Chapter 3

Problem Solving
Unit 3: Problem Solving

• Problem solving techniques, Properties of search algorithms, Types of

search algorithms, Uninformed Search Algorithms: Depth First Search,
Breadth First Search, Uniform Cost Search, Informed Search
Algorithms: Greedy Search, A* Tree Search, A* Graph Search.
Problem solving
• The reflex agent of AI directly maps states into action. Whenever
these agents fail to operate in an environment where the state of
mapping is too large and not easily performed by the agent, then the
stated problem dissolves and sent to a problem-solving domain which
breaks the large stored problem into the smaller storage area and
resolves one by one. The final integrated action will be the desired
outcomes.
• On the basis of the problem and their working domain, different
types of problem-solving agent defined and use at an atomic level
without any internal state visible with a problem-solving algorithm.
The problem-solving agent performs precisely by defining problems
and several solutions. So we can say that problem solving is a part of
artificial intelligence that encompasses a number of techniques such
as a tree, B-tree, heuristic algorithms to solve a problem.
There are basically three types of problem in artificial intelligence:
• 1. Ignorable: In which solution steps can be ignored.
• 2. Recoverable: In which solution steps can be undone.
• 3. Irrecoverable: Solution steps cannot be undo.
• Steps problem-solving in AI: The problem of AI is directly associated with
the nature of humans and their activities. So we need a number of finite
steps to solve a problem which makes human easy works.
• These are the following steps which require to solve a problem :
• Problem definition: Detailed specification of inputs and acceptable system
solutions.
• Problem analysis: Analyse the problem thoroughly.
• Knowledge Representation: collect detailed information about the
problem and define all possible techniques.
• Problem-solving: Selection of best techniques.
Components to formulate the associated problem:
• Initial State: This state requires an initial state for the problem which starts
the AI agent towards a specified goal. In this state new methods also
initialize problem domain solving by a specific class.
• Action: This stage of problem formulation works with function with a
specific class taken from the initial state and all possible actions done in this
stage.
• Transition: This stage of problem formulation integrates the actual action
done by the previous action stage and collects the final stage to forward it
to their next stage.
• Goal test: This stage determines that the specified goal achieved by the
integrated transition model or not, whenever the goal achieves stop the
action and forward into the next stage to determines the cost to achieve
the goal.
• Path costing: This component of problem-solving numerical assigned what
will be the cost to achieve the goal. It requires all hardware software and
human working cost.
Properties of Search Algorithms:
• Following are the four essential properties of search algorithms to
compare the efficiency of these algorithms:
• Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it
guarantees to return a solution if at least any solution exists for any
random input.
• Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be
the best solution (lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then
such a solution for is said to be an optimal solution.
• Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an
algorithm to complete its task.
• Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any
point during the search, as the complexity of the problem.
Search Algorithm Terminologies:
• Search: Searchingis a step by step procedure to solve a search-problem in a given
search space. A search problem can have three main factors:
• Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions, which a system may
have.
• Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
• Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and returns whether the goal
state is achieved or not.
• Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree. The
root of the search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the initial state.
• Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.
• Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented as a
transition model.
• Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
• Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the goal
node.
• Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.
Types of search algorithms Based on the search problems we can
classify the search algorithms into uninformed (Blind search) search
and informed search (Heuristic search) algorithms.
Uninformed/Blind Search:
• The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such
as closeness, the location of the goal. It operates in a brute-force way
as it only includes information about how to traverse the tree and
how to identify leaf and goal nodes. Uninformed search applies a way
in which search tree is searched without any information about the
search space like initial state operators and test for the goal, so it is
also called blind search. It examines each node of the tree until it
achieves the goal node.
Uninformed Search :It can be divided into
five main types:
• Breadth-first search
• Uniform cost search
• Depth-first search
• Iterative deepening depth-first search
• Bidirectional Search
Informed Search
• Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge. In an informed search,
problem information is available which can guide the search. Informed
search strategies can find a solution more efficiently than an uninformed
search strategy. Informed search is also called a Heuristic search.
• A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best
solutions but guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.
• Informed search can solve much complex problem which could not be
solved in another way.
• An example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.
• Greedy Search
• A* Search
Uninformed Search Algorithms

• Uninformed search is a class of general-purpose search algorithms which

operates in brute force-way. Uninformed search algorithms do not have
additional information about state or search space other than how to
traverse the tree, so it is also called blind search.
• Following are the various types of uninformed search algorithms:
• Breadth-first Search
• Depth-first Search
• Depth-limited Search
• Iterative deepening depth-first search
• Uniform cost search
• Bidirectional Search
1. Breadth-first Search:
• Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph.
This algorithm searches breadthwise in a tree or graph, so it is called breadth-first search.
• BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all successor
node at the current level before moving to nodes of next level.
• The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search algorithm.
• Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.
• Advantages:
• BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.
• If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will provide the
minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.
• Disadvantages:
• It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into memory to
expand the next level.
• BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.
 1.S ABCDGHE
FIK
Example:
In the below tree
structure, we have
shown the traversing
of the tree using BFS
algorithm from the
root node S to goal
node K. BFS search
algorithm traverse in
layers, so it will
follow the path which
is shown by the
dotted arrow, and the
Breadth First Search
• Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS algorithm can be obtained
by the number of nodes traversed in BFS until the shallowest Node.
Where the d= depth of shallowest solution and b is a node at every
state.
• T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.......+ bd= O (bd)
• Space Complexity: Space complexity of BFS algorithm is given by the
Memory size of frontier which is O(bd).
• Completeness: BFS is complete, which means if the shallowest goal
node is at some finite depth, then BFS will find a solution.
• Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of
the depth of the node.
2. Depth-first Search
• Depth-first search is a recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data structure.
• It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows each
path to its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
• DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
• The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.
• Advantage:
• DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the path
from root node to the current node.
• It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in the right
path).
• Disadvantage:
• There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no guarantee of
finding the solution.
• DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the infinite loop.
Example:
• In the below search tree, we
have shown the flow of
depth-first search, and it will
follow the order as:
• Root node--->Left node ---->
right node.
• It will start searching from root
node S, and traverse A, then B,
then D and E, after traversing E,
it will backtrack the tree as E
has no other successor and still
goal node is not found. After
backtracking it will traverse
node C and then G, and here it
will terminate as it found goal
node.
• Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space
as it will expand every node within a limited search tree.
• Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node
traversed by the algorithm. It is given by:
• T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.........+ nm=O(nm)
• Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger than
d (Shallowest solution depth)
• Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the
root node, hence space complexity of DFS is equivalent to the size of the
fringe set, which is O(b raise to m).
• Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large
number of steps or high cost to reach to the goal node.
3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:

• A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a predetermined

limit. Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-first
search. In this algorithm, the node at t
• Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:
• Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
• Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth limit.
• Advantages:
• Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.
• Disadvantages:
• Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.
• It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.
• he depth limit will treat as it has no successor nodes further.
• Completeness: DLS search
algorithm is complete if the
solution is above the
depth-limit.
• Time Complexity: Time
complexity of DLS algorithm
is O(bℓ).
• Space Complexity: Space
complexity of DLS algorithm
is O(b×ℓ).
• Optimal: Depth-limited
search can be viewed as a
special case of DFS, and it is
also not optimal even if ℓ>d.
4. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm:
• Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree
or graph. This algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each
edge. The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal
node which has the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform-cost search expands nodes
according to their path costs form the root node. It can be used to solve any
graph/tree where the optimal cost is in demand. A uniform-cost search algorithm
is implemented by the priority queue. It gives maximum priority to the lowest
cumulative cost. Uniform cost search is equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path
cost of all edges is the same.
• Advantages:
• Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least cost
is chosen.
• Disadvantages:
• It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only
concerned about path cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an infinite
loop.
 Example:
• Completeness:
• Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is
a solution, UCS will find it.
• Time Complexity:
• Let C* is Cost of the optimal solution, and ε is
each step to get closer to the goal node. Then the
number of steps is = C*/ε+1. Here we have taken
+1, as we start from state 0 and end to C*/ε.
• Hence, the worst-case time1 +complexity
[C*/ε]
of
Uniform-cost search isO(b )/.
• Space Complexity:
• The same logic is for space complexity so, the
worst-case space complexity of Uniform-cost
1 + [C*/ε]
search is O(b ).
• Optimal:
• Uniform-cost search is always optimal as it only
selects a path with the lowest path cost.
5. Iterative deepeningdepth-first Search:
• The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms.
This search algorithm finds out the best depth limit and does it by gradually
increasing the limit until a goal is found.
• This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it
keeps increasing the depth limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.
• This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search
and depth-first search's memory efficiency.
• The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is
large, and depth of goal node is unknown.
• Advantages:
• Itcombines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast search
and memory efficiency.
• Disadvantages:
• The main drawback of IDDFS is that it repeats all the work of the previous phase.
Example:

• Following tree structure is

showing the iterative deepening
depth-first search. IDDFS
algorithm performs various
iterations until it does not find
the goal node. The iteration
performed by the algorithm is
given as:
• 1'st Iteration-----> A
2'nd Iteration----> A, B, C
3'rd Iteration------>A, B, D, E, C, F, G
4'th Iteration------>A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, K, G
In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the goal node.
• Completeness:
• This algorithm is complete is ifthe branching factor is finite.
• Time Complexity:
• Let's suppose b is the branching factor and depth is d then the worst-case
time complexity is O(bd).
• Space Complexity:
6. Bidirectional Search Algorithm:
• Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one form initial state called as forward-search
and other from goal node called as backward-search, to find the goal node. Bidirectional search replaces one
single search graph with two small subgraphs in which one starts the search from an initial vertex and other
starts from goal vertex. The search stops when these two graphs intersect each other.

• Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS, DLS, etc.

• Advantages:

• Bidirectional search is fast.

• Bidirectional search requires less memory

• Disadvantages:

• Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.

• In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.
Example:
• In the below search tree,
bidirectional search
algorithm is applied. This
algorithm divides one
graph/tree into two
sub-graphs. It starts
traversing from node 1 in
the forward direction and
starts from goal node 16 in
the backward direction.
• The algorithm terminates
at node 9 where two
searches meet.
• Completeness: Bidirectional Search is complete if we use BFS in both
searches.
• Time Complexity: Time complexity of bidirectional search using BFS
is O(bd).
• Space Complexity: Space complexity of bidirectional search is O(bd).
• Optimal: Bidirectional search is Optimal.
A* Search Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence
• An Introduction to A* Search Algorithm in AI
• A* (pronounced "A-star") is a powerful graph traversal and pathfinding
algorithm widely used in artificial intelligence and computer science. It is
mainly used to find the shortest path between two nodes in a graph, given
the estimated cost of getting from the current node to the destination
node. The main advantage of the algorithm is its ability to provide an
optimal path by exploring the graph in a more informed way compared to
traditional search algorithms such as Dijkstra's algorithm.
• Algorithm A* combines the advantages of two other search algorithms:
Dijkstra's algorithm and Greedy Best-First Search. Like Dijkstra's algorithm,
A* ensures that the path found is as short as possible but does so more
efficiently by directing its search through a heuristic similar to Greedy
Best-First Search. A heuristic function, denoted h(n), estimates the cost of
getting from any given node n to the destination node.
How does the A* search algorithm work in Artificial Intelligence?
• The A* (pronounced "letter A") search algorithm is a popular and widely
used graph traversal algorithm in artificial intelligence and computer
science. It is used to find the shortest path from a start node to a
destination node in a weighted graph. A* is an informed search algorithm
that uses heuristics to guide the search efficiently. The search algorithm A*
works as follows:
• The algorithm starts with a priority queue to store the nodes to be
explored. It also instantiates two data structures g(n): The cost of the
shortest path so far from the starting node to node n and h(n), the
estimated cost (heuristic) from node n to the destination node. It is often a
reasonable heuristic, meaning it never overestimates the actual cost of
achieving a goal. Put the initial node in the priority queue and set its g(n) to
0. If the priority queue is not empty, Remove the node with the lowest f(n)
from the priority queue. f(n) = g(n) h(n). If the deleted node is the
destination node, the algorithm ends, and the path is found. Otherwise,
expand the node and create its neighbors.
How does the A* search algorithm work in Artificial Intelligence?

• For each neighbor node, calculate its initial g(n) value, which is the sum of the g
value of the current node and the cost of moving from the current node to a
neighboring node. If the neighbor node is not in priority order or the original g(n)
value is less than its current g value, update its g value and set its parent node to
the current node. Calculate the f(n) value from the neighbor node and add it to
the priority queue.
• If the cycle ends without finding the destination node, the graph has no path from
start to finish. The key to the efficiency of A* is its use of a heuristic function h(n)
that provides an estimate of the remaining cost of reaching the goal of any node.
By combining the actual cost g (n) with the heuristic cost h (n), the algorithm
effectively explores promising paths, prioritizing nodes likely to lead to the
shortest path. It is important to note that the efficiency of the A* algorithm is
highly dependent on the choice of the heuristic function. Acceptable heuristics
ensure that the algorithm always finds the shortest path, but more informed and
accurate heuristics can lead to faster convergence and reduced search space.
Advantages of A* Search Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence
• Optimal solution: A* ensures finding the optimal (shortest) path from the start node to the destination node in
the weighted graph given an acceptable heuristic function. This optimality is a decisive advantage in many
applications where finding the shortest path is essential.
• Completeness: If a solution exists, A* will find it, provided the graph does not have an infinite cost This
completeness property ensures that A* can take advantage of a solution if it exists.
• Efficiency: A* is efficient ifan efficient and acceptable heuristic function is used. Heuristics guide the search to a
goal by focusing on promising paths and avoiding unnecessary exploration, making A* more efficient than
non-aware search algorithms such as breadth-first search or depth-first search.
• Versatility: A* is widely applicable to variousproblem areas, including wayfinding, route planning, robotics,
game development, and more. A* can be used to find optimal solutions efficiently as long as a meaningful
heuristic can be defined.
• Optimized search: A* maintains a priority order to select the nodes with the minor f(n) value (g(n) and h(n)) for
expansion. This allows it to explore promising paths first, which reduces the search space and leads to faster
convergence.
• Memory efficiency: Unlike some other search algorithms, such as breadth-first search, A* stores only a limited
number of nodes in the priority queue, which makes it memory efficient, especially for large graphs.
• Tunable Heuristics: A*'s performancecan be fine-tuned by selecting different heuristic functions. More
educated heuristics can lead to faster convergence and less expanded nodes.
• Extensively researched: A* is a well-established algorithm with decades of research and practical applications.
Many optimizations and variations have been developed, making it a reliable and well-understood
troubleshooting tool.
• Web search: A* can be used for web-based path search, where the algorithm constantly updates the path
according to changes in the environment or the appearance of new It enables real-time decision-making in
dynamic scenarios.
Disadvantages of A* Search Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

• Heuristic accuracy: The performance of the A* algorithm depends heavily on the accuracy of the heuristic
function used to estimate the cost from the current node to the If the heuristic is unacceptable (never
overestimates the actual cost) or inconsistent (satisfies the triangle inequality), A* may not find an optimal path
or may explore more nodes than necessary, affecting its efficiency and accuracy.
• Memory usage: A* requires that all visited nodes be kept in memory to keep track of explored paths. Memory
usage can sometimes become a significant issue, especially when dealing with an ample search space or limited
memory resources.
• Time complexity: AlthoughA* is generally efficient, its time complexity can be a concern for vast search spaces
or graphs. In the worst case, A* can take exponentially longer to find the optimal path if the heuristic is
inappropriate for the problem.
• Bottleneck at the destination: In specific scenarios, the A* algorithm needs to explore nodes far from the
destination before finally reaching the destination region. This the problem occurs when the heuristic needs to
direct the search to the goal early effectively.
• Cost Binding: A* faces difficulties when multiple nodes have the same f-value (the sum of the actual cost and
the heuristic cost). The strategy used can affect the optimality and efficiency of the discovered path. If not
handled correctly, it can lead to unnecessary nodes being explored and slow down the algorithm.
• Complexity in dynamic environments: In dynamic environments where the cost of edges or nodes may change
during the search, A* may not be suitable because it does not adapt well to such changes. Reformulation from
scratch can be computationally expensive, and D* (Dynamic A*) algorithms were designed to solve this
• Perfection in infinite space : A* may not find a solution in infinite state space. In such cases, it can run
indefinitely, exploring an ever-increasing number of nodes without finding a solution. Despite these
shortcomings, A* is still a robust and widely used algorithm because it can effectively find optimal paths in many
practical situations if the heuristic function is well-designed and the search space is manageable. Various
variations and variants of A* have been proposed to alleviate some of its limitations.
Applications of the A* Search Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

• Pathfinding in Games: A* is oftenused in video games for character

movement, enemy AI navigation, and finding the shortest path from one
location to another on the game map. Its ability to find the optimal path
based on cost and heuristics makes it ideal for real-time applications such
as games.
• Robotics and Autonomous Vehicles: A* is used in robotics and
autonomous vehicle navigation to plan anoptimal route for robots to reach
a destination, avoiding obstacles and considering terrain costs. This is
crucial for efficient and safe movement in natural environments.
• Maze solving: A* can efficiently find the shortest path through a maze,
making it valuable in many maze-solving applications, such as solving
puzzles or navigating complex structures.
• Route planningand navigation: In GPS systems and mapping applications,
A* can be used to find the optimal route between two points on a map,
considering factors such as distance, traffic conditions, and road network
topology.
Applications of the A* Search Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

• Puzzle-solving: A* can solve various diagram puzzles, such as sliding

puzzles, Sudoku, and the 8-puzzle problem. Resource Allocation: In
scenarios where resources must be optimally allocated, A* can help find
the most efficient allocation path, minimizing cost and maximizing
efficiency.
• Network Routing: A* can be usedin computer networks to find the most
efficient route for data packets from a source to a destination node.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): In some NLP tasks, A* can generate
coherent and contextualresponses by searching for possible word
sequences based on their likelihood and relevance.
• Path planningin robotics: A* can be used to plan the path of a robot from
one point to another, considering various constraints, such as avoiding
obstacles or minimizing energy consumption.
• Game AI: A* is also used to makeintelligent decisions for non-player
characters (NPCs), such as determining the best way to reach an objective
or coordinate movements in a team-based game.
A* Search Algorithm(Graph)

• Motivation
• To approximate the shortest
path in real-life situations, like-
in maps, games where there can
be many hindrances.
We can consider a 2D Grid
having several obstacles and we
start from a source cell (colored
red below) to reach towards a
goal cell (colored green below)
What is A* Search Algorithm?
• A* Search algorithm is one of the best and popular technique used in
path-finding and graph traversals.
• Why A* Search Algorithm?
Informally speaking, A* Search algorithms, unlike other traversal
techniques, it has “brains”. What it means is that it is really a smart
algorithm which separates it from the other conventional algorithms.
This fact is cleared in detail in below sections.
And it is also worth mentioning that many games and web-based
maps use this algorithm to find the shortest path very efficiently
(approximation).
Explanation
• Consider a square grid having many obstacles and we are given a starting cell and
a target cell. We want to reach the target cell (if possible) from the starting cell as
quickly as possible. Here A* Search Algorithm comes to the rescue.
What A* Search Algorithm does is that at each step it picks the node according to
a value-‘f’ which is a parameter equal to the sum of two other parameters – ‘g’
and ‘h’. At each step it picks the node/cell having the lowest ‘f’, and process that
node/cell.
We define ‘g’ and ‘h’ as simply as possible below
g = the movement cost to move from the starting point to a given square on the
grid, following the path generated to get there.
h = the estimated movement cost to move from that given square on the grid to
the final destination. This is often referred to as the heuristic, which is nothing but
a kind of smart guess. We really don’t know the actual distance until we find the
path, because all sorts of things can be in the way (walls, water, etc.). There can be
many ways to calculate this ‘h’ which are discussed in the later sections.