2 Communication

2.1
In this chapter, you will learn about
the benefits of networking devices

Networking
★
★ the characteristics of a local area network (LAN) and a wide area
network (WAN)
★ client-server and peer-to-peer models in networking
★ the differences between thin client and thick client
★ bus, star, mesh and hybrid networking topologies
★ public and private cloud computing
★ the differences between wired and wireless networks
(including types of cable and wireless technologies)
★ the hardware required to support a LAN
★ the function of routers
★ Ethernet and how data collisions are detected and avoided
★ bit streaming (including differences between real-time and
on-demand streaming of data)
★ the differences between the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)
★ the hardware needed to support the internet
★ IP addresses (including IPv4, IPv6, public IP addresses and private IP
addresses)
★ the use of the uniform resource locator (URL) to locate a resource on
the world wide web
★ the role of the domain name service (DNS).

WHAT YOU SHOULD ALREADY KNOW

Try these three questions before you read this d) Explain the function of an internet browser.
chapter. In what ways is this different to an ISP?
1 a) Explain the following terms associated 2 A college is about to form a network from
with devices connected to a network/ 20 stand-alone computers. Describe the
internet. hardware and software that might be needed
i) MAC address to produce this simple computer network.
ii) IP address 3 a) Mobile phones and tablets can be
b) Explain the main differences between a configured to access the internet from any
MAC address and an IP address and why it location. Describe the software required to
is necessary to have both associated with a allow this to happen.
device connected to the internet. b) Describe some of the benefits and
c) What is the purpose of an internet service drawbacks (when compared to a desktop
provider (ISP)? PC) of accessing website pages from a
mobile phone.

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 2.1 Networking
2 Key terms
ARPAnet – Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. Packet – message/data sent over a network from node to
WAN – wide area network (network covering a very node (packets include the address of the node sending the
large geographical area). packet, the address of the packet recipient and the actual
data – this is covered in greater depth in Chapter 14).
LAN – local area network (network covering a small
area such as a single building). Star network topology – a network that uses a central
2 Communication

hub/switch with all devices connected to this central

MAN – metropolitan area network (network which
hub/switch so all data packets are directed through this
is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, which
central hub/switch.
can cover several buildings in a single city, such as a
university campus). Mesh network topology – interlinked computers/
devices, which use routing logic so data packets are
File server – a server on a network where central files
sent from sending stations to receiving stations only by
and other data are stored. They can be accessed by a
the shortest route.
user logged onto the network.
Hybrid network – network made up of a combination of
Hub – hardware used to connect together a number other network topologies.
of devices to form a LAN that directs incoming data
Cloud storage – method of data storage where data is
packets to all devices on the network (LAN).
stored on off-site servers.
Switch – hardware used to connect together a number Data redundancy – situation in which the same data is
of devices to form a LAN that directs incoming data stored on several servers in case of maintenance or repair.
packets to a specific destination address only.
Wi-Fi – wireless connectivity that uses radio waves,
Router – device which enables data packets to be microwaves. Implements IEEE 802.11 protocols.
routed between different networks (for example, can
Bluetooth – wireless connectivity that uses radio waves
join LANs to form a WAN).
in the 2.45 GHz frequency band.
Modem – modulator demodulator. A device that Spread spectrum frequency hopping – a method of
converts digital data to analogue data (to be sent down transmitting radio signals in which a device picks one of
a telephone wire); conversely it also converts analogue 79 channels at random. If the chosen channel is already
data to digital data (which a computer can process). in use, it randomly chooses another channel. It has a
WLAN – wireless LAN. range up to 100 metres.
(W)AP – (wireless) access point which allows a device WPAN – wireless personal area network. A local wireless
to access a LAN without a wired connection. network which connects together devices in very close
PAN – network that is centred around a person or their proximity (such as in a user’s house); typical devices
workspace. would be a laptop, smartphone, tablet and printer.
Client-server – network that uses separate dedicated Twisted pair cable – type of cable in which two wires
servers and specific client workstations. All client of a single circuit are twisted together. Several twisted
computers are connected to the dedicated servers. pairs make up a single cable.
Spread spectrum technology – wideband radio Coaxial cable – cable made up of central copper core,
frequency with a range of 30 to 50 metres. insulation, copper mesh and outer insulation.
Node – device connected to a network (it can be a Fibre optic cable – cable made up of glass fibre wires
computer, storage device or peripheral device). which use pulses of light (rather than electricity) to
transmit data.
Peer-to-peer – network in which each node can share
Gateway – device that connects LANs which use
its files with all the other nodes. Each node has its own
different protocols.
data and there is no central server.
Repeater – device used to boost a signal on both wired
Thin client – device that needs access to the internet for
and wireless networks.
it to work and depends on a more powerful computer
for processing. Repeating hubs – network devices which are a hybrid of
hub and repeater unit.
Thick client – device which can work both off line and
Bridge – device that connects LANs which use the
on line and is able to do some processing even if not
same protocols.
connected to a network/internet.
Softmodem – abbreviation for software modem; a
Bus network topology – network using single central
software-based modem that uses minimal hardware.
cable in which all devices are connected to this cable so
data can only travel in one direction and only one device NIC – network interface card. These cards allow
is allowed to transmit at a time. devices to connect to a network/internet (usually
associated with a MAC address set at the factory).

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 WNIC – wireless network interface cards/controllers. Buffering – store which holds data temporarily.
Ethernet – protocol IEEE 802.3 used by many wired LANs.
Conflict – situation in which two devices have the same
IP address.
Bit rate – number of bits per second that can be
transmitted over a network. It is a measure of the data
transfer rate over a digital telecoms network.
2
Broadcast – communication where pieces of data are On demand (bit streaming) – system that allows
sent from sender to receiver. users to stream video or music files from a
central server as and when required without
Collision – situation in which two messages/data from
having to save the files on their own computer/
different sources are trying to transmit along the same
tablet/phone.
data channel.

2.1
Real-time (bit streaming) – system in which an event
CSMA/CD – carrier sense multiple access with collision
is captured by camera (and microphone) connected
detection – a method used to detect collisions and

Networking
to a computer and sent to a server where the data
resolve the issue.
is encoded. The user can access the data ‘as it
Bit streaming – contiguous sequence of digital bits sent happens’ live.
over a network/internet.

2.1.1 Networking devices

One of the earliest forms of networking, circa 1970 in the USA, was the
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPAnet). This was an early
form of packet switching wide area network (WAN) connecting a number of
large computers in the Department of Defense. It later expanded to include
university computers. It is generally agreed that ARPAnet developed the
technical platform for what we now call the internet. Figure 2.1 shows the vast
area this network covered.

LINCOLN
MIT-IPC
MIT-MAC
LBL T CCA
RADC T T BBN
AMES AMES LLL UTAH BBN
T SRI CASE
T GWC HARVARD
XEROX T CARNEGIE
STANFORD T TYMSHARE T
FNWC T DOCB ABERDEEN
BELVOIR NORSAR
UCSB ILLINOS
SDAC T T
UCSD UCLA
T MITRE T T NBS
SDC T
HAWAI LONDON
RAND T ARPA T T ETAC
USC

USC–ISI

T RML

▲ Figure 2.1 ARPAnet coverage, 1973

As personal computers developed through the 1980s, a local network began to

appear. This became known as a local area network (LAN). LANs tended to
be much smaller networks (usually inside one building) connecting a number
of computers and shared devices, such as printers. WANs typically consist of
a number of LANs connected via public communications networks (such as
telephone lines or satellites). Because a WAN consists of LANs joined together,
it may be a private network, and passwords and user IDs are required to access
it. This is in contrast to the internet which is a vast number of decentralised
networks and computers which have a common point of access, so that anyone
with access to the internet can connect to the computers on these networks.
This makes it intrinsically different to a WAN.
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 In recent years, another type of network – a metropolitan area network

2
(MAN) – has emerged. MANs are larger than LANs as they can connect together
many small computer networks (e.g LANs) housed in different buildings within
a city (for example, a university campus). MANs are restricted in their size
geographically to, for example, a single city.
In contrast, WANs can cover a much larger geographical area, such as a country
or a continent. For example, a multi-national company may connect a number
of smaller networks together (e.g. LANs or MANs) to form a world-wide WAN.
This is covered in more detail later.
2 Communication

Here are some of the main benefits of networking computers and devices
(rather than using a number of stand-alone computers):
» Devices, such as printers, can be shared (thus reducing costs).
» Licences to run software on networks are often far cheaper than buying
licences for an equivalent number of stand-alone computers.
» Users can share files and data.
» Access to reliable data that comes from a central source, such as a file
server.
» Data and files can be backed up centrally at the end of each day.
» Users can communicate using email and instant messaging.
» A network manager can oversee the network and, for example, apply access
rights to certain files, or restrict access to external networks, such as the
internet.

There are also a number of drawbacks:

» Cabling and servers can be an expensive initial outlay.
» Managing a large network can be a complex and difficult task.
» A breakdown of devices, such as the file servers, can affect the whole network.
» Malware and hacking can affect entire networks (particularly if a LAN is part
of a much larger WAN), although firewalls do afford some protection in this
respect.

Networked computers
Networked computers form an infrastructure which enables internal and external
communications to take place. The infrastructure includes the following:

Hardware
» LAN cards
» routers
» switches
» wireless routers
» cabling

Software
» operation and management of the network
» operation of firewalls
» security applications/utilities

Services
» DSL
» satellite communication channels
» wireless protocols
» IP addressing.
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 Networks can be categorised as private or public.
Private networks are owned by a single company or organisation (they are
often LANs or intranets with restricted user access, for example, passwords and
user ids are required to join the network); the companies are responsible for the
2
purchase of their own equipment and software, maintenance of the network and
the hiring and training of staff.
Public networks are owned by a communications carrier company (such as
a telecoms company); many organisations will use the network and there are
usually no specific password requirements to enter the network – but sub-

2.1
networks may be under security management.

Networking
WANs and LANs
Local area networks (LANs)
LANs are usually contained within one building, or within a small geographical
area. A typical LAN consists of a number of computers and devices (such as
printers) connected to hubs or switches. One of the hubs or switches is usually
connected to a router and/or modem to allow the LAN to connect to the
internet or become part of a wide area network (WAN).
Wireless LANs (WLANs)
Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs but there are no wires or cables.
In other words, they provide wireless network communications over fairly
short distances (up to 100 metres) using radio or infrared signals instead of
using cables.
Devices, known as wireless access points (WAPs), are connected into
the wired network at fixed locations. Because of the limited range, most
commercial LANs (such as those on a college campus or at an airport) need
several WAPs to permit uninterrupted wireless communications. The WAPs use
either spread spectrum technology (which is a wideband radio frequency with
a range from a few metres to 100 metres) or infrared (which has a very short
range of about 1 to 2 metres and is easily blocked, and therefore has limited
use; see Section 2.1.5 Wired and wireless networking).
The WAP receives and transmits data between the WLAN and the wired network
structure. End users access the WLAN through wireless LAN adapters which are
built into the devices or as a plug in module.

WAP

WAP WAP

▲ Figure 2.2 Wireless local area networks (WLAN)

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 Wide area networks (WANs)

2 Wide area networks (WANs) are used when computers or networks are situated
a long distance from each other (for example, they may be in different cities or
on different continents). If a number of LANs are joined together using a router
or modem, they can form a WAN. The network of automated teller machines
(ATMs) used by banks is one of the most common examples of the use of a WAN.
Because of the long distances between devices, WANs usually make use of a
public communications network (such as telephone lines or satellites), but they
can use dedicated or leased communication lines which can be less expensive
2 Communication

and more secure (less risk of hacking, for example).

A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate systems, as shown
in Figure 2.3. 1, 3, 7 and 10 are known as end systems, and the remainder are
known as intermediate systems. The distance between each system can be
considerable, especially if the WAN is run by a multi-national company.

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9 10

▲ Figure 2.3 A typical WAN

The following is used as a guide for deciding the ‘size’ of a network:

WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km
MAN: 1 km to 100 km
LAN: 10 m to 1000 m
PAN: 1 m to 10 m (this is not a commonly used term – it means personal area
network; in other words, a home system)

2.1.2 Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models

We will consider two types of networking models, client-server and peer-to-peer.

Client-server model

internet
clients

server

Client sends a request to the A system administrator manages

server and the server finds the whole network; clients are
the requested data and connected through a network;
sends it back to the client. allows data access even
over large distances.

▲ Figure 2.4 Client-server model

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 » The client-server model uses separate dedicated servers and specific

2
client workstations; client computers will be connected to the server
computer(s).
» Users are able to access most of the files, which are stored on dedicated
servers.
» The server dictates which users are able to access which files. (Note: sharing
of data is the most important part of the client-server model; with peer-to-
peer, connectivity is the most important aspect.)
» The client-server model allows the installation of software onto a client’s

2.1
computer.
» The model uses central security databases which control access to the

Networking
shared resources. (Note: passwords and user IDs are required to log into the
network.)
» Once a user is logged into the system, they will have access to only those
resources (such as a printer) and files assigned to them by the network
administrator, so offers greater security than peer-to-peer networks.
» Client-server networks can be as large as you want them to be and they are
much easier to scale up than peer-to-peer networks.
» A central server looks after the storing, delivery and sending of emails.
» This model offers the most stable system, for example, if someone deletes
a shared resource from the server, the nightly back-up would restore the
deleted resource (this is different in peer-to-peer – see later).
» Client-server networks can become bottlenecked if there are several client
requests at the same time.
» In the client-server model, a file server is used and is responsible for
– central storage and management of data files, thus enabling other
network users to access files
– allowing users to share information without the need for offline devices
(such as a memory stick)
– allowing any computer to be configured as the host machine and act as
the file server (note that the server could be a storage device (such as
SSD or HDD) that could also serve as a remote storage device for other
computers, thus allowing them to access this device as if it were a local
storage device attached to their computer).

Examples of use of client-server network model

A company/user would choose a client-server network model for the following
reasons.
» The company/user has a large user-base (however, it should be pointed out
that this type of network model may still be used by a small group of people
who are doing independent projects but need to have sharing of data and
access to data outside the group).
» Access to network resources needs to be properly controlled.
» There is a need for good network security.
» The company requires its data to be free from accidental loss (in other
words, data needs to be backed up at a central location).

An example is the company Amazon; it uses the client-server network

model. The user front-end is updated every time a user logs on to the
Amazon website and a large server architecture handles items such as order
processing, billing customers and data security; none of the Amazon users are

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 aware that other customers are using the website at the same time – there is

2
no interaction between users and server since they are kept entirely separate
at all times.

Peer-to-peer model
2 Communication

node

▲ Figure 2.5 Peer-to-peer model

On a peer-to-peer network, each node joins the network to allow

» the provision of services to all other network users; the services available
are listed on a nominated ‘look up’ computer – when a node requests a
service, the ‘look up’ computer is contacted to find out which of the other
network nodes can provide the required service
» other users on the network to simply access data from another node
» communication with other peers connected to the network
» peers to be both suppliers and consumers (unlike the client-server
model where consumers and resources are kept entirely separate from
each other)
» peers to participate as equals on the network (again this is different
to the client-server model where a webserver and client have different
responsibilities).
The peer-to-peer model does not have a central server. Each of the nodes
(workstations) on the network can share its files with all the other nodes, and
each of the nodes will have its own data.
Because there is no central storage, there is no requirement to authenticate
users.
This model is used in scenarios where no more than 10 nodes are required (such
as a small business) where it is relatively easy for users to be in contact with
each other on a regular basis. More than 10 nodes leads to performance and
management issues.

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 Peer-to-peer offers little data security since there is no central security system.

2
This means it is impossible to know who is authorised to share certain data.
Users can create their own network node share point which is the only real
security aspect since this gives them some kind of control. However, there are
no real authentication procedures.

Examples of peer-to-peer network model

A user would choose the peer-to-peer network model for one or more of
following reasons:

2.1
» The network of users is fairly small.
» There is no need for robust security.

Networking
» They require workstation-based applications rather than being server-based.

An example would be a small business where there is frequent user

interaction and there is no need to have the features of a client-server
network (for example, a builder with five associated workers located in their
own homes who only need access to each other’s diaries, previous jobs,
skills-base and so on – when the builder is commissioned to do a job they
need to access each other’s computer to check on who is available and who
has the appropriate skills).

Thin clients and thick clients

The client-server model offers thin clients and thick clients. These can often
refer to both hardware and software.
Thin client
A thin client is heavily dependent on having access to a server to allow
constant access to files and to allow applications to run uninterrupted. A
thin client can either be a device or software which needs to be connected
to a powerful computer or server to allow processing to take place (the
computer or server could be on the internet or could be part of a LAN/MAN/
WAN network). The thin client will not work unless it is connected at all
times to the computer or server. A software example would be a web browser
which has very limited functions unless it is connected to a server. Other
examples include mobile phone apps which need constant access to a server
to work. A hardware example is a POS terminal at a supermarket that needs
constant access to a server to find prices, charge customers and to do any
significant processing.
Thick client
A thick client can either be a device or software that can work offline or
online; it is still able to do some processing whether it is connected to a server
or not. A thick client can either be connected to a LAN/MAN/WAN, virtual
network, the internet or a cloud computing server. A hardware example is a
normal PC/laptop/tablet since it would have its own storage (HDD or SSD),
RAM and operating system which means it is capable of operating effectively
online or offline. An example of software is a computer game which can run
independently on a user’s computer, but can also connect to an online server to
allow gamers to play and communicate with each other.
Table 2.1 highlights some of the pros and cons of using thick client or thin
client hardware.

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 Pros Cons

2 n more robust (device can carry out

processing even when not connected
n less secure (relies on clients to keep
their own data secure)

Thick clients
to server) n each client needs to update data and
n clients have more control (they can software individually
store their own programs and data/ n data integrity issues, since many
files) clients access the same data which
can lead to inconsistencies
n less expensive to expand (low-powered n high reliance on the server; if the
2 Communication

and cheap devices can be used) server goes down or there is a break

Thin clients
n all devices are linked to a server (data in the communication link then the
updates and new software installation devices cannot work
done centrally) n despite cheaper hardware, the start-up
n server can offer protection against costs are generally higher than for
hacking and malware thick clients
▲ Table 2.1 Summary of pros and cons of thick and thin client hardware

Table 2.2 highlights the differences between thick and thin client software.

Thin client software Thick client software

n always relies on a connection to a remote n can run some of the features of the
server or computer for it to work software even when not connected
to a server
n requires very few local resources (such as n relies heavily on local resources
SSD, RAM memory or computer processing
time)
n relies on a good, stable and fast network n more tolerant of a slow network
connection for it to work connection
n data is stored on a remote server or n can store data on local resources
computer such as HDD or SSD
▲ Table 2.2 Differences between thin and thick client software

ACTIVITY 2A
1 A company has 20 employees working on the development of a new type
of battery for use in mobile phones. Decide which type of network model
(client-server or peer-to-peer) would be most suitable. Give reasons for
your choice.
2 Another company is made up of a group of financial consultants who
advise other companies on financial matters, such as taxation and
exporting overseas. Decide which type of network model (client-server or
peer-to-peer) would be most suitable. Give reasons for your choice.

2.1.3 Network topologies

There are many ways to connect computers to make complex networks. Here we
will consider
» bus networks
» star networks
» mesh networks
» hybrid networks.
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 Bus networks
A bus network topology uses a single central cable to which all computers and
devices are connected. It is easy to expand and requires little cabling. Data can
only travel in one direction; if data is being sent between devices then other
2
devices cannot transmit. Terminators are needed at each end to prevent signal
reflection (bounce). Bus networks are typically peer-to-peer. The disadvantages
of a bus network include:
» If the main cable fails, the whole network goes down.
» The performance of the network deteriorates under heavy loading.

2.1
» The network is not secure since each packet passes through every node.

Networking
The advantages of a bus network include:
» Even if one node fails, the remainder of the network continues to function.
» It is easy to increase the size of the network by adding additional nodes.

▲ Figure 2.6 Bus network topology

In bus network topology, each node looks at each packet and determines
whether or not the address of the recipient in the package matches the node
address. If so, the node accepts the packet; if not, the packet is ignored.
These are most suitable for situations with a small number of devices with light
traffic occurring. For example, a small company or an office environment.
Star networks
A star network topology uses a central hub/switch and each computer/device
is connected to the hub/switch. Data going from host to host is directed
through the central hub/switch. Each computer/device has its own dedicated
connection to the central node (hub/switch) – any type of network cable can
be used for the connections (see Section 2.1.5 Wired and wireless networking).
This type of network is typically a client-server. The disadvantages of a star
network include:
» The initial installation costs are high.
» If the central hub/switch fails, then the whole network goes down.
The advantages of a star network include:
» Data collisions are greatly reduced due to the topology.
» It is a more secure network since security methods can be applied to the
central node and packets only travel to nodes with the correct address.
hub/switch
» It is easy to improve by simply installing an upgraded hub.
» If one of the connections is broken it only affects one of the nodes.
How packets are handled depends on whether the central node is a switch or
a hub. If it is a hub, all the packets will be sent to every device/node on the
star network – if the address in the packet matches that of the node, it will be
accepted; otherwise, it is ignored (this is similar to the way packets are handled on
a bus network). If the central node is a switch, packets will only be sent to nodes
▲ Figure 2.7 Star network where the address matches the recipient address in the packet. The latter is clearly
topology more secure, since only nodes intended to see the packet will receive it.
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 Star networks are useful for evolving networks where devices are frequently

2
added or removed. They are well suited to applications where there is heavy
data traffic.

Mesh networks
There are two types of mesh network topologies: routing and flooding.
Routing works by giving the nodes routing logic (in other words, they act like
a router) so that data is directed to its destination by the shortest route and
can be re-routed if one of the nodes in the route has failed. Flooding simply
2 Communication

sends the data via all the nodes and uses no routing logic, which can lead to
unnecessary loading on the network. It is a type of peer-to-peer network, but
is fundamentally different. The disadvantages of a mesh network include:
» A large amount of cabling is needed, which is expensive and time
consuming.
» Set-up and maintenance is difficult and complex.
The advantages of a mesh network include:
» It is easy to identify where faults on the network have occurred.
» Any broken links in the network do not affect the other nodes.
» Good privacy and security, since packets travel along dedicated routes.
» The network is relatively easy to expand.

▲ Figure 2.8 Mesh network topology

There are a number of applications worth considering here:

» The internet and WANs/MANs are typical uses of mesh networks.
» Many examples include industrial monitoring and control where sensors are
set up in mesh design and feedback to a control system which is part of the
mesh, for example
– medical monitoring of patients in a hospital
– electronics interconnectivity (for example, systems that link large screen
televisions, DVDs, set top boxes, and so on); each device will be in a
location forming the mesh
– modern vehicles use wireless mesh network technology to enable the
monitoring and control of many of the components in the vehicle.

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 EXTENSION ACTIVITY 2A
There appear to be similarities between the peer-to-peer network model
and mesh network model.
2
Describe the differences between the two models.

Hybrid networks
A hybrid network is a mixture of two or more different topologies (bus and star,

2.1
bus and mesh, and so on). The main advantages and disadvantages depend on

Networking
which types of network are used to make up the hybrid network, but an additional
disadvantage is that they can be very complex to install, configure and maintain.
Additional advantages include:
» They can handle large volumes of traffic.
» It is easy to identify where a network fault has occurred.
» They are very well suited to the creation of larger networks.

▲ Figure 2.9 Hybrid bus and star network

Note that the handling of packets in hybrid networks will depend on which of
the above topologies are used to make up the hybrid structure.
One of the typical applications of hybrid networks is illustrated by the
following example, involving three hotel chains, A, B and C.
Suppose hotel chain A uses a bus network, hotel chain B uses a star network
and hotel chain C uses a mesh network.
At some point, all three hotel chains are taken over by another company. By
using hybrid network technology, all three hotel chains can be connected
together even though they are each using a different type of network. The
system can also be expanded easily without affecting any of the existing
hotels using the network.
There are many other examples; you might want to explore the various
applications for each type of network topology.

2.1.4 Public and private cloud computing

Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on offsite
servers – the physical storage covers hundreds of servers in many locations.
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 The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or

2
repair, allowing clients to access data at any time. This is known as data
redundancy. The physical environment is owned and managed by a hosting
company.
There are three common systems, public cloud, private cloud and hybrid cloud.
Public cloud is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud
storage provider are different companies.
Private cloud is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a
2 Communication

company firewall. Customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated

and operate as a single entity.
Hybrid cloud is a combination of private and public clouds. Some data resides
in the private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed
from a public cloud storage provider.
Instead of saving data on a local hard disk or other storage device, a user can
save their data ‘in the cloud’. The pros and cons of using cloud storage are
shown in Table 2.3.

Pros of using cloud storage Cons of using cloud storage

n customer/client files stored on the cloud can be n if the customer/client has a slow or unstable internet
accessed at any time from any device anywhere in the connection, they would have problems accessing or
world provided internet access is available downloading their data/files
n no need for a customer/client to carry an external n costs can be high if large storage capacity is required
storage device with them, or use the same computer to n expensive to pay for high download/upload data
store and retrieve information transfer limits with the customer/client internet service
n provides the user with remote back-up of data to aid provider (ISP)
data loss and disaster recovery n potential failure of the cloud storage company is
n recovers data if a customer/client has a hard disk or possible – this poses a risk of loss of all back-up data
back-up device failure
n offers almost unlimited storage capacity
▲ Table 2.3 Summary of pros and cons of using cloud storage

Data security when using cloud storage

Companies that transfer vast amounts of confidential data from their own
systems to a cloud service provider are effectively relinquishing control of their
own data security. This raises a number of questions:
» What physical security exists regarding the building where the data is housed?
» How good is the cloud service provider’s resistance to natural disasters or
power cuts?
» What safeguards exist regarding personnel who work for the cloud service
company? Can they use their authorisation codes to access confidential data
for monetary purposes?

Potential data loss when using cloud storage

There is a risk that important and irreplaceable data could be lost from the
cloud storage facilities. Actions from hackers (gaining access to accounts or
pharming attacks, for example) could lead to loss or corruption of data. Users
need to be certain sufficient safeguards exist to overcome these risks.
The following breaches of security involving some of the largest cloud service
providers suggest why some people are nervous of using cloud storage for
important files:
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 » The XEN security threat, which forced several cloud operators to reboot

2
all their cloud servers, was caused by a problem in the XEN hypervisor
(a hypervisor is a piece of computer software, firmware or hardware that
creates and runs virtual machines).
» A large cloud service provider permanently lost data during a routine
back-up procedure.
» The celebrity photos cloud hacking scandal, in which more than 100 private
photos of celebrities were leaked. Hackers had gained access to a number of
cloud accounts, which then enabled them to publish the photos on social

2.1
networks and sell them to publishing companies.
» In 2016, the National Electoral Institute of Mexico suffered a cloud security

Networking
breach in which 93 million voter registrations, stored on a central database,
were compromised and became publicly available to everyone. To make
matters worse, much of the information on this database was also linked to
an Amazon cloud server outside Mexico.
Cloud software
Cloud storage is, of course, only one aspect of cloud computing. Other areas
covered by cloud computing include databases, networking, software and
analytical services using the internet.
Here we will consider cloud software – you can research for yourself how
databases and analytical services are provided by cloud computing services.
Software applications can be delivered to a user’s computer on demand using
cloud computing services. The cloud provider will both host and manage
software applications – this will include maintenance, software upgrades and
security for a monthly fee. A user will simply connect to the internet (using
their web browser on a computer or tablet or mobile phone) and contact their
cloud services supplier. The cloud services supplier will connect them to the
software application they require.
The main advantages are that the software will be fully tested and it does not
need to reside on the user’s device. However, the user can still use the software
even if the internet connection is lost. Data will simply be stored on the
local device and then data will be uploaded or downloaded once the internet
connection is restored.
Cloud-based applications can, therefore, perform tasks on a local device. This
makes them fundamentally different to web-based apps which need an internet
connection at all times.

2.1.5 Wired and wireless networking

Wireless
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication between devices. They
both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of data transmission.
Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band of 79 different frequencies
(known as channels). These are all centred on a 2.45 GHz frequency. Devices
using Bluetooth automatically detect and connect to each other, but they do
not interfere with other devices since each communicating pair uses a different
channel (from the 79 options).
When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at
random. If the channel is already being used, it randomly picks another

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 channel. This is known as spread spectrum frequency hopping. To further

2
minimise the risks of interference with other devices, the communication pairs
constantly change the frequencies (channels) they are using (several times a
second). Bluetooth creates a secure wireless personal area network (WPAN)
based on key encryption.
Bluetooth is useful when
» transferring data between two or more devices which are less than 30
metres apart
» the speed of data transmission is not critical
2 Communication

» using low bandwidth applications (for example, sending music files from a
mobile phone to a headset).

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, Wi-Fi also uses spread spectrum

technology. However, Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale networks,
since it offers much faster data transfer rates, better range and better security
than Bluetooth. A Wi-Fi-enabled device (such as a computer or smart phone)
can access, for example, the internet wirelessly at any wireless access point
(WAP) or ‘hot spot’ up to 100 metres away.
As mentioned, wireless connectivity uses electromagnetic radiation: radio
waves, microwaves or infrared. The scale of frequency and wavelength of
magnetic radiation is shown in Table 2.4.

radio waves microwaves infrared visible light ultra violet X-rays gamma rays
Wave length (m) 102 10 −1 10 −3 10 −5 10 −7 10 −9 10 −11

Frequency (Hz) 3 MHz 3 GHz 300 GHz 30 THz 3 PHz 300 PHz 30 EHz

▲ Table 2.4 Frequency and wavelength of magnetic radiation

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 2B
Frequency and wavelength are linked by the equation:
f= c
λ
where f = frequency (m), λ = wavelength (Hz), and
c = velocity of light (3 × 108 m/s).
Confirm the frequency values in Table 2.3 using the wavelengths given.

Table 2.5 compares radio waves, microwaves and infrared. (Please note: the
‘>’ symbol in the table means ‘better than’).

Bandwidth infrared > microwaves > radio waves

(infrared has the largest bandwidth)
Penetration radio waves > microwaves > infrared
(radio waves have the best penetration)
Attenuation radio waves > microwaves > infrared
(radio waves have the best attenuation)
▲ Table 2.5 Comparison of radio waves, microwaves and infrared
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 Penetration measures the ability of the electromagnetic radiation to pass

2
through different media. Attenuation is the reduction in amplitude of a
signal (infrared has low attenuation because it can be affected by, for
example, rain or internal walls). Thus, we would expect infrared to be
suitable for indoor use only; the fact that it can be stopped by walls is
seen as an advantage since this stops the signal causing interference
elsewhere. Microwaves seem to offer the best compromise, since they
support reasonable bandwidth, and have reasonable penetration and
attenuation.

2.1
Additional notes on the use of satellites

Networking
The use of microwaves and radio waves was previously mentioned as a method
for allowing Wi-Fi connectivity in networks. These methods are perfectly
satisfactory for short distances – the electromagnetic waves carry the signals –
but the curvature of the Earth prevents such methods transmitting data
globally.

The electromagnetic radiation from antenna

A is transmitted but is unable to reach antenna
A B
B due to the Earth’s curvature.

▲ Figure 2.10

To overcome this problem, we need to adopt satellite technology:

The signal is beamed from The signal is boosted by the satellite

antenna A to a satellite orbiting Earth and is then beamed back
orbiting Earth. to Earth and picked up by antenna B.

A B

▲ Figure 2.11

The communication between antennae and satellite is carried out by radio

waves or microwave frequencies. Different frequency bands are used to
prevent signal interference and to allow networks spread across the Earth to
communicate through use of satellites (many satellites orbit the Earth – refer
to Section 2.2.2 for more information on use of satellite technology with
networks).

Wired
There are three main types of cable used in wired networks (see Figure 2.12).

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 2 1
conductor outside insulation insulation
optical fibres

flexible buffer
tube
water blocking
insulator
2 binders
pairs ripcord
3 Aramid strength
yarns
cable jacket copper mesh copper wire
2 Communication

4 jacket

▲ Figure 2.12 (left to right) Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, fibre optic cable

Twisted pair cables

Twisted pair cables are the most common cable type used in LANs. However,
of the three types of cable, it has the lowest data transfer rate and suffers
the most from external interference (such as electromagnetic radiation).
However, it is the cheapest option. There are two types of twisted pair cable:
unshielded and shielded. Unshielded is used by residential users. Shielded is
used commercially (the cable contains a thin metal foil jacket which cancels
out some of the external interference).
Coaxial cables
Coaxial cables are the most commonly used cables in MANs and by cable
television companies. The cost of coaxial cables is higher than twisted pair
cables but they offer a better data transfer rate and are affected less by
external interference. Coaxial cables also have about 80 times the transmission
capacity of twisted pair. Coaxial suffers from the greatest signal attenuation,
but offers the best anti-jamming capabilities.
Fibre optic cables
Fibre optic cables are most commonly used to send data over long distances,
because they offer the best data transfer rate, the smallest signal attenuation
and have a very high resistance to external interference. The main drawback is
the high cost. Unlike the other two types of cable, fibre optics use pulses of
light rather than pulses of electricity to transmit data. They have about 26 000
times the transmission capacity of twisted pair cables.
Fibre optic cables can be single- or multi-mode.
Single-mode uses a single mode light source and has a smaller central
core, which results in less light reflection along the cable. This allows the
data to travel faster and further, making them a good choice for CATV and
telecommunications.
Multi core allows for a multi-mode light source; the construction causes higher
light reflections in the core, so they work best over shorter distances (in a LAN,
for example).
Wired versus wireless
Numerous factors should be considered when deciding if a network should use
wired or wireless connectivity, as listed below.

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 Wireless networking
» It is easier to expand networks and is not necessary to connect devices
using cables.
» Devices have increased mobility, provided they are within range of the WAPs.
2
» Increased chance of interference from external sources.
» Data is less secure than with wired systems; it is easier to intercept
radio waves and microwaves than cables so it is essential to protect data
transmissions using encryption (such as WEP, WPA2).
» Data transmission rate is slower than wired networks (although it is improving).

2.1
» Signals can be stopped by thick walls (in old houses, for example) and signal
strength can vary, or ‘drop out’.

Networking
Wired networking
» More reliable and stable network (wireless connectivity is often subjected to
interference).
» Data transfer rates tend to be faster with no ‘dead spots’.
» Tends to be cheaper overall, in spite of the need to buy and install cable.
» Devices are not mobile; they must be close enough to allow for cable
connections.
» Lots of wires can lead to tripping hazards, overheating of connections
(potential fire risk) and disconnection of cables during routine office cleaning.

Other considerations
» If mobile phones and tablets are connected to the network, it will need to
offer Wi-Fi or Bluetooth capability.
» There may be regulations in some countries regarding which wireless
transmission frequencies can be used legally.
» Permission from authorities and land owners may be required before laying
cables underground.
» There are numerous competing signals in the air around us; it is important to
consider this when deciding whether to go for wired or wireless connectivity.

2.1.6 Hardware requirements of networks

In this section we will consider a number of hardware items needed to form a
LAN network and the hardware needed to form a WAN. Please note
» the concept of the WLAN and the hardware needed to support it have been
covered in earlier sections
» the hardware items hub and gateway have been included in this section to
complete the picture; however, knowledge of these two items is not required
by the syllabus.

Hub
Hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of devices or computers
connected to them.
computer

computer data sent out to all

data packet sent to network
computers on the
computer network
HUB

computer

▲ Figure 2.13 Hub flow diagram

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 They are often used to connect a number of devices to form a local area

2
network (LAN), for example a star network (see Section 2.1.3). A hub’s
main task is to take any data packet (a group of data being transmitted)
received at one of its ports and then send the data to every computer
in the network. Using hubs is not a very secure method of data distribution
and is also wasteful of bandwidth. Note that hubs can be wired or
wireless devices.

Switch
2 Communication

Switches are similar to hubs, but are more efficient in the way they distribute
the data packet. As with hubs, they connect a number of devices or computers
together to form a LAN (for example, a star network).
However, unlike a hub, the switch checks the data packet received and works
out its destination address (or addresses) and sends the data to the appropriate
computer(s) only. This makes using a switch a more secure and efficient way of
distributing data.

computer

computer data sent out only to

data packet sent to network
the appropriate
computer computers on the
SWITCH
network
computer

▲ Figure 2.14 Switch flow diagram

Each device or computer on a network has a media access control (MAC) address
which identifies it uniquely. Data packets sent to switches will have a MAC
address identifying the source of the data and additional addresses identifying
each device which should receive the data. Note that switches can be wired or
wireless devices.

Repeater
When signals are sent over long distances, they suffer attenuation or signal
loss. Repeaters are devices which are added to transmission systems to
boost the signal so it can travel greater distances. They amplify signals on
both analogue (copper cable) and digital (fibre optic cable) communication
links.
Repeaters can also be used on wireless systems. These are used to boost
signals to prevent any ‘dead spots’ in the Wi-Fi zone. These devices plug into
electric wall sockets and send out booster signals. They are termed non-logical
devices because they will boost all signals which have been detected; they are
not selective.
Sometimes, hubs contain repeaters and are known as repeating hubs. All
signals fed to the hub are boosted before being sent to all devices in the
network, thus increasing the operational range.
There are two main drawbacks of repeating hubs:
1 They have only one collision domain. When the signals are boosted and
then broadcast to devices, any collisions which might occur are not resolved
there and then. One way to deal with this problem is to make use of

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 jamming signals – while this manages the collisions, it also reduces

2
network performance since it involves repeated broadcasts as the
collisions are resolved.
2 The devices are referred to as unmanaged since they are unable to manage
delivery paths and also security in the network.

Bridge
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same
protocol (communication rules). They are often used to connect together

2.1
different parts of a LAN so that they can function as a single LAN.

Networking
LAN LAN
server server

computer computer

computer SWITCH SWITCH computer

computer computer

BRIDGE

▲ Figure 2.15 Bridge flow diagram

Bridges are used to interconnect LANs (or parts of LANs), since sending out
every data packet to all possible destinations would quickly flood larger
networks with unnecessary traffic. For this reason, a router is used to
communicate with other networks, such as the internet. Note that bridges can
be wired or wireless devices.

Router
Routers enable data packets to be routed between the different networks for
example, to join a LAN to a WAN. The router takes data transmitted in one
format from a network (which is using a particular protocol) and converts the
data to a protocol and format understood by another network, thereby allowing
them to communicate via the router. We can, therefore, summarise the role of
routers as follows. Routers
» restrict broadcasts to a LAN
» act as a default gateway
» can perform protocol translation; for example, allowing a wired network
to communicate with a wireless (Wi-Fi) network – the router can take an
Ethernet data packet, remove the Ethernet part and put the IP address into
a frame recognised by the wireless protocol (in other words, it is performing
a protocol conversion)
» can move data between networks
» can calculate the best route to a network destination address.

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 2 computer
server
internet

computer SWITCH
ROUTER

computer LAN or WAN

2 Communication

LAN

▲ Figure 2.16 Router flow diagram

Broadband routers sit behind a firewall. The firewall protects the computers
on a network. The router’s main function is to transmit internet and
transmission protocols between two networks and allow private networks to
be connected.
The router inspects the data package sent to it from any computer on any
of the networks connected to it. Since every computer on the same network
has the same part of an internet protocol (IP) address, the router is able to
send the data packet to the appropriate switch and it will then be delivered
using the MAC destination address (see next section). If the MAC address
doesn’t match any device on the network, it passes on to another switch on
the same network until the appropriate device is found. Routers can be wired
or wireless devices.

Gateway
A gateway is a network point (or node) that acts as an entrance to another
network. It is a key point for data on its way to or from other networks. It
can be used to connect two or more dissimilar LANs (LANs using different
protocols). The gateway converts data packets from one protocol to another.
Gateways can also act as routers, firewalls or servers – in other words, any
device that allows traffic to flow in and out of the networks. Gateways can be
wired or wireless devices.
All networks have boundaries so that all communication within the network is
conducted using devices such as switches or routers. If a network node needs
to communicate outside its network, it needs to use a gateway.

Modems
Modern computers work with digital data, whereas many of the public
communication channels still only allow analogue data transmission. To allow
the transmission of digital data over analogue communication channels we
need to use a modem (modulator demodulator). This device converts digital
data to analogue data. It also does the reverse and converts data received
over the analogue network into digital data which can be understood by the
computer.
Wireless modems transmit data in a modulated form to allow several
simultaneous wireless communications to take place without interfering
with each other. A modem will connect to the public infrastructure (cable,
telephone, fibre-optics or satellite) and will supply the user with a standard
Ethernet output which allows connection to a router, thus enabling an internet
connection to occur.
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 laptop

internet
PC

smart phone
2
modem router
tablet

▲ Figure 2.17 Wireless modem flow diagram

2.1
While the router will allow the creation of a network in a home, for
example, the modem allows for the connection to the external networks

Networking
(for example, the internet). Routers and modems can be combined into one
unit; these devices have the electronics and software to provide both router
and modem functions.
Another example of a modem is a softmodem (software modem), which uses
minimal hardware and uses software that runs on the host computer. The
computer’s resources (mainly the processor and RAM) replace the hardware of a
conventional modem.
Table 2.6 shows the differences between routers and gateways.

Routers Gateways
n forward packets of data from one n convert one protocol (or data format)
network to another; routers read each to another protocol (format) used in a
incoming packet of data and decide different network
where to forward the packet
n can route traffic from one network to n convert data packets from one protocol
another network to another; they act as an entry and
exit point to networks
n can be used to join LANs together to n translate from one protocol to another
form a WAN (sometimes called brouters)
and also to connect a number of LANs
to the internet
n offer additional features such as n do not support dynamic routing
dynamic routing (ability to forward
data by different routes)
▲ Table 2.6 Differences between routers and gateways

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 2C
Draw a diagram to show how a gateway could be used to connect together
three LANs which are using different protocols. Include all the hardware
devices and cables needed.

Network interface card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to
a network (such as the internet). It is usually part of the device hardware
and frequently contains the MAC address generated at the manufacturing
stage.

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 Wireless network interface card/controller (WNIC)

2 Wireless network interface cards/controllers (WNICs) are the same as the

more ordinary NICs, in that they are used to connect devices to the internet
or other networks. They use an antenna to communicate with networks via
microwaves and normally simply plug into a USB port or can be internal
integrated circuit plug in.
▲ Figure 2.18 Wireless As with usual NICs, they work on layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model (refer to
network interface
Chapter 14 for more details). WNICs work in two modes.
card/controller (WNIC)
2 Communication

Infrastructure mode requires WAPs (wireless access points) and all the data
is transferred using the WAP and hub/switch; all the wireless devices connect
to the WAP and must use the same security and authentication techniques.
Ad hoc mode does not need to have access to WAPs; it is possible for devices
to interface with each other directly.

2.1.7 Ethernet
Ethernet is a protocol used by many wired LANs. It was adopted as a standard
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and Ethernet is
also known as IEEE 802.3. A network using Ethernet is made up of:
» a node (any device on the LAN)
» medium (path used by the LAN devices, such as an Ethernet cable)
» frame (data is transmitted in frames which are made up of source address
and destination address – the addresses are often the MAC address).
Conflicts
When using Ethernet, it is possible for IP addresses to conflict; this could show
up as a warning such as that in Figure 2.19.

▲ Figure 2.19 IP address conflict error

This may occur if devices on the same network have been given the same
IP address; without a unique IP address it is not possible to connect to a
network. This is most likely to occur on a LAN where dynamic IP addresses
may have been used. Dynamic IP addresses are temporary and may have been
assigned to a device on the network, unfortunately, another device using
static IP addresses may already have the same IP address. This can be resolved
by re-starting the router. Any dynamic IP addresses will be re-assigned, which
could resolve the issue.
Collisions
Ethernet supports broadcast transmission (communications where pieces of
data are sent from sender to receiver) and are used to send messages to all
devices connected to a LAN. The risk is that two messages using the same data
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 channel could be sent at the same time, leading to a collision. Carrier sense

2
multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) was developed to try and
resolve this issue. Collison detection depends on simple physics: when a frame
is sent it causes a voltage change on the Ethernet cable. When a collision is
detected, a node stops transmitting a frame and transmits a ‘jam’ signal and
then waits for a random time interval before trying to resend the frame.
CSMA/CD protocol will define the random time period for a device to wait
before trying again.
Figure 2.20 shows how data collisions can be dealt with using transmission

2.1
counters (which keep track of how many times the collision detection routine
has been entered – there will a defined limit as part of the CSMA/CD protocol)

Networking
and random time periods.

assemble
A
frame

is line No wait for

idle? allocated time
Yes

Yes

start to send No another

frame frame?

END

set transmission Yes

counter = 1

frame
No sent?

collision No continue to
detected? send

Yes

stop transmission and

send jam signal

increment transmission
counter

max Yes abort

transmission
transmission
counter?

No
A
wait for allocated time period
then re-start transmission

▲ Figure 2.20 How data collisions can be dealt with using transmission counters
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 EXTENSION ACTIVITY 2D
2 Review Figure 2.20. As it stands, it is possible for an endless loop to be
established.
Suggest a modification to the flow diagram to ensure it terminates if there is
a problem with the data channel, or to prevent the data transmission holding
up the computer for an unacceptable time period.
2 Communication

2.1.8 Bit streaming

Bit streaming is a contiguous sequence of digital bits sent over the internet
or a network that requires a high speed data communication link (such as
fast broadband). Since bit streaming often involves very large files (such as
video) it is necessary for the files to undergo some data compression before
transmission. It is also necessary to have some form of buffering to ensure
smooth playback of the media files.
The data transmission rate from the file server (containing the video, for
example) to the buffer must be greater than the rate at which data is
transmitted from buffer to media player. The larger the buffer, the better the
control over the bit rate being sent to the media player. The media player will
always check to ensure data lies between a minimum value (often referred to as
low water mark) and a maximum value (often referred to as a high water mark).
The difference between the two values is usually about 80% of the total buffer
capacity. The buffer is a temporary storage area of the computer.

low high
source of bit streaming
buffer
data stream from server

media
player

▲ Figure 2.21 Bit streaming

Table 2.7 shows the pros and cons of bit streaming.

Pros of bit streaming Cons of bit streaming

n no need to wait for a whole video or n cannot stream video or music files if
music file to be downloaded before the broadband connection is lost
user can watch or listen n video or music files will pause to allow
n no need to store large files on your the data being streamed to ‘catch up’ if
device there is insufficient buffer capacity or
n allows video files and music files to be slow broadband connection
played on demand (as required) n streaming uses up a lot of bandwidth
n no need for any specialist hardware n security risks associated with
n affords piracy protection (more difficult downloading files from the internet
to copy streamed files than files stored n copyright issues
on a hard drive)
▲ Table 2.7 Pros and cons of bit streaming

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 Bit streaming can be either on demand or real time.

On demand
» Digital files stored on a server are converted to a bit streaming format
2
(encoding takes place and the encoded files are uploaded to a server).
» A link to the encoded video/music file is placed on the web server to be
downloaded.
» The user clicks on the link and the video/music file is downloaded in a
contiguous bit stream.

2.1
» Because it is on demand, the streamed video/music is broadcast to the user
as and when required.

Networking
» It is possible to pause, rewind and fast forward the video/music if required.

Real time
» An event is captured by camera and microphone and is sent to a computer.
» The video signal is converted (encoded) to a streaming media file.
» The encoded file is uploaded from the computer to the dedicated video
streaming server.
» The server sends the encoded live video to the user’s device.
» Since the video footage is live it is not possible to pause, rewind or fast
forward.

ACTIVITY 2B
1 a) Explain the differences between LAN, MAN and WAN.
b) Give three of the benefits of networking computers.
c) Explain the following terms.
i) Thick client
ii) Thin client
2 a) Draw diagrams to show the following network topologies.
i) Bus
ii) Star
iii) Mesh
b) Give one benefit and one drawback of using each type of network
topology.
3 a) Explain the differences between public and private cloud computing.
b) Give two benefits of using cloud computing.
c) Give two drawbacks of using cloud computing.
4 You have been asked by a manager to write a report on whether a
LAN being set up in their new building should use wired or wireless
connectivity. The building has 20 floors.
Explain your arguments for and against using both types of connectivity
and draw a conclusion to help the manager make their decision.
5 a) What is meant by bit streaming?
b) Why is it necessary to use buffers whilst streaming a video from the
internet?
c) Explain the differences between on demand and real time bit streaming.

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 2.2 The internet
2 Key terms
Internet – massive network of IPv4 – IP address format which uses
networks, made up of computers and 32 bits, such as 200.21.100.6.
other electronic devices; uses TCP/IP Classless inter-domain routing
communication protocols. (CIDR) – increases IPv4 flexibility by
World Wide Web (WWW) – collection adding a suffix to the IP address, such as
2 Communication

of multimedia web pages stored on 200.21.100.6/18.

a website, which uses the internet to IPv6 – newer IP address format
access information from servers and which uses 128 bits, such as
other computers. A8F0:7FFF:F0F1:F000:3DD0:
HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML) – 256A:22FF:AA00.
used to design web pages and to write Zero compression – way of reducing the
http(s) protocols, for example. length of an IPv6 address by replacing
Uniform resource locator (URL) – groups of zeroes by a double colon
specifies location of a web page (for (::); this can only be applied once to an
example, www.hoddereducation.co.uk). address to avoid ambiguity.
Web browser – software that connects Sub-netting – practice of dividing
to DNS to locate IP addresses; interprets networks into two or more sub-networks.
web pages sent to a user’s computer so Private IP address – an IP address
that documents and multimedia can be reserved for internal network use behind
read or watched/listened to. a router.
Internet service provider (ISP) – Public IP address – an IP address
company which allows a user to connect allocated by the user’s ISP to identify the
to the internet. They will usually charge a location of their device on the internet.
monthly fee for the service they provide. Domain name service (DNS) – (also
Public switched telephone network known as domain name system) gives
(PSTN) – network used by traditional domain names for internet hosts and is
telephones when making calls or when a system for finding IP addresses of a
sending faxes. domain name.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) – JavaScript® – object-orientated (or
converts voice and webcam images scripting) programming language used
into digital packages to be sent over the mainly on the web to enhance HTML
internet. pages.
Internet protocol (IP) – uses IPv4 or IPv6 PHP – hypertext processor; an HTML-
to give addresses to devices connected embedded scripting language used to
to the internet. write web pages.

2.2.1 The differences between the internet and the World

Wide Web
There are fundamental differences between the internet and the World Wide
Web (WWW).
Internet
» The internet is a massive network of networks (although, as explained in
Section 2.1.1, the internet is not a WAN) which are made up of various
computers and other electronic devices.
» It stands for interconnected network.
» The internet makes use of transmission control protocol (TCP)/internet
protocol (IP).

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 World Wide Web (WWW)
» This is a collection of multimedia web pages and other documents which are
stored on websites.
» http(s) protocols are written using HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML).
2
» Uniform resource locators (URLs) specify the location of all web pages.
» Web resources are accessed by web browsers.
» The world wide web uses the internet to access information from servers and
other computers.

2.2
2.2.2 Hardware and software needed to support
the internet

The internet
The fundamental requirements for connecting to the internet are
» a device (such as a computer, tablet or mobile phone)
» a telephone line connection or a mobile phone network connection
(however, it is possible that a tablet or mobile phone may connect to the
internet using a wireless router)
» a router (which can be wired or wireless) or router and modem
» an internet service provider (ISP) (combination of hardware and software)
» a web browser.
The telephone network system, public switched telephone network (PSTN),
is used to connect computers/devices and LANs between towns and cities.
Satellite technology is used to connect to other countries (see later).
In recent years, telephone lines have changed from copper cables to fibre optic
cables, which permits greater bandwidth and faster data transfer rates (and
less risk of data corruption from interference). Fibre optic telephone networks
are usually identified as ‘fast broadband’. As discussed earlier, high speed
broadband has allowed WLANs to be developed by using WAPs.
High speed communication links allow telephone and video calls to be made
using a computer and the internet. Telephone calls require either an internet-
enabled telephone connected to a computer (using a USB port) or external/
internal microphone and speakers. Video calls also require a webcam. When
using the internet to make a phone call, the user’s voice is converted to
digital packages using Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). Data is split into
packages (packet switching) and sent over the network via the fastest route.
Packet switching and circuit switching are covered in more detail in Chapter 14.
Comparison between PSTN and internet when making a phone call
Public switched telephone network (PSTN)
PSTN uses a standard telephone connected to a telephone line.
The telephone line connection is always open whether or not anybody is talking –
the link is not terminated until the receivers are replaced by both parties.
Telephone lines remain active even during a power cut; they have their own
power source.
Modern phones are digitised systems and use fibre optic cables (although
because of the way it works this is a big waste of capacity – a 10 minute phone
call will transmit about 10 MB of data).
Existing phone lines use circuit switching (when a phone call is made the
connection (circuit) is maintained throughout the duration of the call – this is
the basis of PSTN).
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 Phone calls using the internet

2 Phone calls using the internet use either an internet phone or microphone and
speakers (video calls also require a webcam).
The internet connection is only ‘live’ while data (sound/video image) is being
transmitted.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) converts sound to digital packages
(encoding) which can be sent over the internet.
VoIP uses packet switching; the networks simply send and retrieve data as it
2 Communication

is needed so there is no dedicated line, unlike PSTN. Data is routed through

thousands of possible pathways, allowing the fastest route to be determined.
The conversation (data) is split into data packages. Each packet contains at
least the sender’s address, receiver’s address and order number of packet – the
sending computer sends the data to its router which sends the packets to
another router, and so on. At the receiving end, the packets are reassembled
into the original state (see Chapter 14 for more details).
VoIP also carries out file compression to reduce the amount of data being
transmitted.
Because the link only exists while data is being transmitted, a typical 10
minute phone call may only contain about 3 minutes where people are talking;
thus only 3 MB of data is transmitted making it much more efficient than PSTN.
Cellular networks and satellites
Other devices, such as mobile phones, use the cellular network. Here, the
mobile phone providers act as the ISPs and the phones contain communication
software which allows them to access the telephone network and also permits
them to make an internet connection.
Satellites are an important part of all network communications that cover
vast distances. Due to the curvature of the Earth, the height of the satellite’s
orbit determines how much coverage it can give. Figure 2.22 shows how
satellites are classified according to how high they orbit in relation to the
Earth’s surface.

35 800 km GEO
5000–12 000 km
MEO
500–2500 km
LEO

diagram not to scale

Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) provide long distance telephone and computer network communications;
orbital period = 24 hours

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) used for GPS systems (about 10 MEO satellites are currently orbiting the Earth);
orbital period = 2 to 12 hours

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) used by the mobile phone networks (there are currently more than 100 LEO satellites
orbiting the Earth); orbital period = 80 mins to 2 hours

▲ Figure 2.22 Satellite classification

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 Satellites have the advantage that they will always give complete coverage

2
and don’t suffer from signal attenuation to the same extent as underground/
undersea cables. It is also difficult to isolate and resolve faults in cables on
the sea bed.

2.2.3 IP addresses
The internet is based on TCP/IP protocols. Protocols define the rules that must
be agreed by senders and receivers on the internet. Protocols can be divided
into TCP layers (see Chapter 14). We will first consider internet protocols (IP).

2.2
Internet protocols (IP)

The internet
IPv4 addressing
The most common type of addressing on the internet is IP version 4 (IPv4).
This is based on 32 bits giving 232 (4 294 967 296) possible addresses. The
32 bits are split into four groups of 8 bits (thus giving a range of 0 to 255).
For example, 254.0.128.77.
The system uses the group of bits to define network (netID) and network host
(hostID). The netID allows for initial transmission to be routed according to the
netID and then the hostID is looked at by the receiving network. Networks are
split into five different classes, as shown in Table 2.8 below.
Network IPv4 range Number of Number of Types of
class netID bits hostID bits network
A 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 8 24 very large
B 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 16 16 medium size
C 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 24 8 small networks
D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 – – multi-cast
E 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 – – experimental
▲ Table 2.8 The five network classes

Consider the class C network IP address 190.15.25.240, which would be written

in binary as:

10111110 00001111 00011001 11110000

Here the network id is 190.15.25 and the host ID is 240.
Consider the class B network IP address 128.148.12.14, which would be written
in binary as:

10000000 10010100 00001100 00001110

Here the network ID is 128.148 and the host ID is 12.14 (made up of sub-net ID
12 and host ID of 14).
Consider the class A network IP address 29.68.0.43, which would be written in
binary as:

00011101 01000100 00000000 00101011

Here the network ID is 29 and the host ID is 68.0.43 (made up of sub-net ID
68.0 and host ID of 43).

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 However, it soon became clear that this IPv4 system provides insufficient

2
address range. For example, a user with a medium sized network (class B) might
have 284 host machines and their class B licence allows them 216 (65534; note
the value is not 65536 since two values are not assigned). This means several of
the allocated host IDs will not be used, which is wasteful.
Classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) reduces this problem by increasing the
flexibility of the IPv4 system. A suffix is used, such as 192.30.250.00/18, which
means 18 bits will be used for the net ID and the last 14 bits will be used for
the host ID (rather than the normal 24 bits and 8 bits for a class C network).
2 Communication

The suffix clearly increases the flexibility regarding which bits represent the
net ID and which represent the host ID.

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 2E
Network address translation (NAT) removes the need for each IP address to
be unique. Find out how it works.

IPv6 addressing
IPv6 addressing has been developed to overcome some of the problems
associated with IPv4. This system uses 128-bit addressing, which allows for
much more complex addressing structures. An IPv6 address is broken into
16-bit chunks and because of this, it adopts the hexadecimal notation. For
example:
A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
Note how a colon (:) rather than a decimal point (.) is used here.
It has been designed to allow the internet to grow in terms of number of hosts
and the potential amount of data traffic. IPv6 has benefits over IPv4, it
» has no need for NATs (network address translation)
» removes risk of private IP address collisions
» has built in authentication
» allows for more efficient routing.

Zero compression
IPv6 addresses can be quite long; but there is a way to shorten them using
zero compression. For example, 900B:3E4A:AE41:0000:0000:AFF7:DD44:F1FF
can be written as:
900B:3E4A:AE41::AFF7:DD44:F1FF
With the section 0000:0000 replaced by ::
The zero compression can only be applied ONCE to an IPv6 address, otherwise
it would be impossible to tell how many zeros were replaced on each occasion
where it was applied. For example, 8055:F2F2:0000:0000:FFF1:0000:0000:DD04
can be rewritten either as:
8055:F2F2::FFF1:0000:0000:DD04
or as:
8055:F2F2:0000:0000:FFF1::DD04

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 8055:F2F2::FFF1::DD04 is not a legal way of compressing the original address –

2
we have no way of knowing whether the original address was
8055:F2F2:0000:FFF1:0000:0000:0000:DD04
or
8055:F2F2:0000:0000:0000:FFF1:0000:DD04
or
8055:F2F2:0000:0000:FFF1:0000:0000:DD04

2.2
It would, therefore, be regarded as ambiguous.

The internet
Sub-netting
CIDR is actually based on sub-netting and the two are similar in many ways.
Sub-netting divides a LAN into two or more smaller networks. This helps reduce
network traffic and can also hide the complexity of the overall network. Recall
that the IP address (using IPv4) is made up of the netID and hostID. Suppose
a university network has eight departments and has a netID of 192.200.20
(11000000.11001000.00010100). All of the devices on the university network
will be associated with this netID and can have hostID values from 00000001
to 1111110 (hostIDs containing all 0s or all 1s are forbidden). The university
network will look something like this:

Humanities
Admin and
finance Maths

Science

internet gateway

Arts

Engineering
Business
Computing

▲ Figure 2.23 An example of a university network

So, for example, the devices in the Admin and finance department might have
hostIDs of 1, 8, 240, 35, 67, 88, 134, and so on, with similar spreads for the
other seven departments.
It would be beneficial to organise the netIDs and hostIDs so that the network
was a lot less complex in nature. With sub-netting, the hostID is split as follows:
000 00000, where the first 3 bits are netID expansion and the last 5 bits are
the hostIDs.

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 Thus, we have eight sub-nets with the same range of hostIDs.

2 Department
Admin and finance
netID
192.200.20.0
hostID range
00001 to 11110
Humanities 192.200.20.1 00001 to 11110
Maths 192.200.20.2 00001 to 11110
Science 192.200.20.3 00001 to 11110
Arts 192.200.20.4 00001 to 11110
2 Communication

Engineering 192.200.20.5 00001 to 11110

Computing 192.200.20.6 00001 to 11110
Business 192.200.20.7 00001 to 11110
▲ Table 2.9

Humanities
Admin and 192.200.20.1
finance Maths
192.200.20.0 192.200.20.2

Science
192.200.20.3

internet router

Arts
192.200.20.4

Engineering
Business
192.200.20.5
192.200.20.7
Computing
192.200.20.6

▲ Figure 2.24 An example of a university network with netIDs

The devices in the Admin and finance department will have IP addresses
192.200.20.000 00001 to 192.200.20.000 11110
The Humanities department will have IP addresses
192.200.20.001 00001 to 192.200.20.001 11110
And so on for the other departments.
To obtain the netID from the IP address we can apply the AND mask (recall
that 1 AND 1 = 1, 0 AND 0 = 0 or 1 AND 0 = 0). Thus, if a device has an IP
address of
11000000.11001000.00010100.011 00011
we can apply the AND mask
11111111.11111111.11111111.111 00000
which results in the netID value
11000000.11001000.00010100.011 00000 (or 192.200.20.03)
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 This is the Science department. Consequently, the whole network is more

2
efficient (for the reasons stated above) and less complex. Compare this to
CIDR 192/200/20/0/27, which extends the size of the netID to 27 bits and has
a hostID of only 5 bits, but would not reduce the complexity of the network.
Private IP addresses and public IP addresses
Private IP addresses are reserved for internal use behind a router or other NAT
device. The following blocks are reserved for private IP addresses.
Class A 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 16 million possible addresses

2.2
Class B 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 1 million possible addresses

The internet
Class C 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 65 600 possible addresses
▲ Table 2.10

Private IP addresses (which are internal value only) allow for an entirely
separate set of addresses within a network. They allow access to the network
without taking up a public IP address space. However, devices using these
private IP addresses cannot be reached by internet users.
Public IP addresses are the ones allocated by a user’s ISP to identify the
location of their device. Devices using these IP addresses are accessible from
anybody using the internet. Public IP addresses are used by
» DNS servers
» network routers
» directly-controlled computers.

2.2.4 Uniform resource service (URLs)

Web browsers are software that allow users to access and display web pages on
their screens. They interpret HTML sent from websites and display the results.
Web browsers use uniform resource locators (URL) to access websites; these are
represented by a set of four numbers, such as 109.108.158.1.
But it is much easier to type this into a browser using the following format:
protocol://website address/path/filename
Protocol is usually http or https
Website address is
» domain host (www)
» domain name (name of website)
» domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov, and so on)
» (sometimes) a country code (.uk, .de, .cy, .br, and so on).

Path is the web page (if this is omitted then it is the root directory of the website)
Filename is the item from the web page
For example: http://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/computerscience

2.2.5 Domain name service (DNS)

The domain name service (DNS) (also known as domain name system) gives domain
names for internet hosts and is a system for finding IP addresses of a domain name.
Domain names eliminate the need for a user to memorise IP addresses. The DNS
process involves converting a host name (such as www.hoddereducation.co.uk) into
an IP address the computer can understand (such as 107.162.140.19).
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 Often, DNS servers contain a database of URLs with the matching IP addresses.

2 DNS server (2)

3 2
2 Communication

computer
5 website server

DNS server (1)

▲ Figure 2.25 An example of the DNS process

① The user opens their web browser and types in the URL
(www.hoddereducation.co.uk) and the web browser asks the DNS server (1)
for the IP address of the website.
② The DNS server can’t find www.hoddereducation.co.uk in its database or its
cache and sends out a request to DNS server (2).
③ DNS server (2) finds the URL and can map it to 107.162.140.19; the IP
address is sent back to DNS server (1) which now puts the IP address and
associated URL into its cache/database.
④ This IP address is then sent back to the user’s computer.
⑤ The computer now sets up a communication with the website server and the
required pages are downloaded. The web browser interprets the HTML and
displays the information on the user’s screen.

2.2.6 Scripting in HTML

This section considers HTML scripting using JavaScript and PHP. While this
extends beyond the syllabus, it is included here to help you understand how
HTML is used to create websites and how web browsers communicate with
servers. It is included here for information and to aid understanding.
A user may wish to develop a web application, which is client-server based, on
their own computer. To do this they would need to:
» download the necessary server software
» install the application on the chosen/allocated server
» use the web browser on their computer to access and interpret the
application web pages.
Each web page would need to be created using HTML. A domain name would
have to be purchased from a web-hosting company. The HTML files would
need to be uploaded to the server which was allocated to the user by the
web-hosting company.

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 HTML would be used to create a file using tags. For example:
<html>
<body> 2
<p> Example <p/>
[program code]
</html>

Between the HTML tags the inclusion of JavaScript or PHP can be used.

2.2
JavaScript

The internet
JavaScript (unlike HTML) is a programming language which will run on the
client-side. What is the difference between running on the client-side and
running on the server-side?
» Client-side – the script runs on the computer, which is making the request,
processing the web page data that is being sent to the computer from the
server.
» Server-side – the script is run on the web server and the results of
processing are then sent to the computer that made the request.

The following short program inputs a temperature and outputs ‘HIGH’ if it is

200 °C or over, ‘OK’ if it is 100 °C or over and ‘LOW’ if it is below 100 °C.

01 <html>
02 <body>
03 <p>Enter the temperature</p>
04 <input id="Temp" value="0"
05 <button onclick="checkReading()>"Enter</button>
06 <script>
07 function checkReading() {
08 var temp, result;
09 temp = document.getElementById("Temp").value;
10 if (temp >= 200) {
11 result = "HIGH"
12 } else if (temp >= 100) {
13 result = "OK"
14 } else {
15 result = "LOW"
16 }
17 alert("The result is " + result)
18 }
19 </script>
20 </body>
21 </html>

PHP
PHP is another language which can be embedded within HTML. However,
when PHP is used it is processed on the server-side. Again, the code will be
sandwiched inside HTML and will be stored as a .php file.
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 The following example is similar to the JavaScript example; again temperatures

2
are input but this time ‘H’, ‘O’ and ‘L’ are output depending on the result. Note
that variables begin with $ and are case-sensitive.
01 <?php
02 if(isset($ _ GET['temp'])) {
03 echo "Result: " . checkReading($ _ GET['temp']);
04 } else {
2 Communication

05 ?>
06 <form action="#" method="get">
07 Enter Temp: <input type="text" name="temp" /><br />
08 <input type="submit" value="Calculate" />
09 </form>
10
11 <?php
12 }
13 function checkReading($inputTemp) {
14 $resultChar = "L";
15 if($inputTemp >= 200) $resultChar = "H";
16 else if($inputTemp >= 100) $resultChar = "O";
17 return $resultChar;
18 }
19 ?>

EXTENSION ACTIVITY 2F
Look at the two pieces of code in the previous JavaScript and PHP sections,
then answer these questions.
a) Write down the names of two variables which are used in each piece
of code.
b) In each case, identify which statement(s) correspond(s) to an output.
c) What is the purpose of the statement shown in line:
i) 09 of the JavaScript code
ii) 03 of the PHP code?
e) What is the purpose of line 05 in the JavaScript?

ACTIVITY 2C
1 a) Describe what happens when a telephone call is made using PSTN.
b) Describe what happens when a computer, equipped with microphone
and speakers, is used to make a ‘telephone’ call over the internet.
c) Communication links between continents frequently involve the use of
satellite technology. Explain the differences between GEO, MEO and
LEO satellites.

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 2 a) Class A computer networks are identified by IP addresses starting
with 0.0.0.0, class B computer networks are identified by IP addresses
starting with 128.0.0.0 and class C computer networks are identified by IP
addresses starting with 192.0.0.0. (Class D networks begin with 224.0.0.0.)
2
Write these starting IP addresses in binary format.
b) Using the data above, write down the upper IP addresses of the three
network classes A, B and C.
c) A device on a network has the IP address:
10111110 00001111 00011001 11110000

2.2
i) Which class of network is the device part of?

The internet
ii) Which bits are used for the net ID and which bits are used for the
host ID?
iii) A network uses IP addresses of the form 200.35.254.25/18.
Explain the significance of the appended value 18.
d) Give two differences between IPv4 and IPv6.
3 a) Describe the differences between private IP addresses and public
IP addresses.
b) Identify the protocol, domain name and file name used in the following
URL: https://www.exampleofaurl.co.de/computer_logic.html
c) Describe how DNS is used to retrieve a web page from the website
used in part b).
4 a) Explain the differences between the internet and the world wide web
(www).
b) Hasina wrote,
‘The internet is not necessarily a type of WAN.’
Is Hasina’s statement correct? Give reasons for your answer.
c) Explain these two terms.
i) Web browser
ii) Internet service provider (ISP)

End of chapter 1 Star and mesh are two types of network topology that can be used to make a LAN.
questions

Star network Mesh network

a) i) State one benefit and one drawback of the star network topology. [2]
ii) State one benefit and one drawback of the mesh network topology. [2]
➔

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 b) Copy the diagram below and connect each description to either a client-server

2
or peer-to-peer network. [4]
Type of network Description

Connectivity is the most important aspect of

this type of network

Uses separate dedicated servers and specific

2 Communication

workstations

Has no central storage and doesn’t require

Client-server
authentication of users

Sharing of data is the most important aspect of

this type of network

Has no central server; each workstation shares

its files/data with the others

Performance and management issues can occur

Peer-to-peer
if the number of workstations exceeds ten

Once logged in, a user can only access resources

that the network manager allows them to use

More stable system since there is centralised

backing up of files

2 a) Conventional telephone calls are made using the public service telephone
network (PSTN). The national network uses both copper cables and fibre
optic cables.
i) Explain the difference between copper cabling and fibre optic cabling. [2]
ii) Describe two benefits and two drawbacks of both types of cabling. [4]
b) Satellite technology is often used in long distance communications.
Compare the differences between GEO, MEO and LEO satellites. [3]
c) Some telephones use Bluetooth to connect to the telephone network. Explain
what is meant by:
i) the attenuation of a signal [2]
ii) spread spectrum frequency hopping. [2]
3 a) Explain the term bit streaming. [2]
b) A person watches a film streamed from a website on a tablet computer.
i) Give two benefits of using bit streaming for this purpose. [2]
ii) State two potential problems of using bit streaming for this purpose. [2]
c) Explain the terms on-demand bit streaming and real-time bit streaming. [4]
Cambridge International AS & A Level Computer Science 9608
Paper 11 Q1 November 2015

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 4 A buffer is 2 MiB in size. The lower limit of the buffer is set at 200 KiB and the

2
higher limit is set at 1.8 MiB.
Data is being streamed at 1.5 Mbps and the media player is taking data at the rate
600 kbps.
You may assume a megabit is 1 048 576 bits and a kilobit is 1024 bits.
a) Explain why the buffer is needed. [2]
b) i) Calculate the amount of data stored in the buffer after 2 seconds of
streaming and playback.

2.2
You may assume that the buffer already contains 200 KiB of data. [4]
ii) By using different time values (such as 4 secs, 6 secs, 8 secs, and so on)

The internet
determine how long it will take before the buffer reaches its higher limit
(1.8 MiB). [5]
c) Describe how the problem calculated in part b) ii) can be overcome so that a
30-minute video can be watched without frequent pausing of playback. [2]
5 a) When data is transmitted over a LAN network there is the possible risk of
data collision.
i) Explain the term data collision. [2]
ii) Describe how CSMA/CD is able to detect collisions. [1]
iii)Explain how CSMA/CD can be used to resolve the problem of data
collision. [2]
b) Copy the diagram below and connect each network device to its
description. [5]
Network device Description

device that analyses packets of data transmitted

gateway from one network to another or analyses data
within a single network

network point (node) that connects two networks

switch
that use different protocols

device that connects LANs that use

hub the same protocol to allow them to work as a
single network

device on a network that redirects data received

router to only those destinations on the LAN network
that match the address in the data packet

device that sends all the received data packets to

bridge every device in the network irrespective of any
data packet addresses

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