 m12 m13 m15 m14
x
10 m8 m9 m11 m10

t
10
 Example: Four-Variable K-Map
– F(x,y,z,t) =  (0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)

zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 0 1
01 1 1 0 1
11 1 1 0 1
10 1 1 0 0

– F(x,y,z,t) =

11
 Example: Four-Variable K-Map
• F(x,y,z,t) = x’y’z’ + y’zt’ + x’yzt’ + xy’z’

zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 0 1
01 0 0 0 1
11 0 0 0 0
10 1 1 0 1

• F(x,y,z,t) =
12
 Prime Implicants
• A product term
– obtained by combining maximum possible
number of adjacent squares in the map
• If a minterm is covered by only one prime
implicant, that prime implicant is said to be
essential.
– A single 1 on the map represents a prime implicant if it
is not adjacent to any other 1’s.
– Two adjacent 1’s form a prime implicant, provided that
they are not within a group of four adjacent 1’s.
– So on
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 Example: Prime Implicants
• F(x,y,z,t) =  (0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15)
zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 1 0 1 1
01 0 1 1 0
11 0 1 1 0
10 1 1 1 1

• Prime implicants
• y’t’ – essential since m0 is covered only in it
• yt - essential since m5 is covered only in it
• They together cover m0, m2, m8, m10, m5, m7, m13, m15
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 Example: Prime Implicants
zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 1 0 1 1
01 0 1 1 0
11 0 1 1 0
10 1 1 1 1

• m3, m9, m11 are not yet covered.

• How do we cover them?
• There are actually more than one way.

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 Example: Prime Implicants
zt
1
xy 00 01 11 10
2
00 1 0 1 1
01 0 1 1 0
3
11 0 1 1 0
10 1 1 1 1
4

• Both y’z and zt covers m3 and m11.

• m9 can be covered in two different prime implicants:
– xt or xy’
• m3, m11  zt or y’z
• m9  xy’ or xt
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 Example: Prime Implicants
• F(x, y, z, t) = yt + y’t’ + zt + xt or
• F(x, y, z, t) = yt + y’t’ + zt + xy’ or
• F(x, y, z, t) = yt + y’t’ + y’z + xt or
• F(x, y, z, t) = yt + y’t’ + y’z + xy’
• Therefore, what to do
– Find out all the essential prime implicants
– Other prime implicants that covers the minterms not
covered by the essential prime implicants
– Simplified expression is the logical sum of the
essential implicants plus the other implicants
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 Five-Variable Map
• Downside:
– Karnaugh maps with more than four variables are not
simple to use anymore.
– 5 variables  32 squares, 6 variables  64 squares
– Somewhat more practical way for F(x, y, z, t, w)

tw tw
yz 00 01 11 10 yz 00 01 11 10
00 m0 m1 m3 m2 00 m16 m17 m19 m18
01 m4 m5 m7 m6 01 m20 m21 m23 m22
11 m12 m13 m15 m14 11 m28 m29 m31 m30
10 m8 m9 m11 m10 10 m24 m25 m27 m26

x=0 x=1 18
 Many-Variable Maps
• Adjacency:
– Each square in the x = 0 map is adjacent to the
corresponding square in the x = 1 map.
– For example, m4  m20 and m15  m31
• Use four 4-variable maps to obtain 64 squares
required for six variable optimization
• Alternative way: Use computer programs
– Quine-McCluskey method
– Espresso method

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 Generalized
• In an n-variable map, 2k adjacent squares (k = 0,
1, …, n) represent an area that gives a term of
n-k literals.
• When k = n, entire map gives the identity
function (i.e. F(x1, x2, …, xn) =1)

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 Number of Literals

# of adjacent n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5

squares
k=0  20 = 1 2 3 4 5
k=1  21 = 2 1 2 3 4
k=2  22 = 4 0 1 2 3
k=3  23 = 8 - 0 1 2
k=4  24 = 16 - - 0 1
k=5  25 = 32 - - - 0

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 Example: Five-Variable Map
• F(x, y, z, t, w) =  (0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 13, 21, 23, 25,
29, 31)

tw tw
yz 00 01 11 10 yz 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 00
01 1 1 01 1 1
11 1 11 1 1
10 1 10 1

x=0 x=1
• F(x,y,z,t,w) =
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 Product of Sums Simplification
• So far
– simplified expressions from Karnaugh maps are in sum
of products form.
• Simplified product of sums can also be derived
from Karnaugh maps.
• Method:
– A square with 1 actually represents a “minterm”
– Similarly an empty square (a square with 0) represents
a “maxterm”.
– Treat the 0’s in the same manner as we treat 1’s
– The result is a simplified expression in product of
sums form.
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 Example: Product of Sums
• F(x, y, z, t) =  (0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10)
– Simplify this function in
a. sum of products
b. product of sums
zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 1
01 1
11
10 1 1 1

F(x, y, z, t) =
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 Example: Product of Sums
• F’(x,y,z,t) =
• Apply DeMorgan’s theorem (use dual theorem)
• F=
zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 0 1
01 0 1 0 0
11 0 0 0 0
10 1 1 0 1

F(x,y,z,t) = y’t’ + y’z’ + x’z’t

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 Example: Product of Sums
y’
t’
y’
F
z’
x’
z’
t
F(x,y,z,t) = y’t’ + y’z’ + x’z’t: sum of products implementation

y’
t
x’
F
y’
z’
t’
F = (y’ + t)(x’ + y’)(z’ + t’): product of sums implementation
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 Product of Maxterms
• If the function is originally expressed in the
product of maxterms canonical form, the
procedure is also valid
• Example:
– F(x, y, z) =  (0, 2, 5, 7)
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0

F(x, y, z) =
F(x, y, z) = x’z + xz’ 27
 Product of Sums
• To enter a function F, expressed in product of
sums, in the map
1. take its complement, F’
2. Find the squares corresponding to the terms in F’,
3. Fill these square with 0’s and others with 1’s.
• Example:
– F(x, y, z, t) = (x’ + y’ + z’)(y + t)
– F’(x, y, z, t) = zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 0 0
01
11 0 0
10 0 0 28
 Don’t Care Conditions 1/2
• Some functions are not defined for certain input
combinations
– Such function are referred as incompletely specified
functions
– For instance, a circuit defined by the function has
never certain input values;
– therefore, the corresponding output values do not
have to be defined
– This may significantly reduces the circuit complexity

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 Don’t Care Conditions 2/2
• Example: A circuit that takes the 10’s
complement of decimal digits

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 Unspecified Minterms
• For unspecified minterms, we do not care what
the value the function produces.
• Unspecified minterms of a function are called
don’t care conditions.
• We use “X” symbol to represent them in
Karnaugh map.
• Useful for further simplification
• The symbol X’s in the map can be taken 0 or 1 to
make the Boolean expression even more
simplified

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 Example: Don’t Care Conditions
• F(x, y, z, t) = (1, 3, 7, 11, 15) – function
• d(x, y, z, t) = (0, 2, 5) – don’t care conditions

zt
xy 00 01 11 10 F=
00 X 1 1 X
01 0 X 1 0 F1 = or
11 0 0 1 0
10 0 0 1 0 F2 =

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 Example: Don’t Care Conditions
• F1 = zt + x’y’ = (0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 11, 15)
• F2 = zt + x’t = (1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 15)
• The two functions are algebraically unequal
– As far as the function F is concerned both functions
are acceptable
• Look at the simplified product of sums
expression for the same function F.
zt
xy 00 01 11 10
00 X 1 1 X F’ =
01 0 X 1 0
F=
11 0 0 1 0
10 0 0 1 0 33
 NAND and NOR Gates
• NAND and NOR gates are easier to fabricate
VDD

C = (AB)’
A

CMOS 2-input AND gates requires

B 6 CMOS transistors
CMOS 3-input NAND gates requires
6 CMOS transistors 34
 Design with NAND or NOR Gates
• It is beneficial to derive conversion rules from
Boolean functions given in terms of AND, OR, an
NOT gates into equivalent NAND or NOR
implementations

x (x x)’ = x’  NOT

x
y [ (x y)’ ]’ = x y  AND

x
(x’ y’ )’ = x + y  OR
y 35
 New Notation
x x
(xyz)’ y x’ + y’ + z’
y
z z
AND-invert Invert-OR
• Implementing a Boolean function with NAND
gates is easy if it is in sum of products form.
• Example: F(x, y, z, t) = xy + zt
x x
y y

z z
t t
F(x, y, z, t) = xy + zt F(x, y, z, t) = ((xy)’)’ + ((zt)’)’
36
 The Conversion Method
x x
y y
z z
t t

((xy)’)’ + ((zt)’)’ = xy + zt = [ (xy)’ (zt)’ ] ’

• Example: F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 4, 5, 7)

yz F = z + xy’
x 00 01 11 10
0
F = (z’)’ + ((xy’)’)’
1 1
1 1 1 1
37
 Example: Design with NAND Gates
x x
y’ y’
F F
z’ z’

F = (z’)’ + ((xy’)’)’ F = z + xy’

• Summary
1. Simplify the function
2. Draw a NAND gate for each product term
3. Draw a NAND gate for the OR gate in the 2nd level,
4. A product term with single literal needs an inverter in
the first level. Assume single, complemented literals
are available. 38
 Multi-Level NAND Gate Designs
• The standard form results in two-level
implementations
• Non-standard forms may raise a difficulty
• Example: F = x(zt + y) + yz’
– 4-level implementation

z
t
y
F
x
y
z’
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 Example: Multilevel NAND…
F = x(zt + y) + yz’

z
t

F
40
Design with Multi-Level NAND Gates
• Rules
1. Convert all AND gates to NAND gates
2. Convert all OR gates to NAND gates
3. Insert an inverter (one-input NAND gate) at
the output if the final operation is AND
4. Check the bubbles in the diagram. For every
bubble along a path from input to output there
must be another bubble. If not so,
a. complement the input literal

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 Another (Harder) Example
• Example: F = (xy’ + xy)(z + t’)
– (three-level implementation)

x
y’
x
y F
z
t’

42
Example: Multi-Level NAND Gates
x F = (xy’ + xy)(z + t’)
y’
x
y G = [ (xy’ + xy)(z’ + t) ]’
z
t’ F = (xy’ + xy)(z + t’)

F = (xy’ + xy)(z + t’)

43
 Design with NOR Gates
• NOR is the dual operation of NAND.
– All rules and procedure we used in the design with
NAND gates apply here in a similar way.
– Function is implemented easily if it is in product of
sums form.

x (x + x)’ = x’  NOT

x
y [ (x+ y)’ ]’ = x + y  OR

x
(x’ + y’ )’ = x · y  AND
y 44
 Example: Design with NOR Gates
• F = (x+y) (z+t) w
x
y
F
z
t
w

x
y
z
t F = (x + y) (z + t) w
w’

45
 Example: Design with NOR Gates
• F = (xy’ + zt) (z + t’)
x
y’
z F
t
z
t’

x’
y
z’
t’ F = [((x’ + y)’ + (z’ + t’)’)’ + (z + t’)’]’
z = ((x’ + y)’ + (z’ + t’)’)(z + t’)
t’ = (xy’ + zt) (z + t’) 46
 Harder Example
• Example: F = x(zt + y) + yz’
z
t
y
F
x
y
z’

47
 Exclusive-OR Function
• The symbol: 
– x  y = xy’ + x’y
– (x  y)’ = xy + x’y’
• Properties
1. x0=x
2. x  1 = x’
3. xx=0
4. x  x’ = 1
5. x  y’ = x’  y = (x  y)’ - XNOR
• Commutative & Associative
– xy=yx
– (x  y)  z = x  (y  z)
48
 Exclusive-OR Function
• XOR gate is not universal
– Only a limited number of Boolean functions can be
expressed in terms of XOR gates
• XOR operation has very important application in
arithmetic and error-detection circuits.
• Odd Function
– (x  y)  z = (xy’ + x’y)  z
= (xy’ + x’y) z’ + (xy’ + x’y)’ z
= xy’z’ + x’yz’ + (xy + x’y’) z
= xy’z’ + x’yz’ + xyz + x’y’z
=  (4, 2, 7, 1)
49
 Odd Function

• If an odd number of variables are equal to 1,

then the function is equal to 1.
• Therefore, multivariable XOR operation is
referred as “odd” function.
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1 Odd function
1 1 0 1 0
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 1 0 Even function
1 0 1 0 1 50
 Odd & Even Functions
x
y xyz Odd function
z

• (x  y  z)’ = ((x  y)  z)’

x
y (x  y  z)’

51
 Adder Circuit for Integers
• Addition of two-bit numbers
– Z=X+Y
– X = (x1 x0) and Y = (y1 y0)
– Z = (z2 z1 z0)
• Bitwise addition
1. z0 = x0  y0 (sum)
c1 = x0 y0 (carry)
2. z1 = x1  y1  c1
c2 = x1 y1 + x1 c1 + y1 c1
3. z2 = c2

52
 Adder Circuit
z1 = x1  y1  c1 z0 = x0  y0
z2 = c2 c2 = x1 y1 + x1 c1 + y1 c1 c1 = x0 y0

y1 x1 y0 x 0

c1
FA

c2 = z 2 z1 z0

53
 Computing with Wood

• http://www.vidivodo.com/319037/bilgisayar-ikili-sistem