Module 1: The World of Science

Introduction to Science:
Definition: Science is the systematic study of nature.
The study is done through observations and experiments.

Branches of Science
The branches of science include:
Pure science: which include Physics, Biology and Chemistry.
Applied science: Medicine, Engineering, Agriculture,
Social science: which include Economics, Geography and Accounting.
People trained in science and who practice science are called Scientists.

Some famous scientists include: Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, Dr. Anomah Ngu, Michael
Faraday, Archimedes etc.

Importance of Science
The study of science is important in that

1. Science makes travelling easy e.g. vehicles, air planes facilitates movement
2. Science makes work easier e.g. the invention of catapillars for digging roads,
3. It makes communication easy e.g. the invention of computers, phones etc.
4. It keeps us in good health e.g. manufacture of drugs
5. It changes our way of thinking. People used to believe thunder is due to the anger of the
gods, whereas it is a natural occurrence.
6. Science has produced things used for entertainment e.g. music set, television sets etc.

Basic Equipment in a Science Laboratory

Definition: A laboratory is a building where scientists carry out their research.

Some basic laboratory equipment include: metre rule, scale balance, measuring cylinder, spring
balance, thermometer etc.

Safety Rules for Working in a Science Laboratory

1. Proper dressing must be observed, no loose clothing, hair and closed shoes must be
worn.
2. Identify the location of electricity switches, fire-fighting equipment, first aid kit, gas
and water supply systems.
3. Keep all windows open whenever working in the laboratory.

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 4. Follow all instructions carefully and never attempt anything in doubt.
5. No eating or drinking allowed in the laboratory.
6. Ensure that all electrical switches, gas and water taps are turned off when not in use.
7. Keep floors and working surfaces dry. Any spillage must be wiped off immediately.
8. All apparatus must be cleaned and returned in the correct location of storage after
use.
9. Hands must be washed before leaving the laboratory.
10. Any accidents must be reported to the teacher immediately.

Carriers Opportunities in Science

1. Engineering

 Civil
 Electrical
 Mechanical
 Agricultural
 Environmental
 Chemical
 Computer
2. Meteorology
3. Surveying
4. Astronomy

Scientific Method
Scientists always follow a procedure to study the universe and all what happens in it.
Definition: the scientific method is the step by step process followed by a scientist in his/her study.
There are six orderly steps in a scientific method of study.

a. Observation: observe the things happening around us.

b. Question: ask questions about the observations and gather information. These questions
are usually asked with a how or why.
c. Hypothesis: it is a proposed answer to the question. Predictions are then made based on
the hypothesis.
d. Experiment: test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be reproduced.
e. Result: the scientists analyses the data and draw conclusions. The hypothesis is then
accepted or rejected or modified if necessary.
f. Reproduce: the experiment is reproduced until there are no discrepancies between
observations and theory.

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Introduction to Physics
Definition: physics is the study of matter and energy in all their forms.
An expert in physics is called a physicist

Branches of physics
The branches in physics include:

 Mechanics: it is the study of motion and forces that causes them.

 Heat: it is the study of how warm or cold a body is.
 Sound: it is the study of vibrations which may be audible or not.
 Optics: it is the study of light energy
 Magnetism: it is the study of the forces between magnets and magnetic materials.
 Electricity: it is the study of charges in motion and their effects.
 Atomic physics: it is the study of an atom and the nuclear process associated to it.

Application of physics in everyday life

The knowledge of physics in everyday life is needed to:

 Construct computers
 Make new materials
 Set up satellite communications
 Take pictures of the human body
 Reduce the noise in structures
 Harness energy of all kinds
 Detect and solve crime
 Predict earthquakes

Relation of Physics to Other Subjects

Since physics enables us to understand basic components of matter and their mutual interactions
it forms the base of natural science. Biology and chemistry borrow from physics in explaining
processes occurring in living things and organisms. Physics also provides techniques which are
applied almost every area of pure and applied science i.e. meteorology, astronomy etc.

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Physical Quantities
A physical quantities is a quantity that can be observed and measured.
Examples include: mass, length, time, temperature, velocity, density.

Types of physical quantities

There are two types of physical quantities

1. Basic (Primary) Physical Quantities

These are quantities which are not obtained from any other quantity.
Their units are called base units or primary units
There are 7 basic physical quantities which include

Base physical quantity S.I unit Symbol of unit

Length Metre M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

SI units means: International System of Units

2. Derived (Secondary) Physical Quantities

These are quantities obtained from a combination of two or more basic quantities.
Their units are called secondary or derived units
Some examples include:

Derived physical quantity Name of S.I unit Symbol of unit

Area metre squared m2
Volume metre cubed m3
Speed metre per second m/s
Density Kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3
Force Newton N
Work Joule J
Power Watt W
Frequency hertz Hz

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Note:
1. A physical quantity is represented by a magnitude (a number) and a unit.

e.g. 2.0 𝑚, 25 𝑘𝑔, 30 0 𝐶, 50 𝑚/𝑠, e.t.c.

2. A unit is a standard of measurement.

Scalar and Vectors

Physical quantities are classified into two categories: Scalar and Vector.
Scalar quantities: they have only magnitude eg time, distance, speed, mass, density etc

Vector quantity: they have a magnitude in a particular direction eg displacement, velocity, force,
acceleration.

Scale
Definition:
A scale is a regular partition on a measuring instrument.
The scale enable us to use the instrument for measurement.
In order to do your measurement, take note of the initial and final points at the ends of the object.
The value of the measurement = Point 2 – point 1

Measurement
In order to carry out experiments we take measurements

Definition: It is the act of collecting data or information about a physical quantity for further
processing.

Types of measurement
There are two main types of measurement; Qualitative and quantitative measurement

1. Qualitative measurement
It is the type of measurement or observation that does not involve numbers and/or measuring
instruments.
Examples:
The weather is bright
The tree is long
I am fair etc

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2. Quantitative measurement
It is a measurement that can be measured using a measuring instrument and a specific numerical
value given to it
Examples:

I am 1.5 𝑚 tall

Her temperature is 29 𝑜 𝐶.

Assignment: give examples of qualitative and quantitative measurements

Estimates
An estimate is a careful guess using our senses.
A rough estimate can be used to check whether the results of more difficult calculations make
sense.
Example:
A builder estimates the bags of cement he uses in the construction of a house.
You estimate the amount of food you can eat.

A measurement is meant to be exact while an estimate is only a guess. An estimate could be

exact as well as not

Measuring length
Definition: Length is the separation between two given points.
To measure length, it is necessary to choose a suitable measuring instrument and its accuracy

Instrument Example of length measurement accuracy

Micrometer screw Diameter of human hair 0.01mm
guage
Vernier caliper Diameter of cylinder 0.05mm
Metre rule/ruler Length of a piece of string 1cm
Tape Dimension of a plot of land 1cm
Measuring wheels Distance from Edea to Douala 1km

Rules for measuring length

Select a suitable measuring instrument to be used.
Study the scale of the instrument carefully to get its accuracy.

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In case of a ruler position the measuring instrument such that its scale is as close to the length to
be measured as possible

Position the eye perpendicular to the scale of the measuring instrument, directly opposite to the
point of reading to avoid parallax error.
Finally, qualify the length by an appropriate unit from the measuring instrument

The S.I unit of length is the metre 𝑚. Other units include; mm, cm, dm, km, mile etc. there are
related as follows

𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔 (𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎) = 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝟏𝒄𝒎)

𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔 (𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎) = 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝟏𝒅𝒎)

𝟏𝟎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔 (𝟏𝟎𝒅𝒎) = 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝟏𝒎)

𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔 = 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝟏𝒅𝒂𝒎)

𝟏𝟎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝒅𝒂𝒎) = 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝟏𝒉𝒎)

𝟏𝟎 𝒉𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔 (𝟏𝟎𝒉𝒎) = 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆

Exercise:
Convert 1km to m
0.5 m to cm
Measure the length and width of your notebook. Calculate the area of your notebook.

Measurement of volume
Definition: The volume of an object is the amount of space it occupies.
It is usually represented by V.

The S.I unit of volume is 𝑚3 . Other units include 𝑐𝑚3 , litres etc

Calculating the volume of a regular solid:

The volume of regular solids is obtained by using a formula 𝑉 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 × 𝐻
Exercise:
Measure the thickness of your book.
Using the area and the thickness of your book, calculate the volume of your book.

Measuring the volume of an irregularly shaped solid using a measuring cylinder

Measure the volume of water in the cylinder V1

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Measure the volume of water and the object V2
Volume of object V = V2 – V1

Measuring mass
Mass is the amount of matter in a substance.
Its S.I. unit is kilogram (kg). Other units are grams (g), tones (T)

To measure mass, a suitable measuring instrument should be used. E.g. scale balance, spring
balance, level arm balance.

Measuring weight
Weight is the pull of gravity on an object. Its S.I unit is newton (N).
Weight is measured using a newton meter.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑊) = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚) × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑔)

Example, what is the weight of an object if its mass is 10 𝑘𝑔 and 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 .

Measuring Density
Definition: Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)
That is 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)

S.I unit of density is 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . Other units are 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 .

Example: Calculate the density of a stone with mass 200 kg and volume 10 m3.

Measuring temperature
Temperature is how warm or cold a body is.
It is measured using a thermometer.

Its S.I unit is kelvin 𝐾.

Other units are degree centigrade or celsius (0𝐶) and degree fahrenheit (0C)

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 Module 2: Matter, Its Properties and Its Transformation
There are so many things around us. Some can be seen with the naked eye, while others cannot be
seen but only felt. All these things are called matter.

Definition
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Examples: stone, desk, books, pen, bags, air,

All the things around us is called matter. They are not all the same. They exist in three forms called
states.

States of matter
There are several known states, of matter: solids, liquids, gases and plasma. The main difference
in the structures of each state is in the densities of the particles.

Solids

 In solids, the particles are tightly packed together so they are unable to move about very
much.
 A large force is needed to change the shape.
 Solids have a definite or fixed shape.
 They also have a definite or fixed volume.
 They have a high density
 They are incompressible

Liquids

 In the liquids, the particles of a substance have more kinetic energy than those in a solid.
 Liquids have no definite or fixed shape (they take the shape of the container in which they
are found)
 Liquids have a definite volume.
 They have a high density.
 Liquids are not compressible.

Gases

 Gas particles have large spaces between them and have high kinetic energy.
 A gas has no definite volume
 A gas has no definite shape.
 They are compressible

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Plasma
Plasma consists of highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic energy. The noble gases
(helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are often used to make glowing signs by using
electricity to ionize them to the plasma state. Stars are essentially superheated balls of plasma.
Note: The properties of substances can change when the substances are mixed, cooled or heated.

Transformation of Matter
The states of matter depends on temperature.
Increasing or decreasing temperature, matter changes from one state to another.

Question:
Name two substances that changes from solid directly to gas without passing through the liquid
state.

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 Module 3: Energy, Values and Uses

Introduction:
Energy is needed by both man and machines in order to do work.
Definition: Energy is the ability to do work.
It has S.I unit of joules (J)

Types of Energy:
Energy exists in different forms
Forms of Energy Sources Some common examples
Chemical energy Energy stored in fuels Food, oil, coal, electric cells
Thermal energy Energy stored in all hot objects Flames, lighted bulbs, sun
Nuclear energy Energy from nucleus of atoms Atomic bombs, nuclear reactors
Electrical energy Energy due to movement of Electrical appliances
charges
Solar energy From the sun Sun
Kinetic energy Energy due to motion of objects All moving objects
Gravitational Potential Energy due to position of A stone raised above
energy objects in the gravitational field A waterfall
Elastic potential energy Energy in stretched and Stretched spring, elastic band of
compressed objects catapult
Compressed spring
Mechanical energy Sum of kinetic and potential
energies

Sources of energy:
Definition: An energy source is any material from which energy can be obtained.
Energy sources can be classified into two groups:
Renewable and Non – Renewable (finite) energy sources.
A. Renewable Energy Sources:
These are energy resources which are unlimited in supply.
That is, they cannot get finish. This is because the rate at which they are produced is greater than
the rate at which they are used.
Advantages of Renewable Energy Resources:
1. They are environmentally friendly
2. They are abundant in supply
3. They have low cost of production.

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Disadvantages
1. They produce less amount of energy
2. They cannot be easily controlled
3. Their supply is not constant
Examples include: solar energy, hydroelectricity energy, wind energy, geothermal energy,
biomass, wave, tide.
B. Non – Renewable Energy Resources:
These are resources of energy which are limited in supply.
That is, they can get finish. This is because the rate at which they are being used is greater than
the rate at which they are produced.
Advantages of Non – Renewable Energy
1. They can easily be controlled
2. They produce more energy
Disadvantages
1. They are environmentally unfriendly
2. They are limited in supply
3. Have a high cost of energy production
Examples include: fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, crude oil, kerosene and oil), nuclear energy
(uranium)
Note: Most of the energy used in Cameroon is non – renewable
Uses of Energy:
Energy is used for several purposes which include:
1. Heating and cooling our homes
2. Lighting buildings
3. For transportation (fuel for driving cars)
4. Manufacturing products in industries
5. For watching television, playing music
6. For working on computers and so on

Energy Conversion
This is the process of converting energy from one form (type) to another.

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Law of conservation of energy:
The law of conservation of energy states that “energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can
be changed from one form to another”.
A device that converts or changes energy from one form to another is called a transducer or an
energy converter.
The following are examples of transducers: bulb, battery, car engine, human body, torch, electric
fan and so on.
Energy conversion processes
There are many different transducers and processes that converts energy from one form t another.
The following are some examples
a) Using Transducers
Starting energy Transducers Final energy
Kinetic energy Electric generator Electrical energy
Chemical energy Battery Electrical energy
Electrical energy Electric lamp (bulb) Heat and light energy
Sound energy Microphone Electrical energy
Chemical energy from fuel Car engine Kinetic, sound, heat, light
energy
Electrical energy Electric heater Heat energy

b) Processes
Starting energy Process Final energy
Chemical energy Burning Heat and light energy
Solar energy Photosynthesis Carbohydrate (chemical
energy)
Kinetic energy Friction Heat and sound energy

Question: Explain why there is shortage of energy in Cameroon, whereas we say energy can
neither be created nor destroyed.

Transmission of Energy
Recall that:
1. Thermal energy is the energy in hot objects
2. Temperature is how warm or cold an object is.
Heat flows from one object to another due to temperature difference between the objects.
Heat always flow from an object with higher temperature to one with lower temperature when they
are in thermal contact.
The following are sources of heat: fire, lighted bulb, sun, friction, geothermal, coal, and fuel.

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Energy (heat) is transferred in matter through the following methods: Conduction, Convection
and Radiation.
1. Conduction:
This is the transfer of thermal energy (heat) through a body from one point to another without the
whole body actually moving. Conduction takes place in solids.
For example, if you hold one end of a piece iron and placed the other end in fire, after some time,
the end you are holding becomes hot and difficult to handle.
Good and Bad Conductors
Good conductors of heat are materials which are able to transfer heat easily and steadily.
Examples include: silver, copper, aluminum, brass, iron, mercury.
Bad conductors of heat are materials which do not conduct heat easily.
Examples include: glass, wood, water, cork, cotton wool, air.
Uses of Conductors
Good Conductors:
1. They are used to manufacture cooking utensils
2. They are used as liquids suitable for thermometers i.e. mercury
Bad Conductors (insulators):
1. They are used as insulators in handles of cooking utensils i.e. wood, rubber
2. They are used in making good cold clothes i.e. wool
Comparing Conductivity of Different Materials

A match stick is attached to one end of different conductors made from different materials. The
other ends of the conductors are placed in a heat source (candle flame) at the same time. After

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some time of heating, the conductor from which the match stick will fall off first is a better
conductor of heat, that is, it has a higher rate of conducting heat than the others.
For example, copper has a higher rate of conducting heat than aluminum, zinc and brass.

Brass, Zinc, Aluminum, Copper

i.e.
Increasing rate of conduction of heat

Question:
1. Explain why on a cold morning, a metallic chair would feel cold compared to a wooden chair at
the same temperature.
2. Why is it advisable to tie roasted fish on paper?

2. Convection
This is the transfer of heat from one place to another in a fluid (liquids and gases) due to the
movement of heated fluid molecules. Convection takes place only in fluids.
The movement is brought about by difference in density of the fluid molecules at different levels
in the fluid.
Applications of Convection:
1. Land and Sea Breeze: A daily occurrence of convection is land and sea breeze.
2. Electric heaters: The heating coil of electric heaters is placed at the base of the heater
3. Air conditioning: Most air conditioners are connected near the ceiling in the house.
4. Hot air balloon: Convection is used in the hot air balloon to move it up and down.
Demonstration of Convection Using Water:

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As the water near the flame becomes warm, it expands, become less dense and rises above while
the cold water above sinks and takes it place. The process continues until the water becomes hot.

Heat Transfer by Radiation

When objects are heated, they become hot.
Standing near these hot objects you feel heat coming from them.
The heat reaches us through the process called radiation.
All hot objects radiate heat.
Heat is transferred in a vacuum (a space where there is no matter) through radiation.
The amount of heat given out by an object depends on its temperature and the nature of its surface.
 Dark, rough, dull or black surfaces are good absorbers or good emitters of heat
 Shinning, polished or silvered surfaces are good reflectors and poor absorbers of heat
Applications of Radiation:
1. Heat from the sun reaches us through the process of radiation
2. The behind section of pots are usually painted black so that it easily absorbs heat.
3. The inner surface of thermos flask is coated with shinning material to keep the content of the
flask hot for long period.
Radiation from Different Surfaces:

After some time of heating, it will be noticed that the thermometer against the black surface records
the highest temperature, followed by the grey surface, then the white surface while the polished
surface records the lowest temperature.

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Effects of Heat on Matter
Recall that matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Matter exist in three states: Solids, Liquids and Gases.
When heat is added to objects, various things can happen
1. The object expands (increase in volume)
2. The temperature of the object increases
3. Increase in motion (the particles of the substance move faster)
4. There will be a change in state (from solid to liquid and then from liquid to gas i.e. water)
5. Kill germs and micro – organisms in substances like milk
Electrical Energy
This is energy that is due to the motion of charges in conductors.
That is, the motion of electrons and/or ions produces current electricity.
This is the source of electrical energy.
It is the most useful form of energy because it can ne easily converted to other forms of energy.
Electrical Components
These are symbols used to represent electrical components

Definition: the electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges with time
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒(𝑄)
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
Current has S.I Unit of ampere (A), when the charge is in coulombs (C) and time in second (s).
e.g. A current of 2 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 (2 𝐴), 10 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 (10 𝐴) etc.

Examples
1. Calculate the amount of current flowing in a circuit when the charge is 10 𝐶 and time is 5 𝑠.
2. What time will it take a charge of 15 𝐶 to flow in a circuit if the current is 3 𝐴?
3. Calculate the quantity of charge in a circuit if a current of 6 𝐴 flow in 10 𝑠.

Light Energy
Definition: Light is the form of energy that can be detected with the eye.
Objects can be seen because they produce or reflect light.
The path taken or the direction of light energy as it travels is called a ray
SYMBOL
A collection of two or more rays is called a beam of light.
Beams are classified into Divergent, Convergent and Parallel beams.
Divergent beams: This is a collection of rays which spread outwards in different directions from
a common source (point)

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 DIAGRAM
Convergent beams: This is a collection of rays which come together (meet) at a single point.
DIAGRAM
Parallel beams: This is a collection of rays moving parallel to one another.
DIAGRAM
Note:
- light travels only in a straight line.
- For this reason, it is preferable for a driver to sound his horn while taking a bend than to flash
his lights.
Luminous and Non – Luminous Objects
A luminous object is one that can give out its own light energy.
Examples include: the sun, the stars, lighted candle, lighted bulbs
A Non – Luminous object is one that cannot give out its own light energy.
They can only reflect light falling on them.
Examples include: desk, tables, the page of your book, human being, the Earth, the moon.

Generally, objects are classified into

Transparent objects
Translucent objects and
Opaque objects.
Transparent objects: are those objects that allow light to pass through them easily.
Examples include: clear glass, air, water
Translucent objects: are those objects through which light can pass only partially.
Examples include: thin sheet of paper, plastic, tinted glass
Opaque objects: are those objects through which light cannot pass.
Examples include: wood, stone and metals.
Shadows
Where there is no light, there is darkness.
Definition: shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is block from by an opaque
object.
At night, wee are in the shadow of the earth.
Shadow can be classified into: Umbra and Penumbra
Umbra:
This is formed when light from a point source is blocked completely by an opaque object.
DIAGRAM
A person standing behind the umbra region cannot directly see any part of the light source.
Penumbra:
This is formed when a non – point source of light is partially blocked by an opaque object.
DIAGRAM

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A person standing in the penumbra region sees the light source which is partially blocked by the
object forming the shadow.
Applications of Shadow
1. The shadow stick is used to determine the time of the day
2. The X – ray images of the teeth, bones are formed when they block the X – ray directed on
them.
Note: our shadow follows us around and we hardly ever notice it and sometimes may even look
funny.

Forces
If a box is pushed or pulled, it would move from one place to another.
The movement of the box is due to a force acting on it.
Therefore, a force can be defined as “a push or a pull”.
The S.I unit of force is the newton (N)
It is a vector quantity, that is, it has a magnitude (size) and a direction.
It is represented by the following symbol

The length of the line represents the magnitude (size) and the arrow represents the direction of the
force.
Force is measured using a Newton meter or spring balance
Types of Forces
Contact Forces: These are forces acting between objects whose surfaces are touching each other.
Examples: friction, tension, up thrust force
Action at a distance Forces: These are force acting between objects that are not necessarily in
contact
Examples: Weight, magnetic force, electrostatic force.
Assignment: State five effects of forces on objects.
Effects of Forces on Objects
A force acting on an object may cause the object to:
- Change its shape (stretch or compress the object)
- Start moving or stop moving
- Change its direction
- Move faster or slower
Adding Forces

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A force is a vector quantity.
A vector quantity has size and direction.
To add forces, their directions must be known.

Assignment

Hooke’s Law and Elasticity

When a force is applied on an elastic material, it stretches.
The amount to which the material stretches depends on the size of the weight hung on it.
Therefore, Hooke’s law states that
“The extension of an elastic material is directly proportional to the force (weight) applied to it.”

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙2 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥

Therefore 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑙2 − 𝑙1
Demonstration
Mass/ g Weight/ N Original length/ cm Final length / cm Extension / cm
50

20
 100
150
200

Elastic limit: this is the point above which the material does not go back to its original structure.
Assignment:
1. The length of a spring is 16.0 cm. Its length becomes 20.0 cm when a weight of 5 𝑁 is hung on it. What is the
extension caused by the weight?

Motion

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 MODULE 4
HEALTTH EDUCATION
A. SOUND
Definition: Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating objects.
Sound can be detected or perceived by the ear or microphone.
The sound we hear depends on the source, the medium of transmission and the receiver.

Sources of Sound
Musical instruments that produce sound include:
Tuning fork Flute Piano Trumpet Xylophone
Guitar Mouth Violin Harp organ
DIAGRAM OF TURNING FORK
Note: A turning fork is used to produce sound in the laboratory.

Characteristics of Sound
The characteristics of sound include:
1. Loudness
The loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of vibration of the sounding body. That is, the
higher the amplitude of the sound note, the louder the sound heard.
NB: Amplitude is defined as the maximum displacement of a vibrating body.
2. Pitch
It is a measure of how high or low a sound note is.
Pitch depends on the frequency of the sound note.
A low pitch sound implies low frequency while a high pitch sound implies high frequency.
3. Quality
It depends on the number of frequencies present in the sound note.
A sound note of good quality is pleasant when we listen to it.
NB:
1. Noise is sound with irregular (or many) frequencies.
2. Loud sound and noise can damage the ear.

Transmission of Sound
Sound need a material medium to travel.
The medium can be a solid, liquid or gas
The following are necessary for sound to travel from one place to another
1. Source: a vibrating object that produces the sound energy
2. Medium: a material that transmit the sound energy
3. Receiver: a device that can pick up the sound energy

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Remarks
1. The speed of sound in solids is greater than the speed of sound in liquids and gases.
This is because solids have closely packed particles that facilitates the transmission of sound.
2. The speed of sound in liquid is greater than the speed of sound in gases.
Medium Speed
Aluminum (solid) 6320 m/s
Water (liquid) 1400 m/s
Air (gas) 340 m/s

3. Audible sound is sound that can be detected by the ear.

The frequency of audible sound is less than 20,000 hertz.
Example: Sound from a human being, sound from a radio set.
4. Ultra sound is sound that cannot be detected by the human ear.
The frequency is more than 20,000 hertz.
Example: Sound from a bat, sound used in ecography.

Uses of Sound
1. In medicine: Ultra sound is used in ecography to know the sex of an unborn baby
2. In navigation: Ultra sound is used to know how deep the sea is.

B. The Clinical Thermometer

The clinical thermometer is a special thermometer used for measuring human body temperature.
This thermometer has a very short range from 35 0 𝐶 to 42 0 𝐶
The normal human body temperature is 37 0 𝐶
The thermometer has a constriction (or a bend or a kink) on its capillary tube just above the
mercury bulb.

DIAGRAM OF CLINICAL THERMOMETER

How to Use the Clinical Thermometer

 Before use, shake the thermometer continuously to force the mercury back to the glass
bulb.
 The thermometer is then put in the armpit or mouth of the patient for at least 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
 When is it removed from the armpit or the mouth, the constriction prevents the mercury
from running back into the bulb
 This enable us to read the patients temperature even at a later time
 Before use again, shake the thermometer for the mercury to return back into the bulb.

C. The Human Ear

The ear is a part (or organ) of the body used for detecting sound.

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The human ear consist of three (03) basic parts
The outer ear
The middle ear and
The inner ear.
Each of this parts serve a particular function in detecting and interpreting sound.

Functions of the Basic Parts of the Ear

 The outer ear: collects and channels sound to the middle ear.
Between the outer and the middle ear is the tympanic membrane which divides the
outer ear from the middle ear.
 The middle ear: converts the sound energy into internal vibrations of the middle ear
bone structure and transform this vibrations into a compression wave energy in the inner
ear
 The inner ear: transforms this compression wave energy into nerve impulse which are
finally transmitted to the brain for interpretation.

Sound (Noise) Level

The loudness of sound depends on the energy the sound wave carries.
The intensity of sound that enters the human ear needs to be regulated to prevent the ear drum
from being damaged.

D. Sport and Physical Education

E. Body Posture
Definition:
Correct or Good Sitting Position
- Sit with your back straight and shoulders back
- Your buttocks should touch the back of your chair
- Distribute your body weight evenly on both hips
- Bend your knees at right angles
- Keep your feet flat on the floor.
Best Sleeping or Lying Position
- The pillow should be under your head, not your shoulders
- The pillow should have a thickness that allows your head to be in a normal position
- Try to sleep in a position which helps you maintain the curve in your back, e.g. on your side
with knees slightly bent.
Correct Lifting Position
- Do not lift heavy objects above waist level, but if you must do, make sure you have firm
footing.

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- Keep your back straight and bend at your knees and hips
- Avoid turning or twisting your body while lifting or holding a heavy object
- Hold packages close to your body with your arms bent
- Do not bend forward at the waist with your knees straight.

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 MODULE 5
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
This is the study of the relationship between man and his surroundings.

A. Toxic Waste
This is an unwanted material in any form that causes harm to man and his environment.
Toxic waste are often called hazardous waste.

Harm Caused by Toxic Waste

The harm caused by toxic waste include:
Death, injury, birth defect, air and water pollution, contamination of water body.
Note: Waste is considered toxic if it is poisonous, radioactive, explosive, carcinogenic (causes
cancer) and mutagenic (causes damage to chromosomes)

How Can Toxic Waste Enter the Body?

Poisoning occurs when toxic waste is
 Ingested
 Inhaled
 Absorbed by the skin.

Sources of Toxic Waste

Toxic waste results from
1. Household materials (paints, motor oil, drain cleaner, insecticides)
2. Industrial materials (chemicals, metals, radioactive substances)
3. Agricultural sources (pesticides, fertilizers)
4. Transportation (carbondioxide, carbon monoxide)

Types of toxic waste

1. Chemical waste: these are chemicals that are corrosive, flammable, reactive, poisonous and
mutagenic. Eg. Lead, mercury, zinc and arsenic.
2. Radioactive waste: these are wastes from elements and compounds that produce radiations. E.g.
uranium (used in nuclear power stations)
3. Medical waste: these are waste that contain infectious materials. They may arise from hospitals,
clinics and laboratories. They include; plastics, syringes, bandages, needles expired drugs.
4. Agricultural waste: waste materials from farm land, plantations etc. they include fertilizers,
insecticides, pesticides etc.

Disposal and Handling of toxic waste materials

Waste disposal is the placement of waste into or on land surface.

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1. Disposal facilities are usually designed to permanently contain waste and prevent the release of
harmful pollution to the environment, hence, incineration of hydrocarbon, sludge, hospitals and
laboratory waste.
2. National strategy for waste management is prescribed to industries to eliminate or reduce toxic
waste.
3. The introduction, discharge, storage or transfer of waste on national territory is prohibited.

B. Background Radiation
This is a low level radiation from the environment that we are exposed to.

Sources of background radiations

Background radiations comes from:
Rocks in the earth crust, cosmic rays from outer space, radiation from the food we eat, from
building materials, soil, paints etc.
The amount of radiation a person is exposed to depends on the distance and time from the source.

Effects of exposure to radiations

1. Exposure to very large doses of radiation may lead to
 death within a few days or months
 the destruction of genes, i.e. gene mutation
 blood cancer
2. Exposure to low doses of radiation may lead to
 Increase risk of cancer
 Decrease in fertility
 Eye cataract
 Ulcers
 Fibrosis of the lungs

Remark
1. Cigarettes contain polonium – 210. Heavy smoking results in a high radiation dose which is
very dangerous.
2. The degree of radiation damage to human body depends on
 The amount of radiation absorbed by the body (i.e. the dose).
 The type of radiation
 The length of time a person is exposed to the radiation

C. Global Warming and Climate Change

Global warming: is the increase of the earth’s average temperature.
This is due to the effect of the greenhouse gases such as carbondioxide, ozone, methane etc.

27
Causes of Global Warming
Global warming is caused by human activities such as
 Burning of fuels
 Deforestation etc.

Note: The rising global temperature have been accompanied by changes in weather and climate
conditions.
Many places have seen rainfall resulting in more drought, floods and intense rain.

Climate change: is the change in the regional and global climate pattern such as temperature,
wind pattern, humidity, rainfall etc.
Global warming is a measure of climate change.

Causes of climate change

1. Burning of fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas): releases carbondioxide to the atmosphere which
contributes to climate change.
2. Deforestation: cutting down of trees will increase the amount of carbondioxide in the
atmosphere causing global warming.
3. Use of fertilizers containing nitrogen compounds

Note: plants take in carbondioxide from the air thereby reducing its amount in the atmosphere.

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiations from the surface of the earth is
absorbed by the atmosphere greenhouse gases and re – radiated in all directions back to the earth’s
surface.
Explanation:
Sunlight passes through the atmosphere and warms the earth’s surface. The heat is radiated back
to space. Most of the outgoing heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gas molecules and re – radiated
in all directions back to the earth’s surface. This warms the earth’s surface and the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Gases
 Water vapour (36 – 70%)
 Carbondioxide (9 – 26%)
 Methane (4 – 9%)
 Ozone (3 – 7%)
 Nitrous oxide
 Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)

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Effect of greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases are known to be the major cause of global warming. They trap heat in the earth’s
atmosphere.

Consequences of Global Warming

1. High rainfall during the dry season
2. Too much sun during the rainy season
3. Flood during the dry season
4. Too much carbondioxide in the air which pollutes the atmosphere
5. When polluted air is in the atmosphere it causes the water bodies to be polluted.

Measures to Reduce Global Warming (Climate Change)

1. The planting or more trees in the environment
2. Recycling or some materials like non – biodegradable plastics
3. Use of renewable energy sources
4. Preservation of our forests

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 MODULE 6
TECHNOLOGY
Introduction:
Technology comes from the Greek word “teknologia” meaning systematic treatment of an art or
craft.

Definition: Technology is the study, development and application of devices, machines and
techniques for manufacturing and productive processes. OR
Technology is the study, development and application of the laws and theories of science.

Types of Technology
1. Constructive technology
2. Medical technology
3. Information technology
4. Industrial technology
5. Mining technology
6. Automobile technology

Advantages of Technology
1. Promote independent learning for students.
2. Enable easy access to information
3. Encourages new ideas and creativity
4. Makes travelling easy

Disadvantages of technology
1. Promotes laziness

Relationship between Science, Engineering and Technology

Scientists perform experiment so as to learn more about the world.
This means searching for more scientific knowledge.
Engineers look for ways to use this knowledge in practice.
This application of scientific knowledge is called technology.
Therefore science and technology work together.

Simple Machines
A simple machine is a mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force.
It uses a single applied force called the effort (E) to do work against a single force called the load
(L).

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Types of Machines
There are six (06) types of simple machines namely
1. Lever: this is a simple machine that consist of a rigid object and a fulcrum (or pivot).
Example include: seesaw, wheelbarrow, scissors and shovel etc.

2. Wheel and axle: it is a circular device attached to a rigid bar in its center.
Examples include: egg beater, wheel of a wagon, car or bicycle

3. Inclined plane: is a plane surface set at an angle to another surface.

Example include: ladder, stair, escalators, ramp etc.

4. Pulley: is a wheel with a groove along its edge where a rope or cable can be placed.

5. A screw: is a shaft that has an inclined groove along its surface.

6. A wedge: is a double inclined plane that moves to exert a force along the length of the sides.
Examples are: axe, knife, chisel, nail etc.

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Useful Terms
1. Compound machine: is a machine consisting of two or more simple machines.
2. Effort (E): is the force applied to a machine
3. Load (L): is the force that the effort have to overcome
4. Fulcrum (or pivot): is a point or support on which a lever turns
5. Resistance force: is the force exerted by a machine

Classification of Tools
Definition: A tool is a device or instrument used in doing work.
Tools are classified according to their basic functions.
1. Cutting Tools: These are tools used for cutting and shaping objects. e.g. knife, cutlass
2. Moving Tools: These are tools used to move large and tiny items for example
a) A hammer moves a nail
b) A screw driver is used to move a screw
c) Trucks, vehicles and aeroplane are used to move large items
3. Guiding, measuring and perception tools: These are tools used for measurements.
They include rulers, sensor, straight edge, theodolite, microscope, printer, clock, phone and
monitor.
4. Shaping tools: They are used in shaping objects.
They include molds, knife, blade and trowels.
5. Information and data manipulation tools: They are used in collecting, analyzing and
transferring information.
They include: computers, phone, television
6. Fastening tools: They include welders rivet gun, nail guns or glue gun.

Remark
Some tools may be a combination of two or more tools, e.g.
An alarm clock is a combination of a measuring tool (the clock) and the perception tool (the
alarm).

Maintenance and Care of Simple Objects

Definition: Maintenance is the actions performed to keep a machine or system functioning.
Maintenance involves test, measurements, adjustment, and part replacement performed
specifically to prevent faults from occurring.
The primary goal of maintenance is to avoid the consequences of failure of an equipment thereby
preventing its failure before it actually happens.

Types of Maintenance
There are two (02) types of maintenance performed on machines namely
 Preventive maintenance and

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  Corrective maintenance

Preventive Maintenance
It is a type of maintenance performed regularly on equipment to lessen the likelihood of it failing.
It is aimed at preventing machine breakdown.
This type of maintenance generally consists of lubrication, cleaning, adjusting, replacing or
worn out parts, winterizing, housekeeping and work directed by the equipment manual,
equipment service requirement and sensual observations.

Corrective Maintenance
It is maintenance performed whenever there is an equipment failure or malfunctioning.
A history of corrective machine problems will greatly contribute to scheduling future work of
similar nature.
It is usually most costly than preventive maintenance and often requires special skills and tools.

Aspects of Preventive Maintenance

1. Lubrication: It is the control of friction and wear by applying friction – reducing film between
movable surfaces in contact.
The lubricant used can be a fluid (oil and grease).

Function of a Lubricant
Reduce friction
Prevent wear
Prevent the equipment from corroding (rusting)
Control temperature of the device
Control contamination
Enable easy transmission of power

2. Cleaning
Regular cleaning of a machine helps improves overall performance of the machine.
Cleaning dust from a machine is necessary for true and accurate inspection

Types of Preventive Maintenance

1. Schedule Maintenance: It is preventive maintenance carried out at pre – determined time
intervals, number of operations, mileage etc.
2. Condition – Based Maintenance: It is preventive maintenance initiated as a result of
knowledge of the condition of an equipment or continuous monitoring.

Note:

33
1. Preventive maintenance consists of inspection, lubrication, cleaning, adjustment and component
replacement.
2. Different techniques or instruments used in preventive maintenance include:
 Vibration monitoring
 Infrared testing
 Ultrasound testing
 Non – destructive testing

Technical Drawing or Engineering Drawing

34