225

Donald Julius Groen Prize Paper

Advances in hydrostatic and, hybrid bearing technology

W B Rowe, BSc, PhD, DSc, CEng, FIMechE
School of Engineering and Technology Management, Liverpool Polytechnic

This review outlines the highpoints in the development of hydrostatic and hybrid bearing technology from early plane and cylindrical
designs to the wide range of conjigurations now utilized. The last 20 years have seen increasing sophistication’of software for bearing
analysis accompanied by application of hybrid bearings to more demanding situations, involving high loads, high speeds and high
accuracy. The emphasis in this review is on advances in the realization of the distinctive characteristics of this important group of
bearings and on the selection of the design approach for different situations. Applications discussed range from measuring and machine
tools to aerospace and heavy power generation equipment. Aspects covered include load coefficients, film stiffness, $ow control, hydro-
dynamic effects and dynamic behaviour.

NOTATION o concentric value

U land width p pumping value
stiffness coefficients r recess value
aij -
area, dimensionless area s supply value
A, A sq squeeze value
b land width
damping coefficients t tangential or total value
b,j
B flow factor
C damping 1 HISTORY
C specific heat capacity The principle of the hydrostatic bearing was first
Cd clearance applied in an invention by L.D. Girard in 1851. High-
D diameter pressure water-fed bearings were employed for a system
F force of railway propulsion based on a type of linear impulse
h film thickness turbine (1, 2). The principle was demonstrated at the
K power ratio (friction power/pumping power) Paris Industrial Exposition in 1878 (3) with the aid of a
L bearing length heavy block supported on legs. It was said to glide
m unbalance mass easily on a flat surface.
N rotational speed In 1917 Lord Rayleigh (4) described a simple hydro-
P pressure static thrust bearing and solved the equations for load,
P pressure flowrate and frictional torque. He also made a model in
flowrate
8
r
flow factor
radius
which two flat ground pennies formed the opposing
bearing surfaces and the lubricant was water supplied
from a tap.
R radius Hodgekinson (5) in 1923 patented a hydrostatic
U sliding speed bearing with recesses fed through restrictors. The prin-
W bearing load ciple is illustrated in Fig. 1. The principle may be
X horizontal coordinate applied equally to gas- and liquid-fed bearings of
Y vertical coordinate various shapes. In gas-fed bearings, unlike liquid-fed
B pressure ratio bearings, large recesses are avoided to prevent pneuma-
& eccentricity ratio tic instability.
rl viscosity
I stiffness
density 2 APPLICATIONS
P
0 rotational speed Since that day there have been many reports of suc-
cessful applications and rapidly increasing output of
Suffixes articles and research reports. A review of the subject in
1971 (6) cited 103 major references selected frsm a much
av average value larger number of publications. The review covered a
e effective value range of topics including the development of design
f friction value parameters to be used with computed data, various
hd hydrodynamic value methods of supply and flow control including pressure-
hs hydrostatic value sensing valves, optimization considerations, approaches
L land value to dynamic analysis, thermal effects, turbulent analysis,
n normal value manufacturing errors and the need for tolerancing.
A study of the literature reveals that the basic mecha-
This lecture was presented at an Ordinary Meeting held in London on 9 March
1989. The MS was received on 28 November 1988 and was accepted for pub- nical principles had all been discovered by 1971. The
lication on 9 March 1989. further development of the subject since that date re-
C07188 Q IMechE 1989 0954-4062/89 $2.00 + .05 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 203
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 6
J
(- r-m
226 W B ROWE

Supply pressure P,

Recess Recess
pressure

Fig. 1 Circular hydrostatic pad with orifice control

flects the realization of the physical behaviour of differ- mechanisms available and partly from the wide range of
ent bearing configurations illustrated generally in Fig. 2 possible geometries and porting arrangements. Depend-
both in non-exacting and in extremely demanding ing on the operating requirements a bearing can be
applications. designed to act principally in one of the following
In this context applications may be considered to be modes (Fig. 3):
demanding in the following ways: 1. Hydrostatic mode :
(a) large masses to be carried, load W is proportional to P, LD at N = 0
(b) extremely high precision and low wear require- 2. Hydrodynamic mode :
ments,
(c) high speeds,
(d) heavy loadings,
load W is proportional to -
vN
P. .C -
A,
at N f O
I
(ly
(e) large ranges of operating temperature. 3. Hybrid mode:
In general, the features that can be turned to advan- combined hydrostatic and hydrodynamic load
tage with appropriate hydrostatic and hybrid bearing support
design include : These three modes form a continuous spectrum of
(a) absence of friction at zero speed, externally pressurized bearings. In earlier work most
(b) absence of starting and stopping wear, attention was given to the hydrostatic end of the spec-
(c) absence of stick-slip motion, trum.
(d) consistency of positioning due to absence of solid Hybrid bearings may be loosely divided into two
contacts, classes, according to the ratio (K) of the friction power
(e) averaging of effect of bearing shape errors on (Hf) to the pumping power ( H J . Hybrid bearings pri-
bearing motion, marily designed to operate at the hydrostatic end of the
spectrum tend to fall into a low power ratio range,
(fj high stiffness and predictability obtainable by atten-
tion to the control device, while hybrid bearings which operate at the hydrody-
(g) high damping, namic end will fall into a high power ratio range.
(h) the hydrostatic effect can in some cases be used to In recent years interest has increased in the analysis
offset whirl. and design of hybrid bearings at the hydrodynamic end
of the spectrum.
The scope for ingenuity in externally pressurized Low power ratio hydrostatic and hybrid bearing
bearing design has provided a diverse range of solutions applications have been mostly for small production
to difficult design problems. The diversity of solutions quantities, principally in areas such as machine tools,

-
arises partly from the range of flow and pressure control laboratory equipment and radio telescopes where the

Externally
pressurized bearings

A
Liquid Gas

I I 1

r--l
Full
Journal

Partial
+
Combined journal and thrust

Spherical Conical Single pad

Thrust

Opposed
pads
Multiple
recess
I
I I I I I 1
Capillary Orifice Constant flow Yates Pressure-sensing Inherent
valve stability
Fig. 2 Family tree of hydrostatic bearings
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 ADVANCES IN HYDROSTATIC AND HYBRID BEARING TECHNOLOGY 221

Pressure-fed bearings

(6;
Hydrostatic Hybrid Hydrodynamic
(self-acting)
I
I
= hydrostatic
+
hydrodynamic

W P,LD
Pressures at N = 0
Wrx q N [$I2 LD

Pressures at N .t.0

Fig. 3 Hydrostatic, hybrid and hydrodynamic bearings

emphasis is on accuracy. High - -power ratio bearings W = 0.53 MN or 53 tonne

sometimes applied to higher volume production have
featured in hydraulic equipment, power generation
For flowrate a computed flow factor B is used in the
expression :
eauipment and in the aerospace industry where the
emphasis is on load and speed. Hybrid bearings have p h3B
been selected because of features that are ideal for many flowrate = q = (2)
rl
demanding applications.
where h is the film thickness and q is the viscosity.
3 BEARING FOR DARESBURY NUCLEAR
STRUCTURE FACILITY
Hydrostatic bearings provide a surface on which heavy
machines may be positioned smoothly and precisely. An
example of this is the analysing magnet of the Nuclear
Structure Facility (NSF) at the SERC Daresbury
Laboratory (7). This bearing was designed in collab-
oration between Liverpool Polytechnic and Daresbury
Laboratory.
The analysing magnet in position is shown in Fig. 4.
The magnet bends a beam of ions through 90 degrees so
it may be directed towards the test equipment. The dia-
meter of the bearing is 1.8 m; it carries a load of 53
tonnes and its surface is flat to an accuracy of 5 pm.
The operating requirements involved maintaining the
vertical centre-line of the apparatus within 0.1 mm
Fig. 4 The analysing magnet supported on a hydrostatic
radius at a height of 6.3 m above the bearing face, while bearing at the base of the Nuclear Structure Facility
the magnet may be rotated. This was successfully at the SERC Daresbury Laboratory
achieved using a multi-recess annular pad (Fig. 5). The
supply pressure was 1.1 MN/m2. Removable capillary
tubes for flow control were used for reasons of simpli-
city and ease of cleaning.
The calculations for the thrust pad illustrate the use
of previously calculated or computed data to simplify
the design process :
load = W = p, AA (1)
where pr is the recess pressure, A is the total bearing
area and A is a computed parameter:
p , = 0.5 x P, = 0.505 MN/m2 for fi = 0.5
A = - lrD2
=-- n x 1.8’
- 2.545 m2
4 4
A = 0.405 from computed data Fig. 5 The multi-recess annular pad for the NSF bearing
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228 WB

Fixed pressure supply P,

Control device
II

Recess press P ,

-- - - - - - - - -

r - - - - T

Capillary controlled single plane bearing

Fig. 6 Basic hydrostatic bearing system and typical pressure distribution

4 BEARING STIFFNESS AND CONTROL It may be shown (9) that the bearing stiffness at the
PRINCIPLES design load for the capillary controlled example is given
Figure 6 shows how a simple hydrostatic bearing pad by
may be supplied with oil and the effect a capillary has
on the way in which pressure varies with displacement. (3)
When the bearing film thickness is large, the capillary
provides the main restriction to flow and the pad pres- The value of stiffness for the capillary controlled
sure is low. This is the lightly loaded condition. Under bearing is a maximum when the pressure ratio is
heavy loads the film thickness is reduced and the pad 8 = 0.5.
pressure is high. Many authors, including several listed in a previous
Hydrostatic bearings must employ a control mecha- review, have proposed different methods of control (6,
nism. This is usually incorporated through the provi- 9). The most common forms of control device are
sion of capillary restrictors. The purpose of the
capillaries is to control the change in film thickness with (a) capillary or other viscous restrictors,
variations in load. Without control devices such as cap- (b) orifices or other turbulent restrictors,
illaries, orifices or flow valves the supported mass will (c) constant flow (pump or valve).
bounce or even fail to maintain a clearance under load. Additional types of control device are
The rate of increase of load with deflection is termed the (d) position-sensing and pressure-sensing valves involv-
stiffness. In terms of the bearing film thickness h, ing spools or diaphragms,
stiffness is defined as
(e) inherent control involving shallow recesses,
dW (f) primary pad control of secondary pads (9,lO).
;1= - -
dh The bearing stiffness for the first four cases above, (a)
to (d), is given by a general relationship (9):
The property of bearing film stiffness depends on the
control device. Bearing stiffness is of great importance
in fields where high precision is required. Extremely (4)
high bearing stiffness can be obtained with appropri-
ately designed hydrostatic bearings, higher than with It can be seen from equation (4) that the bearing
any other type of bearing. One of the areas of contin- stiffness becomes infinite when
uing research and development in relation to the appli- Pr d4 - 1
cation of hydrostatic bearings is for ultra precision
diamond turning machines. Using a combination of 26 4 dP,
air and oil hydrostatic bearings a diamond turning This situation is illustrated in Fig. 7 where a slope of
machine has been produced that will produce a surface 45" corresponding to infinite stiffness may be obtained
of 1.63 m diameter by 0.5 m long within an accuracy using a pressure-sensing valve.
better than f38 nm (8). This concept formed the basis of several inventions
If a bearing is designed for a normal operating load including the spring-loaded diaphragm valve by
in the middle of the range, the corresponding design Moshin (ll),a spool valve by Royle (12) and a double
value of the pressure ratio (recess pressure/supply diaphragm valve suitable for opposed pad bearings by
pressure) is 8 = 0.5. Rowe (13,14).
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 ADVANCES IN HYDROSTATIC AND HYBRID BEARING TECHNOLOGY 229
Infinite stiffness

I Capillary
2 Orifice
Typical pressure-
.-a0 3 Constant flow
E 4 Diaphragm valve
v1
0

yo
3
-.-E
I&

0.5 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

4 F (recess pressure) Load ratio

(a) Pressure/flowrate characteristics (b) Load/deflection characteristics of bearing

Fig. 7 Effect of type of control device

5 THE DIAPHRAGM VALVE FOR THE irrespective of the manufactured clearance. The sensi-
WICKMANSCRIVENER 345 INTERNAL GRINDER tivity of the system to applied load can be tuned by
The double-diaphragm valve was employed for the varying the thickness of the diaphragm or by adjusting
workhead spindle of the Queen’s Award winning the supply pressure. Negative stiffness should usually be
Wickman-Scrivener 345 internal grinder. It was also avoided since this can lead to instability. Typical load
used for the grinding spindles of other machines. characteristics of a diaphragm valve controlled bearing
The diaphragm valve was designed to eliminate the are shown in Fig. 9.
need for spring loading the diaphragm against oil pres- Experiments showed that the diaphragm valve has a
sure, a feature of previous diaphragm valves. It also faster response than previous valves and 10-15 per cent
obviates the need for an additional adding valve when greater load capacity than capillary control.
used for the control of opposed pad bearings. The
arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 8. On each side of the 6 FORCE MEASUREMENT AND BALANCING
diaphragm, oil flows from an annular ring to a central
oil hole which leads to a bearing recess. A diaphragm-controlled six-recess journal bearing
The operating principle is that a load on the bearing system (Fig. 10) was employed as the basis of a grinding
member increases the pressure on the loaded side of the
bearing and on the corresponding side of the dia-
phragm. The diaphragm is caused to deflect by this
change of pressure, thus causing extra flow to be
Stiff diaphragm
pumped to the loaded bearing member. Deflection of
the diaphragm causes the flow to be reduced on the
unloaded side. With correct design the bearing in an 20
unloaded condition will tend to adopt a central position

S
.-
a
0
G
B

a I
1800
/ Applied load

Negative
stiffness
Fig. 9 Load-deflection characteristics of diaphragm con-
Fig. 8 Rowe valve for opposed pad bearings trolled bearings
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230 W B ROWE

Hydrostatic
bearing
p2
t I

Carrier frequency amplifier

I 1 ' I

Six-channel
UV recorder ----
Lowpass
filter
Oscillator
ii
a.c.

'm'
-
Demodulator

Fig. 10 Force measurement and balancing with hydrostatic bearings

amplifier

,
machine dynamometer and balancing device (15). Dif- 8 FLEXIBLE PAD CONTROL
ferential pressure transducers were connected across the
A further development combined the shallow recess
supply lines to opposed recesses to give a measure of
the radial forces F , , F , and F 3 . The forces were cali- principle with the diaphragm control principle (17) to
brated for the speed of operation and resolved t o give achieve very high stiffness. This was achieved by incor-
the normal and tangential grinding forces : porating a flexible diaphragm into the surface of the
pad (Fig. 12). At light loads the recess depth is reduced
F" =F, + 3(F2 - F3) (5) whereas with increased loads the recess depth becomes
greater. With correct choice of diaphragm thickness and
supply pressure the condition of infinite stiffness is
L achieved with either liquid or gas supply.
The unbalance of the grinding wheel was found by
measuring the amplitude of the pressure fluctuations
due to a further unbalance added sequentially in each of 9 THE YATES COMBINED JOURNAL AND THRUST
BEARING
three positions on the grinding wheel flange. The read-
ings allow the mass and angular position of the unbal- The Yates configuration (9, 10) employs the exhaust
ance to be calculated and hence corrected. flow from a conventional journal bearing to supply the

7 SHALLOW RECESS CONTROL (INHERENT

COMPENSATION)
Shallow recess control, otherwise known as inherent
compensation, differs from other types of control in that
control is not external to the bearing pad but depends
- t - - - - - - - -'--
on the geometry of the bearing. In 1961 Adams et al.
(16) proposed a shallow recess type journal bearing. The
bearing has some similarity to the hydrodynamic step
bearing although the principle is different. The principle
t
i t
of shallow recess control illustrated in Fig. 11 does not
require hydrodynamic action for its positional stability.
The stiffness of a shallow recess pad may be calcu-
lated or computed, and may be expressed (9) as

dA
A =p,A - (7)
dh
The principle has also been employed to improve the Fig. 11 Inherently controlled bearing and typical pressure
centralizing action of a hydrostatic piston. distribution
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 ADVANCES IN HYDROSTATIC AND HYBRID BEARING TECHNOLOGY 231

2.0

1.5

W/(P S W
0 (b)
e
s
1.0
Fig. 13 (a) Yates combined journal and thrust hydrostatic
bearing
(b) Loading characteristicsof Yates bearing

0.5 reducing the bearing area devoted to the thrust bearings

which tends to reduce the overall space and power
requirements.
The basic principle is that the efflux from a suitable
arrangement of primary pads does not vary greatly with
0 load and may therefore be used to supply a secondary
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 pad or set of pads. Various arrangements can be con-
W/(nR: P I) ceived. The basic arrangement shown in Fig. 13a has
Fig. 12 Flexible pad control
been employed successfully for large manufacturing
machines and another arrangement has been employed
for small high-speed drills.
thrust bearings (Fig. 13a). This is convenient since
separate supplies and control devices do not have to be 10 DESIGN OF JOURNAL BEARINGS
provided for the thrust bearings.
In a combined arrangement, the necessary supply Previously a distinction was made between bearings
pressure to support given radial and thrust loads for a designed to operate predominately in a hydrostatic
specific bearing area will be up to 20 per cent higher mode and those bearings designed to operate mainly in
than for a separate journal and thrust arrangement. a hydrodynamic mode. Hybrid bearings may operate in
Surprisingly high stiffness can be achieved in the thrust either mode but the design approach employed will
direction with only small increases in the supply pres- differ considerably depending on which characteristics
sure that would be required for an independent journal are required. In a hydrostatic bearing the bearing sur-
bearing. Typical load characteristics are given in Fig. faces are sometimes recessed and sometimes plain. The
13b. It provides a very economical arrangement since load support is achieved primarily as a result of the
the supply of liquid to the thrust bearings is the efflux externally applied pressure. This is particularly appro-
from the journal bearings. It also has the advantage of priate for lower speeds of operation. In practice some
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232 W B ROWE

Fig. 14 Hydrostatically driven spindle with conical hydro-

static bearings
L/D = 1.0
a/L = 0.25
bearings designed as hydrostatic bearings operate at K=O
surprisingly high speeds. For example, a Molins n=4
machine tool spindle for high-speed cutting was report- 0.4
E = 0.8
ed as operating at speeds up to 5000 r/min (18). Other
examples (19) have been given including a grinding
machine spindle of 28 mm diameter with a built-in
radial ball motor operating at speeds up to 7000 r/min
(Fig. 14). In this application, conical bearings were
employed for economy of space and power consump-
tion.
At higher speeds careful design is necessary to avoid
excessive power dissipation and temperature rise in the
system. The following sections illustrate some important
aspects of the development of the design approach.
The geometry of a typical recessed journal bearing is
shown in Fig. 15 together with the zero speed character-
istics. Such bearings commonly employ four or six
recesses, each recess supplied through a separate
restrictor. Usually the land width ratio (a/L)will be 0.25 P
or smaller. (b)
For low-speed operation it is usual to ensure that the Fig. 15 (a) Geometry of a recessed journal bearing
zero speed load capacity of the bearing is sufficient to (b) Zero-speed-load characteristics
cope with the applied loading throughout the operating
speed range. This is a safe procedure which allows a
significant overload capacity at maximum speed.
In the following discussion, a distinction between 0.5 c x K = 3.3
hydrostatic bearings designed to operate at low values
of power ratio and plain hybrid bearings designed to
operate primarily in the high power ratio hydrodynamic 0.4
mode will be further developed.

11 POWER RATIO ( K ) AS A DESIGN PARAMETER

It is found that the power ratio is pivotal in the design
of efficient hydrostatic and hybrid bearings. In most L/D = 1.0
a/L = 0.25
cases the selection of a suitable range of power ratios
can be a convenient starting point for the design
process, whereas early workers gave no consideration at
all to this concept.
The effect of speed on load capacity may be described
in terms of the power ratio, as illustrated in Fig. 16 for a 0.2 0.6 1 .o
capillary-controlled recessed journal bearing configu- &

ration. At a normal operating speed (power ratio Fig. 16 Load characteristics of zero speed and low power
K = 1) the load capacity is some 30 per cent greater ratio multi-recess journal bearings
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 ADVANCES IN HYDROSTATIC AND HYBRID BEARING TECHNOLOGY 233

than the load at zero speed (power ratio K = 0) for an

eccentricity ratio of E = 0.6. In some cases the designer
may wish to minimize speed effects on the position and
temperature of the bearing. Hydrodynamic effects are
relatively low when the power ratio is very low. The
maximum safe load which can be applied based on
zero-speed capability is given approximately by

W
--
P , L D - 0’25

In practice load capacity depends not only on speed but

on a number of other parameters including viscosity,
clearance, L / D ratio and the geometrical configuration
of the bearing. The combined effect of these parameters Fig. 17 Recirculation in bearing recesses increases power
can be expressed through the power ratio for all hydro- consumption and temperature rise
static and hybrid bearings (9). The power ratio K is
defined as
Figure 17 illustrates recirculation which occurs in a
recess due to the damming effect of the inter-recess land.
(9) The recirculation increases the total bearing friction and
it may be shown that the frictional drag due to the
recess may exceed the frictional drag due to the lands
where H, is the friction power and H, is the pumping when thin land configurations are employed. An
power. improved expression for bearings with non-turbulent
The simplicity of this approach has evolved over a deep recesses may be obtained by replacing A , by the
number of years. Initially the importance of the power effective friction area A, where
ratio was demonstrated by Fuller (3) in relation to the
minimum power condition. Fuller varied film thickness h0
to minimize total power H I , where the total power is A, = A, + 4A, -
the sum of the friction power H , and the pumping hr
power H,: where A, is the recess area and h, is the film thickness at
the recess.
When researchers are computing the speed character-
where istics of hydrostatic and hybrid bearings, a number of
variables are grouped together as a speed parameter.
For hydrodynamic bearings the inverse Sommerfeld
number is employed where

A =‘IN
pa,
(E)2
For computation of hydrostatic bearings the supply
Early workers ignored recess friction so that in the pressure is an important parameter. For convenience
concentric condition the total power was represented as the Sommerfeld number is modified by replacing the
average bearing pressure by the supply pressure. This
approach was adopted by Raimondi and Boyd in 1954
(22)and many others since, leading to the definition of a
hybrid speed parameter S, .
It was shown (6, 23) that writing H , = K H , leads to
where A, is the area of the bearing lands. The total the following relationship between K and S,:
power H , may be minimized by varying radial clearance
ho which results in the condition that friction power
should be three times the pumping power. This corre-
sponds to a power ratio of K = 3.
Alternatively, if total power H I is minimized by where
varying the viscosity rj of the lubricant, another condi-
tion results which is that the power ratio K = 1. A,
It was first shown by Opitz (20) that in the range A -2
‘-D
1 < K < 3 power will never exceed the minimum value
by more than 15 per cent. This result was important The value of equation (15) to the researcher and to the
since it provided a starting point for the design of designer is that it is possible to determine from the flow
energy-efficient bearings. factor Q and the friction area factor A, a suitable value
The assumption that recess friction can be ignored of the design group S , for K = 1 or other values con-
was shown by Shinkle and Hornung (21) to be invalid. sidered appropriate.
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234 W B ROWE

0.16 c

= 100 x I 0 6

Fig. 18 Recessed journal bearings-tolerances

The power ratio has a further significance in that it of the journal according to internationally accepted tol-
leads directly to an appropriate expression for tem- erance grades. Figure 18 shows an example for recessed
perature rise based on the adiabatic assumption, which journal bearings.
is that

AT = PS(1 + K ) (17) 14 HIGH POWER RATIO BEARINGS

PC
In some applications such as machine tools the main
where p is the density of the lubricant and c is the spe- forces are only applied on the bearings at speed. ln
cific heat capacity. other applications the load on the bearing increases
with operating speed. For example, an out-of-balance
12 PRESSURE RATIO (p) AS A DESIGN mass m acting at a radius r on a rotor operating at a
PARAMETER speed o gives rise to a force
The importance of the pressure ratio may be judged F = mro2 (18)
from Fig. 15b which shows the effect on the zero speed In such situations economy is gained by taking full
load capacity at different values of eccentricity ratio. advantage of hydrodynamics as the primary source of
When the journal is concentric in the bearing the load support at high speeds and hydrostatics at low
maximum stiffness is achieved with B = 0.5. In practice speeds. This result can be achieved in design by avoid-
allowance must be made for manufacturing errors and ing the location of recesses in the regions where high
an operating range is required. This led to the formula- hydrodynamic pressures are generated and by the judi-
tion of a strategy for providing tolerances on bearing cious arrangement of high-pressure supply ports. The
clearance and other critical design features. effect of large grooves and recesses in the high-pressure
regions is to create leakage routes to the regions of
13 TOLERANCES FOR LOW POWER RATIO lower pressure, which reduce the load-carrying capacity.
BEARINGS Four examples of hybrid bearing design are shown in
Fig. 19. Each has its own advantages for particular
It was found (24) that the preferred range for the power applications and is suitable for high power ratio oper-
-=
ratio 1 K < 3 could be arranged to coincide with a ation to carry heavy loads.
range for pressure ratio 0.4 < < 0.7. This result may High power ratio hybrid bearings can carry much
be summarized as follows: higher loads for the same supply pressure when oper-
~~

ating at higher speeds. Figure 20 shows that load capac-

Upper limit Lower limit ity is approximately proportional to speed as the power
Clearance Cd(U)= 1.5Cd(L) C'i(L1 ratio is increased from K = 1.0 to K = 26.1 for a slot
Pressure ratio /I = 0.4 /I = 0.7 entry bearing. This increase in power ratio is equivalent
Power ratio K = 1.0 K = 3.0 to increasing speed by a factor of J26.1 = 5.1.
The designer will usually want to carry the maximum
This result was incorporated into graphical design load for the minimum power at a particular value of
procedures which relate clearance ratios to the diameter eccentricity ratio or minimum film thickness. Studies
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 ADVANCES IN HYDROSTATIC AND HYBRID BEARING TECHNOLOGY 235

(a)

Fig. 19 Four examples of hybrid journal bearings

were therefore conducted (25, 26) to determine the high power ratios and exhibits an optimum in the range
optimum range of power ratio to maximize the function 3<K<9.
(load/total power). The results of the investigation led to
the conclusion that this function is reasonably flat at
15 TOLERANCES FOR HIGH POWER RATIO
Slot hybrid bearing HYBRID BEARINGS
Clearance limits may be selected in the same way for
LID = 1.0 plain high power ratio bearings as for low power ratio
a/L = 0.1 bearings except that the value K = 3 is substituted for
12 - B = 0.63
SHO 3 0.082
the condition K = 1 and K = 9 is substituted for the
condition K = 3. The recommendations for plain high
power ratio bearings are:
A x
10 - I Upper limit Lower limit
N

9 Clearance C,(U) = 1.5Cd(L) cd(L)

p = 0.4 p = 0.7
z
A 8-
Pressure ratio
Power ratio K = 3.0 K = 9.0
22
-$
II
6- 16 SLOT ENTRY HYBRID BEARINGS
a The slot entry hybrid bearing as shown in Fig. 19a was
designed by Dee (27). This design has been employed in
4- a wide range of applications, in gas and liquid applica-
tions. It is an efficient bearing when employed as either
a low-speed hydrostatic bearing or as a high-speed
Theoretical
Experimental
hybrid bearing. As a gas bearing it has the advantage of
2-
A K = 1.0 high resistance to pneumatic instability. One of the
0 K = 7.48 main areas of application of slot entry bearings is for
grinding wheel spindles, where gas bearings tend to be
X K= 26.1
used for lightly loaded spindles and liquid bearings for
I I I I L

heavily loaded applications.

E When slot entry bearings are employed as low power
Fig. 20 Load characteristics of slot entry hybrid bearings at ratio hydrostatic bearings the position of the slots is
high power ratios usually such that the land width ratio a/L = 0.25. For
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236 W B ROWE

Slot hybrid bearing 0.5

8.0 I 1 I n , = 1, nz = 5 (capillary)
L/D = 1.0
/3 = 0.5
K = 12
7.0 -

6.0 -

5.0 -
9^ 4.0 -
s
3.0 -

2.0 -
3

1.0 -
5.01
01 1 I I 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
alL

I 1 I I I 1
0.252 0.178 0.145 0.126 0.118
SH
Fig. 21 The effect of slot entry position on load capacity

hybrid operation there is considerable advantage to be

obtained in moving the slot entries out towards the
ends of the bearing to the position a/L = 0.1, as shown
3.0 1
by the load characteristics in Fig. 21.

17 HOLE ENTRY BEARINGS

A liquid sodium lubricated hole entry bearing of a
similar type to the configuration illustrated in Fig. 19b
has been successfully employed in the cooling system of
a prototype nuclear reactor for many years. The design
of this turbulent bearing was described by Betts and
Roberts (28). Further studies were made of hole entry
bearings (29, 30) because it was considered that this
configuration was particularly attractive for ease of 0.0 0.5 I .o
manufacture. E
(b)
The load-carrying capacity at zero speed is reason-
ably similar to the slot entry bearing, and both configu- Fig. 22 (a) Zero-speed load capacity for various bearing
rations give moderately higher loads than the configurations
(b) Load capacity at K = 3
four-recess journal bearing (Fig. 22a). It is also a simple
matter to arrange an asymmetric hole entry configu- the zero eccentricity ratio. At speed ( K = 3) asymmetric
ration. Figure 22a includes results for a bearing having configurations suffer loss of load capacity due to oil
one hole near the maximum film thickness position and starvation and it is advisable to employ an axial groove
five holes in the minimum film thickness bearing region. as in Fig. 23.
This configuration makes it possible to carry a load at The symmetrical hole entry bearing with 12 holes per
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 ADVANCES IN HYDROSTATIC AND HYBRID BEARING TECHNOLOGY 231

Axial groove
70 r K = 9 Six-slot

grove
Radial slot
Fig. 23 Five slot per row asymmetric bearing with axial

row looks even more attractive at a power ratio of

K = 3. A capillary compensated hole entry bearing
operating at an eccentricity ratio of 0.8 carries a higher
10 -
0
&
1 .o

Fig. 24 Percentage cavitation and effect of an axial grove

bearings. For this situation the asymmetric slot entry or

load than the other two configurations. Clearly a well- hole entry bearing is appropriate. A slot entry version is
designed hole entry configuration is less disruptive of illustrated in Fig. 23. The effect of an axial groove on
the hydrodynamic pressures than even the slot entry the proportion of the bearing area subject to cavitation
configuration. It was found (30), however, that the load is shown (33) in Fig. 24. As an approximate guide the
and flow characteristics of hole entry bearings vary con- area of the cavitation zone should not be allowed to
siderably with the addition of a small pocket at the hole much exceed 50 per cent of the total bearing area for a
entry position. 360" bearing.

18 IMPORTANCE OF CAVITATION AND

REFORMATION CONDITIONS 19 PARTIAL ARC HYBRID BEARINGS FOR POWER
GENERATION EQUIPMENT
During the study of hybrid bearing performance it was
found that flow calculations were seriously in error at A good example of high-speed bearings which are
high values of eccentricity ratio due to incorrect compu- heavily loaded is the case of bearings for power-
tation of the extent of the cavitation region obtained by generation equipment. Such bearings may dissipate up
replacing all negative values of pressure by the value to 0.5 MW of energy. For this case jacking bearings are
p = 0.0. The problem arises due to the fact that this necessary to lift the rotor before running it up to speed.
procedure leads to computation of positive pressures in The jacking is provided through externally pressurized
regions where there is insufficient convected liquid to fill recesses as illustrated in Fig. 19c. Partial arc bearings
the clearance. The conditions required for reformation cut down friction and provide the equivalent of an axial
of a full fluid film were analysed by Floberg and Jakob- groove. The recess positions need to be close to the ends
sen (31).Efficient routines were developed (29, 32)which of the bearing and such a design modification was intro-
allowed the cavitation and reformation boundaries to duced in the industrial application to minimize dis-
be calculated and ensure that flow through the ruption of the hydrodynamic lift (34).
restrictors was consistent with the calculation of flow Power-generation equipmen? involves massive rotors
out of the bearing. running at 50 or 60 Hz. The load-carrying capacity of
The realization of the importance of correctly calcu- the partial arc bearing is illustrated in Fig. 25.
lating the reformation boundary became apparent when The design of generator bearings involves a complex
it was found that hybrid bearings at higher speeds and interaction of sometimes conflicting requirements
loadings could become seriously starved of oil, leading including:
to loss of load capacity and localized hot spots. (a) moderate flowrate,
In the cavitation region there is no pressure to (b) moderate temperature rise,
exhaust the oil and so hot fluid from the minimum film (c) moderate power consumption,
thickness region can be recirculated round the bearing. (d) adequate damping during starting, stopping and
With large high-speed bearings this can cause excessive full-speed operation,
bearing temperatures. The hot fluid must be flushed out (e) avoidance of whirl instability.
of the bearing or cooled. This can be achieved by incor-
porating a low pressure axial groove as an additional For the improved design of generator bearings it is
source of cold oil supply to the mid-plane of the essential to gain an in-depth understanding of static and
bearing. dynamic performance and their inter-relationships. It is
The problem of cavitation and overheating is particu- therefore of some interest to consider the dynamic char-
larly important for large high-speed heavily loaded acteristics of hybrid bearings.
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238 W B ROWE

2F,.

w, = F , + my
Fig. 27 A simple rotor mass system

twice the natural frequency of the rotor system.

Leonard and Rowe (37)showed that the onset condi-
0 0.5 I .o tions could be accurately predicted for concentric and
lightly loaded hybrid bearings. Figures 27 and 28 illus-
Eccentricity ratio E trate a simple rotor and coordinate system. The bearing
Fig. 25 Load characteristics of a partial arc bearing film force may be considered for ease of analysis in iso-
lation from the inertia effects due to the structure.
20 DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE OF HYBRID In xy coordinates (non-rotating) the bearing is
BEARINGS usually characterized by eight dynamic force coefficients
A discussion of the dynamics of flat pads is given in aijand bij:
reference (9). Transfer functions for any shape of bearing
should ideally take into account hydrostatic, hydrody-
b11k + b12j + + = W,
allx ~ 1 2 ~ (19)
namic, squeeze, compressibility and inertia effects (35). b21k + b22j + azlx + a22y = W, (20)
The squeeze effect illustrated in Fig. 26 is a powerful Neglecting compressibility in calculation of the fre-
source of damping which can be used to dissipate vibra- quency response up to 60 Hz may not be entirely justi-
tional energy. The dynamic behaviour of flat pads is fied but is nonetheless a useful simplication. In the
well understood. The prediction of journal bearing special case of the lightly loaded bearing,
behaviour is more difficult and less well understood,
particularly in relation to what constitutes good design a11 = a22 = A s (hydrostatic stiffness) (21)
practice. a , , = -azl = -Ahd (hydrodynamic stiffness) (22)
An interesting starting point for consideration of
dynamic performance is the phenomenom of oil whip bll = b22 = cs, (squeeze damping) (23)
instability in fluid film bearings described by Newkirk
and Taylor in 1925 (36).Lightly loaded journal bearings b,, = b12 = 0 (24)
experience instability when the rotor speed approaches
Y
Total pressures
including squeeze

pressures

P Squeeze pressures
on lands

Fig. 26 Effect of squeeze on pressures Fig. 28 Coordinates for journal bearing

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 ADVANCES IN HYDROSTATIC AND HYBRID BEARING TECHNOLOGY 239

It has been shown (9,38) that analytical expressions

can be given for &S and & d . A surprising result of the
analysis was found to be that, for the concentric case,
the squeeze damping is directly related to the hydrody-
namic stiffness. A useful consequence of this result is ''OF
that the squeeze damping can be determined from a
steady loading experiment. It is found that

Physically the meaning of this statement can be per-

ceived by examining the effect of a small velocity i. of
the centre of the journal. This velocity gives rise to a
squeeze force which is equal and opposite to the hydro-
dynamic force for a shaft orbiting at a speed R = N/2.
At this condition the motion is no longer resisted by
squeeze force since this has been cancelled out by the
hydrodynamic force. The oil mass simply 'whips'
around with the shaft. When the speed N reaches twice
the natural frequency of the shaft, the bearing behaves 0.0 l t l l l l l # I
like an undamped system and is unstable. 0.5 I .o
Equation (25) also gives rise to the question, why &

should this relationship between squeeze damping and

hydrodynamic stiffness exist? It can be shown mathe-
matically for particular cases and depends purely on
geometry. The simplest explanation is obtained by con-
sidering net flows from one half of the bearing clearance
volume into the other. Divide the bearing into two
halves by drawing a line through the line of eccentricity.
In the absence of pressure losses it can be shown that
the flow from one half to the other due to the squeeze
action exactly cancels the flow due to hydrodynamic
convection. Since these flows cancel no pressures are
generated and pressure losses can be ignored. Because
squeeze and hydrodynamic pressures do not arise from
the process of orbiting near the concentric state, the
relationship can be established in purely geometric
terms.
At zero speed (K = 0) hydrostatic journal bearings
are very stable and well damped (Fig. 29). At speed, all
eight coefficients of equations (19) and (20) come into
play (Fig. 30). As previously discussed, it is the hydrody-
namic effect that can give rise to instability problems
and this becomes evident by the emergence of cross- 0.5 I .o
coupling coeflicients (39), a 1 2 ,azl, b12 and bzl. Another &
qualitative measure of susceptibility to instability is the
Fig. 29 Variation of stiffness and damping coefficients with
attitude angle. The purely hydrodynamic bearing under eccentricity ratio for a slot entry bearing ( S , = 0.046,
concentric conditions and an attitude angle of 90 K = 0,a/L = 0.25, L/D = 1.0,B = 0.5)
degrees between the load and eccentricity vector will
become unstable with increasing speed. Measures that
reduce the attitude angle sufficiently tend to reduce the improve at low values of Sommerfeld number corre-
problem. sponding to conditions of heavy loading and high
There is a problem of computing the dynamic force eccentricity ratio. These are the conditions where atti-
coefficients in that it is difficult to model the practical tude angle is reduced. The results for hybrid bearings
situation exactly. Computations are useful, however, to are identified by the appropriate values of the power
explore the basic trends and compare the relative per- ratio. It may be seen that when K = 1 the hybrid
formance of different bearings. The development of bearing competes well with other configurations. It may
techniques for computing the dynamic performance also be shown (39) that under these conditions the
owes much to Lund and Thomsen (40). minimum film thickness is larger for the slot entry bear-
Figure 31 shows a comparison between plain slot ings than for other configurations.
entry hybrid bearing stability characteristics and those 21 THERMAL EFFECTS IN HYBRID BEARINGS
of other bearing configurations (41).
The lightly loaded condition corresponds to high Recently an investigation into the thermal aspects of the
values of Sommerfeld number. Stability tends to slot entry hybrid bearing has been undertaken. From
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 W B ROWE

9r a2 I
Offset

3.0 -
3 2.0 -
5,0
s
F
3
-g -
a
J
L

f? - 1.0

B
K
v1
/ Stable
t
1 I I I IIIIII I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 * I .I
0.01 0 .I 1 .o 5.0

Somrnerfeld number __
, .
Fig. 31 Linearized stability map comparing plain hybrid slot
entry bearings with other configurations
0 0.5 I .o
&

I I
0 ll h,," 2;

LID = I aIL = 0.1 = 0.5 N = 50 rls

k , = 50 Wlm"C h , = 80 Wlm2"C
Fig. 32 Temperature profile for a slot entry hybrid bearing

20 f\
&
/ I
'
Isothermal
Fig. 30 Variation of stiffness and damping coefficients with
eccentricity ratio for a slot entry bearing (S, = 0.046,
K = 1, u/L = 0.25, L/D = 1.0, = 0.5)
-bI '
/ I
the work conducted so far, it is understood that the I I
rings of slot entry ports effectively 'dam' a mass of fluid
in the centre of the bearing. At high speeds this mass of
fluid is subject to constant recirculation, resulting in
lot
Thermal
I .'
conduction to the shaft and bearing shell being the most model
dominant forms of heat transfer in this type of bearing.
The problem of conduction to the bearing shell is
further compounded by the presence of oil cavities
which feed the slot entry ports.
A theoretical model for the thermal effects in slot
entry bearings has been developed and, as can be seen
from the oil temperature profile presented in Fig. 32, Circumferential position
high oil temperatures may occur in the central region of Fig. 33 Centre-line pressure profiles for a slot entry bearing
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 ADVANCES IN HYDROSTATIC AND HYBRID BEARING TECHNOLOGY 24 1

0.25 E, = 0.995
s, = 7.31 x
7, = 7.34 x Pas
P, = 5.26 x lo6 Pa
BE, = 0.255
P,,, = 0.0

0.3
I
0.255
Elastic Rigid

Fig. 34 Effects of elastic deflections on pressure distribution for a gear pump bearing

the bearing, resulting in a significant drop in the peak Figure 34 shows how the pressure distribution is sub-
centre-line pressure compared to the isothermal case stantially modified. Some effects illustrated are :
(Fig. 33).
A full experimental programme to validate these find- 1. Shaft bending causes pressure to peak at one end.
ings is now under way, and detailed publications will 2. Local deflections reduce peak pressure.
follow. 3. The recess reduces the size of the cavitation region
compared to a non-recessed bearing.
4. The recess pressure contributes to the load support.
22 GEAR PUMP BEARING
A hybrid bearing of a configuration similar to the one 23 CONCLUDING REMARKS
illustrated in Fig. 19b is used to pump fuel to an aero Hydrostatic and hybrid bearing technology has given
engine. It operates reliably under heavy loadings with a rise to a wide diversity of design ideas. These ideas have
low viscosity liquid for the lubricant. In this application been applied to solve particularly demanding problems
it is even more important to avoid excessive power in machine design. This paper has attempted to bring
losses. Load support over a wide range of speeds is together and summarize some of these developments
achieved by a combination of hydrodynamic support in and relate them to typical fields of application.
the converging fluid film region and hydrostatic support
in the diverging region. Fuel is fed into the converging
region by a vee groove which draws from the low- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
pressure end face region of the gear pump. The recess is
fed through an orifice with high-pressure fuel pumped The author wishes to thank his colleague, Mr David
from the outlet port region of the gear pump. This Ives, who assisted with the preparation of this paper
bearing arrangement has been tested up to extremely and was particularly involved in the work on large
high loadings and continues to perform well even under high-speed bearings, and also former colleagues who
large elastic distortions. contributed to the extensive analysis and experimen-
A substantial experimental and software development tation involved in many of the studies briefly mentioned
programme has allowed the performance to be analysed in this paper. Particular mention should be made of the
including the effect of elastic distortions in the journal contributions made by Professor John O’Donoghue,
and in the bearing due to local pressures and bending. deceased, Professor Ken Stout of Birmingham Uni-
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242 W B ROWE

versity, Dr Dal Koshal of Brighton Polytechnic and Dr 21 Shinkle, J. N. and Hornung, K. G. Frictional characteristics of
Fei Seong Chong formerly of Liverpool Polytechnic. liquid hydrostatic journal bearings. Trans. ASME, J. Basic Engng,
1965, Ser. D, 88, 163.
Mr Tony W. Elliott of Liverpool Polytechnic was 22 Raimondi, A. A. and Boyd, J. An analysis of capillary compen-
associated with the work on heavily loaded and elasti- sated hydrostatic journal bearings. Westinghouse Research Labor-
cally deformed bearings. atories, scientific paper 60-94451-8-P1, 1954. Presented at
ASME-ASLE Joint Conference on Lubrication, Baltimore, 1954.
23 O’Donoghue, J. P., Rowe, W. B. and Hooke, C. J. Design of
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