Analog To Analog Conversion Techniques

Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the representation of analog information by

an analog signal. Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass
channel is available to us.

An example is radio. The government assigns a narrow bandwidth to each radio station. The analog
signal produced by each station is a low-pass signal, all in the same range. To be able to listen to
different stations, the low-pass signals need to be shifted, each to a different range.

Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways:

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)

1. Amplitude Modulation:

In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same. Only
the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information. The following figure shows how this
concept works. The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.

AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because the amplitude of the carrier signal
needs to be changed according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

AM Bandwidth:

The modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal and covers
a range centered on the carrier frequency. However, the signal components above and below the
carrier frequency carry exactly the same information. For this reason, some implementations discard
one-half of the signals and cut the bandwidth in half.

The total bandwidth required for AM can be determined from the bandwidth of the audio signal:

Standard Bandwidth allocation for AM Radio:

The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) is usually 5 kHz. Therefore, an AM radio station
needs a bandwidth of 10kHz. In fact, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allows 10 kHz
for each AM station.

AM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 530 and 1700 kHz (1.7 MHz).
However, each station's carrier frequency must be separated from those on either side of it by at
least 10 kHz (one AM bandwidth) to avoid interference. If one station uses a carrier frequency of
1100 kHz, the next station's carrier frequency cannot be lower than 1110 kHz.

2. Frequency Modulation

In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the
carrier changes correspondingly.

The following figure shows the relationships of the modulating signal, the carrier signal, and the
resultant FM signal. FM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as with FSK.
The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input voltage which is the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

FM Bandwidth

The actual bandwidth is difficult to determine exactly, but it can be shown empirically that it is
several times that of the analog signal or 2(1 + β)B where β is a factor depends on modulation
technique with a common value of 4.

Standard Bandwidth allocation for FM Radio:

The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) broadcast in stereo is almost 15 kHz. The FCC
allows 200 kHz (0.2 MHz) for each station. This mean β = 4 with some extra guard band. FM stations
are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 88 and 108 MHz. Stations must be separated by
at least 200 kHz to keep their bandwidths from overlapping.
To create even more privacy, the FCC requires that in a given area, only alternate bandwidth
allocations may be used. The others remain unused to prevent any possibility of two stations
interfering with each other. Given 88 to 108 MHz as a range, there are 100 potential PM bandwidths
in an area, of which 50 can operate at any one time.

3. Phase Modulation:

In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
(amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain
constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrier changes
correspondingly. It is proved mathematically that PM is the same as FM with one difference.

In FM, the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal; in PM the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the
derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal. The following figure shows the relationships of
the modulating signal, the carrier signal, and the resultant PM signal.

PM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator along with a derivative. The

frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative of the input voltage which is the
amplitude of the modulating signal.

PM Bandwidth

The actual bandwidth is difficult to determine exactly, but it can be shown empirically that it is
several times that of the analog signal. Although, the formula shows the same bandwidth for FM and
PM, the value of β is lower in the case of PM (around 1 for narrowband and 3 for wideband)

BANDWIDTH
UTILIZATION --
MULTIPLEXING AND
SPREADING
2.4 MULTIPLEXING
• When bandwidth of a
medium is greater than
bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be
shared.
• Multiplexing allows
simultaneous
transmission of multiple
signals across a single
data-link (Fig 4.21).
• The traffic increases,
as
data/telecommunication
s use increases.
• We can accommodate
this increase by
→ adding individual
links, each time a new
channel is needed or →
installing higher-
bandwidth links to carry
multiple signals.
• Today's technology
includes high-bandwidth
media such as optical-
fiber and satellite
microwaves.
• Each has a bandwidth
far in excess of that
needed for the average
transmission-signal.
• If the bandwidth of a
link is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the
devices connected to it,
the bandwidth
is wasted.
• An efficient system
maximizes the
utilization of all
resources; bandwidth
is one of the most
precious
resources we have in
data communications
...

..

Bandwidth utilization

Sometimes we need to combine several low-bandwidth channels to make use of one channel with a
larger bandwidth. Sometimes we need to expand the bandwidth of a channel to achieve goals such
as privacy and antijamming.

Two broad categories of bandwidth utilization:

• multiplexing

• spreading.

In multiplexing, our goal is efficiency;we combine several channels into one. In spreading, our goals
are privacy and antijamming; we expand the bandwidth of a channel to insert redundancy, which is
necessary to achieve these goals. Bandwidth utilization is the use of available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing;privacy and antijamming can be achieved by
spreading.

Multiplexing

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of
the devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and
telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.

We can accommodate this increase by continuing to add individual links each time a new channel is
needed; or we can install higher-bandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals. If the
bandwidth of a link is greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices connected to it, the
bandwidth is wasted. An efficient system maximizes the utilization of all resources; bandwidth is one
of the most precious resources we have in data communications. In a multiplexed system, n lines
share the bandwidth of one link.

the basic format of a multiplexed system is

The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them
into a single stream (many-to-one). At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer
(DEMUX), which separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and
directs them to their corresponding lines. In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The
word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines.
One link can have many (n) channels

There are three basic multiplexing techniques:

• Frequency-division multiplexing,

• Wavelength-division multiplexing

• Time-division multiplexing.

The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals.

Frequency-Division Multiplexing

Frequency-Division Multiplexing Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that

can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of
the signals to be transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different
carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that
can be transported by the link.

Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal.
These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be
separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals from overlapping. In
addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.

FDM can be represented as shown beow.Here, the transmission path is divided into three parts,
each representing a channel that carries one transmission.

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.If a source sends digital signal
it will be converted to analog signal before FDM is used to multiplex them.

Multiplexing Process

Figure above is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process. Each source generates a signal
of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulates different carrier
frequencies (f1,f2, and f3). The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it

Demultiplexing Process

The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them
from their carriers and passes them to the output lines. Figure given below is a conceptual
illustration of demultiplexing process.
Wavelength-division multiplexing

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-

optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.
Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to
combine several lines into one.

WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve
optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.

The following figure gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer. Very narrow
bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of light. At the receiver,
the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.-Division Multiplexing

In this method, we combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the
reverse at the demultiplexer. The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a
prism. Recall from basic physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence
and the frequency. Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams
of light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of
frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.

Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share the
high bandwidth of a line. Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

The conceptual view of TDM can be represented as,

Here, the same link is used as in FDM; here, however, the link is shown sectioned by time rather
than by frequency. In the figure, portions of signals 1,2,3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique. Digital data from different sources are combined into one
timeshared link. However, this does not mean that the sources cannot produce analog data; analog
data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then multiplexed by using TDM. We can divide
TDM into two different schemes:

 Synchronous
 Statistical.

Synchronous TDM

In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending
data.

Time Slots and Frames

In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each input
occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each input unit
becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot. However, the duration of an output
time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input time slot is T s, the
output time slot is Tin s, where n is the number of connections. In other words, a unit in the output
connection has a shorter duration; it travels faster.

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one high-rate
one. synchronous TDM where n is 3.
In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected into frame. If we
have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one time slot is allocated for each unit,
one for each input line. If the duration of each input unit is T,the duration of each slots is T/n and the
duration of each frame is T. The data rate of the output link must be n times the data rate of a
connection to guarantee the flow of data.

Spread Spectrum Techniques

Spread-Spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or

acoustic signal) generated with a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency
domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth.

These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure
communications, increasing resistance to natural interference, noise and jamming, to prevent
detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).

Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs). In wireless
applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for communication. Stations must be
able to share this medium without interception by an eavesdropper and without being subject to
jamming from a malicious intruder.

To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy, they spread the original
spectrum needed for each station. If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum
expands it to Bss such that Bss >> B. The expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its message
in a protective envelope for a more secure transmission.

The following figure shows the idea of spread spectrum. Spread spectrum achieves its goals through
two principles:
1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than what is needed. This
allows redundancy.

2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss must be done by a process
that is independent of the original signal. In other words, the spreading process occurs after the
signal is created by the source.

After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a spreading code and
spreads the bandwidth. The figure shows the original bandwidth B and the spreaded bandwidth
Bss. The spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are actually a pattern.

There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth:

 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different carrier frequencies
that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier
frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency. Although the
modulation is done using one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long
run. The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BpHSS >> B.

The following figure shows the general layout for FHSS. A pseudorandom code generator, called
pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for every hopping period .
The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period and
passes it to the frequency synthesizer. The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that
frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier signal.

For Example M is 8 and k is 3. The pseudorandom code generator will create eight different 3-bit
patterns. These are mapped to eight different frequencies in the frequency table as shown in the
following figure.

The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010, all, 100. Note that the pattern is
pseudorandom it is repeated after eight hoppings. This means that at hopping period 1, the
pattern is 101. The frequency selected is 700 kHz, the source signal modulates this carrier
frequency.

The second k-bit pattern selected is 111, which selects the 900-kHz carrier; the eighth pattern is
100, the frequency is 600 kHz. After eight hoppings, the pattern repeats, starting from 101 again.

If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender and receiver can have
privacy. If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted signal, she can only access a small piece
of data because she does not know the spreading sequence to quickly adapt herself to the next
hop. The scheme has also an anti-jamming effect. A malicious sender may be able to send noise
to jam the signal for one hopping period (randomly), but not for the whole period.

Bandwidth Sharing

If the number of hopping frequencies is M, we can multiplex M channels into one by using the
same Bss bandwidth. This is possible because a station uses just one frequency in each hopping
period; M - 1 other frequencies can be used by other M - 1 stations. In other words, M different
stations can use the same Bss if an appropriate modulation technique such as multiple FSK
(MFSK) is used.

2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

The direct sequence spread spectrum (nSSS) technique also expands the bandwidth of the
original signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a
spreading code. In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip
rate is n times that of the data bit. The following figure shows the concept of DSSS.
As an example, let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker sequence
where n is 11. We assume that the original signal and the chips in the chip generator use polar
NRZ encoding. The following figure shows the chips and the result of multiplying the original
data by the chips to get the spread signal.

In the figure, the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000 (in this case). If the
original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N. This means that the required
bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The
spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It can also provide
immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.

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