ELECTRONICS MECHANIC

NSQF LEVEL - 4

2nd Year

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TRADE THEORY

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SECTOR: ELECTRONICS & HARDWARE

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(As per revised syllabus July 2022 - 1200 Hrs)
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DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032

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Sector : Electronics & Hardware

Duration : 2 Years

Trades : Electronics Mechanic - 2nd Year - Trade Theory - NSQF Level - 4

(Revised 2022)

Developed & Published by

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National Instructional Media Institute
Post Box No.3142

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Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
INDIA

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Email: [email protected]
Website: www.nimi.gov.in

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Copyright © 2023 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

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First Edition : December 2023 Copies: 1000

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Rs.470/-
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 FOREWORD

The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Media Development Committee members of various stakeholders
viz. Industries, Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.

The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, has now come up with instructional

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material to suit the revised curriculum for Electronics Mechanic - 2 nd Year - Trade Theory
NSQF Level - 4 (Revised 2022) in Electronics & Hardware Sector under Yearly Pattern. The NSQF

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Level - 4 (Revised 2022) Trade Practical will help the trainees to get an international equivalency standard

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where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the globe and this will also
increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 4 (Revised 2022) trainees will also get the

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opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF Level - 4

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(Revised 2022) the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from
these Instructional Media Packages IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the quality

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of Vocational training in the country.
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The Director General of Training, Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development
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Committee deserve appreciation for their contribution in bringing out this publication.

Jai Hind
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Athul Kumar Tiwari, I.A.S

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Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
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Government of India.
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December 2023
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New Delhi - 110 001

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 PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this Institute is to develop
and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabus under the Craftsman
and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.

The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and

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other support materials.

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The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.

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These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and

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assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.

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The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to

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plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
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IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
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has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.

The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
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management to impart effective training.

The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
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under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
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NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
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Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
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Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and contribution
extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisation to bring out this IMP (Trade Theory)
for the trade of Electronics Mechenic under the Electronics & Hardware Sector for ITIs.

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Smt. S. Gowri - Assistant Training Officer,

Govt. ITI, Thiruvanmiyur.

Smt. P.R. Nancy - Junior Training Officer,

Govt. ITI, Guindy.

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Shri. A. Sunderesan - Junior Training Officer,
Govt. ITI, Hosur.

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NIMI CO-ORDINATORS

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Shri. Nirmalya nath - Deputy Director of Training,

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NIMI, Chennai - 32.

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Shri. S. Gopalakrishnan - Assistant Manager,
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NIMI, Chennai - 32.
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NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
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NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the invaluable efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the
development of this Instructional Material.

NIMI is grateful to all others who have directly or indirectly helped in developing this IMP.
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 INTRODUCTION
TRADE PRACTICAL
The trade practical manual is intented to be used in practical workshop. It consists of a series of practical
exercises to be completed by the trainees during the course of the Electronics Mechanic trade supplemented
and supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed
to ensure that all the skills in compliance with NSQF LEVEL - 4 (Revised 2022) syllabus are covered.
This manual is divided into sixteen modules. The sixteen modules are given below
Module 1 Electronic Cables & Connectors
Module 2 Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking
Module 3 Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components), soldering and desoldering
Module 4 PCB Rework
Module 5 Protection Devices and Electrical Control Circuits

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Module 6 Communication Electronics

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Module 7 Microcontroller (8051)
Module 8 Sensors, Transducers and Applications

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Module 9 IoT Applications

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Module 10 Fiber Optic Communication

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Module 11 Digital Panel Meter
Module 12 SMPS & Inverters, UPS

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Module 13 Solar Power (Renewable Energy System)
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Module 14 Cell phones
Module 15 LED Lights
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Module 16 LCD & LED TV

The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centred around some
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practical project. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not form a part of
project.
While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
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to understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there
is a scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training
faculty for improving the manual.
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TRADE THEORY
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The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the Course of the Electronics
Mechanic 2nd Year NSQF Level - 4 (Revised 2022) in Electronics & Hardware. The contents are
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sequenced according to the practical exercise contained in NSQF Level - 4 (Revised 2022) syllabus on
Trade Theory attempt has been made to relate the theoretical aspects with the skill covered in each
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exercise to the extent possible. This correlation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the
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perceptional capabilities for performing the skills.

The trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indications about the corresponding practical exercises are given in every sheet
of this manual.

It will be preferable to teach/learn trade theory connected to each exercise at least one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of
each exercise.

The material is not for the purpose of self-learning and should be considered as supplementary to class
room instruction.

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 CONTENTS
Exercise No. Title of the Lesson Learning Page No.
Outcome

Module 1: Electronic Cables & Connectors

2.1.135 Audio and Video/RF Cables 1
2.1.136 Termination of cable ends of crimping and soldering 1 10
2.1.137 Different types of cable and connectors used in LAN 13
2.1.138 & 139 Cables and Connectors of a PC system 17
Module 2: Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking
2.2.140 - 142 Computer, parts and their working 31
2.2.143 CMOS setup and extend a memory modle 40
2.2.144 Switch Mode Power Supply for PC 41

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2.2.145 - 148 Hard disk drives 43

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2.2.149 Different types of printers 2 46

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2.2.150 Computer Viruses and protection 49

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2.2.151 MS Office Applications & its Functions 50

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2.2.152 Search Engine and Email Accounts 51
2.2.153 Computer networking, Network Cable Components, and Servers 53

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2.2.154 WiFi Network 57
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Module 3: Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components),
soldering and desoldering
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2.3.155 Surface Mount Technology and Surface Mount Devices 59

2.3.156 & 157 Explanation about different types of tools & equipments required for
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SMD soldering and desoldering work 63

2.3.158 & 159 Testing of Cold Continuity of PCB 71
2.3.160 Surface Mount Technology (SMT) 3 73
2.3.161 Classification of SMD IC packages 75
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2.3.162 & 163 Identification of Pin 1 marking in various SMD IC packages 87

2.3.164 Pick and place machine 94
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Module 4: PCB Rework

2.4.165 Introduction to ESD and PCB Rework 4 96
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2.4.166 Introduction to non-soldering interconnection and printed

circuit boards 103
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Module 5: Protection Devices and Electrical Control Circuits

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2.5.167 Fuses-terminology-types-uses 111

2.5.168 ELCB-types-working principle-specification 5 118
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2.5.169 - 171 DC motor - principle and types 128

2.5.172 & 173 Stepper motor 131
Module 6: Communication Electronics
2.6.174 Radio wave propagation - principles, fading etc 133
2.6.175 Need for modulation & types of modulation 135
2.6.176 Block diagram of AM & FM transmitter, FM generation & detection 6 145
2.6.177 Type of radio receivers, superhetrodyne receiver, block diagram,
principles, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages 149

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Exercise No. Title of the Lesson Learning PageNo.
Outcome

2.6.178 Block diagram of FM Receivers, AM/FM-RF Alignment 155

2.6.179 Digital modulation and demodulation techniques, sampling,
quantization, encoding 6 158
2.6.180 Modulation and Demodulation of analog signal using
PAM,PPM,PWM 165
Module 7: Microcontroller (8051)
2.7.181 Introduction to Microprocessor and Microcomputer Architecture 7 167
2.7.182 - 188 Architecture of 8051 171
Module 8: Sensors, Transducers and Applications
2.8.189 Different types of Level Sensors and their workings 189
2.8.190 Thermocouple 195

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2.8.191 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) 8 199

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2.8.192 Displacement measurement using LVDT 202

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2.8.193 Proximity sensors 204
Module 9: IoT Applications

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2.9.194 Internet Of Things (IOT) 207

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2.9.195 Embedded system used in IOT 213
2.9.196 Role and Scope of IoT in present and future market place, Smart

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objects, wired and wirless technologies 9 214
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2.9.197 Smart Objects 215

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2.9.198 Different functional building blocks of IoT architecture 218
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Module 10: Fiber Optic Communication

2.10.199 - 204 Fiber optic communication 10 221
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Module 11: Digital Panel Meter

2.11.205 - 210 Introduction of panel meter 11 239
Module 12: SMPS & Inverter, UPS
2.12.211 & 212 Stabilizers 252
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2.12.213 - 216 Switch Mode Power Supply 256

2.12.217 SMPS used in personal computers 12 264
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2.12.218 & 219 Inverter 271

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2.12.220 - 222 DC-DC converter 278

2.12.223 - 229 Uninterruptible Power Supply 286
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Module 13: Solar Power (Renewable Energy System)

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2.13.230A -
230E Semiconductor properties and types 13 309
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2.13.230F -
234 Energy sources 313
Module 14: Cell phones
2.14.235 Mobile communication 331
2.14.236 Block diagram and features of cell phones 338
2.14.237 Data transfer among phone, internal and external 14 341
2.14.238 Setting-up flashing files 343
2.14.239 Internet on cell phone and IMEI number 346
2.14.240 - 242 Cell Phones - Interfacing 352

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 Exercise No. Title of the Lesson Learning PageNo.
Outcome

Module 15: LED Lights

2.15.243 - 247 Introduction of LED lights 15 362

Module 16: LCD & LED TV

2.16.248 - 255 Television transmitter and receiver 16 378

LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

On completion of this book you shall be able to

S.No Learning Outcome Ref. Ex.No.

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1 Prepare, crimp, terminate and test various cables used in different electronics
industries. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N6307) 2.1.135 - 139

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2 Install, configure, interconnect given computer Install, onfigure,interconnect given
computer system(s) and demonstrate & utilize application packages for different

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application. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N4614) 2.2.140 - 154

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3 Identify, place, solder and desolder and test different SMD discrete components
and ICs package with due care and following safety norms using proper tools/
setup. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N5102) 2.3.155 - 164

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4 Rework on PCB after identifying defects from SMD soldering and desoldering.
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(Mapped NOS: ELE/N5102) 2.4.165 - 166
5 Construct different electrical control circuits and test for their proper functioning
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with due care and safety. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N9407) 2.5.167 - 173
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6 Assemble and test a commercial AM/ FM receiver and evaluate performance.

(Mapped NOS: ELE/N9408) 2.6.174 - 180
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7 Test, service and troubleshoot the various components of different domestic/

industrial programmable systems. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N9802) 2.7.181 - 188
8 Execute the operation of different sensors, identify, wire & test various
transducers of IOT Applications (Mapped NOS: ELE/N9409) 2.8.189 - 193
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9 Identify different IoT Applications with IoT architecture. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N3102)
Plan and carry out the selection of a project, assemble the project and evaluate
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performance for a domestic/ commercial applications. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N9802) 2.9.194 - 198
10 Prepare fibre optic setup and execute transmission and reception.
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(Mapped NOS: ELE/N5902) 2.10.199 -204

11 Plan and Interface the LCD, LED, DPM panels to various circuits and evaluate
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performance. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N8107) 2.11.205 -210

12 Detect the faults and troubleshoot SMPS, UPS and inverter.
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(Mapped NOS: ELE/N7202) 2.12.211 - 229

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13 Identify, Test and verify characteristics of Photovoltaic cells, Modules, Batteries

and Charge controllers. Install a solar panel, execute testing and evaluate
performance by connecting the panel to the inverter. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N5902) 2.13.230A - 234
14 Dismantle, identify the various parts and interface of a cell phone to a PC.
Estimate and trouble shoot. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N8107) 2.14.235 - 242
15 Check the various parts of a LED lights & stacks and troubleshoot.
(Mapped NOS: ELE/N9302) 2.15.243 - 247
16 Identify, operate various controls, troubleshoot and replace modules of the
LCD/LED TV & its remote. (Mapped NOS: ELE/N3102) 2.16.248 - 255

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 SYLLABUS FOR ELECTRONICS MECHANIC

Duration Reference Professional Skill Professional Knowledge

Learning (Trade Practical) (Trade Theory)
Outcome (With indicative hour)

Professional Prepare, crimp, Electronic Cables & Connectors Cable signal diagram conventions
terminate and test Classification of electronic cables as
Skill 25 Hrs;
various cables used 135. Identify various types of cables viz. per the application w.r.t. insulation,
Professional in different lectronics RF coaxial feeder, screened cable,
Knowledge industries. (Mapped ribbon cable, RCA connector cable, gauge, current capacity, flexibility
NOS: ELE/N6307) digital optical audio, video cable, etc. Different types of connector &
06 Hrs RJ45, RJ11, Ethernet cable, fibre their terminations to the cables. Male
optic cable splicing, fibre optic cable / Female type DB connectors.
mechanical splices, insulation, Ethernet 10 Base cross over cables
gauge, current capacity, flexibility and pin out assignments, UTP and

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etc. used in various electronics STP, SCTP, TPC, coaxial, types of
products, different input output fibre optical Cables and Cable trays.

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sockets. (05 Hrs.) Different types of connectors Servo
0.1” connectors, FTP, RCA, BNC,

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136. Identify suitable connectors, solder/ HDMI Audio/video connectors like
crimp /terminate & test the cable XLR, RCA (phono), 6.3 mm PHONO,

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sets. (05 Hrs.) 3.5 / 2.5 mm PHONO, BANTAM,
137. Check the continuity as per the SPEAKON, DIN, mini DIN, RF

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marking on the connector for connectors, USB, Fire wire, SATA
preparing the cable set. (05 Hrs.) Connectors, VGA, DVI connectors,

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MIDI and RJ45, RJ11 etc. (06 Hrs.)
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138.Identify and select various
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connectors and cables inside the
CPU cabinet of PC. (05 Hrs.)
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139. Identify the suitable connector and

cable to connect a computer with a
network switch and prepare a cross
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over cable to connect two network

computers. (05 Hrs.)

Professional Install, configure, Computer Hardware, OS, MS office Basic blocks of a computer,
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Skill 80 Hrs; interconnect given and Networking Components of desktop and

computer Install, 140. Demonstrate various parts of the motherboard.
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onfigure,interconnect system unit and motherboard
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Knowledge given computer Hardware and software, I/O devices,

components. (06 Hrs.)
34 Hrs system(s) and and their working. Different types of
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141. Identify various computer printers, HDD, DVD. Various ports in

demonstrate &
peripherals and connect it to the the computer. Windows OS MS
utilize application
system. (04Hrs.) widows: Starting windows and its
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packages for different

application. (Mapped 142. Disable certain functionality by operation, file management using
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NOS: ELE/N4614) disconnecting the concerned cables explorer, Display & sound properties,
SATA/ PATA. (05 Hrs.) screen savers, fontmanagement,
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143. Replace the CMOS battery and installation of program, setting and
extend a memory module. (06 Hrs.) using of control panel, application of
accessories, various IT tools and
144. Test and Replace the SMPS.
applications. Concept of Internet,
(05 Hrs.)
Browsers, Websites, search engines,
145. Replace the given DVD and HDD email, chatting and messenger
on the system. (06 Hrs.) service. Downloading the Data and
146. Dismantle and assemble the program files etc.
desktop computer system. (07 Hrs.)
147. Boot the system from Different
options. (07 Hrs.)

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 148. Install OS in a desktop computer. Computer Networking:-
(05 Hrs.)
Network features - Network medias
149. Install a Printer driver software and Network topologies, protocols- TCP/
test for print outs. (05 Hrs.) IP, UDP, FTP, models and types.
150. Install antivirus software, scan the Specification and standards, types
system and explore the options in the of cables, UTP, STP, Coaxial cables.
antivirus software. (05 Hrs.) Network components like hub,
Ethernet switch, router, NIC Cards,
151. Install MS office software. (05 Hrs.) connectors, media and firewall.
152. Browse search engines, create Difference between PC &Server.
email accounts, practice sending and (34 Hrs.)
receiving of mails and configuration
of email clients. (08 Hrs.)
153. Prepare terminations, make UTP
and STP cable connectors and test.
(08 Hrs.)

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154. Configure a wireless Wi-Fi network.

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(10 Hrs.)

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Professional Identify, place, Basic SMD (2, 3, 4 terminal Introduction to SMD technology
solder and desolder components)

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Skill 70 Hrs; Identification of 2, 3, 4 terminal SMD
and test different
Professional 155. Identification of 2, 3, 4 terminal SMD components. Advantages of SMD

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SMD discrete components over conventional lead
Knowledge components. (05 Hrs.)
components and ICs components. Soldering of SM
20 Hrs package with due 156. De-solder the SMD components from assemblies - Reflow soldering. Tips

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care and following the given PCB. (05 Hrs.) for selection of hardware, Inspection
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safety norms using

157. Solder the SMD components in the of SM. (05 Hrs.)
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proper tools/setup.
same PCB. (05 Hrs.)
(Mapped NOS:
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ELE/N5102) 158. Check for cold continuity of PCB.

(05 Hrs.)
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159. Identification of loose /dry solder,

broken tracks on printed wired
assemblies. (05 Hrs.)
SMD Soldering and Desoldering Introduction to Surface Mount
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160. Identify various connections and Technology (SMT). Advantages,

setup required for SMD Soldering Surface Mount components and
packages. Introduction to solder
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station. (05 Hrs.)

paste (flux).
161. Identify crimping tools for various
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IC packages. (05 Hrs.) Soldering of SM assemblies, reflow

162. Make the necessary settings on soldering. Tips for selection of
hardware, Inspection of SM.
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SMD soldering station to de-solder

various ICs of different packages (at Identification of Programmable Gate
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least four) by choosing proper array (PGA) packages.Specification

crimping tools. (07 Hrs.) of various tracks, calculation of track
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width for different current ratings.

163. Make the necessary settings on
Cold/ Continuity check of PCBs.
SMD soldering station to solder
Identification of lose / dry solders,
various ICs of different packages (at
broken tracks on printed wiring
least four) by choosing proper
assemblies. Introduction to Pick
crimping tools. (8 Hrs.)
place Machine, Reflow Oven,
164. Make the necessary setting rework Preparing stencil,& stencil printer
of defective surface mount (15 Hrs.)
component used soldering / de-
soldering method. (8 Hrs.)

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Professional Rework on PCB after PCB Rework Introduction to Static charges,
Skill 20 Hrs; identifying defects 165. Checked and Repair Printed prevention, handling of static
from SMD soldering Circuit Boards single, Double sensitive devices, various standards
Professional
and desoldering. layer and important tests for for ESD. Introduction to non-soldering
Knowledge (Mapped NOS: interconnections. Construction of
PCBs. (10 Hrs.)
10 Hrs ELE/N5102) Printed Circuit Boards (single,
166. Inspect soldered joints, detect the Double, multilayer), Important tests
defects and test the PCB for for PCBs. Introduction to rework and
rework. (10Hrs.) repair concepts. Repair of damaged
track. Repair of damaged pad and
plated through hole. Repair of solder
mask. (10 Hrs.)

Professional Construct different Protection devices Identify different Necessity of fuse, fuse ratings, types
Skill 30 Hrs; electrical control types of fuses along with fuse holders, of fuses, fuse bases. Single/ three
circuits and test overload (no volt coil), current adjust phase MCBs, single phase ELCBs.
Professional
for their proper (Biometric strips to set the current). (06 Types of contactors, relays and

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Knowledge functioning with due Hrs.) working voltages. Contact currents,
10 Hrs care and safety. protection to contactors and high

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167. Test the given MCBs. (03 Hrs.) current applications. (05 Hrs.)
(Mapped NOS: ELE/
N9407) 168. Connect an ELCB and test the

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leakage of an electrical motor

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control circuit. (05 Hrs.)
169. Test DC motor and its operating 1.LOW VOLTAGE DC MOTOR

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voltage. (03 Hrs.)
(Low Potential motor) Introduction of
170. Test DC motor control signal. DC motor. Types of DC motor .Types

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(03 Hrs.) of DC motor controller. DC Motor
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power. Types of DC Motor power

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171. Test various Low potential motors.
regulation. Application area of DC
(03 Hrs.)
motor controller.
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Stepper Motor
2.What is a Stepper motor and its
172. Test stepper motor. (03 Hrs.) types. Stepper Motor working
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173. Demonstrate working process of Principal. How to select a stepper

stepper motor in various motor Types of wiring of stepper
Equipment. (04 Hrs.) motor. Stepper motor control by
varying clock pulses. Advantage of
stepper motor. (05 Hrs.)
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Professional Assemble and test a Communication electronics Radio Wave Propagation – principle,
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commercial AM/ FM fading.

Skill 60 Hrs; 174. Modulate and Demodulate various
receiver and evaluate Need for Modulation, types of
Professional signals using AM and FM on the
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performance. modulation and demodulation.

Knowledge trainer kit and observe waveforms.
(Mapped NOS: Fundamentals of Antenna, various
(08 Hrs.)
15 Hrs ELE/N9408)
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parameters, types of Antennas &

175. Test IC based AM Receiver (08
application. Introduction to AM, FM
Hrs.)
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& PM, SSB-SC & DSB-SC. Block

176. Test IC based FM transmitter. diagram of AM and FM transmitter.
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(06 Hrs.) FM Generation & Detection. Digital

modulation and demodulation
177. Test IC based AM transmitter and
techniques, sampling, quantization
test the transmitter power
& encoding. Concept of multiplexing
Calculate the modulation index.
and de multiplexing of AM/ FM/ PAM/
(08 Hrs.)
PPM /PWM signals. A simple block
178. Dismantle the given FM receiver diagram approach to be adopted for
set and identify different stages explaining the above mod/demod
(AM section, audio amplifier techniques. (15 Hrs.)
section etc). (10 Hrs.)

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 179. Modulate two signals using AM
kit draw the way from and calculate
percent (%) of modulation. (10 Hrs.)
180. Modulate and Demodulate a
signal using PAM, PPM, PWM
Techniques. (10 Hrs.)
Professional Test, service and Microcontroller (8051) Introduction Microprocessor &
Skill 60 Hrs; troubleshoot the 8051Microcontroller, architecture, pin
181. Identify various ICs & their functions
various components details & the bus system. Function
Professional on the given Microcontroller Kit.
of different domestic/ of different ICs used in the
(07 Hrs.)
Knowledge i n d u s t r i a l Microcontroller Kit. Differentiate
182. Identify the address range of RAM microcontroller with microprocessor.
15 Hrs programmable
& ROM. (07 Hrs.) Interfacing of memory to the
systems. (Mapped
NOS: ELE/N9802) 183. Measure the crystal frequency, microcontroller. Internal hardware
connect it to the controller. resources of microcontroller. I/O port
(07 Hrs.) pin configuration. Different variants of

D
184. Identify the port pins of the controller 8051 & their resources. Register
& configure the ports for Input & banks & their functioning. SFRs &

E
Output operation. (07 Hrs.) their configuration for different
applications. Comparative study of

H
185. Use 8051 microcontroller, connect
8 LED to the port, blink the LED with 8051 with 8052. Introduction to PIC

S
a switch. (08 Hrs.) Architecture (15 Hrs.)
186. Perform the initialization, load & turn

LI
on a LED with delay using Timer.
(08 Hrs.)

B
E I
187. Perform the use of a Timer as an
R IM

Event counter to count external

U
events. (08 Hrs.)
P
188. Demonstrate entering of simple
E N

programs, execute & monitor the

results. (08 Hrs.)
©

Professional Execute the Sensors, Transducers used in IoT Basics of passive and active
Skill 60 Hrs; operation of different Applications transducers. Role, selection and
sensors, identify, wire 189. Identify sensors used in process characteristics. Sensor voltage and
Professional industries such as RTDs,temperature current formats. Thermistors/
& test various
B

Knowledge transducers of IOT ICs, Thermocouples, proximity Thermocouples - Basic principle,

15 Hrs Applications switches (inductive, capacitive and salient features, operating range,
(Mapped NOS: photo electric), load cells, strain composition, advantages and
O

ELE/N9409) gauge. LVDT PT 100 (platinum disadvantages. Strain gauges/ Load

resistance sensor), water level cell – principle, gauge factor, types
T

sensor, thermostat float switch, float of strain gauges. Inductive/ capacitive

valve by their appearance. (15 Hrs.) transducers - Principle of operation,
T

190. Measure temperature of a lit fire advantages and disadvantages.

using a Thermocouple and record
O

Principle of operation of LVDT,

the readings referring to data chart.
advantages and disadvantages.
(10 Hrs.)
N

Proximity sensors – applications,

191. Measure temperature of a lit fire
working principles of eddy current,
using RTD and record the readings
capacitive and inductive proximity
referring to data. (10 Hrs.)
sensors. (15 Hrs.)
192. Measure the DC voltage of a LVDT.
(10 Hrs.)
193. Detect different objectives using
capacitive, inductive and
photoelectric proximity sensors.
(15 Hrs.)

(xiii)
Professional Identify different IoT 194 Connect and test microcontroller to Introduction to Internet of Things
Skill 20 Hrs.; Applications with IoT computer and execute sample applications environment, smart
architecture. programs. (04hrs.) street light and smart water & waste
Professional
(Mapped NOS: ELE/ 195. Upload computer code to the management. What is an IOT? What
Knowledge N3102) physical board (Microcontroller) to makes embedded system an IOT?
06 Hrs. blink a simple LED. (02hrs.) Role and scope of IOT in present and
future marketplace. Smart objects,
196. Write and upload computer code to
Wired – Cables, hubs etc. Wireless
the physical Micro controller to
– RFID, WiFi, Bluetooth etc. Different
sound buzzer. (02hrs.)
functional building blocks of IOT
197. Circuit and program to Interface light architecture. (06 hrs.)
sensor – LDR with Microcontroller
to switch ON/OFF LED based on
light intensity. (03hrs.)
198. Set up & test circuit to interface
potentiometer with Microcontroller
and map to digital values for e.g.

D
0-1023. (03hrs.)

E
Professional Plan and carry out Analog IC Applications Discussion on the identified projects
the selection of a with respect to data of the concerned

H
Skill 90 Hrs; Make simple projects/
project, assemble ICs. Components used in the project.
Professional Applications using ICs 741, 723,
(09 Hrs.)

S
the project and
Knowledge evaluate performance 555, 7106, 7107

LI
18 Hrs for a domestic/ Sample projects:
c o m m e r c i a l • Laptop protector
applications.

B
E I
• Mobile cell phone charger
(Mapped NOS:
R IM

ELE/N9802) • Battery monitor

U
• Metal detector
P
• Mains detector
E N

• Lead acid battery charger

• Smoke detector
©

• Solar charger
• Emergency light
• Water level controller
• Door watcher
B

(Instructor will pick up any five of the

projects for implementation) (45 Hrs.)
O

Digital IC Applications Discussion on the identified projects

T

Make simple with respect to data of the concerned

projects/Applications ICs. Components used in the project.
T

(09 Hrs.)
using various digital ICs
O

(digital display, event

counter, stepper motor
N

driver etc)
• Duty cycle selector
• Frequency Multiplier
• Digital Mains
Resumption Alarm
• Digital Lucky Random
number generator
• Dancing LEDs

(xiv)
 • Count down timer
• Clap switch
• Stepper motor control
• Digital clock
• Event counter
• Remote jammer
(Instructor will pick up any five
of the projects for
implementation) (45 Hrs.)
Professional Prepare fibre optic Fiber optic communication Introduction to optical fiber, optical
Skill 15 Hrs; setup and execute 199. Identify the resources and their need connection and various types optical
transmission and on the given fiber optic trainer kit. amplifier, its advantages, properties
Professional
reception. (Mapped (02 Hrs.) of optic fiber, testing, losses, types
Knowledge NOS: ELE/N5902) of fiber optic cables and
200. Make optical fiber setup to transmit
05 Hrs specifications. Encoding of light.

D
and receive analog and digital data.
Fiber optic joints, splicing, testing
(02 Hrs.)
and the related equipment/

E
201. Set up the OFC trainer kit to study measuring tools. Precautions and
AM, FM, PWM modulation and

H
safety aspects while handling optical
demodulation. (02 Hrs.) cables. (05 Hrs.)

S
202. Perform FM modulation and
demodulation using OFC trainer kit

LI
using audio signal and voice link.
(03 Hrs.)

B
E I
203. Perform PWM modulation and
R IM

demodulation using OFC trainer kit

U
using audio signal and voice link.
(03 Hrs.)
P
E N

204. Perform PPM modulation and

demodulation using OFC trainer kit
using audio signal and voice link.
©

(03 Hrs.)
Professional Plan and Interface the Digital panel Meter Different types of seven segment
LCD, LED, DPM 205. Identify LED Display module and its displays, decoders and driver ICs.
Skill 35 Hrs;
panels to various Concept of multiplexing and its
Professional decoder/driver ICs. (05 Hrs.)
B

circuits and evaluate advantages. Block diagrams of 7106

Knowledge performance. 206. Display a word on a two line LED. and 7107 and their configuration for
05 Hrs (Mapped NOS: (06 Hrs.) different measurements. Use of DPM
O

ELE/N8107) 207. Measure/current flowing through a with seven segment display.

resistor and display it on LED Principles of working of LCD.
T

Module. (06 Hrs.) Different sizes of LCDs. Decoder/

208. Measure/current flowing through a driver ICs used with LCDs and their
T

sensor and display it on a LED pin diagrams. Use of DPM with LCD
module (DPM). (06 Hrs.) to display different voltage & current
O

signals. (05 Hrs.)

209. Identify LCD Display module and its
N

decoder/driver ICs. (06 Hrs.)

210. Measure/current flowing through a
resistor and display it. (06 Hrs.)

Professional Detect the faults and SMPS and Inverter Concept and block diagram of
Skill 120 Hrs; troubleshoot SMPS, 211. Identify the components/devices and manual, automatic and servo voltage
UPS and inverter. draw their corresponding symbols. stabilizer, o/p voltage adjustment.
Professional
(Mapped NOS: (03 Hrs.) Voltage cut-off systems, relays used
Knowledge ELE/N7202) in stabilizer. Block Diagram of
212. Dismantle the given stabilizer and
40 Hrs different types of Switch mode power
find major sections/ ICs
components. (06 Hrs.) supplies and their working principles.

(xv)
 213. List the defect and symptom in the Inverter; principle of operation, block
faulty SMPS. (05 Hrs.) diagram, power rating, change over
214. Measure / Monitor major test points period. Installation of inverters,
of computer SMPS. (07 Hrs.) protection circuits used in inverters.
215. Troubleshoot the fault in the given Battery level, overload, over charging
SMPS unit. Rectify the defect and etc. Various faults and its
verify the output with load. Record rectification in inverter. Block
your procedure followed for trouble diagram of DC-DC converters and
shooting the defects. (08 Hrs.) their working principals. (20 Hrs.)
216. Use SMPS used in TVs and PCs for
Practice. (05 Hrs.)
217. Install and test the SMPS in PC.
(05 Hrs.)
218. Install and test an inverter. (05 Hrs.)
219. Troubleshoot the fault in the given
inverter unit. Rectify the defects and

D
verify the output with load. (08 Hrs.)
220. Construct and test IC Based DC-DC

E
converter for different voltages.

H
(08 Hrs.)
221. Construct and test a switching step

S
down regulator using LM2576.
(08 Hrs.)

LI
222. Construct and test a switching step
up regulator using MC 34063.

B
E I
(08 Hrs.)
R IM

UPS Concept of Uninterrupted power

U
223. Connect battery stack to the UPS. supply. Difference between Inverters
P
(07 Hrs.)
E N

and UPS. Basic block diagram of

224. Identify front panel control & indicators UPS & operating principle. Types of
of UPS. (05 Hrs.) UPS : Off line UPS, On line UPS,
©

225. Connect Battery & load to UPS & Line interactive UPS & their
test on battery mode. (06 Hrs.) comparison UPS specifications.
226. Open top cover of a UPS; identify its Load power factor & types of
isolator transformers, the UPS indications & protections Installation
transformer and various circuit boards of single phase & UPS. (20 Hrs.)
B

in UPS. (08 Hrs.)

227. Identify the various test point and
O

verify the voltages on these. (05 Hrs.)

228. Identify various circuit boards in UPS
T

and monitor voltages at various test

points. (05 Hrs.)
T

229. Perform load test to measure backup

time. (08 Hrs.)
O

Professional Identify, Test and verify 230A. Identify and Test an LED and a Semiconductor properties and types.
haracteristics of Photodiode to verify the photo P-type and N-type semiconductors,
N

Skill 60 Hrs;
Photovoltaic cells, emitting effect and light sensitivity. PN junction, etc.
Professional Modules, Batteries (04 hrs)
Knowledge and Charge Conversion of solar radiation to
230B.Test a Photo voltaic cell for different
controllers. Install a electricity. Main materials used to
15 Hrs illumination levels and verify
solar panel, execute develop solar cells (Silicon,
photovoltaic property. (04 hrs)
testing and evaluate Cadmium tellurides, etc.) Light
230C. Plot I-V curve for photovoltaic cell
performance by sensitive properties of PN junction.
based on the illumination at
connecting the panel constant temperature. (04hrs) Difference of photo electric and photo
to the inverter. 230D. Plot I-V curve for photovoltaic cell voltaic effects of a PN junction. PV
(Mapped NOS: ELE/ based on temperature at constant cell characteristics, I–V curve,
N5902) illumination. (04 hrs) effects of temperature.

(xvi)
 230E Test photovoltaic cell in sunlight at Photovoltaic effect. Photo voltaic
various angles of inclination and module: minimal functional
direction. (04 hrs) specification, cells per module, max
watts per module, maximum voltage
at max power, maximum current at
max power. (05)

Solar Power (Renewable Energy Need for renewable energy sources,

System) Solar energy as a renewable
230F. Wire a solar controller to a battery resource. Materials used for solar
storage station. (08 Hrs.) cells. Principles of conversion of
solar light into electricity. Basics of
231. Connect storage batteries to a power
photovoltaic’s cell. Module, panel and
inverter. (08Hrs.)
Arrays.
232. Connect and test solar panel to the
Inverter and run the load. (08Hrs.) Factors that influence the output of
a PV module. SPV systems and the
233. Install a solar power to charge a

D
key benefits. Difference between
rechargeable 12 V DC battery and
SPV and conventional power. Solar
find out the charging time. (08 Hrs.)

E
charge controller or regulator and its
234. Install a Solar Inverter. (08 Hrs.) role. Safety precautions while

H
working with solar systems.
(10 Hrs.)

S
LI
Dismantle, identify Cell phones Introduction to mobile
Professional
the various parts and 235. Dismantle, identify the parts and communication.Concept cell site,
Skill 30 Hrs; hand off, frequency reuse, block

B
E I
interface of a cell assemble different types of smart
Professional diagram and working of cell phones,
R IM

phone to a PC. phones. (04 Hrs.)

U
Knowledge cell phone features.
Estimate and trouble 236. Dismantle the cell phone/smart
10 Hrs shoot. (Mapped phone remove the key pad and clean GSM and CDMA technology.
P
E N

NOS: ELE/N8107) it, test for the continuity of the matrix/ Use IEMI number to trace lost/
tracks. (04 Hrs.) misplaced mobile phone. (10 Hrs.)
237. Interface the cell phone/smart phone
©

to the PC and transfer the data card.

(03 Hrs.)
238. Flash the various brands of cell
phone/smart phone (at least 3).
B

(03 Hrs.)
239. Format the cell phone/ smart phone
O

for virus (approach the mobile repair

shop/ service centre). (04 Hrs.)
T

240. Perform the interfacing of cell phone/

smart phone to the PC and dismantle
the cell phone and identify the power
T

section and test its healthiness.

O

(04 Hrs.)
241. Find out the fault of basic cell phone
N

system. Rectify the fault in ringer

section and check the performance.
(04 Hrs.)
242. Replace various faulty parts like mic,
speaker, data/ charging/ audio jack
etc. (04 Hrs.)

(xvii)
Professional Check the various LED Lights Types of LED panels used in various
parts of a LED lights 243. Dismantle the LED light, identify lighting applications. Stacking of
Skill 15 Hrs;
& stacks and the connections of LEDs stacks, LEDs.
Professional troubleshoot. protection circuits, regulator.
05 Hrs (Mapped NOS: (03 Hrs.)
Knowledge ELE/N9302)
244. Identify the rectifier, controller part
of LED lights. (03 Hrs.)
245. Make series string connection of
six LED’s and connect four Series
strings in parallel. (03 Hrs.)
246. Connect to such parallel sets in
Series to create a matrix of LED’s.
(03 Hrs.)
247. Apply suitable voltage and check
Voltage across series strings.
(03 Hrs.)

D
E
Professional Identify, operate LCD and LED TV Driving of LED stacks. (05 Hrs.)
Skill 50 Hrs; various controls, 248. Identify and operate different Controls Difference between a conventional

H
troubleshoot and on LCD, LED TV. (05 Hrs.) CTV with LCD & LED TVs.
Professional
replace modules of Principle of LCD and LED TV and
249. Identify components and different

S
Knowledge the LCD/LED TV &
sectors of LCD and LED TV. function of its different section. Basic
15 Hrs its remote. (Mapped

LI
(05 Hrs.) principle and working of 3D TV.
NOS: ELE/N3102)
250. Dismantle; Identify the parts of the IPS panels and their features.

B
remote control. (05 Hrs.)
E I
Different types of interfaces like
R IM

251. Dismantle the given LCD/LED TV to HDMI, USB, RGB etc. TV Remote
U
find faults with input stages through Control –Types, parts and functions,
connectors. (05 Hrs.) IR Code transmitter and IR Code
P
E N

252. Detect the defect in a LED/LCD TV Receiver. Working principle,

receiver given to you. Rectify the operation of remote control. Different
fault. (10 Hrs.) adjustments, general faults in
©

Remote Control. (15 Hrs.)

253. Troubleshoot the faults in the given
LED/LCD TV receiver. Locate and
rectify the faults. (10 Hrs.)
254.Test LED/LCD TV after
B

troubleshooting the defects. (05 Hrs.)

255. Identify various connectors and
O

connect the cable operators

external decoder (set top box ) to
T

the TV. (05 Hrs.)

T
O
N

(xviii)
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135
Electronics Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Audio and Video/RF Cables

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• construction of audio cable
• types and applications of audio cable
• construction of video cable
• types of applications of video cable.

Audio Cables: Audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to The details of various types of commonly used Audio
20kHz. In other words frequencies from 20Hz to 20kHz are cables are as follows.
audible by human ear. Any information conveyed at these
Standard Round: Fig. 2 shows standard type braided
frequencies are wanted signals. Any other disturbances
screen cables. They offer low noise for use in low-level
like noise cross talk and hum are unwanted signals. The
signal circuits.

D
audio equipments are designed and assembled to handle
only wanted signals and reject unwanted signals. Similarly 16/0.2mm tinned copper stranded conductors, PVC

E
the audio cables used inside the audio equipments and insulated, braided screen and grey PVC sheath.
also cables used for connecting two or more equipments
Cores: red (single), blue and red (twin).

H
and devices should also be such that they reject unwanted
signals. For this purpose the audio cables are provided Capacitance: 360 pF/m (single); core to screen 288 pF/

S
with a shield which is grounded at both ends of the cable. m and core to core 171 pF/m (twin). Twin type has twisted
This shield acts as a screen and prevents induction of cores for hum reduction.

LI
noise. This shield surrounding the live leads runs throughout
the length of the cable in the form of a metal (copper) mesh.

B
E I
The general construction of an audio cable is shown in the
R IM

Fig 1.
U
P
E N
B ©

Given below is a list of common audio cables, their types, specifications and applications.
Types of Audio cables
O

Sl.No. Type Specification Application

T

1 Microphone cable Low noise single core Microphones, Pre-Amplifiers Programme

T

10 x 0.2mm Amplifiers (Unbalanced) shielded

2 Microphone cable Low noise Two core Microphones, Pre-Amplifiers Programme
O

26 x 0.1mm Flexible, Amplifiers (Balanced)

Shielded
N

3 Standard Audio Two core 14 x 0.2mm Line Amplifiers, Audio consoles, Tape recorders,
cable cotton braided shielded Programme Amplifiers
4 General purpose Two core 26 x 0.1mm For any indoor and outdoor applications
Audio cable cotton braided shielded
5 Heavy duty Two core individually Data Transmission
Audio cables screened 7 x 0.2mm
6 Heavy duty Four core Individually Data Transmission
Audio cable screened 7 x 0.2mm

1
Microphone Cables: Fig 3 shows a 2-core standard type This cable comes with four 14/0.12 mm tinned copper
Microphone cable. This is a low noise screened cable. stranded conductors, PVC insulated and wrapped with
Construction ensures good transmission properties polythene tape. Capacitance 125 PF / m.
desirable in many professional audio & low level programme This is also a High-grade, low-noise, screened cables and
circuits. Two 55/0.1 mm plain copper stranded conductors the construction ensures good transmission properties
PVC insulated and twisted together. desirable in many professional audio and low noise level.
Patch/instrument Cable: It is shown in the Fig 6.

Fig 4 shows a 2 core flexible type Microphone cable. This

cable is designed to fulfill the conflicting requirements of An instrument/patch cable which has been developed with
flexibility and good screening properties, thus making it the emphasis on mechanical stability and consistent
suitable for hand-held or free-standing microphone electrical performance. This black 6mm cable is ideal for
applications. Two 28/0.1mm plain annealed copper stage use where mechanical strength is the prime

D
stranded conductors, PVC insulated with a single lap consideration.

E
screen constructed from plain annealed copper with a grey Specifications : Strand / conductor : 7 x 0.202 mm
PVC outer sheath. shield : Double shield of lapped copper screen, Capacitance

H
Capacitance 273pF/m Dia.5.4mm 110 PF/m, resistance : 78.2 W / km.
Heavy Duty Twin: Fig.7 shows 2 core Heavy duty twin

S
with individually lapped screen.

LI
B
E I
R IM
U
Fig 5 shows a 4-core standard type Microphone cable.
P
Speaker cable : Speaker wire is used to make the
E N

electrical connection between loudspeakers and audio

amplifiers. Modern speaker wire consists of two electrical
conductors individually insulated by plastic (such as PVC,
©

PE or Teflon) or, less commonly, rubber. The two wires are

electrically identical, but are marked to identify the correct
audio signal polarity. Most commonly, speaker wire comes
in the form of zip cord.(Fig 8)
B

Types of RF cables
Specifications
O

Characteristic Attenuation Thickness

T

impedance for 10m

in Ohms at 100 MHZ
T

1 RG58C/U 50 3 db 5mm Short length RF cabling

O

2 RG214/U 50 0.76 db 10.8mm RF Transmission line

3 RG223/U 50 1.41 db 5.5mm Short length RF cabling
N

4 RG213/U 50 0.62 db 10.3mm RF Transmission line

5 RG18A/U 50 0.3 db 24mm Long length RF Transmission line

6 RG174/U 50 2 db 2.5mm For wiring inside RF equipments

RG59B/U 75 1.9 db 6.15mm General purpose video cabling
RG179B/U 75 3.2 db 2.5mm Short length video cabling
CT167 75 3.7 db 10.1mm Cable TV
CT100 75 3.9 db 6.65mm
CT125 75 4.9 db 78mm
RG6U 75 6.96 Cable TV - long lines
RG11U 75 0.6 db 10.29mm Closed circuit TV (video) cabling

2 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135
Other types of video cables come with power supply line easily be separated to allow the power cores to be taken
along the coaxial cable are given below. to a power source leaving the RG59 to be crimped for
connection to a Digital Video Recorder (DVR), Video
RG59 Coaxial Cable + 2 Core Power CCTV cable
camera, or monitor.
RG59+2 composite cable. (Fig 10)
PTZ combo cable- The PTZ combo cable. (Fig 11)

This heavy duty Pan Tilt Zoom- (PTZ) cable is an ideal

choice for applications with pan, tilt and zoom security
cameras. PTZ Combo cable is a 3 in 1 cable which
supports the data, power and video signal. The power
This cable is also called as shotgun cable, is more
cores are 0.15 x 30 stranded to prevent interruptions and

D
economical in saving your installation time and money
are colour coded red 12V and black 0V to avoid any errors
fitting 1 cable instead of 2. It allows you to send power in

E
in connection. These power cores can also be used to run
the two cores and a video signal in Coaxial cable down just
24V AC, ideal for most PTZ installations.
the one cable. The two cables run in shotgun style can

H
Types of audio and video connectors

S
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

LI
• list the different types of Audio and Video connectors
• explain the construction of Audio and Video connectors

B
E I
• explain the applications of connectors.
R IM
U
Introduction: The various types of equipments used in The exploded view of RCA plug is shown in fig.1. The RCA
the field of communications and broadcasting are in the plug consists of metal outer tube (B) and an inner central
P
E N

form of cabinets closed on all sides by metal plates. The conductor (A) insulated from one another by foam or
input-output connections, Auxiliary inputs and outputs styroflex spacer. The cable side of the inner conductor is
and other connections to the equipment are brought out in in the form of a small cylindrical rod with a hole and screw
©

the form of connectors mounted normally on the rear side arrangement (C) for connecting the centre conductor of the
of the equipment. So connections to the equipments by unbalanced cable. There is also a clamp like lead (D) fixed
cables cannot be done with open ended cables. The cable to the outer tube to which the shield of the unbalanced
ends should also have suitable mating connectors for cable is to be connected using a crimp tool or a nose plier.
giving input or taking the output from the equipments.
B

The use of such connectors makes it easy to remove

equipment or replace the equipment whenever necessary.
O

The cable connections can easily be changed to other

equipments when cables and equipments are provided
T

with connectors. Also the use of such connectors are

helpful in making firm and reliable connections. In addition,
T

in many cases the usage of connectors helps for fool proof

operation avoiding errors due to wrong connections.
O

Audio Connectors
N

The details of some of the Audio connectors which are

mostly in use are as follows.
RCA plug and sockets: The exploded view of the RCA
connector plug is given in Fig 1.
The entire rear portion of the connector (cable end) is
The RCA plugs and sockets are invariably used in
protected by a strong PVC cover (E) which is screwed to
commercial equipments like audio consoles, recorders,
the metal connector. A sleeving of suitable diameter may
TV receivers, video cassette recorders/players and some
be used at the cable connection to prevent the strands of
commercial amplifiers. These connectors can be used
the shield touching the inner conductor.
only with unbalanced audio cables. They are normally
used for connecting high impedance inputs and outputs.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135 3
The RCA plugs can also be used with video cables (RG58/
59) to connect video inputs and outputs in commercial
equipments.
RCA sockets (female) are available in different styles; The
construction of these sockets is more or less similar as
PCB mount type and panel mount type as shown in Fig 2A
& 2B. The central conductor is the inner tube separated
from the outer tube by a plastic or foam spacer. The
dimensions of the inner tube and outer tube are such that
the male plug tightly sits making firm contact.
XLR Male plug (cable type): It consists of a metal case
with an insulator disc inside holding the three pins in
precise position. The cable ends of the pins have curved
edges to enable easy soldering. The clamp provided at the
The standards used for connecting audio cable to XLR
cable end of the connector helps to hold the audio cable
connectors should be followed here also. The screen
tightly so that movement or shaking of the cable will not
(ground) should be connected to Pin No.1 and the live leads

D
affect the soldering connection at the pins. A thick rubber
to pins 2 & 3. The pin configuration is shown in Fig 9.
tapered tube is provided for leading the cable inside and

E
helps to give right flexibility at the connector. A typical XLR
male plug shown in Fig 6.

H
S
LI
B
E I
XLR female plugs (cable) should be used for feeding the
R IM
U
input to the equipment by inserting it to the male panel
mounted connector fixed in the equipment.
P
E N

Video Connectors
The details of some of the common video connectors are
as follows.
©

BNC (Male plugs) : The BNC male plugs are very common
The arrangement of pins in a XLR male plug is shown in in video systems and equipments. It consists of an inner
Fig 7. The three leads of the Audio cable namely two live conductor in the form of a pin and outer metal housing as
leads and shield can be connected to any pin in any shown in Fig 12. The inner pin is gold plated normally for
B

sequence. But a standard sequence should be followed providing good electrical contact. The inner pin is kept
to avoid wrong inter-connections between various insulated from the outer housing by a styroflex or foam
O

equipments. The international standard is to connect the spacer. The outer housing has a turntable locking
screen (ground) to pin 1 and the live leads of the cable to arrangement. The plug is pushed into the female receptacle
T

pin 2 & pin 3. This standard should be followed in and when turned clockwise the connector gets locked.
connecting any XLR connector. While removing, the housing is gently turned anti-clockwise
and pulled.
T
O
N

XLR Female plug (cable type) : XLR Female plug (cable)

is shown in Fig 8. The XLR female plug consists of a metal
case with three sockets held in position by fibre spacer.
The metal case is provided with a locking arrangement
which helps to hold the connector in locked position. While
removing the plug, the lock pin should be pressed slightly
while pulling out the plug. The cable end of the connector
is similar to that of the male connector described above.

4 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135
The cable side of the connector is in the form of a tube HDMI connector
through which the inner conductor of the cable is connected
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a
to the central pin. The outer shield of the cable is expanded
proprietary audio/video interface for transferring
and spread over the knurled portion of the tube. Another
uncompressed video data and compressed or
cylindrical tube is run over this bed and crimped. Now the
uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-compliant
inner pin and the outer metal housing act as two leads of
source device, such as a display controller, to a compatible
the video cable. A protective PVC cover is provided at the
computer monitor, video projector, digital television, or
rear of the connector to reduce strain at the cable connection.
digital audio device. HDMI is a digital replacement for
The BNC plugs are used along with the following types of analog video standards.
co-axial cables in video circuits.
No signal conversion is necessary, nor is there a loss of
RG58 RG59 BNC connectors are video quality when a DVI-to-HDMI adapter is used. The
CEC (Consumer Electronics Control) capability allows
RG174A RG223/U used both for 50 and HDMI devices to control each other when necessary and
allows the user to operate multiple devices with one remote
RG8A/U RG55B/U 75 ohms cables. control handset.
Several versions of HDMI have been developed and deployed

D
RG142B/U RG188A/U
since initial release of the technology but all use the same
cable and connector. Other than improved audio and video

E
RG213/U RG400/U
capacity, performance, resolution and color spaces, newer

H
RG179B/U RG214/U versions have optional advanced features such as 3D,
Ethernet data connection, and CEC (Consumer Electronics

S
BNC (Female) connectors: BNC female connectors can Control) extensions.
be either of cable type or panel mount type. Mostly they The HDMI specification defines 5 connector types. The

LI
are of panel mount type fixed as input and output ports of normal full-size single-link Type A is shown in Fig.14a &
various video equipments. Fig 13 illustrates the panel 14b.

B
E I
mount BNC connector. It consists of an inner thin
R IM

cylindrical tube fixed centrally inside a larger outer metal

U
tube housing. Styroflux or foam is used as the spacer
between the two. The outer housing has two short pins
P
used for locking the male plug.
E N
O
B ©

S/PDIF connector
T

S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format) connector

plug is shown in Fig 15a & 15b is a type of digital audio
T

interconnect used in consumer audio equipment to output

audio over reasonably short distances. The signal is
O

transmitted over a fiber optic cable with TOSLINK connector.

S/PDIF interconnects components in home theatres and
N

other digital high fidelity systems.

In the rear portion of the connector the leads from the inner S/PDIF is based on the professional AES3 interconnect
conductor is brought out to which the centre lead of the standard. S/PDIF can carry two channels of uncompressed
cable is soldered. The shield of the cable is connected to PCM audio or compressed 5.1 or 7.1 surround sound (such
the chassis (ground) at a point nearest to the connector. as DTS audio codec) it cannot support lossless formats
Since the outer frame of connector is fixed to the panel, it (such as Dolby True HD and DTS-HD Master Audio) which
gets grounded. require greater bandwidth like that available with HDMI .
In the cable type BNC female connector, the rear portion This mode is used to connect the output of a DVD player
(cable side) is similar to that of the male plug and the or computer, via optical to a home-theatre amplifying
procedure for giving cable connection is also same. receiver that supports Dolby Digital or DTS. Another

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135 5
common use is to carry two channels of uncompressed Jack connectors
digital audio from a CD player to an amplifying receiver.
Stereo 3.5 mm Plugs: These are shown in Fig 17.
Available in two versions, insulated plug or screened plug.
The insulated type has a moulded body with a cable strain
relief sleeve and the screened type has a metal body with
a moulded cable strain relief sleeve. Miniature 2.5 mm
plugs also are in use.

Fig 17

‘F’ connectors: The general view of the F connector is given

in Fig 16. It consists of an inner pin and outer separated and
insulated from one another. The outer is hexagonal in the
outside and cylindrical and threaded inside. The threading
is used for tightening the connector after pushing it to the

D
female receptable. The leads on the cable side are similar
as in the case of RCA plug where the inner and outer leads

E
of the cable are connected.

H
‘F’ connectors are invariably used in cable TV circuits and
equipments with cables of 75 ohm impedance.
Chassis Socket: This is shown in Fig 18. Enclosed

S
chassis socket with silver-plated closed circuit contacts

LI
(single circuit). Plated mounting bush. Earth contact
connected to bush.

B
E I
Fig 18
R IM
U
P
E N
B ©

Chart showing various types of sockets/jacks and plugs used for

Audio/Video and DC power connectors
O

Sl.No. Socket / connector Name Socket / connector Image

T

1 RCA socket -Female

T
O
N

2 RCA plug- Male

6 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135
3 TRS-Jack- Female (6.35mm)

4 TRS plug - Male(6.35mm)

5 TRS Jack- Female (6.35mm)

D
E
H
S
LI
6 TRS plug - Male (6.35mm)

B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N

7 XLR connector- female

B ©

8 XLR connector- Male

O
T
T
O

9 TRRS jack- Female

N

10 TRRS plug- male

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135 7
 11 Headphone Jack- Female

12 Headphone plug- Male

13 TOS Link -optical Jack -female

D
E
H
S
14 TOS link - optical plug- male

LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N

15 S/PDIF connector- male

©

16 S/PDIF connector female

B
O
T

17 HDMI Female Connector

T
O
N

18 HDMI male connector

8 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135
19 BNC Female connector

20 BNC Male Connector

D
E
21 F - Connector

H
S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
22 Barrel DC connector- plug
P
E N
O
B ©

23 Barrel DC connector -jack

T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.135 9
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.136
Electronics Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Termination of cable ends of crimping and soldering

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the application of BNC plug
• state the application of 'N' male connectors
• state the application of 'F' connectors
• describe the crimping process used in co-axial cables and connectors
• describe the stripping process using a cable stripper
• state the advantage and disadvantages of crimping.

Selection of cable with BNC connector: A BNC Table 1

connector of 75 ohms characteristic impedance (Zo)
Cables with
connected to a RG59 cable (whose Zo is also 75 ohms) is
75 ohms BNC Application

D
suitable for wiring in video circuits. All video circuits
connectors
invariably use 75 ohms as the standard in their design.

E
BNC connectors of Zo 50 ohms should not be used with RG59B/U Video circuits and cabling
co-axial cable of Zo 75 ohms. This will cause mismatch, RG179B/U Closed circuit

H
reflections and heating of components. RG6 TV

S
Selection of co-axiable with N type connectors:
Cables with
Similarly in the case of ‘N’ connectors, the characteristic
50 ohms BNC Application

LI
impedance of ‘N’ connectors is 50 ohms only. They should
connectors
be used only with co-axial cables having Zo as 50 ohms.
The impedance of the connector must match the RG58C/U Low power

B
E I
impedance of the cable used. Also the impedance of the RG174A/U RF circuits
R IM

RG8A/U and interconnecting

U
cable connector assembly must match the impedances of
the equipments where they are used for inter-connectivity. RG213/U low power RF
RG214/U equipments
P
E N

Table 1 gives the types of cables suitable for BNC

RG188/U
connectors of both types.
RG223/U
Some of the types of co-axial cables having Zo as 50 ohms
©

to be used a long with ‘N’ connectors are given in table 2. Selection of co-axial cable with F connectors : In the
The outer diameter of these cables are such that they fit case of F connectors, the impedance of these connectors
into the connector. These co-axial cables are also meant is 75 ohms. Hence they should be used only with co-axial
for more power handling capacity. cables having characteristic impedance of 75 ohms.
B

The co-axial cables commonly used with ‘F’ connectors

are given in table 3.
O

Table 2
T

Co-axial Overall Characteristic Application

cable type outer diameter impedance
T

(inch)
O

RG8A/U 0.285 50 Short and medium length

RG9 0.280 50 transmission lines and
N

RG9A 0.280 50 inter-connecting cables.

RG55B 0.116 50 Used in medium power
RG400 0.116 50 RF equipments (upto 100W)
RG213 0.285 50
RG214 0.285 50

10
 Table 3
Type of Overall Zo Applications
cable outer dia Nominal
impedance
in ohms
RG6 0.185 75 Short length out-door and cabling in cable TV field.
RG59 0.146 75 Example: LNBC to satellite receiver, modulator - amplifier
CT100 0.25 75 connections, Roof top to TV receivers tap off connections etc.

While making co-axial cable-connector assemblies there crimping tools used for co-axial cable connections.
is a possibility of some thin strands of the shield of the Crimping ensures very good contact and also avoids
cable touching the inner at the connector end. This should breaking of the cable leads which is normal in soldered
be carefully avoided. Also while checking the continuity connections.
during testing shake the connector ends of the cable while
The crimping tool type HT 301C is used for crimping
holding multimeter prods. The centre pin and the outer of
common types of video and RF connectors. HT 301C is

D
the connector should not show continuity even while
useful for crimping BNC connectors while making co-axial
shaking the cable.
cable connector assembly.

E
The Crimping tool : We have come across crimping tools
Fig 1 shows the crimping tool. It is 8.7" professional

H
used with power cables where the cable ends are connected
Hexagon/Oval type Ratchet and useful for F, BNC, TNC,
to lugs and crimped for firm contact. Similarly we have
N, Fiber optic thinnet - PVC & Thinnet Teflon connectors.

S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

It consists of a pair of jaws with a set of DIE in between the The jaws can be opened and closed by the two handles.
jaws. The DIE set consists of three or four hexagonal The frame is made up of carbon steel and hardened so that
holes. it can withstand heavy pressure.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.136 11
The handles are sufficiently long to give good leverage. The specification are given in table 4. It explains clearly
The handles get locked automatically when the jaws are the dimensions of various dies in the tool and also gives the
fully closed. Slight pressure on the handles releases the types of cables that can be used for crimping. For
lock and causes the jaws to open. As detailed in the example HT 301C has four dies 8.1mm, 6.5mm, 5.41mm
figure, the die can be replaced depending upon the and 1.72mm.
requirement.
Table 4
A specification of all dimension and RG size

HT PIN SQ FOR CRIMPING RG TYPE CABLE

PIN
301A .256" .213" .698" 59, 62, 140, 210, BELDEN 8279
6.5 mm 5.41 mm 1.72 mm 55,58,141,142,223,303,400, Fiber Optic

301B .319" .213" .187" 6, 55, 58, 141, 142, 223, 303, 400

D
8.1mm 5.41mm 4.75mm 174, Fiber Optic

E
301C .319" .256" .213" .068" 6, 59, 62, 140, 210, BELDEN 8279

H
8.1mm 6.5mm 5.41mm 1.72mm 55, 58, 141, 142, 223, 303, 400, Fiber Optic

S
301D .324" .256" .213" .068" 5, 6, 58, 59, 62, 140, 141, 142, 212, 222, 303

LI
8.3mm 6.5mm 5.41mm 1.72mm Fiber Optic BELDEDN 8281, 8279, 9231, 9141

B
E I
The advantages of using crimping are The only disadvantages in crimping is, the connector once
R IM

used for crimping, cannot be re-used. It should be thrown

U
a Crimping ensures firm mechanical and electrical
out only. This is the reason why precaution should be
contact.
taken to cut the cable end to correct dimensions and
P
E N

b It avoids breaking of leads which we normally experience positioned properly before crimping.
in soldered connection.
©

c The crimping saves a lot of time. The process is very

quick.
B
O
T
T
O
N

12 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.136
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.137
Electronics Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Different types of cable and connectors used in LAN

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• list different types of cables used in networking
• explain the construction of a twisted pair cable
• explain the construction of a coaxial cable.

Cables or Transmission media The two types of cables are:

Network computers must have a pathway to contact other – Unshielded twisted pair cable.
computers. The physical path through which the electrical
– Shielded twisted pair cable.
signals travel is called transmission media or cables.
Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)
Cable media are wires that conduct electricity/signal. The
following types of cables are used in LAN. Unshielded twisted pair cable is composed of a set of

D
twisted pairs with a simple plastic encasement as in
1 Twisted pair cable
Fig 2.

E
2 Co-axial cable

H
1 Twisted pair cable

S
Twisted pair is a common scheme for using copper wire as
telecommunication cable because copper is a good

LI
conductor of electrons. Twisted copper wires reduces
cross talk and signal emissions.

B
E I
Twisted pairs are formed by two insulated 22 to 26 gauge
R IM

copper wires that are twisted about each other as in

U
Fig 1. These twisted cables are available in two types.
P
E N

It is commonly used in telephone systems and has been

©

largely standardized.
Twisted pair network cables are rated in terms of their
capability to carry network traffic. They are referred as
category 3, 4 5e and cat 6.
B

Category 3/Cat 3 - 10 Mbps - used for voice grade telephone or 10 mbps ethernet
O

Category 4/Cat 4 - 16 Mbps - Token ring network

Category 5/Cat 5 - 100 Mbps - For 100 Mbps Ethernet
T

/ECat 5 - 100/1000 Mbps

T

CAT 6 cable: Cat 6 is a "twisted pair" network cable used

O

for carrying data signals at speeds of up to 550MHz of

Bandwidth. This cable is preferred for more advanced
N

networking installations where a higher bandwidth than

normal is required.
With Gigabit Ethernet, Broadband, Audio/Video and
Security capabilities, Cat6 is ideal for any critical network
installation. Whether it's for wiring a home, office or entire
campus, we have the solution that's right for the installation.
Cat6 is backward compatible with the CAT 3, 5, 5e cable
standards. As with Cat5 and Cat5e cabling, Cat6 cables
consists of 4 unshielded twisted pairs(UTP) of copper
wires with a soft supporting member in the center of the Cat6 standard also includes more stringent specifications
cable (Fig 3) for cross talk and system noise.

13
E Category 5 and category 5 UTP are commonly used in The UTP cable is crimped to the information outlet.
computer networking. Another patch cable connects to the RJ-45 jack in the
information outlet and the other end gets connected to the
UTP cables are limited to a length of 100 meters (328 feet)
NIC of the computer. Note that the distance from the
for each node to Hub connection.
connector on the hub to the connector on the computer’s
Shielded twisted pair cable: Today, the mostly used NIC cannot exceed 100 meters of cable length.
cable is UTP. But some forms of shielded twisted pair
2. Co-axial cable: Co-axial cable commonly called
(STP) still exist. The below Fig. 4 shows the STP cable.
(“Coax”) is made of two conductors that share a common
It is used in places where electromagnetic interference
axis, hence the name (“co”, “axis”). typically, the centre
caused by electric motors, power lines and other sources.
of the cable is relatively stiff solid copper wire or stranded
wire surrounded by an insulating plastic foam. The foam
is surrounded by the second conductor, a wire mesh tube
as in Fig 6.

D
E
H
The STP is insulated cable which includes bundled pair
wrapped in a foil shielding.

S
UTP: UTP is a popular choice for structured cabling
Several co-axial cable standards are in common use for

LI
systems used widely in office network environments.
Structured cabling system is a network cabling pattern computer networking. The most common types meet one
which follows strict engineering design rules. It allows of the following ohm and size standards.

B
E I
voice, data and video to be transmitted/received on the – 50 ohm RG-8 and RG-11 (used in thick Ethernet
R IM

same cabling system. It allows shifting, adding and

U
specifications.)
replacing the nodes easily. The arrangement is as shown
in Fig. 5. – 50 ohm RG-58 (used in thin Ethernet specifications).
P
E N

- 75 ohm RG-59 (used for low power video and RF

– 75 ohm RG-62 (used for ARC net specifications)
©

The co-axial cable can handle a speed of only 10 Mbps

maximum and the distance it can drive is only 185 m
maximum.
Types of Co-axial cable:
B

There are two types of co-axial cable

O

– Thin (Thinnet)
– Thick (Thicknet)
T

Thinnet: Thinnet is a flexible coaxial cable about 0 .25 inch

thickness. Because this type of coaxial is flexible and
T

easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type of

network installation. as shown in fig.7
O

The cabling starts from the Hub or switch which is placed Thicknet : Thicknet is relatively rigid co-axial cable about
N

in a Rack centrally. A patch cable (usually 6-10 feet long) 0.405 inches in diameter. The copper core is thicker than
connects a port on the hub to a patch panel which is also a thinnet.
in the Rack using RJ-45 connectors on each end. On the
RJ45 Cable Wiring: RJ stands for Registered Jacks.
back side of the patch panel, the UTP cable is hard-wired
These are used in telephone and data jack wiring.RJ-45 is
or crimped to the panel connector. From the patch panel,
a 8-position, 8-conductor jack used in 10BaseT and
the UTP cable runs continuously to a wall jack or information
100BaseT Ethernet wiring.
outlet (I/O). The information outlet contains a RJ-45 jack
called I/O jack in it.

14 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.137
 Fig 10 Colours of wires & pin numbers for T568A cable end

Fig 11 Colours of wires & pin numbers for T568B cable end

RJ-45 conductor data cable contains 4 pairs of wires each

D
consists of a solid colored wire and a strip of the same

E
color. There are two wiring standards for RJ-45 wiring: T-
568A and T-568B. Although there are 4 pairs of wires,

H
10BaseT/100BaseT Ethernet uses only 2 pairs: Orange
and Green.

S
The other two colors (blue and brown) may be used for a

LI
second Ethernet line or for phone connections. The two
wiring standards are used to create a cross-over cable
(T-568A on one end, and T-568B on the other end), or a

B
E I
straight-through cable. as shown in Fig 8 & 9. The straight-through cables are used when connecting
R IM

Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) to Data

U
Communications Equipment (DCE), such as computers
and routers to modems (gateways) or hubs (Ethernet
P
E N

Switches).
To create a straight-through cable, you'll have to use either
©

T-568A or T-568B on both ends of the cable. (Fig 12)

B
O
T
T

The cross-over cables are used when connecting DTE to

O

DTE, or DCE to DCE equipment; such as computer to

N

computer, computer to router; or gateway to hub

connections.To create a cross-over cable, you'll have to
use T-568A at one end and T-568B at another end of the
cable.(Fig.13)
RJ45 Input / Output box (I/O Box) is a preparatory cable
with both ends terminated by RJ45 keystone jacks for LAN
network; it is also called as wall jack. The keystone jack
is shown in Fig 14(a). Keystone jack has color code
running down A and B standards on both sides of the jack
to be followed with the colours of wires. Using a punch
down tool the wires are punched down into the blades
designed to work with solid conductors into the keystone
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.137 15
jack as shown in Fig 14 b. It is prepared as a straight
through cable terminated at both ends with RJ45 sockets.
It is used to connect the router to personal computer and
printer etc in the networking. It consists of one or more
number of RJ45 keystone sockets fitted onto a face plate
and it is wired internally by punching down the wires of the
CAT cable into respective terminals as shown in Fig 14 c

D
E
H
S
It is prepared as a straight through cable terminated at

LI
both ends with RJ45 sockets. This I/O Box is used for
extending the network connectivity for a maximum allowable

B
E I
distance of 100meters.
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

16 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.137
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139
Electronics Mechanic - Electronic Cables & Connectors

Cables and Connectors of a PC system

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• establish the need for cables and connectors in a PC system
• list the types of cables/connectors used to interconnect PC peripherals
• list the types of cables/connectors used to interconnect mother board with devices.

Cables and connectors Universal Serial Bus (USB) is also a communication port
similar to serial port used to connect modem, scanners
Different types of cables used in the computer are multicored
and Web-cameras etc. USB ports are used to connect the
round shielded cable, unshielded cables and multicored
peripherals having the USB connectors. Two 5 core or 4
flat cable as per the international standards. Chart -1
core cables are connected between the Mother Board and
shows various types of connectors used in PC. Mouse,
the USB terminations on the rear side of the PC.
key board and monitor comes with a cable, terminated

D
with connectors at one end . Hard disk, FDD, CD-ROM Mini jack connectors are used to connect Audio IN and
and other such devices are terminated with a 40 pin/50pin/ OUT of external audio sources. Computers with sound

E
34 pin FRC connectors. Power supply to HDD, FDD and card are provided with female mini jack connectors at the

H
CD-ROM units also fed through the hard plastic connectors. rear side. Allows to attach microphone or external sound
source, speakers . The PCs CD-ROM drive audio is
HDD, is connected to the Mother Board with a flat cable

S
connected to the sound card internally.
(40 pin) for data transmission and 4 pin hard plastic
connector for the Power. These cables are made in such RCA connectors are used for video IN and OUT to external

LI
away that we can connect two devices at a time (one video sources. Computers with TV tuner card/ video
master and the other slave). In a typical system the digitizer card are provided with female type RCA connectors

B
E I
connection may be any of the following type at the rear side.
R IM

i M/B to HDD and CD drive Game port is a 15 pin D type (normal) connector provided
U
at the rear side of the computer to connect JOY stick
ii M/B to two HDDs
P
which is a popular multi directional pointing device used for
E N

ii M/B to two CD drive playing computer games.

FDD is connected to the MB with a 34 pin flat cable for data Monitors come with a cable terminated with a 15 pin D
©

transfer and 4 pin hard plastic Molex connector for power. type male connector. It is connected to the CPU through
We can connect two floppy disks at a time using the cable. a 15 pin D type female video connector located at the rear
They can be either two “5 1/4 “or two “3 1/2” or combination side of the cabinet. This connector is a high density
of both. But nowadays only “3 1/2 “ i.e. 1.44MB drives are connector, packed in a 9 pin D type shell construction.
used and the “5 1/2“ are out dated
B

Registered Jack (RJ) connectors are available as two

The rear panel connectors are identified by their standard wire, 4 wire and 8 wire terminations. They are denoted as
types such as D type, DIN type, mini DIN type or PS/2 RJ 11( 4 pin) and RJ 45 ( 8 pins) etc. RJ-female connectors
O

type, RJ type, BNC, RCA and USB. All these types have are located at the rear side of a computer if the computer
male and female connectors. Chart 1 at the end of this is fitted with a modem or network card. RJ 11 is used to
T

lesson provides details on various connectors and cables. interface telephone connection (for modem). RJ 45 for
DB-9 is a D-type subminiature connector or D- sub type network interface connection - (for net work). BNC -
T

of connector. It has items for male connector and I holes ”Baynet Naur Connector” is used for coaxial cable
for female connector. Today DB 9 has mostly been termination.
O

replaced by USB, PS-2, fire wire and others. Still many The BNC connectors are also used in networking
devices are using DB9 interface for serial communication computers using coaxial cable.
N

D type 25 pin male connectors are located on the rear

Normal Key boards are terminated with a DIN type male
side of the cabinet usually denoted as COM-1 & COM
connector. A DIN type female connector is provided at the
-2 are used for serial communication. These are connected
rear side of the PC through which the key board is
to mother board using two 10 core cables. A D type 25
connected to the PC. A miniature DIN connector is also
pin ( female ) parallel port is located on the rear side of
provided on the PC for connecting keyboards terminated
the cabinet is used for parallel communication. This is
with PS/2 connector or mouse terminated with PS/2.
also called as printer port or asynchronous port which is
connected to the mother board using a 25 core flat cable. Connector /converters
Printers are connected to the parallel port. A general
Usually connectors are matched properly between cabinet
mouse comes with a 9 pin D type female connector which
and devices. Sometimes the connectors may not match.
is connected to the serial port.
Convertors are available to match these devices. For

17
example - a PS/2 (mini DIN) mouse can be converted to
match 9 pin serial connector, if the mother board does not
have PS/2 connector (mini DIN). In this way we can use
the device with unmatched connector saving cost of a new
device. Converters are available for Modem, Keyboard,
mouse.
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a proprietary
audio/video interface for transferring uncompressed video
data and compressed or uncompressed digital audio data
from an HDMI-compliant source device, such as a display
controller, to a compatible computer monitor, video
projector, digital television, or digital audio device. HDMI is
a digital replacement for analog video standards.
FireWire: The IEEE 1394 High Performance Serial Bus
(HPSB), FireWire is a high-speed interface mostly
developed and promoted by Apple for video transmission.
Introduced in 2000, FireWire was added to camcorders

D
and a variety of A/V equipment. Even early iPods could
connect via FireWire. Still included on Mac laptop and

E
desktop computers, modern camcorders have replaced

H
FireWire with USB, HDMI and other video outputs. There
are two types as FireWire 400 and 800.

S
USB 3.0 is the third major version of the Universal Serial
Bus (USB) standard for interfacing computers and electronic

LI
devices. Among other improvements, USB 3.0 adds the
new transfer mode SuperSpeed (SS) that can transfer

B
E I
data at up to 5 Gbit/s (625 MB/s), which is about ten times
R IM

faster than the USB 2.0 standard.

U
Digital Visual Interface (DVI) is a video display interface Single mode fiber cable can be used for distance upto
developed by the Digital Display Working Group (DDWG). 10kms. and multimode cable foe upto 2.5km. The typical
P
E N

The digital interface is used to connect a video source, speeds are 100/1000 Mbpz. The types of optic cable are
such as a display controller to a display device, such as differentiated by mode, composition ( glass or plastic) and
a computer monitor. It was developed with the intention of core/cladding size.
©

creating an industry standard for the transfer of digital

Common types of fiber optical cables:
video content.
The interface is designed to transmit uncompressed - 8.3 micron core/125 micron cladding single mode
digital video and can be configured to support multiple - 62.5 micron core/125 micron cladding multimode
B

modes such as DVI-D (digital only), DVI-A (analog only), - 50 micron core/125 micron cladding multimode
or DVI-I (digital and analog). Featuring support for analog
connections, the DVI specification is compatible with the - 100 micron core/140 micron cladding multimode
O

VGA interface. The common fiber optic cables installation is given in the
Fiber optic cable following Fig 3
T

Fiber optic cable is made of light- conducting glass or

plastic core surrounded by more glass and a tough outer
T

sheath as in Fig 1 The center core provide the light path or

O

wave guide while the glass or cladding is composed of

varying layers of reflective glass. The glass or cladding is
N

composed of varying layers of reflective glass. The glass

cladding is designed to refract light back into the core.
Each core and cladding strand is surrounded by a tight or
loose sheath in tight configurations, the strand is completely
surrounded by the outer plastic sheath. Loose configuration
use a liquid gel or other material between the strand and
the protective sheath.
The Optical fibers may be multimode or single mode in
nature. single mode fiber has been optimized to allow only
one light path while multimode fiber allows various paths.
The following figure explains single mode and multimode
fibers. (Fig 2)

18 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139
The single carried by a single mode cable is generated by Fiber cables are main used for backbone connectivity
a laser source and that of a multimode by light emitting across the floors or when the distance cannot be covered
diode (LED). Together, these qualities allow single mode by UTP cable limitation or when the network path to be
cable to operate at higher bandwidths than multimode and connected is exposed to sky.
traverse distance upto 50 times longer. single mode cable
Fiber cables come in three varieties depending on the place
is cheaper than multimode and has a relatively high bend
of usage.
radius, which makes it mode difficult to work with. MMF is
most commonly used. 1 Indoor cables-for in -house usage within buildings.
Fiber optic connectors 2 outdoor cables/Armoured cable-to be used in areas
which are exposed to sky. Has an additional hard shield
The connector used fiber optic cables is called an ST to prevent any occasional damage.
(straight tip) connection. (Fig 4)
3 Indoor/outdoor cable can be used inside and outside
buildings. Does not carry heavy shield as in outdoor
cable, but better than indoor cable.
Different types of network connectivity hardware
In s network number of hardware devices are used to

D
connect each computer to a media segment. These
devices are:

E
1 Transmission media connectors

H
2 Network interface boards

S
One more connector type is SC (subscribe connector) is 3 Modems
coming up popularly. It has a square body and locks by

LI
We can also connect multiple separate segments of
simply pushing into the socket.
transmission media to form one large network. For this
The MTRJ is a new fiber optic connector being used widely. purpose we use the following networking devices.

B
E I
it can operate at Gigabit ethernet speeds ( 1000 Mbps)
R IM

1 Repeaters
easily. The MT-RJ has a latching mechanism similar to
U
the RJ-45 UTP connector. A standard MT-RJ connection 2 Hubs
consists of 3 components: a male connector (with pins),
P
3 Bridges
E N

a female MT-RJ (with guide holes) and as MTRJ adapter. it

is easily to install and maintain and should be considered 4 Multiplexers
for any new installation. The Figs 5 & 6 show the MTRJ
©

5 Transceiver
connectors and connections in use.
6 Routers
1 Transmission media connectors:
Every medium has one or more physical connectors to
B

which you can attach various devices (Fig 7)

O
T
T
O
N

BNC (Bayonet nut connector)

It is a connector for co-axial cable that locks when one
connector is inserted into another and is rooted 90 degree
as in Fig 8

Fiber-Optic connectors can attach to the cable in several

ways, using either a crimped compression fitting or an
epoxy glue.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139 19
Speaker connector Speaker connectors are made in two, four and eight-pole
configurations. The two-pole line connector will mate with
The Speaker is an electrical connector used in
the four -pole panel connector, connecting to +1 and -1:
professional audio systems for connecting loudspeakers
but the reverse combination will not work. The eight-pole
to amplifiers. Speaker connectors are rated for 40 A RMS
connector is physically larger to accommodate the extra
continuous current, higher than 1/4-inch TS phone
poles. The four-pole connector is the most common at
connectors, two-pole twist lock, and XLR connector for
least from the availability of ready-made leads, as it allows
loudspeakers
for things like bi-amping(two of the four connections for
The speaker connector (male) shown in Fig 9 the higher-frequency signal, With the other two for the
A speaker connector is designed with a locking system lower-frequency signal) without two separate cables.
that may be designed for soldering or screw-type Fiber optic trays
connections. Line connectors (female) mate with (male)
Fiber trays are designed to provide a place to store the
panel connectors at both ends, Recently the manufacture
fiber cables and splices and prevent them from becoming
has introduced new series called STX which include also
damages or being misplaced.
male line connectors and female panel Speaker connectors
are designed for use in speaker cables. With 1/4’ speaker Fig 11
jacks and XLR connections. It is possible for users to

D
erroneously use low-current shielded microphone or
instrument cables are intended solely for use in high current

E
audio applications.

H
S
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B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N

The connection diagram of speaker female socket is shown

©

in Fig 10
B

Types of optic trays

1 Ladder - Type
O

2 Perforated type
3 Solid bottom type
T

4 Wire mesh
T

5 Channel type
O

Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an ex termal
N

devices can be connected to the computer. It can also be

programmatic docking point through which information
flows from a program to the computer or over the internet.
Connector arrange their contacts in two concentric rings Different types ports used in computer.
with the inner contacts named +1,+2, etc. and the outer Characteristics of ports
contacts connectors (in the four-pole and eight-pole version
A port has the following characteristics-
only). named -1, -2, etc. [5] The phase conventions is that
positive voltage on the + contact causes air to be pushed • External devices are connected to a computer using
away form the speakers. cables and ports.
• Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable
of external devices is plugged in.

20 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139
• Examples of external devices attached via ports are the • Also called mouse port
mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers,
• Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each
etc.
for the mouse and keyboard
Important Types Of Ports
• IEEE 1284-complaint Centronics port
Serial port
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
• Used for external modems and older computer mouse
• It can connect all kinds of external USB ports as
• Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model minimum.
• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second • It was introduced in 1997.
Parallel port • Most of the computers provide two USB port.
• Used for scanners and printers VGA Port
• Also called printer port • Connects monitor to a computer’s video card.
• 25 pin model • It has 15 holes.
• IEEE 1284-complaint Centronics port • Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port

D
connector has Pins, VGA port has holes.
PS/2 Port

E
• Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

H
Chart 1

S
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Description Application Cable/connector

B
E I
40 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with HDD
R IM

located on M/B
U
P
E N
©

34 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with FDD

B

located on M/B
O
T
T
O

25 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with Parallel port

located on M/B provided on the rear side of the
N

PC

10 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with serial port “D”

located on M/B connector provided on the rear side
of the PC

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139 21
 Description Application Cable/connector

FDD cable (data) To connect MB with FDD

located inside the PC

HDD cable (data) To connect MB with HDD

located inside the PC

D
E
H
S
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4 pin Molex connector SMPS to HDD,FDD,DVD- ROM

B
E I
from SMPS unit
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U
P
E N

4 pin Berg connector SMPS to FDD (3 1/2’’)

©

from SMPS unit

B

20 pin Berg connector SMPS (ATX) to MB

O

from SMPS unit

T
T
O

12 pin Berg connector SMPS (AT) to MB

N

5 pin DIN plug on key Key board to MB

board cable

22 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139
Description Application Cable/connector

5 pin DIN socket MB to key board

provided on the rear side
of the PC

5 pin Miniature DIN plug Key board to MB

on keyboard cable

D
E
H
5 pin Miniature DIN socket MB to key board
provided on the rear side

S
of the PC

LI
B
E I
R IM
U
PS/2 Key board connectors Mouse to MB
P
E N
©

15 pin High density VGA MB to Monitor

connector on the rear side
B

of PC
O
T

15 pin D type connector To connect Joy stick

T
O
N

D-25 pin male connector on Serial port (Com-port)

the rear side of the PC

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139 23
 Description Application Cable/connector

D-9 pin male connector Serial port (Com-port)

on the rear side of the PC

D-25 pin female connector Parallel port (Printer port)

on the rear side of the PC

D
E
H
Mini Jack socket Audio IN /MIC
on the rear side of the PC

S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N

Mini Jack from external External Audio Devices to Sound

audio device card
B ©

USB female connector MB to USB peripherals

O

provided on the rear side

of the PC
T
T
O

USB male connector from USB peripherals to MB

the USB device
N

24 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139
 Chart showing various types of sockets /ports and plugs used for
Computer Rear Panel & Mother board

Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

1 Mains Power supply Connector and plug

D
2 Mains Power supply adaptor and plug

E
H
S
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B
E I
3 Audio jack (3.5mm)
R IM
U
P
E N
©

4 Audio plug (3.5mm)

B
O
T
T

5 USB -2.0- female

O
N

6 USB-2.0- male

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139 25
 Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

7 RJ-45jack- Female

8 RJ-45 plug-Male

D
E
9 PS-2 mouse port

H
S
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B
E I
10 PS-2 mouse plug
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U
P
E N
©

11 PS-2 keyboard port

B
O

12 PS-2 keyboard plug

T
T
O
N

13 DVI male connector

14 DVI port

26 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139
Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

15 HDMI plug

16 HDMI Port

D
E
17 DP9-Serial female plug

H
S
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B
E I
18 DP9-Serial male port
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U
P
E N
©

19 DP-25 Parallel plug

B
O

20 DP-25 Parallel port

T
T
O
N

21 eSATA -female

22 eSATA - Port

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139 27
 Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

23 VGA port (DP-15)

24 VGA male plug (DP-15)

D
E
25 USB -3.0 port -male

H
S
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B
E I
R IM

26 USB-3.0 port - female

U
P
E N
©

27 IEEE 1394( fire wire)- Female

B
O
T

28 IEEE 1394 ( fire wire)- male

T
O
N

29 40 Pin FRC Female connector

30 40 pin FRC Male connector

28 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139
Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

31 34 pin FRC male connector

32 34 Pin FRC female connector

D
E
H
33 26 Pin FRC Female Connector

S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
34 26 pin FRC Male Connector
E N
©

35 10 pin FRC Male Connector

B
O
T

36 10Pin FRC female Connector

T
O
N

37 S/PDIF connector- male

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139 29
 Sl.No Port/Socket &plug Name Port/Socket &plug Image

38 S/PDIF connector- female

39 SATA cable

D
E
H
40 SATA port

S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

30 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.138&139
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

Computer, parts and their working

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the basics of computer
• identify various peripheral devices.
• identify and explain computer connection and ports
• explain the main components on the mother board
• explain the CPU and memory.

What is a computer?: The term computer is used to Computer systems – Micros, Minis and Mainframes.
describe a device made up of electronic and electro
mechanical components. The computer itself cannot Micro computer : Micro computer is also called as
perform any task and is referred to as hardware. (Fig 1) personal computer or PC. It has a processor based on a
single silicon chip. Personal computers come in three

D
different physical sizes, pocket pc’s, lap pc’s and desktop

E
pc’s. Pocket pc’s and lap pc’s belong to portable category.
Microcomputer is used in small businesses.

H
Ex : IBM compatible or IBM clone and Apple Macintosh
systems.

S
Multiuser microcomputers. Until recently

LI
microcomputers were personal
computers for individual use only. But now days several

B
E I
microcomputers can be networked together for
R IM

simultaneous use by several people.

U
Mini computers: Mini computer is simply a small
P
mainframe computer. It is a reduced version of mainframe.
E N

Attached printers are not so fast. So it has less storage

capacity less processing speed of that of mainframe
©

computers. They are usually used by small businesses.

A computer system consists of three elements.
For example research groups, engineering firms, colleges
1 Hardware etc. use mini computers.
2 Software Mainframe computers: A mainframe computer is a large
B

3 People expensive machine whose processing speed is very high

and has large amount of secondary storage and fast
Hardware : The physical components which you can printers. A large mainframe computer may be used to
O

see, touch and feel in the computer system are called meet the data processing requirements of the entire
hardware Eg monitor, keyboard, mouse etc. organization.
T

Software : Software is used to describe the instructions Examples: airline booking systems, Railway booking
that tells the computer how to perform a task. Software is systems , weather forecast etc.
T

categorized as
System types
O

1 System software ( eg . operating systems, compilers,

editors, etc) We can classify systems into the following categories :
N

2 Application software ( MS-word, excel, accounting 8-bit, example : 8085 microprocessor

packages, etc) 16-bit, example : 8086, 286, 386 processor
People : People who operate the computer and also 32-bit , example : 486
create computer software instructions.
64-bit, example : Pentium - II
Computer hardware
This gives us two basic system types or classes of
Basic components in a computer system are central hardware.
processing unit (CPU), memory, the input device and
8-bit ( PC/XT) class systems
output device.
16/32/64 (AT) class systems

31
PC stands for personal computers, XT stands for extended The easiest way to identify a PC/XT system is by the 8-bit
PC, and AT stands for an advance technology PC. ISA expansion slots regardless of the processor present in
the system. AT systems can be similarly identified by
The XT basically was a PC system that included a hard disk
having 16-bit of greater slots of any type (ISA, EISA, PCI)
for storage in addition to the floppy drive found in the basic
slots.
PC system. These systems has an 8-bit processor and an
8-bit INDUSTRY STANDARD ARCHITECTURE System components
(ISA) bus for system expansion. Bus is the name given to Component needed to assemble a basic modern PC
expansion slots in which additional plug in circuit board can system.
be installed.
• Motherboard • Processor
16-bit and greater systems are said to be AT class. 16-bit
• Memory (Primary) • Hard disk
(and latter 32 and 64 bit) processors and expansion slots
are included. The first AT class systems had a 16-bit • CD-ROM • Floppy Drive
version of the ISA bus which is an extension of the original
• Keyboard • Mouse
8-bit ISA bus found in the PC/XT class systems. Afterwards
several expansion slots were developed for AT class • Monitor • Power Supply
systems.

D
• Cabinet
Example Motherboard : Motherboard is the important component

E
16/32 bit PS/2 microchannel architecture (MCA) bus. of the computer as everything else is connected to it. And
it controls everything in the system. Motherboard are

H
16-bit PC card (PCMCIA) bus
available in several different shapes. Motherboard usually
contain the following individual components shown in

S
16 bit ISA bus
Fig 2.
16/32 bit Extended ISA(EISA) bus

LI
32/64 - bit card Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
bus.

B
E I
R IM
U
Fig 2
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

1 Processor slot 8 Clock / CMOS battery

2 Processor voltage regulators 9 Super I/O chips
3 Motherboard chipset Processor (Fig 3)
4 Level 2 cache The processor is often thought as the engine of the
computer shown in Fig 3. Then the processor reads the
5 Memory SIMM or DIMM sockets
commands from the memory and then executes them. The
6 Bus slots processor is one of the most expensive parts of the
7 ROM BIOS computers and is also one of the smallest parts.

32 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142
 Keyboard: The keyboard is the main input device for most
computers. It is used to input text or enter commands into
the PC. Nowadays keyboards with additional features are
available like multimedia keyboard, wireless keyboard.
Mouse: With the invention of graphical user interface
mouse is used to input information into the computer.
Users simply point and click to enter information. The main
advantage of mouse over keyboard is simplicity. And there
are many operations that are much easier to perform with
a mouse than a keyboard.
Primary Memory Monitor: The monitor is the specialized high-resolution
Memory: Is used to hold programs and data during screen similar to a television. The video card sends the
execution. contents of its video memory to the monitor at a rate of 60
or more time per second. The actual display screen is
Primary memory is often called as RAM(Random Access made up of red, green and blue dots that are illuminated by
Memory). It holds all the programs and data the processor electron beam from behind. The video card DAC chip
is using at a given time. RAM is volatile because its controls the movement of the electron beam, which then

D
contents are erased when power is switched off. The other controls what dots are turned on and how bright they are.
type of system memory is ROM(Read only Memory)which

E
Which then determines the picture you see on the screen.
is permanent because it contents are not erased even
Power supply

H
when power is switched off. It is usually used to load an
operating system. SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply): The power supply

S
provides power to every part in the PC. The main function
Hard disk drive (Fig 4)
of the power supply is to convert the 230 V AC into 3.3 V,

LI
A hard drive consists of spinning platters made up of 5 V and 12 V DC power that the system requires for the
aluminum or ceramic that is coated with magnetic media operations. In addition to supplying power to run the
shown in Fig 4. The platters come in various sizes. The hard system, the power supply also ensures that the system
B
E I
drive with many different storage capacities can be created does not run unless the power supplied is sufficient to
R IM
U
depending upon the density, size and number of platters. operate the system properly. The power supply completes
This is also called as Secondary memory. There can be internal checks and tests before allowing the system to
P
several programs in the system, which cannot be stored in start. If the tests are successful, the power supply sends
E N

RAM, so we need a very huge non-volatile memory, which a special signal to the motherboard called Power Good.
can be used for storing all the programs, and data when the If this signal is not present continuously, the computer
©

system is not in use are called as Hard disks. does not run. Therefore, when the AC voltage dips and the
power supply becomes stressed or overheated, the Power
Good signal goes down and forces a system reset or
complete shutdown.
Cabinet: The box or outer shell that houses most of the
B

computers. The cabinet actually performs several important

functions for your PC including protection to the system
O

components, directing cooling airflow, and allowing

installation access to the system components. The cabinet
T

often includes a matching power supply and must also be

designed with shape of the motherboard and other system
components in mind.
T

Peripheral Devices: Any external device, which is not

O

necessary to perform the basic operation of computer, is

CD-ROM drive: CD-ROM stands for compact disk read
called as peripherals. They provide additional computing
only memory. It consists of small disks similar to the
N

capabilities. For ex : Printers, Modems, Speakers etc.

gramophone records to hold digital information. As the
name applies they are read only medium. With the Modem: Modem (Modulator and Demodulator) is typically
advancement in technology writable CD’s are also available. used to send digital data over a phone line . The sending
modem converts digital data into analog data, which can
Floppy Disk Drive: Floppy disks are the slowest and the be transmitted over telephone lines, and the receiving
smallest form of secondary storage. They provide a simple modem converts the analog data back into digital form.
way to carry information from one place to another, and This is used to connect to Internet.
backup small amount of files. In modern days floppy drive
component is not as important as it was years ago. All Modems are available in different capacities.
PC’s made in the last 10 years use a standard 3 ½ inch, • 300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so
1.44 MB capacity floppy drive. • 1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142 33
 • 2400 bps the male end of the printer cable (pictured later in this
manual) is connected here.
• 9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early
Game Stick Port: The game stick port is where you would
1991
connect an external device like a game stick or joystick.
• 19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps) It is a 15 pin female connector.
• 28.8 Kbps Sound Card
• 33.6 Kbps Sound Card – Speaker Connector
• 56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998 Sound Card – Audio Out Connector
Sound Card – Microphone Connector
• ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits
per second (Mbps) A sound card allows you to hear sounds from a CDROM
or audio file. The connectors allow you to attach speakers,
Gained popularity in 1999 microphones or headphones. If your computer does not
Printers: The capability to produce a printed version often have these connectors, you will not be able to hear sound.
called a hard copy of a document is the primary function CPU Power Cord: The CPU power cord connects the CPU
of a printer. Different types of printers are 1) Laser 2) Inkjet to the electrical supply.

D
3) Dot-Matrix.
Keyboard: The illustration above shows two examples of
Network Connector: The Network Connector, also referred

E
keyboard connectors – the left is the larger connector and
to as a NIC card, is how your CPU talks to the network. A the right is the smaller. On the larger connector, there is an
network cable is plugged into the back of the computer in

H
arrow that should face up when you are connecting it to the
this location . The other end of the network cable is CPU. On the smaller connector, there is a flat side that

S
plugged into a network jack in the wall. If the wall jack is should face up when connecting it to the CPU.
“live”, meaning it has been wired to talk to the network,

LI
then your computer will connect to the network Mouse (Fig 5): The illustrations above (Fig 5) show two
examples of mouse connectors. The left is a PS/2 mouse
USB Ports: The USB ports are present on newer machines connector (circle) and the right is a serial connector that

B
E I
and most often require Windows 98 or higher. If you have would plug into one of your com ports
R IM

Windows95, the USB ports may not work. USB ports allow
U
you to connect an external device, such as a printer,
camera, scanner, or other device to your computer.
P
E N

USB ports transfer information from the connected device

to your computer.
©

Monitor Connector: The monitor connector is a 15 pin

female connector. This is how the monitor is connected to
the computer. On the back of the monitor, there is a 15 pin
male connector. The monitor cable gets plugged into the
back of the computer in this location.
B

Keyboard Connector: The PS/2 Keyboard connector is

where the keyboard gets connected to the computer. The
O

Speakers (Fig 6): The following cords are connected to a

keyboard cable, has a round connection with one flat side.
set of speakers
T

Mouse Connector: The PS/2 Mouse connector is where

The following cords are connected to a set of speakers
the mouse gets connected to the computer. Although the
shown in Fig 6
keyboard connector and the mouse connector look the
T

same, they are not interchangeable. In newer PC’s, the Fig 6

components are color coded and it is clear where the
O

mouse and keyboard go. In older models, the keyboard

connector comes first.
N

Com Port 1 & 2

Com Port 1 Com Port 2
Com Ports are usually have 9 pins and are male connectors.
Com Port stands for communication port and is how your
computer talks to external devices such as modems,
scanners or digital cameras.
Parallel Port: The parallel port is sometimes referred to
as a printer port (or LPT1) because that is the typical
device that is attached to this port. The parallel port is a 25
pin female connector. If you have a direct connect printer,
34 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142
• Power cord – connecting one speaker to the power Memory Unit: It is the nervous system of the computer. It
source controls arithmetic operations to be performed. These unit
• Left to Right speaker connector – connecting one co-ordinates the activities of all other units in the system.
speaker to the other It has two main functions. They are:
• Speaker to CPU connector – connecting speakers to 1 To control the transfer of data and information between
the CPU various units
Monitor: There are two cords attached to the back of the 2 To indicate appropriate functions by the arithmetic unit
monitor. The first is a power cord that connects the monitor 3 Bus: These are the pathways through which data and
to the power source. The second is a monitor cable. instructions pass from one area to another within the
The monitor cable is a 9 pin male connector that gets computer. The bus carries the signals to various de-
connected to the monitor connector on the back of the CPU vices that are attached to the computer. There are three
Network Cable and Network Jack: The network cable buses: Address bus, Control Bus and Data bus.
can be blue, purple or off-white. One end is connected to Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): This unit does arithmetic
the back of the computer (in location A) and the other end calculations and logical operations involved in the program,
is plugged into the network jack on the wall. such as addition, multiplication, comparison etc.,
Parallel Printer Cable: The parallel printer cable has one The CPU uses the address bus to select the memory

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connector on each end. The 25 pin male connector gets address of the device in order to read and write data. The
connected to the back of the CPU in location G and the actual data is sent using the data bus. Control bus carries

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other end is connected to the local printer. the control information like instructing the ALU which
USB Printer Cable: Newer computers and printers will operation to perform. Out of these buses the address and

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support the use of a USB printer cable. A USB cable will control buses are unidirectional whereas the data bus is
transfer information more quickly than a parallel cable. The bidirectional.

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flat end of the USB cable gets connected to the back of the 4 Storage Devices: These are the floppy drives and hard

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CPU in location B. The square end is connected to the local disk drives, both of which we would discuss in detail in
printer. the lesson on secondary memory devices.
The following should help you put the pieces together.

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5 Motherboard: The motherboard is the primary
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1 Position the CPU in the desired location component of the entire system. Without the support
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2 Connect one end of the network cable to the back of circuitry and functions that this device provides, even
the CPU (location A) and the other to the wall jack. the CPU is unable to function. The detailed diagram of
P
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3 Connect the keyboard to the back of the CPU a mother – board is given below.
(location D) RAM Modules: These memory modules can be seen as
4 Connect the mouse to the back of the CPU (location E) small PCB strips (much smaller than add –on cards)
©

5 Connect the monitor cable to the back of the CPU plugged into lengthy slots (DIMM-168-pin) (SIMM-72 pin)
(location C) (SIMM-30 pin) perpendicularly on the motherboard as
shown in Fig 8.You may see only one RAM module strip
6 Connect the monitor power cable to the power source
or more than one. Each RAM module strip may have
7 If you have speakers, connect the speaker power cord capacity ranging from 4 MB to more than 128 MB .
B

to the power source, connect the left and right speaker

You will generally see two small plastic card extractors on
and connect the speaker to the sound card on the back
the edges of the connector.
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of the CPU (location J) – note, some speakers are color

coded to assist in the set-up, if yours are, follow the 7 Store the PC cabinet in a safe place.
T

color codes. 8 Keep the working table clean and place the mother
8 If you have a local printer, connect one end of the parallel board for studying.
printer cable or USB Printer Cable to the back of the 9 Record the jumper and switch setting on the
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CPU (location G or location B) and the other end to the motherboard.

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printer Tips for identifying the major components on the

9 Connect one end of the power cord to the back of the mother board
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CPU and the other end to the power source. CPU: The Central Processing Unit or CPU ,is an integrated
Mother board and CPU Circuit(IC).This will be biggest IC which you can easily
1 Memory: This is the area used by the processor to identify. This IC can be of two basic types:
store raw data and instructions 1 A super socket-7 or socket 370 types.
2 Microprocessor: This is the CPU, which is the main 2 A socket -1 type.
component in a computer that does all the processing
work of the data fed into the computer. 3 ROM BIOS Chip: This means Read Only Memory
Basic input-output System. These Chips contain
It contains three units viz.,
permanent code that the PC uses when the PC is first
1 Memory units (internal , called as registers) turned-On.
2 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
3 Control Unit
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142 35
 4 Battery: A round shining big coin like thing ,held in a
plastic enclosure with a ‘+’ mark can be seen on the
mother board. This is technically called as a button
cell. This is actually a Lithium ion battery. This provides
power supply to the CMOSRAM for maintenance of
Real Time Clock(RTC) and BIOS settings.
Also shows a connector with lot of pins, generally in pairs.
These provide necessary signal for the LED’s and switches
mounted on the front panel of the PC. Right by the sides
of this connectors, markings can be seen as to which it
should be connected, such as, LED,SPK, RST, etc.
5 ADD-ON Cards/Expansion Card SLOTS: There will
generally be three different types of slot female edge
connectors.
ISA slots: ISA means Industry Standard Architecture.
This type of connector will be Black in color and is the

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Most ROM Bios Chips will have a glass window at its longest of the three types. This slot is called as the ISA
center. Some times this window is closed using a adhesive slots. These are the old versions and hence your PC

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glossy paper slip on which it would be marked the marker mother board may have just one slot of this type or more.
of this Bios such as AWARD or AMI or PHOENIX and like.

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Note that your mother board may not have this type of slot
On this glossy paper slip ,a few other details including the also. If so, don’t be worried as ISA is an old type and not
year will be printed. This is an important data to be

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very essential.
recorded.
PCI slots: PCI means Peripheral Component Interconnect.

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These are more recent type compared to ISA and are very

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36 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142
popular. These slots are generally white in color and Mouse is connected to any one of the DB-9 serial port or
smaller in size compared to ISA slots. A PC Motherboard a P/S-2.6 pin mini DIN connector or a USB port. Where is
will definitely have one PCI slot but generally more than the mouse to be connected depends upon the type of
one. connector your mouse has. However, you can use cross
adapter cable to connect a mouse to a P/S-2 port or vice
AGP slots: AGP means Accelerated Graphics Port. This
versa.
slot is much more recent than the PCI slot and this slot
holds the add-on graphic card to enhance the graphic CPU Architecture: The basic function performed by a
capabilities of your PC. This slot is generally brown in color computer is execution of a program, which is a set of
and there will be only one such slot on the mother board. instructions stored in memory. The processor does the
If the AGP control circuit is integrated on the mother board actual work by executing instructions specified in the
itself, then you may not find an AGP on the mother board. program. The instruction execution takes place in the
CPU registers, which are:
L2 Cache Slot: Some mother board will have small slots
for placing cache memory chip modules. These slots are Memory Address Register (MAR): It specifies the address
generally white in color . Not all mother boards will have this of memory location from which data or instruction is to be
slot. accesses (for read operation) or to which the data is to be
stored (for write operation).
IDE/EIDE Connectors: Most motherboards will have two

D
such connectors, one slot marked as IDE1 or Primary and Program Counter (PC): It keeps track of the instruction
other as IDE2 or Secondary. Through these connectors which is to be executed next, after the execution of an on-

E
IDE/EIDE devices such as HDD’s and CD ROM drives are going instruction.

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connected to the motherboard.
Instruction Register(IR): Here the instructions are loaded
Floppy Diskette Drive Connector: This is a 34 pin mate before their execution.

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black plastic connector. On most motherboards there will
Instruction Execution: The simplest model of instruction
be only one such connector. The cable used with connector

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processing can be a two step process. The CPU reads
will have facility to connect two floppy diskette drivers.
(fetches) instructions (codes) from the memory one at a
Power supply connector on the Motherboards: This time, and executes or performs the operation specified by

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will generally be a plastic male Molex connector will be the instruction. Instruction fetches involves reading of an
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one connector strip of 12 pins in single line .In case of ATX instruction from a memory location to the CPU register.
models, there will two rows of 10 pin connectors. The execution of this instruction may involve several
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operations depending on the nature of the instruction.
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Keyboard port, Mouse Port, On Board Serial and

Parallel Port: Keyboard Port is one which is always on The processing needed for a single instruction (fetch and
the Mother. The key board port can be of these types listed execution) is referred to as instruction cycle. The instruction
©

below. cycle consist of the fetch cycle and the execute cycle.
Program execution terminates if the electric power supply
1 The olden type-5 pin –DIN connector
is discontinued or some sort of unrecoverable error occurs,
2 The more recent type -6 pin P/S -2 connector. or by a program itself.
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3 The most modern USB port Fetch Cycle: For fetch cycle, typically the program
These motherboards having only the 5-pin DIN port can counter is used. Program counter keeps track of the
instructions which is to be fetched next. The fetched
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also use P/S 2-keyboards using a cross adapter cable.

instructions is in the form of binary code and is loaded into
Those motherboard not having USB(Universal Serial Bus) an instruction register in the CPU.
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circuitry on board can place a USB adapter card in one of

the PCI slots. Then use the USB connector for connecting Execute Cycle: The CPU interprets the instructions in the
instruction register and does the required action. In general,
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a USB keyboard.
these action can be divided into the following categories.
Serial ports are generally a 9 pin male mini D shell
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type(DB- 9) connector. Generally any motherboard will 1 Data may be transferred from processor to memory or
have at least two serial ports. All motherboard may not from memory to processor.
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have the serial port connectors mounted right on the 2 Data may be transferred to or from a peripheral device
motherboard at its edge as shown in figure above. But and an I/O module.
there will be a two 9 pin connector on the motherboard
Following are few of the important output devices, which
some where, using which, you have to run 9 wire flat cables
are used in Computer Systems
to the ports mounted on a metal plate and fixed at one of
the metal slots found at the rear of the cabinet. Computer - Memory
Some devices need a 25 pin serial port(DB-25). However A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data
there will be only 9 pin connections at it. These DB-25 and instruction. Computer memory is the storage space
serial port can be easily identified because, this 25 pin slot in computer where data to be processed and instructions
is a male connector(Whereas a DB-25 pin female is a required for processing are stored.
parallel port).
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142 37
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. and few types of memories
Each part is called cell. Each location or cell has a unique 3 Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to
address, which varies from zero to memory size minus compatible with motherboard to function properly
one. 4 Mother boards, cases and power supplies must be
For example, if computer has 64k words, then this compatible to work properly together
memory unit has 64* 1024 = 65536 memory locations. Computer - Memory Units
Memory is primarily of three types: 1 It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage
unit.
1 Cache Memory
2 The storage capacity are expressed in terms of Bytes
2 Primary Memory/Main Memory Computer - Ports
3 Secondary Memory 1 A computer port is a physical docking point using
which an external device can be connected to the
Computer - RAM
computer
A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for 2 A computer port can also be programmatic docking
storing data, program result. It is read/write memory. It is point through which information flows from a program to
called random access memory (RAM). computer or over the internet.

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Since access time in RAM is independent of the address PATA Cable

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to the world that is, each storage location inside the PATA, short for Parallel ATA, is an IDE standard for
memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the connecting storage devices like hard drives and optical

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same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at drives to the motherboard. It's important to note that the
random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive. term Parallel ATA used to simply be called ATA. ATA was

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RAM is volatile i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch retroactively renamed to Parallel ATA when the newer

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off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a Serial ATA (SATA) standard came into being. PATA cables
backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used are long, flat cables with 40-pin connectors (in a 20x2
with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its matrix) on either side of the cable. (Fig 10)

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physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
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RAM is of two types
1 Static RAM (SRAM)
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2 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Computer - ROM: ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
©

The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information
is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture.
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A ROM stores such instructions as are required to start

computer when electricity is first turned on, this operation One end of the PATA cable plugs into a port on the
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is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in motherboard, usually labeled IDE, and the other into the
the computer but also in other electronic items like back of a storage device like a hard drive.
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washing machine and microwave oven.

Some PATA cables have an additional connector midway
through the cable for connecting yet another storage
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device.
PATA cables come in 40-wire or 80-wire designs. Newer
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PATA storage devices require the use of the more capable

80-wire PATA cable to meet certain speed requirements.
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Both types of PATA cables have 40-pins and look nearly

Computer - Motherboard: The motherboard serves as a
identical so telling them apart can be difficult.
single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. A mother board connects CPU, memory, hard SATA Cable
drives, optical drives, video card, sound card and other SATA, short for Serial ATA, is an IDE standard for
ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be connecting devices like optical drives and hard drives to
considered as the backbone of a computer the motherboard. Serial ATA replaces Parallel ATA as the
IDE standard of choice for connecting storage devices
Features
inside of a computer. SATA storage devices can transmit
1 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types data to and from the rest of the computer over twice as
of components fast as an otherwise similar PATA device. (Fig 11)
2 Normally, a motherboard supports a single type of CPU

38 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142
 SCSI Cable
SCSI, is a type of connection for storage and other devices
in a PC. Generally, it refers to the types of cables and
ports used to connect certain types of hard drives, optical
drives, scanners, and other devices to a computer.
(Fig 13)
SCSI interfaces can be used internally to connect these
types of hardware devices directly to a motherboard or
storage controller card. External connections are also
common for SCSI and typically connect via an external
port on a storage controller card.

eSATA Cables
While SATA cables are used internally for connecting the
hard drive to the computer's motherboard, eSATA cables
are designed for portable hard drives, and can transfer
data faster than USB or FireWire.

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However, the eSATA cable cannot transmit power, so

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unlike USB, you cannot power an external hard drive with
eSATA. The eSATA cable is somewhat different from the

H
internal SATA cable; it has more shielding, and sports a
larger connector. (Fig 12)

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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.140 - 142 39
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.143
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

CMOS setup and extend a memory module

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the purpose of CMOS
• state the CMOS battery's life
• describe the functions of BIOS.

CMOS may refer to any of the following: control to the operating system. Some of the other
common tasks that the BIOS performs include:
Alternatively referred to a real-time clock (RTC), Non-
Volatile RAM (NVRAM) or CMOS RAM, CMOS is short for • A power-on self-test (POST) for all of the different
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. CMOS is an hardware components in the system to make sure
on-board, battery powered semiconductor chip inside everything is working properly
computers that stores information. This information ranges
• Activating other BIOS chips on different cards installed

D
from the system time and date to system hardware
in the computer - For example the graphics cards often
settings for your computer. The fig shows an example of the

E
have their own BIOS chips.
most common CMOS coin cell battery (Panasonic CR
2032 3V) used to power the CMOS memory. • Providing a set of low-level routines that the operating

H
system uses to interface to different hardware devices.
The Motorola 146818 chip was the first RTC and CMOS
They manage things like the keyboard, the screen,

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RAM chip to be used in early IBM computers; capable of
and the ports, especially when the computer is booting.
storing a total of 64 bytes of data. Since the system clock

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used 14 bytes of RAM, this left an additional 50 bytes for • Managing a collection of settings for the hard disks,
storing system settings. Today, most computers have clock, etc.

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moved the settings from CMOS and integrated them into
CMOS Setup
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the southbridge or super I/O chips.

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The first thing the BIOS will do is check the information
Life of battery
stored in a tiny (64 bytes) amount of RAM located on a
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complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip.
E N

The standard lifetime of a CMOS battery is around 10

years. However, this can vary depending on the use and The CMOS Setup provides detailed information particular
environment in which the computer resides. to your system and can be altered as your system
©

changes. The BIOS uses this information to modify or

CMOS are used in the following
supplement its default programming as needed.
• Digital logic circuits
Configuring BIOS
• Static RAM (SRAM)
The BIOS checks the CMOS Setup for custom settings.
B

• Micro processors To change the CMOS settings we need to enter the CMOS
setup. To enter the CMOS Setup, a certain key or
• Micro controllers
combination of keys must be pressed during the initial
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The Basic Input/ Output System (BIOS), also known as startup sequence. Most systems use "Esc," "Del," "F1,"
System BIOS, ROM BIOS or PC BIOS is a generally "F2," "Ctrl-Esc" or "Ctrl-Alt-Esc" to enter setup. There is
T

accepted standard defining a firmware interface. usually a line of text at the bottom of the display that tells
The fundamental purpose of the BIOS is to initialize and "Press ___ to Enter Setup."
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test the system hardware components and load an The BIOS setup shows a set of text screens with a number
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operating system from a mass memory device. The BIOS of options. Some of these are standard, while others vary
is special software that interfaces the major hardware according to the BIOS manufacturer. Common options
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components of the computer with the operating system. It include:

is usually stored on a Flash memory chip on the
• System Time/Date - Set the system time and date
motherboard, but sometimes the chip is another type of
ROM. The BIOS is a firmware (software instructions • Boot Sequence - The order that BIOS will try to load
permanently recorded on a chip located on your the operating system
motherboard).
• Plug and Play - A standard for auto-detecting connected
Functions of BIOS devices; should be set to "Yes" if your computer and
operating system both support it
The BIOS software has a number of different roles, but its
most important role is to load the operating system. The • Mouse/Keyboard - "Enable Num Lock," "Enable the
BIOS checks and initializes the PC hardware each time Keyboard," "Auto-Detect Mouse"...
the system powers up or restarts before handing over

40
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.144
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

Switch Mode Power Supply for PC

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the parts of SMPS
• explain with block diagram and working principle of an SMPS
• explain the precautions to be taken while testing and troubleshooting of different SMPS.

Switch Mode Power Supply of a PC is housed in a metal

box. SMPS consists of an electronic circuit board, a fan,
AC power sockets, power supply interface connectors for
motherboard, hard disk drive and floppy disk drive. AC
power switch connected to the power cable from the
SMPS. The connectors are polarised and standards are
followed so that any PC SMPS can be interchanged. A

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typical SMPS is shown in Fig 1.

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Block diagram of SMPS: The block diagram in Fig 3

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shows the various functional sections in SMPS.
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The SMPS comes in various capacities for PCs. The

capacities are 80W, 150W, 200W, 230W, 250W and
280W. For PC nodes/ unix terminals 80W supply is used.
The connector details are printed on the cover of the SMPS
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as shown in Fig 2. Table 1 gives the colour of wire for

different voltages and the current ratings.
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Table 1
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DC outputs
Red +5V 20A max Total power 200W Working principle of SMPS: AC line input is rectified and
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Yellow +12V 8A max AC Input 220-240V converted to DC voltage. The DC voltage is switched at high
White -5V 0.5A max frequency nearly 20 kHz. The switched voltage is fed to the
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Orange PG high frequency step down transformer. The output of the

transformer is rectified and energy is stored in an inductor
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A 12V DC fan is used for removing the heat generated and smoothened by a capacitor. The switching period
inside the power supply. The fan blows out air from the (pulse width) is controlled by the feed back given to the
SMPS. The fan also helps in air circulation inside the controller section. Power switching transistors ON time is
cabinet. Proper working of fan is ensured by periodic varied according to the load. When the load increases the
cleaning. Whenever the fan is working intermittently the output voltage tends to drop. This drop in voltage is fed as
fan should be cleaned for dust near the motor. A failed fan the error signal to power controller which increases the ON
can result in the failure of the SMPS because of excess period of switching pulses. When the load decreases the
heat. output goes high. The error voltage is fed to the controller
which reduces the ON period of switching pulses. Since

41
there are many outputs in a PC SMPS i.e. 12V, -12V, -5 Another indicator that your power supply supports PS-ON
only the main 5 volts which supplies maximum current is is the use of Momentary On or Always On power switches
sensed and regulated. The transformer winding is designed that are connected to the motherboard in place of an
taking care of this aspect. A simplified diagram of a exterior switch connected to the power supply. When this
switching power supply is shown in Fig 4. signal line is pulled to a low voltage signal, the +12V DC,
+5V DC, +3.3V DC, -5V DC and -12V DC power lines are
turned on. When it is pulled to a high-voltage signal, or
open-circuited, the DC output lines should no longer have
current. The +5V DC output is always on as long as the
power supply is receiving AC power. Because the ATL,
NLX, LTX and other form factor motherboards have some
power running to them at all times, you will always want to
unplug the PC before working on it.
Advantages and disadvantages of SMPS
SMPS for the power rating is smaller in size. A conventional
power supply for similar power rating will be heavy and big

D
Most widely used configuration in PC SMPS is half bridge in size.
converter circuit as shown in Fig 5. Power transistors Q1 SMPS efficiency is very high so heat dissipation is low. A

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and Q2 switch the DC voltage through the windings in a conventional power supply efficiency is less and heat
push pull manner.

H
generated is more.
SMPS output has high frequency noise. So cannot be

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used for critical applications. In conventional power supply
the noise is very minimal

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Servicing of SMPS is difficult because of interdependance
of circuits and components.

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Servicing of linear power supply is relatively straight for-

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ward.
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Difference between AT and ATX power supply
E N

AT power supply does not have soft start option.

AT power supply does not generate 3.3V DC.
©

AT motherboard supply connectors come with 2x6 pin

connection.
In most of PC SMPS there is no separate step down
transformer used for the power supply of the PWM IC. It is ATX power supply has a soft start.
B

derived from the main ferrite core transformer output.

ATX power supply does not shut down completely. Always
Primary winding of the transformer with a capacitor and
the ATX power supply gives 5 volt to the mother board.
resistor along with part of driver transformer form a self
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oscillating circuit. This oscillation produces secondary ATX power supply generates a 3.3V DC for the processor
output. The 12V winding output is used to power the PWM core voltage.
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IC. Once powered the PWM IC takes over the switching

Precaution to be taken while testing and servicing an
operation. Thus the need for separate power supply for the
SMPS
T

IC is eliminated.
Since the SMPS is operating directly from rectified 220V
Power ON and OFF
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AC, potentially hazardous DC voltage exist inside. So care

On ATX and most of the other later from factors, the should be taken while opening and testing.
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motherboard can turn the power supply on or off. This is

High voltage capacitors must be discharged safely using a
done through the PS-ON (power supply on) signal that
resistor.
passes between the motherboard and the power supply. If
your PC powers off when windows is finished shutting When using any AC powered instrument to test an SMPS
down, you have this feature. the instrument must be isolated. To isolate use isolation
transformer.
Some SMPS start with sufficient load only.

42 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.144
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.145-148
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

Hard disk drives

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the basic components of a hard disk
• explain boot process
• explain Windows OS desk top shortcuts and various options.

Introduction Hard Disk has one or more platters. Platter is made of

aluminium or glass, coated with magnetic media to store
Magnetic disks are the most common form of permanent
information. A read/write head is placed on a spring loaded
data storage. Their capacities may range from a few
arm. The arm is moved along the radius by actuator
kilobytes to several Gigabytes. An aspect common to all
mechanism. Motor that spins the platter is called spindle
magnetic drives is the scheme that determines how the
motor. It rotates at 3600 to 7200 rpm. Logic board controls
data on the disk is organised. The operating system
the drive motor and head actuator mechanism. Data is

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determines this scheme before any information can be
transferred to and from the platter in a standard format.
stored on a magnetic disk, provided the disk is formatted.

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Hard disk has a FRC connector for data cable and molex
Formatting allows the drive to store and retrieve data in an
connector for power. Power supply requirements are +12V
orderly manner.

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1 amp, +5V, 500 mA
The basic parts of Hard disk
Hard disk platter is divided into tracks of a particular width

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The basic hard disk drive components are as shown in the as shown in Fig 2. Each track is dived into sectors.

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Fig 1. Outermost track is numbered ‘0 ‘. Similar numbered track
on each platter is combined to form a cylinder. Capacity of
the hard disk is determined by number of cylinders, number

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of heads, sectors and data storage mode.
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Boot process
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Computer initialisation is a process from the time a PC is

switched on until the PC displays A>:\C:> or windows
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Desk top, is called boot process. Number of steps are

involved in this process.
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When power is applied, the power good signal (PG) resets

the CPU into its process. Program starts by fetching an
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instruction from ROM BIOS. The BIOS programme as

explained earlier does the POST and looks for the operating
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system from drive A. If booting programme is not found in

drive A, automatically it looks for a boot program in C:. In
BIOS setup one can alter the sequence C to A or A to C.
Once operating system is found, the boots trap loader
programme loads the operating system components into
Disk platters, Logic board, Read/write head, Head - the memory and hands over the control to the operating
actuate mechanism, connectors, Spindle motor, spindle, system. When the process is complete, the monitor
platter motor, heads and Actuator are assembled inside a displays A>:/,C:> or windows desktop.
sealed chamber. Drive electronics (PCB) is located outside
the chamber.

43
Handling hard disk Server: Display user and share information.
Hard disk should not be dropped. It will permanently Services: Start, Stop, Pause, or continue the services
damage the platter. Hard disk electronics should not be available on the computer, and configure start up options.
handled with bare hands as it is more sensitive to static
charges. Hard disk interface cable and power supply Sounds: Assign sounds to system and application events,
should be connected/removed only after switching off and turn on or off the warning beep and system sounds.
mains power. No magnetic material should be placed near System: Specify the default operating system for startup,
HDD. change user environment variables and define paging file
Control Panel: It is presented as a folder full of icons. To size.
view Control panel, click the Start button, point the Tape Devices: Display, add and remove tape devices.
settings and then click Control panel (Fig 3) shows the
contents of Control panel. Telephony: Display, add, and remove telephony drivers
change telephony properties. Adjust telephony conditions
Accessibility options: Change your computer screen, depending on whether the computer is docked or undocked.
mouse, keyboard, features, and sound to make windows
more accessible for people with disabilities. UPS: Create settings for uninterrupted power supply.
The control panel is thus the place where most of the

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Add / Remove programs: Install and remove software
automatically, and add or remove installed components in system working can be controlled. The following are the
various settings that can be done:

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windows NT.
Date and Time properties: The date and time properties

H
Console: Change the appearance of your MS-DOS screen
by changing screen colors, screen size and position, dialog is used to change the systems date and time which
is shown in the system tray at the right end corner of the

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fonts, cursor size and more.
task bar.
Date / Time: Change the system date, time, and time

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zone. Changing the date.

Devices: Start, stop and configure the start up type for – Day

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device drivers. – Month
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Display: Change the appearance of your screen by – Year
changing screen, colors, fonts, the appearance and size Changing the time
P
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of windows, background design, icons and other visuals.

– Hour
Fonts: Add or remove screen, vector, True type, and Type1
– Time
fonts, some printer fonts are installed automatically when
©

you install a printer. Other printer fonts must be installed – Seconds

using a font installation program provided by the font The spinner button is used to change the meridians ,
manufacturer.
i.e. AM. and PM.
Keyboard: Adjust the keyboard delay and repeat rate,
B

There is one more tab in the Date & Time properties i.e.
and add keyboard symbols that are exclusive to other
Time Zone that is used to set the local time in tune with the
languages.
Greenwich Meridian Time (GMT) as shown in Fig 5.
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Modems: Add modems using the Add modem wizard, a

Click on the down arrows button in the box indicated in
step-by-step modem set up program.
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above figure and change it to Colombo GMT+6:00. Watch

Multimedia: Adjust audio, video, CD (music), and MIDI, how the World map shifts itself towards left.
and add or remove multimedia devices.
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Also observe time now in the system tray. It will be

Network: Configure network adapter cards, network changed now.
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services and protocols, and join a workgroup or a domain.

Changing the Wall Paper and screen savers:
PC Card (PCMCIA): Display resources used by any PC Wallpapers are the screen patterns that can be set as the
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cards, if you have these devices. background of the desktop. There are built in wallpapers
available that can be selected in the Background tab of the
Ports: Set parameters for, and add and remove serial
Display property dialog.
communications ports.
Appearance of Window : The look and feel of windows
Printers: Add and remove printers and remove, control
can be changed using the Appearance Tab of the Display
and create share access to printers using the Add printer
property dialog. This tab can be used to change the whole
wizard, a step-by-step printer set up program.
appearance of windows like the color, size of icons, fonts
Regional Settings: Change sort dates, time currency that are used in the menus and title bars etc. each type of
and numbers to reflect regional standards. these appearance is presented as a set of schemes.
SCSI Adapters: Display adapters and devices connected Click in the Scheme list box and select the Windows
to your computer. standard as the type of the appearance for the windows.
44 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.145-148
– Watch how immediately the window in the top box
appears.
– Clicking on the respective items individually can change
the appearance of each individual item. For instance
clicking on the active window in the box can change the
appearance of the active.
The Save as button is used to save your own scheme of
colors, fonts, size etc under a different name. Delete button
is used to remove the schemes.
Regional Settings: The Regional settings properties sheet
controls a variety of features that can be used by your
programs to adjust the way they behave. Double clicking material. The platters are paired with magnetic heads
on the Regional Settings icon allows you to examine these arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write
regional settings. data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a random-
access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data
If you are going to change this setting, we suggest
can be stored or retrieved in any order rather than
changing the region first. The map changes to highlight the

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sequentially. A typical hard disk drive consists of a motor,
region of the world that you have selected, and the choices
spindle, platters, read/write heads, actuator and

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available on the other four pages are changed to ones
electronics as shown in Fig 4.
appropriate to that region.

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The primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity
The Number card includes settings for what should be used
and performance. Capacity is specified in powers of 1000:
for the Decimal Symbol, the No. of digits after decimal, the

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a 1-terabyte (TB) drive has a capacity of 1,000 gigabytes
symbol that should be used to group digits (in the U.S. this
(GB; where 1 gigabyte = 1 billion bytes). Performance is

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is referred to as the “thousands separator”), and the
specified by the time required to move the heads to a
Number of digits in group.
track or cylinder (average access time) plus the time it

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The Currency pages allows you to set some characteristics takes for the desired sector to move under the head
R IM

specific to currency such as the Currency symbol, the (average latency, which is a function of the physical
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Position of currency symbol, the Negative number format, rotational speed in revolutions per minute), and finally the
as well as the features just mentioned for use in the Number speed at which the data is transmitted (data rate).
P
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pages.
A HDD records data by magnetizing a thin film of
The formats for time and date information allow you to ferromagnetic material on a disk. Sequential changes in
select from a drop-down list of features. The choices for the direction of magnetization represent binary data bits.
©

time include the Time style; the Time separator between The data is read from the disk by detecting the transitions
hours, minutes, and seconds; and the choice for AM in magnetization. User data is encoded using an encoding
symbols and for PM symbols. scheme, such as run-length limited encoding, which
Hard drives determines how the data is represented by the magnetic
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transitions.
A Hard drive is a data storage device used for storing and
retrieving digital information using one or more rigid "hard"
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rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic

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T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.145-148 45
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.149
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

Different types of printers

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state different types of print technologies and printers
• explain the impact printers/dot matrix printers
• state non-impact printers, inkjet printers & laser jet printers.

Printers are electro-mechanical devices that enable a user Printers can be divided into two categories
to print whatever is displayed by the monitor - letters,
• Impact
contracts, business documents, images.
• Non-Impact

Printer

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Impact Printer Non - Impact Printer

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Daisy wheel Dot - Matrix Thermal

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Inkjet Laser

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Impact: The impact printers incorporate a built-in having very fine holes, from which a specially made ink is
mechanism to print images on paper using a series of pins pumped out to create various letters and shapes. The ink

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or hammers which strike on an inked ribbon to create the comes out of the nozzle in a form of vapors. After passing
image. For Example: Dot matrix, Daisy Wheel, etc. through a reflecting plate, it forms the desired letter/shape

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Non-Impact: The non-impact printers include those printers at the desired place.
R IM

that do not have any kind of contact with the paper while Laser Printer is a type of printer that utilizes a laser beam
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printing either text or image. For Example: Inkjet, Laser, to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser alters
Bubble Jet, etc. the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum
P
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These printers use different technology to print an image. is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked
For Example, a laser printer uses heat to attach microscopic up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner
is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat
©

particles of dry toner to specific parts of the page. An Inkjet

printer has tiny nozzles through which it sprays droplets of and pressure.
ink on to the page. This is also the way copy machines work. Because an
Impact Printers: In this hammers or pins strike against a entire page is transmitted to a drum before the toner is
ribbon and paper to print the text. This mechanism is applied, laser printers are sometimes called page printers.
B

known as electro-mechanical mechanism. They are of two There are two other types of page printers that fall under the
types. category of laser printers even though they do not use
lasers at all. One uses an array of LEDs to expose the drum
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1 Character Printer and the other uses LCDs. Once the drum is charged,
2 Line Printer however, they both operate like a real laser printer. One of
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the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution

Character Printer: It prints only one character at a time.
- how many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down.
It has relatively slower speed. Eg. Dot Matrix Printers
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Dot Matrix Printer: It prints characters as combination of The available resolutions range from 300 dpi at the low end
to 1,200 dpi at the high end. In addition to text, laser printers
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dots. Dot matrix printers are the most popular among serial
printers. These have a matrix of pins on the print head of the are very adopt at printing graphics, so you need significant
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printer which form the character. The computer memory amounts of memory in the printer to print high-resolution
sends one character at a time to be printed by the printer. graphics. To print a full-page graphic at 300 dpi, for
There is a carbon between the pins & the paper. The words example, you need at least 1 MB (megabyte) of printer
get printed on the paper when the pin strikes the carbon. RAM. For a 600 dpi graphic, you need at least 4 MB RAM.
There are generally 24 pins. Because laser printers are non-impact printers, they are
much quieter than dot-matrix or daisy-wheel printers. They
Non-Impact Printers: These printers use non-Impact
are also relatively fast, although not as fast as some dot-
technology such as ink-jet or laser technology. These
matrix or daisy-wheel printers. The speed of laser printers
printers provide better quality of O/P at higher speed. These
ranges from about 4 to 20 pages of text per minute (ppm).
printers are of two types :
A typical rate of 6ppm is equivalent to about 40 characters
Ink-Jet Printer: It prints characters by spraying patterns per second (cps).
of ink on the paper from a nozzle or jet. It prints from nozzles

46
 D
E
H
Internet websites text/images & use of E- mails Some of the best known services available on the internet
are

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Internet
– WWW or World Wide Web

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The internet is a world wide collection of network, servers,
gateways and computers using a common set of – FTP or File Transfer Protocol
telecommunication protocol to link and inter operate them

B
E I
– E-mail or Electronic mail
together.
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– Mailing lists
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The internet provides world wide access to information and
resources. It is possible to find information about almost – Newsgroups
P
E N

any subject imaginable from universities, government – Search engines

organisations, the military or libraries which may be in any
part of the world. – Telnet
©

The internet evolved from a US department of defense – Telephony

project. The advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) – VPN
of the department funded a project to connect university
computer scientists and engineers together via their World Wide Web
B

computers and telephone lines. This project called It is the internets multimedia service. It is also the widely
ARPANET, allowed researchers to share each others used part of internet. It is a vast storehouse of documents
computer facilities over long distances. It was also used to known as hyper text documents. These documents are
O

exchange electronic mail (e-mail) with other users. The written using the hypertext markup language (HTML).
network protocol used by the project was TCP/IP which Hypertext is a method for presenting text, images, sound
T

continues to be used on the Internet today. With the and videos that are linked together in a document. It allows
combination of electronic mail, file transfers and mailing a user to browse through topics in any order. It also
T

lists this network of networks called internet began to take includes dynamic links or connections which will take you
shape. to access those pages. Using WWW, you have access to
O

The simplest definition of internet is that its the longest millions of pages of information.
computer network in the world. A study in 1997 estimated
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The sum of all the hyper text and connecting links connected
that the internet has 16.1 million hosts or computers via the internet form is known as the world web wide or
connected to it. WWW or the web. The web allows you to move among
Technically, the internet is actually a network which is linked documents stored on host computers that may be
made up of many smaller networks that exist all over the physically very distant from one another.
world, but this is as invisible to the user as the telephone
You can read a hyper text file, look at its illustrations and
network which provides national to international calls (STD/
even listen any audio in it and also follow its links. Certain
ISD). There is no particular person or company who words or phrases appear in text of a different colour than the
controls the internet. It can be considered as a vast and
text and is also underlined. When you move the cursor and
growing online library in which anyone can publish anything
point it on these words a small hand appears which
they want. indicates that it is a link. You click this word and a new
hypertext document gets opened.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.149 47
Website IP addresses to describe where a computer is located. In
the e.g. http://www.microsoft.com, www.microsoft.com is
A website is a collection of hypertext documents. A
the domain name.
document on the site is called a web page. The first page
in a series of related documents or a site is called a home The last three characters of DNS or URL address indicate
page. The first document you access at any site is called the type of domain. Some common domain names used
the home page. Many individuals on the internet have their in US are
own home page - a document about them and their com - commercial organisations
interests - that anyone on the internet can access. This is
a very useful way to represent a company or individual. edu - educational institutions

The web combines TCP/IP, the protocol for sending gov - government organisations
documents across network, with an entirely new method of mil - military
locating and accessing documents on different networks. net - network, companies and groups who ad
It involves a simple coding mechanism around a string of minister the internet
characters called a URL or a Universal Resource Locator.
The URL identifies the name and address of each document org - organisation
available to the web. Countries outside the US use a two letter country code as

D
The URLs specify the server to access as well as the their domain name.
access method and the location. Each website on the Au - Australia

E
internet has its own URL. In - India

H
An URL consists of Fr - France
1 The server protocol to be used where the document is Uk - United kingdom

S
located. A server setup specifically for web documents
uses hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). Browser

LI
2 A colon To view the web sites/pages you need a graphical user
interface, called a web browser. It is a piece of software,

B
E I
3 The type of site generally world wide web (WWW), file that lets you visit different web sites on the internet and
R IM

transfer protocol (FTP), a protocol used specifically to display their pages on your own computer. You can visit
U
transfer files from one computer to another or Gopher, the site by supplying the browser with an address or URL.
a client server application that organizes the files on a
P
server, so users need not know or enter the exact file A browser displays a document from the internet on the
E N

name. computer screen. Like any windows based program, a

browser has a number of features - buttons, menus, scroll
4 The address of the host computer. Also known as bars, toolbars etc, that let you control its operation. The
©

domain address. The address begins with two forward latest version of the browser is recommended, since the
slashes. It consists of the name of server or site, the technologies involved in publishing information on the
network, university or computer name and the domain internet are constantly changing.
(two or three letter designation of the type of institution).
The specific location of the document on that computers Once you have your browser and a internet connection,
B

network accessing the internet is fairly straight forward. Commonly

used browsers are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft
Example:
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Internet Explorer.
1. http://www.microsoft.com/home.htm Page 1 gives the home page of Microsoft internet explorer.
T

http - Server protocol Title bar: Shows the name of the page you are currently
www - Type of site viewing on the documents file name if it is not a web page.
T

Microsoft - Company name Menu bar: Provides with drop down menus contains
almost all the commands you will need in the browser.
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com - Domain name

home.htm - Location of the document Navigation toolbar: Provides command action buttons.
N

Click the icon for the specified action to occur. If you point
2. ftp://ftp.microsoft.com at a button for a few seconds, without clicking, a tool tip will
3. gopher://gopher.microsoft.com appear describing the action of the button.
Domain name system Location tool bar: Type the URL you want to connect in
In addition to URLs every computer on the internet has a the “document URL” area of the location toolbar. On the
unique IP address. The IP address is four sets of digits right side of the window a small arrow appears. Click the
separated by dots. (198.64.3.20) arrow and the URLs most recently visited will pop up as a
list.
Because these numbers are hard to remember and difficult
to type, the domain name system was created. Domain Internet options: Select view on the menu bar and select
names enable short, alphabetical names to be assigned to internet options to edit internet explorers default settings.

48 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.149
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.150
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

Computer Viruses and protection

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe the computer virus
• explain how viruses spread in computer
• protect the computer from viruses
• explain the Anti-Virus software.
What is a Virus?
• Scan the hard drive for viruses monthly. Even with
A computer virus is one of thousands of programs that can
these precautions, new viruses may find ways to enter
invade computer systems (both IBM PC and Macintosh)
the computer system.
and perform a variety of functions ranging from annoying
(e.g., popping up messages as a joke) to dangerous (e.g., Getting Anti-virus Software
deleting files or destroying your hard disk). Trojan horses

D
Anti-virus software are programs that are installed onto
or worms are specific types of clandestine programs
your computer and can scan and remove known viruses

E
(loosely categorized as viruses) and can be just as
which you may have contracted. The software can also be
dangerous. For simplicity’s sake, future mention of viruses
set to automatically scan diskettes when inserted into the

H
in this document will refer to viruses, Trojan horses, and
disk drive, scan files, downloaded from the Internet, or
worms taken as a whole.
scan e-mail when received.

S
How Do Viruses Spread?
Be sure to have only one anti-virus program

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Computer viruses are programs that must be triggered or running on your system. Multiple programs
somehow executed before they can infect your computer may cause conflicts and system instability.

B
E I
system and spread to others. Examples include opening Keeping it Current
R IM

a document infected with a “macro virus,” booting with a

Even with active monitoring of computer systems, anti-
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diskette infected with a “boot sector” virus, or double-
virus software can only protect against viruses that it
clicking on an infected program file. Viruses can then be
knows about. For this reason, update files (generally
P
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spread by sharing infected files on a diskette, network

called Definition Files) for anti-virus software are needed
drive, or other media, by exchanging infected files over the
every time there is a new virus release. On the Windows
Internet via e-mail attachments, or by downloading
platform, this means an update roughly every week; the
©

questionable files from the Internet.

Macintosh has fewer new viruses to worry about so
How Can Protect computer updates are usually done monthly. The software that ITS
distributes has an “Auto Update” feature to automatically
With dangerous viruses on the network, what can computer
connect to a Web site and download the latest Definition
users do to protect their systems? Here are just a few
B

Files. Refer to the documentation to turn this feature on

hints:
and receive the maximum protection against viruses on
• Be sure to install an anti-virus software program to computer. Be sure to keep the Definition Files current!
O

guard against virus attacks. Also, be sure you turn on

How to remove virus?
the scanning features. It can’t protect if it’s not enabled.
T

If computer becomes infected with a virus, don’t panic! For

• Practice caution when working with files from unknown
most viruses, can simply use anti-virus program to scan
or questionable sources.
and remove the virus. If your Definition Files are up-to-
T

• Do not open e-mail attachments if do not recognize the date, the program should be able to clean off all but the
O

sender. Scan the attachments with anti-virus software most recent viruses. In the case of rather nasty viruses,
before opening them. some damaged files that cannot be fixed. Restore these
N

• Download files only from reputable Internet sites, and from backups.
be wary when exchanging diskettes or other media
with friends.

49
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.151
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

MS Office Applications & its Functions

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define MS office
• describe formatting, documents, spacing and headers.
MS Office • Each slide may contain audio, video, graphics, text,
MS Office (or simply Office) is a family of server software, bullet numbering, tables etc.
and services developed by Microsoft. It was first announced • The extension for PowerPoint presentations is ".ppt"
by Bill Gates on August 1, 1988, in Las Vegas. The first
• Used majorly for professional usage
version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft
Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office • Using PowerPoint, presentations can be made
applications have grown substantially closer with shared more interactive
features such as a common spell checker, data integration In terms of Graphical user interface, using MS PowerPoint,

D
etc. Office is produced in several versions targeted towards interesting and appealing presentation and documents can
different end-users and computing environments. The be created. To read more about its features and usage,

E
original, and most widely used version, is the desktop candidates can visit the linked article.

H
version, available for PCs running the Windows, Linux and 4 MS Access
Mac OS operating systems. Office Online is a version of
• It was released on November 13, 1992

S
the software that runs within a web browser, while Microsoft
also maintains Office apps for Android and iOS. • It is Database Management Software (DBMS)

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1 MS Word • Table, queries, forms and reports can be created on
MS Access
• First released on October 25, 1983

B
E I
• Import and export of data into other formats can be
• Extension for Doc files is ".doc"
R IM

done
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• It is useful in creating text documents
• The file extension is ".accdb"
• Templates can be created for Professional use with
5 MS Outlook
P
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the help of MS Word

• It was released on January 16, 1997
• Work Art, colours, images, animations can be
added along with the text in the same file which is • It is a personal information management system
©

downloadable in the form of a document • It can be used both as a single-user application or

• Authors can use for writing/ editing their work multi-user software
To read in detail about Microsoft Word, its features, uses • Its functions also include task managing, calendaring,
and to get some sample questions based on this program contact managing, journal logging and web browsing
B

of Office suite, visit the linked article. • It is the email client of the Office Suite
2 MS Excel • The file extension for an Outlook file is ".pst"
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• Majorly used for making spreadsheets 6 MS OneNote

• A spreadsheet consists of grids in the form of rows • It was released on November 19, 2003
T

and columns which is easy to manage and can be • It is a note-taking application

used as a replacement for paper • When introduced, it was a part of the Office suite
T

• It is a data processing application only. Later, the developers made it free, standalone
• Large data can easily be managed and saved in and easily available at play store for android devices
O

tabular format using MS Excel • The notes may include images, text, tables, etc.
N

• Calculations can be done based on the large amount • The extension for OneNote files is ".one"
of data entered into the cells of a spreadsheet within • It can be used both online and offline and is a multi-
seconds user application
• File extension, when saved in the computer, is ".xls" Apart from the applications mentioned above, various other
Also, visit the Microsoft Excel page to get more information applications are included in the MS Office suite but these
regarding this spreadsheet software and its components. are most commonly used ones and questions based on the
3 MS PowerPoint same may be asked in the upcoming exams as well.
• It was released on April 20, 1987 Aspirants can also learn more about Microsoft Office
• Used to create audiovisual presentations through the video given below, specially curated for
candidates assistance:
• Each presentation is made up of various slides
displaying data/ information
50
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.152
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

Search Engine and Email Accounts

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explanation about search engine
• creating email, sending and receiving messages.

What is a search engine? word by word. Search engines allow the user to enter
keywords, and then they are searched against its database.
A search engine is a searchable database which collects
Users can use advanced search techniques such as
information on web pages from the Internet, and indexes
phrase searching, truncation/wildcard searching, as well
the information and then stores the result in a huge
as for Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT combinations).
database where it can be quickly searched. The search
With comparison to web directories, search engines are
engine then provides an interface to search the database.
huge databases and contain a large amount of materials.

D
Examples : Google, Alta Vista, Exite Also, the database is updated at a variable rate.
A Search engine has three parts. Download content

E
• Spider: Deploys a robot program called a spider or Downloading content from internet has become a

H
robot designed to track down web pages. It follows the commonplace activity for all internet users – in the home,
links these pages contain, and add information to in business and in schools. All internet users download

S
search engines’ database. Example: Googlebot content from time to time – typically programs, games,
(Google’s robot program) pictures, music, video and documents. Downloading

LI
• Index: Database containing a copy of each Web page content can be troublesome. Downloads can fail.
gathered by the spider. Downloads can take excessive time. Downloads can be

B
E I
password-protected. Some content cannot be downloaded
R IM

• Search engine software : Technology that enables using your web browser. A download manager is a utility
U
users to query the index and that returns results in a designed to fix all the problems you may be having
schematic order. downloading content from the internet. They have quickly
P
E N

How does a search engine work? become a must-have utility for all internet users. Download
managers can accelerate your downloads, allow you to
Types of search engines resume broken downloads and contain numerous features
©

In broad sense, search engines can be divided into two that allow to you get hard-to-get files from the internet.
categories. Key terms
1. Individual search engines URL
B

An individual search engine uses a spider to collect its A URL (or Uniform Resource Locator) is the location of a
information regarding websites for own searchable index. resource on the internet. The format of a URL includes the
There are two types of individual search engines. protocol (e.g. http://, https://, ftp://, mms://, etc.), the
O

i . General search engines domain name (or IP address), and additional path information
(or folder & file name). A URL may address a web page file,
T

Examples: Google, AltaVista, HotBot, Lycos a program file, an image file, a CGI file, or any other type
ii. Subject specific search engines of file, folder or program. Download managers use URLs to
T

find the location of files, web sites and FTP sites that you
Examples: MetaPhys, Chritech, ReligionExplorer, Chordie, want to download. You input URLs when download content
O

ChemFinder from the internet.

2. Meta search engines
N

Examples of URLs are:

A Meta search engine searches multiple individual engines • http://www.conceiva.com/downloads/
simultaneously. It does not have its own index, but uses downloadstudio2200.exe
the indexes collected by the spiders of other search
engines. • ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/pub/msoffice.zip

Example: metacrawler, Ixquick, mamma • http://www.google.com

Advantages of using search engines • http://www.itunes.com/hiphop/newtrack.mp3

Search engines are best at finding unique keywords, Servers, Domains and Groups
phrases, quotes, and information buried in the full-text of A server name represents a single web server. For example,
web pages since they normally index WWW documents “www.conceiva.com” and “www.google.com” are examples

51
of server names. Even “google.com” counts as a different Other Email Features
server name since it is not the same as “www.google.com”
Other features you will commonly find when using email:
– even though if you visit “http://www.google.com” and
“http://google.com” in your web browser you may see the Cc: This stands for “carbon copy” or “courtesy copy” and
same content. A domain name is the most general part of is the field where you can put extra addresses in to send
a server name. For example, “conceiva.com”, “google.com” to other mailboxes if not the main recipient.
and “zdnet.co.uk” are examples of domain names. When Bcc: Like c:, but the mailbox address entered in this field
downloading files, if you set the download job to span is not visible to the main recipient of the mail.
across Domains, it will download files from any servers that
share the same domain name. For example, Attachment: Any file being sent along with the main
“www.conceiva.com”, “images.conceiva.com” and message; eg a Word file, a picture etc.
“downloads.conceiva.com” all belong to the same domain SPAM: Any unwanted and often malicious unsolicited
“conceiva.com”. emails. At SHU we try and detect these and mark them
A group name refers to any number of servers that share the appropriately so that they can be deleted by the user
same name regardless of the country-specific part of the without needing to open them.
name. For example, “www.conceiva.net”, How E-mail Works
“ftp.conceiva.org.au” and “images.conceiva.co.jp” would

D
all be part of the same group, because they all contain the A Simple E-mail Server
word “conceiva” directly before the country specific part of

E
Given that you have an e-mail client on your machine, you
the name. are ready to send and receive e-mail. All that you need is

H
Using the URL “http://www.conceiva.com/images/logo.gif” an e-mail server for the client to connect to. Let’s imagine
as an example:

S
• “www.conceiva.com/images” is the folder name Fig 1

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• “www.conceiva.com” is the server name
• “conceiva.com” is the domain name

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E I
R IM

• “conceiva” is the group name

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Data files.
P
E N

An increasing number of businesses download data files

from the internet on a daily basis – often as a regular
scheduled backup of their online data or to simply get the
©

latest up-to-date data for their business. Data files can be

any type of file and can be large in size, requiring significant
bandwidth and time to download. what the simplest possible e-mail server would look like in
order to get a basic understanding of the process shown
Email in Fig 1. Then we will look at the real thing.
B

Most people will be familiar with the term email (electronic If you’ve read How Web Servers Work, then you know that
mail) in this day and age. It basically covers all messages machines on the Internet can run software applications
O

sent over the Internet, normally between computer users, that act as servers. There are Web servers, FTP servers,
but also is now used with other internet-connected devices telnet servers and e-mail servers running on millions of
T

such as mobile phones. Email messages can be just text machines on the Internet right now. These applications run
based or can also contain graphical or other multimedia all the time on the server machine and they listen to
information. One common misconception with email is that specific ports, waiting for people or programs to attach to
T

messages will always arrive immediately or at least very the port. The simplest possible e-mail server would work
quickly (within minutes). Whilst this is often the case, any
O

something like this:

email relies on many computers and networks to be
working, therefore emails are at risk of delays at any stage. 1 It would have a list of e-mail accounts, with one account
N

However, sending messages within one system (such as for each person who can receive e-mail on the server.
the SHU First Class email service) should be immediate. My account name might be MBRAIN, John Smith’s
To send email messages all you need to know is a valid might be JSMITH, and so on.
address of the recipient - see addressing below. Messages 2 It would have a text file for each account in the list. So,
can either be like formal letters or increasingly they are the server would have a text file in its directory named
much more “conversational” where the emotions of the MBRAIN.TXT, another named JSMITH.TXT, and so on.
writer are expressed as emoticons (also called “smilies”).

52 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.152
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.153
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

Computer networking, Network Cable Components, and Servers

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the network
• state the components of a network
• explain the type of network topology
• state the types of cables and connectors used in network
• explain P.C. server and webserver.

Introduction Network interface card: To convert a standalone computer

If there is one concept that facilitates a global community, to be connected to a network, first a network interface card
it is networking. A network by definition is a collection of has to be plugged into the PCs expansion slot and
two or more computers connected together. Through configured.

D
these networked computers, people can share almost Network topology
anything that include:

E
The term network topology refers to the arrangement or
– Data files: Word processing, electronic spread sheet physical layout of computers, cables and other components

H
or presentation documents. on the network. The term Topology is also commonly used
– Peripheral devices: Printers, monitors, scanners to refer to the network’s basic design. Topology is an

S
etc. important issue when you plan for a network. It depends on
the type of cable and protocol to be used in the network.

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– Software applications: Bundled PC software such as
MS-Office or Lotus Smart suite, Financial accounting The most common topologies are:
software, database software etc.
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1 Bus
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– An internet connection: Going On line to connect to 2 Star

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another network or to send e-mail to another person.
3 Ring
P
In essence a network is a group of computers, printers and
E N

Bus Topology:
other devices that are connected together with cables.
Information travels over the cables, allowing network users
©

to share any hardware or software that is connected to the

network.
Components of a network: All networks have certain
components in common. They are:
B

Servers - computers that provides shared resources.

Fig 1
O
T
T

In this type of arrangement as shown in Fig 2, computers

O

are connected in a row. This is the simplest and most

common method of networking computers. The cable that
N

is used to connect all the computers is also called as

backbone. Bus topology networks use coaxial cable. They
use BNC connectors to connect all the individual cables.
Each computer is connected to the network through the
Shared resources: Files, directories, applications, use of a BNC. This connection allows the backbone cable
printers, CD rom drives, and other peripherals which are to be continued to the next computer. To make a longer
accessed by the users on the network. piece of cable, a component called a barrel connector is
used.
Clients: Computers that access or use shared resources
from server In this topology, the network data is sent in the form of an
electronic signal along with the MAC (Manufacturer address
Media: The physical cable that connects the computers in code) address of the machine to which data has to be sent.
a network. All the computers on the network receive this data. But
53
only the computer whose address matches the address in sending computer indicating that the data has been re-
the data sent over the network will accept the information. ceived. After verification, the sending computer creates a
Only one computer at a time can send messages over the new token and releases it on the network.
network.
Token ring topology uses category 3/4/5 UTP or fibre optic
Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire cable. Though originally 4 Mbps speed was used, the
network, it will travel from one end of the cable to the other. typical speed used now is 16Mbps. A newer version of fast
If the signal were allowed to continue uninterrupted, it would token ring standard also exists that enhances the speed to
keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent 100 Mbps.
other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the
Star Topology: In this type, computers are connected by
signal must be stopped after it has reached the proper
cables to a centralised component, called a hub. Signals
computer. To stop the signal from bouncing, a component
are transmitted from the sending computer through the Hub
called Terminator is placed at each end of the cable to
to all the computers on the network as shown in Fig 4.
absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable
so that other computers can send data. The protocol that
is used in bus topology is Ethernet.
If the cable is physically cut or if any one end of the cable

D
gets disconnected from the terminator or T-connector, the
entire network is down. Then the computers will not be able

E
to communicate with each other.

H
Ring Topology: The ring topology connects computers
on a single circle of cable. There are no terminators at the

S
end of cable like in bus topology. Refer to the Fig 3 shown
below. Star topology is easy to install. You must install a separate

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cable from the Hub to the computer. So it may require more
cabling than other topologies. Shifting, adding and removal
of nodes are very simple. Even if one cable breaks down,

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only that computer gets affected on the network and the
R IM

rest is operational. UTP or FTP cables Cat5 or Ecat5 may

U
be used for achieving speeds upto 100/1000 Mbps. They
are limited to a length of 100 meters (328 feet) for each node
P
E N

connection.
There is no limitation in the number of nodes in a segment.
©

Uses RJ-45 connectors for all connections.

Network Architecture
Network architecture combines standards, topologies and
he signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass protocols to produce a working network. Ethernet is
B

through each computer. Each computer boosts the signal currently the most popular network architecture. It uses a
and sends it to next computer. Because the signal passes bus topology, it follows the IEEE’s 802.3 specification.
through each computer in the ring, the failure on one The Ethernet media draws power from the computer and
O

computer effect the entire network. this will not fail unless the media is physically cut or
improperly terminated. The transfer speed is 10/100 Mbps.
T

Though the computers are logically connected in a ring

fashion, the actual cables from the NIC of the computer It supports Thin, Thick coaxial cables and UTP.
gets connected to the MAU or Multistation Access Unit Repeaters: Electro magnetic waves become weaker as
T

centrally. The function of the MAU is to accept signals they pass through transmission medium. Each
transmitted from one computer and direct the signals to the
O

transmission medium can only be used for a certain

computer to which it is addressed. distance. One can exceed the physical mediums maximum
N

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called effective distance by using an amplification device called
token passing. A token is passed from one computer to the repeater. Repeater is shown in Fig 5.
next and so on. When a station wants to transmit on the
Fig 5
ring, it waits for a free token to pass by. The sending
computer takes the token. It modifies by putting an
electronic address of the computer to which it has to
transmit. Then it sends the token out on the rings. As the
busy token passes by, each computer on the ring checks
the token’s address. If the address does not match with its
own address, it sends the token to the next computer. If
the address matches, the computer copies the data from
the token. It also returns a message on the token to the
54 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.153
Hubs: Some networks require a central point of connection Centralized computing : Centralized computing originated
between media segments. These central points are referred with mainframe computers and time-sharing. The principle
to as hubs is shown in Fig 6. behind centralized computing is that a central computer
executes a program, such as a database or a transaction-
Fig 6 processing program (for instance, an airline reservations
system or a bank records program) and remote terminals
merely display data on a screen and convey keyboard data
back to the central computer.
In modern networks, personal computers can perform the
role of dumb terminals. With Windows software, the PC
can appear to the central computer as many terminals,
each virtual terminal accessing different data or performing
a separate transaction on the mainframe.
In centralized computing it is the central computer that
does all the work. The data resides on the central computer
and the program executes on the central computer. The

D
Bridges: A bridge extends the maximum distance of your personal computer or dumb terminal only display screen
network by connecting separate network segments. Bridges data and accepts keystrokes for the central computer to

E
selectively pass signals from one medium segment to process. Centralized computing does not fully use the
another as in below Fig 7. capabilities of today’s powerful network clients.

H
The above figure explains that Client computing with Central file storage : At the

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opposite end of the spectrum from centralized computing
– Receive all signals sent on segment A.
is client computing with central file storage (see Fig 40). In

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– Discard signals addressed to other nodes on segment this way of organizing an application, the client computer
A. does all the work. A central file server stores, but that is all.

B
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Fig 7
Client computers cooperate to ensure that central files are
R IM

not corrupted by attempts by several computers to access

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them at the same time. When a client computer needs to
perform an operation, the file is transferred to the client
P
E N

computer to perform the operation. Two examples of this

type of application are networked database programs that
do not use a SQL. (Structured Query Language) server and
©

any network-aware application that does not communicate

with a special program executing on the server, such as
network scheduling programs and groupware.
While it is fully exploits the capabilities of client computers
B

and provides a richer and more customizable environment

– Retransmit all other signals out of the appropriate ports for the user, this type of program can place heavy demands
on the network if the data files in which program works with
O

– Perform the same functions for data on other connected

are large. It also takes time to transmit data from the server
segments.
to the client, process the data, and transfer it back to the
T

Multi plexers: A multiplexer combines two or more server so other network programs can access the data.
separate signals on a single transmission media segments
The Client-Server Model : The Client-server model
T

i.e. to efficiently use the entire transmission media band

combines the advantages of both the centralized computing
width, we can use multiplexers.
O

model and the client model of computing. It does this by

Routers: Routers connect two or more logically separate performing the operations that are best executed by a
N

networks (consisting of several network segments with central computer on the file server and performing those
different protocols and architectures) is called router. operations that are best done close to the user on the client
PC-Server: The term client-server can describe hardware, computer. The client-server model works best when many
in which case it is referring to network servers and client people need access to large amounts of data. Simply
computers, or it can refer to a way of organising software stated, a client-server system is any system in which the
applications and services on a network. Client server client computer makes a request over a network to a server
computing is a powerful way of constructing programs on computer that then satisfies the request.
a network. In order to describe its advantage and how it The Client : When you use a client-server system, what
works, we will first describe two alternatives to client-server you see is the client, or front end. It presents the interface
computing: to manipulate or search for data. The request you make by
– Centralised computing manipulating windows, menu, check boxes and so on, is
– Client computing with central file storage
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.153 55
translated into a compact form that the client transmits Back-end database software is optimized to perform
over the network for the server to perform. searches and sorts and the back-end computer is often
One example of a front end is Microsoft Access when it is more powerful than the front-end computer.
used with a SQL back end. Access displays tables in Web server : A web server is a program using the client/
windows or in forms you can browse. It allows you to modify server model and the World Wide Web’s Hyper Text
and search the tables in an easy-to-use graphical Transfer Protocol (HTTP) serves the files that form web
environment. All the actual data manipulation, however, pages to web users.
occurs on the SQL server. Access translates all the data-
Every computer on the internet that contains a web site
base operations into SQL for the server to perform. The
must have a web server program. The most popular web
results of the operations are transmitted back to Access to
servers are: The Microsoft’s Internet Information Server
display in an intuitive, graphical form.
(IIS) which comes with the Microsoft’s Windows NT Server;
SQL is not limited to database programs such as Microsoft Netscape Fast Track and Enterprises Servers and Apache,
Access. User programs such as Microsoft Excel can use a web server for Unix-based operating systems. Other web
SQL to query the back-end data-base server for values to servers include Novell’s Web Server for users of its Netware
use in spreadsheet calculations. Program tools allow Operating System and IBM’s family of Lotus Domino
custom programs to store and retrieve data in server-based Servers. Primarily for IBM’s OS/390 and AS/400 customers.

D
databases. Query tools provide direct access to the SQL
Web servers often come as a part of a larger package of
data.
Internet related programs for serving e-mail, downloading

E
The Server : The server is where data operations in a requests for File Transfer Protocol (FTP) files and building

H
client-server system occur. The central computer can and publishing web pages. Consideration in choosing a
service many client requests quickly and efficiently, which web server include how well it works with the operating

S
is the traditional advantage of centralized computing. The system and other servers, its ability to handle server side
central computer can also provide enhanced security by programming and publishing, search engine and site

LI
performing only authorized operations on the data. building tools that may come with it.

B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

56 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.153
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.154
Electronics Mechanic - Computer Hardware, OS, MS Office and Networking

Wi-Fi Network
Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the bluetooth device
• explain wi-fi and network protocols.

Wireless network Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz (12 cm)
UHF and 5.8 gigahertz (5cm) SHF ISM radio bands, these
Connecting to a network using wires has become
bands are subdivided into multiple channels. Each channel
nowadays outdated as most times availability of wireless
can be time-shared by multiple networks. These
networks is there in public places.
wavelengths work best for line-of sight. Many common
Wireless network uses the connections through wi-fi materials absorb or reflect them, which further restricts
devices and bluetooth devices. range, but can tend to help minimize interference between

D
Bluetooth device different networks in crowded environments. At close
range, some versions of Wi-Fi, running on suitable

E
Bluetooth device are installed inside devices like mobile hardware can achieve speeds of over 1 Gbps.
phones laptops and on a separate adapters in desktops.

H
It connects devices by identification using machine id and Anyone within range with a wireless network interface
one-to-one basic paired connections. The date shared controller can attempt to access a network; because of

S
between paired devices are about Mbps in normal USB this, Wi-Fi is more vulnerable to attack (called
mode. Sharing internet is also available in bluetooth eavesdropping) than wired networks. Wi-Fi protected

LI
networks. The only restriction is its connecting area and access is a family of technologies created to protect
speed of transmission. information moving across Wi-Fi networks and includes
solutions for personal and enterprise networks. Security

B
E I
Wi-Fi device features of Wi-Fi protected Access have included stronger
R IM
U
Compared to bluetooth the wi-fi devices are very fast in protections and new security practices as the security
transmitting data and area of coverage and connecting landscape has changed over time.
P
E N

devices are also more. Wi-fi also used to connect a LAN Network Protocol
using TCP/IP settings. Unlike bluetooth, wi-fi is secured
with connection. Key as passwords, which restricts Rules of Network Protocol include guidelines that regulate
the following characteristics of a network: access method,
©

unauthorised accessing of network and sharing internet

connections. Configuring wi-fi network using a mobile allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed
phone is very easy as just select ‘”wi-fi hotspot” to share of data transfer.
its internet connectivity and access from other devices Types of Network Protocols
by providing pass key. Also when DHCP mode is enabled
B

The most common network protocols are:

in a wifi modem, systems can easily be connected to
the network as configured. • Ethernet
O

Wi-Fi • Local Talk

Wi-Fi or WiFi (/’waifai/’) is technology for radio wireless
T

• Token Ring
local area networking of devices based on th IEEE 802.11
• FDDI
standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance,
T

which complete interoperability certification testing. ATM

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Devices that can be Wi-Fi technology include personal The followings are some commonly used network symbols
computers, video-game consoles, smartphones and to draw different kinds of network protocols.
N

tablets, digital cameras, smart TVs, digital audio players

Ethernet
and modern printers. Wi-Fi compatible devices can
connect to the internet via a WLAN and a wireless access The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used one.
point. Such an access point (or hotspot) has a range of Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier
about 20 meters (66 feet) indoors and a greater range Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a
outdoors. Hotspot coverage can be as small as a single system where each computer listens to the cable before
room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as sending anything through the network. If the network is
many square kilometers achieved by using multiple clear, the computer will transmit. If some other nodes
overlapping access points. have already transmitted on the cable, the computer will
wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two
Depiction of a device sending information wirelessly to
computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. A
another device, both connected to the local network, in
collision occurs when this happens. Each computer then
order to print a document.
57
backs off and waits a random amount of time before ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local
attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is area networks. It is also frequently used by Internet Service
normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by Providers to utilize high-speed access to the Internet for
collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not their clients. As ATM technology becomes more cost-
normally effect the speed of transmission on the network. effective, it will provide another solution for constructing
faster local area networks.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree
topologies. Data can be transmitted over wireless access Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed
Definition
of 10 Mbps up to 1000 Mbps.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
Fast Ethernet
(TCP/IP)
To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Ethernet protocol has developed a new standard that
is the language a computer uses to access the internet.
supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast
It consists of a suite of protocols designed to establish a
Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires the application of different,
network of networks to provide a host with access to the
more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network
internet.
interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or

D
fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet is becoming TCP/IP is responsible for full-fledged data connectivity
common in schools that have been recently wired. and transmitting the data end to end by providing other

E
functions, including addressing, mapping and
Local Talk

H
acknowledgment. TCP/IP contains four layers, which differ
Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by slightly from the OSI model.

S
Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers. The
The technology is so common that one would rarely use
method used by Local Talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier
the full name. In other words, in common usage the

LI
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). It is
acronym is now the term itself.
similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its
intent to transmit before it actually does so. Local Talk Techopedia explains Transmission Control Protocol/

B
E I
adapters and special twisted pair cable can be used to Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
R IM
U
connect a series of computers through the serial port. Nearly all computers today support TCP/IP. TCP/IP is
The Macintosh operating system allows the establishment not a single networking protocol - it is a suite of protocols
P
of a peer-to-peer network without the need for additional
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named after the two most important protocols or layers

software. With the addition of the server version of within it - TCP and IP.
AppleShare software, a client/server network can be
established. As with any form of communication, two things are
©

needed: a message to transmit and the means to reliably

The Local Talk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree transmit the message. The TCP layer handles the
topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage message part. The message is broken down into smaller
of Local Talk is low speed. Its speed of transmission is units, called packets, which are then transmitted over
only 230 Kbps.
B

the network. The packets are received by the

FDDI corresponding TCP layer in the receiver and reassembled
into the original message.
O

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network

protocol that is used primarily to interconnect two or more The IP layer is primarily concerned with the transmission
T

local area networks, often over large distances. The portion. This is done by means of a unique IP address
access method used by FDDI involves token-passing. assigned to each and every active recipient on the network.
FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology. Transmission
T

TCP/IP is considered a stateless protocol suite because

normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break each client connection is newly made without regard to
O

occurs, the system keeps information moving by whether a previous connection had been established.
automatically using portions of the second ring to create
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
N

a new complete ring. A major advantage of FDDI is high

speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps. File Transfer Protocol(FTP) is an application layer protocol
ATM which moves files between local and remote file systems.
It runs on the top of TCP, like HTTP. To transfer a file, 2
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol TCP connections are used by FTP in parallel: control
that transmits data at a speed of 155 Mbps and higher. connection and data connection
ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a
fixed size; whereas, other protocols transfer variable length ,
packets. ATM supports a variety of media such as video,
CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star
topology, which can work with fiber optic as well as twisted
pair cable.

58 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.2.154
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.155
Electronics Mechanic - Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components), Soldering
and Desoldering

Surface Mount Technology and Surface Mount Devices

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain briefly SMT & SMD
• state the need for SMD
• list the advantages of SMDs
• state the safety precautions required while handling SMDs
• list the tools and equipments used in SMT
• understand to perform test and measurement of the circuit.
Introduction 6 Very high resistance to mechanical shock and vibration.
Surface Mount Devices (SMDs) are used in a growing 7 Low store and transport cost. Low store area and volume.

D
number of commercial and industrial products. Due to their 8 Lack of hole's drilling and metallization.
small size, prototype manufacturing, rework and repair can 9 Thin pads.

E
be difficult and are best performed using specialized 10 For larger volumes, low manufacturing cost.

H
techniques specific to this technology. Learning these
techniques will help you succeed when working with these SMD safety precautions
Surface mount components are very small, and therefore

S
small components. The SMT technique opens advantages
and new applications through miniaturizing of the special precautions (in addition to those required when

LI
components and increasing of reliability. working with through - hole components) must be taken
Surface Mounted Devices (SMD) are active and passive • Do not eat or drink when working with surface mount

B
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electronic components without conventional connecting components.
R IM

wires. • Do not use cups, plates, or any food related items to

U
In the conventional through - hole technology (THT) the hold or store surface mount components.
P
components are placed on the "components side" of the • Keep surface mount components away from children
E N

printed circuit board (PCB), wires inserted into holes, and and pets.
soldered to the copper pads on the opposite, "solder side"
of the PCB.
• Always wear safety goggles.
©

Need of surface mount technology

• Work away from the edge of a desk or workbench to
ensure that components will not fall on the floor.
SMDs have improved performance over through-hole
components due to their smaller size, shorter internal leads,
• Keep a strong light and magnet available to search for
components that have dropped on the floor.
B

and smaller board layouts. These factors reduce the

circuit's parasitic inductance and capacitance. SMDs can Work area for dealing with SMD
also be more cost effective than traditional through - hole Because SMDs are very small, it is important to make
O

components due to the smaller board size, fewer board them "look" bigger. This can be accomplished by
layers, and fewer holes. SMDs can be challenging to solder, illuminating the work surface with a very bright light. A
T

so it is best to learn general soldering skills on larger swing - arm desk lamp with a 100-watt frosted bulb
components before attempting to work with SMDs. positioned close to the work surface works very well. The
T

Advantages of SMDs are given below lamp should be adjustable from 6 to 24 inches above the
desktop. Regular room lighting or shop lights just are not
O

1 PCBs area much smaller than by conventional through

bright enough. The second trick is to work on an absolutely
- hole components
clean, bright white surface. The SMD work tray works very
N

2 Since the both layers of the PCB could be used for well. The white paper gives contrast to the components
assembling, the final PCBs area for the same circuits and the small sides help prevent the SMDs from getting
could be decreased by 50%. lost.
3 Simple assembling-no bending and cutting of the wires.
Tools and Equipment required for SMD
4 Automatic assembling very easy. Low cost of the
assembling. The tools and equipment required for SMD used are self -
locking tweezers which work much better than regular
5 Small size of components makes very high packing
tweezers. Vacuum pick-up tools can also be used, but
density possible. For the same circuits a volume of a
are considerably more expensive. Select a low wattage
module assembled with SMD could be reduced to 30%
(15 or 25 watt) or temperature controlled (6000F) pencil
of the device assembled with the conventional technique.
soldering iron with a pointed tip.
Therefore a size of the whole instrument decreases,
too.
59
List of tools & equipments and they are mostly differ some part of specifications
from manufacturer to manufacturer. The size of resistors
1 Safety Goggles
are also reduced day by day due to technological
2 Self locking tweezers (Fig.1)
enhancement. The most common packages and their
3 600oF or low wattage soldering gun with sharply pointed
sizes are shown in table 1.
tip
4 Small diameter solders wire (63/37)
SMD resistor specifications
5 RMA solder paste
6 Desoldering braid
SMD resistor specifications differ from one manufacturer
7 Plastic scouring pads
to other. For selecting a SMD resistor, one needs to refer
8 Deco cement
to manufacturer ratings.
9 Magnet
10 Flexible neck lamp with 100w frosted bulb. Some most important specifications are shown below.
11 Magnifying glass.
To clean the circuit board before soldering you will need a
nonconductive abrasive pad. Don't use steel wool or a steel
wool scouring pad, since they may leave small (almost

D
microscopic) steel wires behind. A strong magnet is
useful for finding dropped components. You will also need

E
a magnifying glass. Use this to read the component
markings on chip resistors and electrolytic capacitors.

H
Types of SMD components

S
Now a days, almost all active components are available in
SMD packages for example diodes, transistors, FET, Triac

LI
etc. But in passive components only resistor and capacitors
are available in different sizes and values. Due to size and

B
E I
mounting limitations -inductors and transformers are not a Power rating: The size of the resistor will increase by
R IM

available in SMDs. In active devices, some power electronic power rating and current drawn by it. The power rating
U
components are available in limited varieties due to large of resistor should be always smaller than PCB layer
current rating. Some power ratings are shown in table.
P
E N

b Tolerance: SMD resistors are mostly metal oxide film

resistor which are having more accurate values. So
©

they mostly having tolerance of 1% to 5%. But in some

special applications they may available in less than
1% tolerance.
c Temperature coefficient: SMD are having very good
B

temperature coefficient than normal resistors due metal

oxide film material. Generally they may available in 25
to 100 ppm/c.
O

current drawing and problems for mounting heat sink on SMD capacitors
SMDs. Large surface space is required for mounting the
T

heat sinks whereas SMDs are in small size. SMD capacitors are mostly used components after SMD
resistors in practical electronic circuits. SMD capacitors
SMD resistors are similar to general capacitors in construction and the
T

SMD resistors are in shape of rectangle with metalized in only difference is that instead of leads SMD capacitors
O

both ends of body for convenient to solder on PCBs. have metalized connections at their both ends.
Advantages of SMD over a general capacitors
N

SMD resistors are constructed with use of the thick film

technique on a ceramic substrate. They have metallic areas 1. Due no leadless, manufacturers are using different
on the narrow ends of the chip, which allows soldering. techniques and they are available in small in size.
The resistive path is covered with a protective glaze. Chip
resistors could be soldered with all common soldering 2. Easy to assemble and mount in automated
techniques : reflow, wave and solder iron. A sample of manufacturing techniques.
SMD resistor is shown in Fig 2. 3. Less effected by static field and electro-magnetic
Case forms of same SMD components ae tabulated table1. effects.

SMD resistor packages

SMD resistors are available in different types of packages

60 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.155
Types of SMD capacitors 2 Dual diode form
1. SMD Ceramic capacitors a Common anode b Common cathode
c Series diodes d Dual pair
2. SMD tantalum capacitors
3. SMD electrolytic capacitors Fig 5
SMD tantalum capacitors
SMD tantalum capacitors are available in different case
forms, partly without printed values. The + polarity is
marked by white line, or white "M". The case forms depend
of capacitance value and nominal voltage.
SMD tantalum capacitors standard sizes are:
3.2 x 1.8 mm
3.5 x 2.8 mm
6.0 x 3.2 mm

D
7.3 x 4.3 mm Almost all standard diodes and transistors are available
as SMD components in SOT - 23, SOT - 89 and SOT -

E
The values are coded with digits, or with alphanumerical 143 cases. In general electrical parameters of SMD diodes
characters.

H
and transistors are the same as comparable standard types
Fig 3 in conventional cases. SOT - 23, and SOT - 143 cases

S
are used for components with power dissipation 200 to
400 mW. SOT - 89 cases are used for power dissipation

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500 mW to 1W. SMD LEDs are available in SOT - 23
cases. All SMD transistors are marked with codes.
They are low cost and smaller size than general capacitors.

B
E I
Electrolytic capacitors are now being used increasingly in
R IM
Fig 6
U
SMD designs. SMD capacitors are available in two types
are value marking
P
E N

1 Direct value printing

2 Coding technique
©

Generally, SMD ceramic and tantalum capacitors are

having coding technique for reading values and they may Fig 7
differ from one manufacturer to other. Most of Electrolytic
capacitors are having values with their working voltage
printed on their surface because of their large surface area.
B

SMD diodes and transistors

Note:
O

SMD diodes and transistors are available mostly in similar

packages. Diodes are available in mainly two forms as The same mark does not means the same component!
T

shown in below Fig. If SMD transistors with the same marks have different case
Those are forms their technical specifications are different as well!
T

1 Single diode form SMD Integrated circuits

O

a Simple diode b Dual anode c Dual cathode The first SMD ICs were manufactured on begin 70' for hybrid
technique. Nowadays (February 1999) are many of new
N

ICs design manufactured in SMD only.

Fig 4
ICs in SMD cases are electrically fully compatible to types
in DIL cases therefore both of them have the same
marking. The different for SMD (SO-xx case )is only the
last character of the mark; i.e. LM 324 N (DIL) = LM 324 D
(SO).
SO cases are produced with two different pin forms:
1. pins bent outside of the case
2. pins bent under the case

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.155 61
 Fig 8 paste of the desired melting range. Additional metals can
be added to change paste compositions for specialized
applications. Particle size and shape, metal content and
flux type can be varied to produce pastes to varying
viscosity. Availability of solder paste
Pin 1 is marked by a white line on atop of the case or a
cut on a front of the case. Solder paste is available in both leaded (with lead) and
lead-free (with no lead) forms. It can be no-clean or water
Abbreviate the full form of term used in surface Mount soluble. With no-clean solder paste, there is not need to
technology clean the board after soldering. Water soluble solder paste
SMD Surface Mounted Devices is easily soluble in water with no harm.

(active, passive and electromechanical Reflow solder process Description

components) The basic reflow solder process consists of: Application
SMT Surface Mounted Technology of a solder paste to the desired pads on a printed circuit
board (PCB) Placement of the parts in the paste. Applying
(assembling and montage technology) heat to the assembly which causes the solder in the paste
SMA Surface Mounted Assembly. to melt (reflow). wet to the PCB and the part termination

D
resulting in the desired solder fillet connection.
Solder paste and its Application in SMT

E
A Solder paste the solder paste mixes are improving as
Solder paste or solder cream is simply a suspension of the demands of reflow soldering of SMT increase. Selection

H
fine solder particles in a flux vehicle. In electronic industry, and specification of the optimum paste is a key item in
solder paste is used in surface mount technology ( SMT ) the reflow solder process.

S
to solder SMDs on to the printed circuit board, The
composition of the particles can be tailored to produce a

LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

62 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.155
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.156 & 157
Electronics Mechanic - Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components), Soldering
and Desoldering

Explanation about different types of tools & equipments required for SMD
soldering and desoldering work
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• trainees will be familiar to use the tools and raw materials used to avoid the damage of costly SMD devices
and components and ICs due to electrostatic discharge
• trainees will be familiar to use tools and equipments and raw materials required to do soldering and
desoldering work of SMD components and ICs.

Tools and equipments required for SMD soldering Working of SMD Rework station
Hot air station solder blower Rework station is an antistatic soldering station with

D
soldering iron and hot air gun. Rework station
Hot air gun soldering station iron tool solder recommended. Thermal sensitive electronic component

E
It is used to solder and de solder the fine and narrow like (QFP, PLCC, SOP etc) Air compressor is located in
terminals of SMD components, by setting the suitable side the station etc.,) It is useful for the soldering and

H
temperature and air pressure of hot air blower as per the desoldering the SMD components. shown in Fig.3
pad size of the PCB and package size of SMD

S
Fig 3
components. shown in Fig. 1 & 2

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Fig 1

B
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P
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©

Fig 2

SMD rework system with different temperature

B

profiles and digital display

The hot air pencil has many advantages of the traditional
O

soldering iron : First and foremost, the hot air pencil is

completely non - invasive providing precision, pin- pointed,
T

non - contact, low- velocity hot air directly to the individual

components leads. as show in Fig. 4
T

Optional : 5 Distinct stainless steel air tip styles are

available for all SMD’s
O

Heated Tweezers : (Optional)

N

Heated tweezers have more targeted heat transfer than

the hot - air rework stations. They provide a fast and efficient
method to solder and de-solder SMDs such as chip
resistors, chip capacitors, SOTs, flat packs and DIP ICs.
as shown in Fig. 5

63
Fig 4

Fig 5 90° forming tool

Tool cut kink forming

D
Special tool that cuts and pre-form the component wire in

E
one operation. Length setting is carried out by means of
a sliding stop. as shown in Fig.8

H
90° SMD tweezer

S
Parallel blades ideal to lift & align chips. Also winding

LI
coils & hairsprings. as shown in Fig 9

Fig 8

B
E I
Solder suckers de - soldering pumps
R IM
U
A ‘desoldering pump’ or more generically referred to as a
“solder sucket”, is a tool that vacuums molten solder from
P
circuit board assemblies during circuit repairs or
E N

component removal. shown in Fig. 6

Fig 6
©

Fig 9
B
O
T

Curved tweezer
Monocle Magnifier -Illuminated Curved (eagle) tweezer for general assembly, permits
T

resting hand on bench. Fine points. as shown in 10

This loop magnifier set itself apart in your eyes because
of the little LED on the side. Trying to view SMD
O

connections is hard enough - the LED on the side is huge Fig 10

help for those want to inspect the connections very closely
N

for proper solder connection. shown in Fig. 7

Fig 7

Reverse action tweezer grips and hold parts with less

pressure than traditional tweezers. shown in Fig.11.
Parallel paddle tweezer
Smooth, flat, angled parallel paddle tweezer. Great at
gripping and lifting IC’s & small parts. as shown in Fig.12

64 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.156 & 157
 Fig 11 Fig 15

Fig 12

Rounded points tweezer

Round points prevent scratch to delicate parts silicon, Fig 16

D
crystal & germanium water chips. as shown in Fig. 13

E
Fig 13

H
S
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Hobby knife
We use these extensively when working with PCBs.

B
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These small knife work well for cutting traces, scraping
R IM

Fig 17
ground pours, and guiding hair - like wires into their proper
U
place. Excel knife comes with aluminum handle, one ultra
- sharp blade, and safety cap. as shown in Fig. 14
P
E N

Fig 14
B ©

Raw materials
SMD PCB board (single sided and double sided) as shown
O

Digital multimeter Fig. 18 & 19

T

Smart tweezer (optional) : Measure accurately and easily Fig 18

your SMT components. LCR measurement using smart
tweezers. Measure resistance from 0.05 ohm to 10 mega
T

ohm, capacitance 10pF to 5 mF and inductance 1 uH to

1H. It automatically recognize for LCR measure mode.
O

Continuity or open test, Diode test. DC/AC voltage upto

N

+/- 8 volt, reading of main and parasitic impedance

components. Measurement of dissipation and quality
factors. as shown in Fig. 15
Soldering and desoldering tip temperature
thermometer (Optional)
Measure tip temperature quickly, with high accuracy. as
shown in Fig.16
Bench fume absorber (optional) as shown in Fig.17
Help to remove harmful fume in soldering area

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.156 & 157 65
This prototype board supports most kinds of SMD IC Dry tip cleaner
package.
A sponge replacement, these soft, metal coils are coated
TQFP 32 (0.65 mm) with flux and clean soldering iron tips without thermally
TQFP 48 (0.5 mm) shocking them like a wet sponge does. This helps to
prolong tip life. Also, this cleans more effectively than a
TQFP 64 (0.5 mm) sponge. To clean, thrust the iron into the coils a few
SOP 28, SO- 8, SO-14, SO- 16, SOT - 25 times. as shown in Fig. 21
QSOP - 28 (0.65 mm) Do not scrape the tip on the coils because this can fling
molten solder.
DB 9
Flux : The key to surface mount soldering
MSOP - 8, etc
Flux removes oxides from metal that prevent solder from
Size : 90 * 110* 1.5 mm
bonding to it, and also helps to distribute heat. During
Fig 19
Fig 21

D
E
H
S
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B
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R IM
U
typical soldering with flux - cored, solder wire, all the flux
you need is contained in the solder. When the wire touches
P
a hot connection, the flux flows out, cleans the joint and
E N

prevents further oxidation. However, in surface mount

soldering, (brace yourself) oftentimes solder is melted on
the iron, and then transferred to the joint. During this time,
©

the flux quickly boils off and becomes useless, so

additional flux is needed on the connection. If transferring
solder in this manner seems questionable, bare in mind
that a common process in industry, called wave soldering,
B

is similar. Fluxed boards are slowly passed over a giant

wave of molten solder that wicks into the connections.
Damp sponge with a hole
O

Flux comes in a large variety of different types and

A hole in the middle gives you an edge to wipe the iron tip
applications. It is recommend using a rosin based, RMA
on, and also a place for the used solder to fall into so you
T

(Rosin Mildly activated), clean the flux soon after soldering

are not trying to clean the tip on older debris. We should
because the residues quickly harden. “No - clean” fluxes
wet the sponge using distilled water to avoid corrosion of
have very low activation levels, and are therefore less
T

the soldering iron bit. as shown in Fig.20

effective than activated fluxes, but will work fine on clean
O

parts. as shown in Fig. 22.

Fig 20
Use no - clean flux if you are making circuits space
N

applications or if you use water soluble flux, the residues

are corrosive, and should be removed with warm water.
Solder wire spool holder, soldering wire rack, solder
wire dispenser
No clean solder wire has a no - clean flux core and is
terrific for all your PCB soldering including both through-
hole and surface mount. Ideal for prototyping, low - volume
runs, and printed circuit board rework at the bench.

66 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.156 & 157
Fig 22 Desoldering braid
De - soldering is required when electronic components
need to be removed from a circuit, usually because they
are faulty. It may sometimes be necessary during testing
or assembly, if a wrong parts has been fitted or a
modification has to be made. To professionally remove
solder from a circuit, you will need for the following
materials. as shown in Fig. 24

Fig 24

Solder paste with lead

Zero lead - solder paste is your Rohs compliant, as shown

D
in Fig. 23 lead - free solder paste perfectly harmonizing
its rich tin, silver and copper alloy with an effective no -

E
clean flux ‘carrier’ yielding simply superb wetting
characteristics and premium solder joints with an attractive

H
satin finish.

S
Fig 23

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B
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1 De -soldering barid
R IM

2 Soldering iron
U
Step 1 : Choosing the right braid
P
E N

• Choose a braid width the matches the size of the solder

bead to be removed.
©

• If there are many small beads, choosing a wider braid

will also speed up the desoldering process.
Step 2 : Using the braid
a. Heat up soldering iron as shown in Fig. 25
B

b. Place super wick on to solder bead

Zero lead solder paste was developed specifically for the
electronic bench top and is ideal for rework, low volume c. Place heated solder iron on to braid
O

production. This consists of tiny solder balls floating in

gel - like flux. Once paste is applied to the pads, chips
T

Fig 25
are placed on top, and the board is “reflowed” (paste
melted) in a toaster oven or with hot air. Paste can be
T

applied using the syringes shown or with a squeegee and

stencil. Note that paste in syringes usually has slightly
O

less metal content to help it flow through small needles.

Get paste in a air if you are using a stencil. The main
N

choice to make is between no - clean or water soluble

paste. No clean flux is recommended unless you have
reason to believe your components are difficult to solder
old and possibly corroded. The residues from water -
soluble paste are corrosive, so be sure to clean them
with warm water.
If you get a syringe, you will likely have to buy a needle
and plunger, too A 22 gauge needle is a good starting
place, and you can always lay a thicker bead of paste
just by pushing more out.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.156 & 157 67
Molten solder is drawn up by capillary action into the • The desoldering braid is treated with a flux coating
braid. Careful not to overheat, or ‘drag whiskers’ of solder that once used will no longer draw in the molten solder,
over the board, not let the braid solidity on the joint. Always so you will need to unspool new braid as you desolder
remove braid and solder iron together in a vertical motion. several joints.
a) Heat up soldering iron • Always hold the braid by the bobbin on which it is
spooled because the copper does conduct heat and
b) Place super wick on to solder bead
can cause burns if handled directly.
c) Place heated solder iron on to braid

Soldering guns and its types

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain soldering guns and its types
• describe the selection of soldering guns
• define tips and its types.

Soldering guns Cordless iron

D
A soldering gun is an approximately pistol-shaped, Small irons heated by a battery, or by combustion of a
electrically powered tool for soldering metals using tin- gas such as butane in a small self-contained tank, can

E
based solder to achieve a strong mechanical bond with be used when electricity is unavailable or cordless

H
good electrical contact. The tool has a trigger-style switch operation is required. The operating temperature of these
so it can be easily operated with one hand. The body of irons is not regulated directly; gas irons may change

S
the tool contains a transformer with a primary winding power by adjusting gas flow. Gas-powered irons may have
connected to mains electricity when the trigger is pressed, interchangeable tips including different size soldering tips,

LI
and a single-turn secondary winding of thick copper with hot knife for cutting plastics, miniature blow-torch with a
very low resistance. A soldering tip, made of a loop of hot flame, and small hot air blower as shown in Fig 1 for
thinner copper wire, is secured to the end of the
B such applications as shrinking heat shrink tubing.
E I
R IM
transformer secondary by screws, completing the
Fig 1
U
secondary circuit. When the primary of the transformer
is energized, several hundred amperes of current flow
P
through the secondary and very rapidly heat the copper
E N

tip. Since the tip has a much higher resistance than the
rest of the tubular copper winding, the tip gets very hot
©

while the remainder of the secondary warms much less.

A tap on the primary winding is often used to light a pilot
lamp which also lights the work piece.
Soldering iron types
B

• Simple iron
• Cordless iron
O

• Temperature-controlled soldering iron

T

• Soldering station DIFFERENT TYPES OF GAS FLOW IRON

• Soldering tweezers
Temperature-controlled soldering iron
T

Simple iron
Simple irons reach a temperature determined by thermal
O

For electrical and electronics work, a low-power iron, a

equilibrium, dependent upon power input and cooling by
power rating between 15 and 35 watts, is used. Higher the environment and the materials it comes into contact
N

ratings are available, but do not run at higher temperature;

with. The iron temperature will drop when in contact with
instead there is more heat available for making soldered
a large mass of metal such as a chassis; a small iron will
connections to things with large thermal capacity, for lose too much temperature to solder a large connection.
example, a metal chassis Some irons are temperature- More advanced irons for use in electronics have a
controlled, running at a fixed temperature in the same mechanism with a temperature sensor and method of
way as a soldering station, with higher power availabletemperature control to keep the tip temperature steady;
for joints with large heat capacity. Simple irons run at an
more power is available if a connection is large.
uncontrolled temperature determined by thermal Temperature-controlled irons may be free-standing, or may
equilibrium; when heating something large their comprise a head with heating element and tip, controlled
temperature drops a little, possibly too much to melt by a base called a soldering station, with control circuitry
solder. and temperature adjustment and sometimes display is
as shown in the Fig. 2.
68 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.156 & 157
 Soldering tweezers
For soldering and desoldering small surface-mount
components with two terminals, such as some links,
resistors, capacitors, and diodes, soldering tweezers can
be used; they can be either free-standing or controlled
from a soldering station. The tweezers (Fig. 4) have two
heated tips mounted on arms whose separation can be
manually varied by squeezing gently against spring force,
like simple tweezers; the tips are applied to the two ends
of the component. The main purpose of the soldering
tweezers is to melt solder in the correct place; components
are usually moved by simple tweezers or vacuum pickup.

Fig 4

A variety of means are used to control temperature. The

simplest of these is a variable power control, much like a

D
light dimmer, which changes the equilibrium temperature

E
of the iron without automatically measuring or regulating
the temperature. Another type of system uses a

H
thermostat, often inside the iron's tip, which automatically
switches power on and off to the element. A thermal sensor

S
such as a thermocouple may be used in conjunction with Soldering tweezers
circuitry to monitor the temperature of the tip and adjust

LI
power delivered to the heating element to maintain a Selection of soldering guns
desired temperature.
Most soldering "guns" are vastly overpowered for

B
E I
Soldering station electronics soldering and can easily overheat components
R IM

or expose them to harmful voltages. However, some

U
A soldering station (Fig. 3), invariably temperature-
people cleverly use them to solder multiple leads on
controlled, consists of an electrical power supply, control
surface mount devices. Soldering "guns" are for plumbing
P
E N

circuitry with provision for user adjustment of temperature

and much heavier duty applications, and are usually over
and display, and a soldering iron or soldering head with a
100 Watts. The "guns" work by passing high currents
tip temperature sensor. The station will normally have a
through the tips, and these currents can generate voltages
©

stand for the hot iron when not in use, and a wet sponge
that damage electronic components. Also, magnetic fields
for cleaning. It is most commonly used for soldering
from guns with transformers can damage some
electronic components. Other functions may be combined;
electronics. By forming the heating element in the shape
for example a rework station, mainly for surface-mount
of the chip, a soldering gun can be used to heat many
components may have a hot air gun, vacuum pickup tool,
B

leads simultaneously.
and a soldering head; a desoldering station will have a
desoldering head with vacuum pump for desoldering Tips and types
O

through-hole components, and a soldering iron head.

Most soldering irons for electronics have interchangeable
tips, also known as bits that vary in size and shape for
T

different types of work. Pyramid tips with a triangular flat

face and chisel tips with a wide flat face are useful for
T

soldering sheet metal. Fine conical or tapered chisel tips

are typically used for electronics work. Tips may be
O

straight or have a bend. Concave or wicking tips with a

chisel face with a concave well in the flat face to hold a
N

small amount of solder are available. Tip selection

depends upon the type of work and access to the joint;
soldering of 0.5mm pitch surface-mount ICs, for example,
is quite different from soldering a through-hole connection
to a large area. A concave tip well is said to help prevent
bridging of closely spaced leads; different shapes are
recommended to correct bridging that has occurred. Due
to patent restrictions not all manufacturers offer concave
tips everywhere; in particular there are restrictions in the
USA.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.156 & 157 69
Older and very cheap irons typically use a bare copper dissolved by molten solder, the plated tip is more durable
tip, which is shaped with a file or sandpaper. This dissolves than a bare copper one, though it will eventually wear out
gradually into the solder, suffering pitting and erosion of and need replacing. This is especially important when
the shape. Copper tips are sometimes filed when worn working at the higher temperatures needed for modern
down. Iron-plated copper tips have become increasingly lead-free solders. Solid iron and steel tips are seldom
popular since the 1980s. Because iron is not readily used because they store less heat, and rusting can break
the heating element. (Fig.5)

Fig 5

D
E
H
S
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B
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P
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O
B ©
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T
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70 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.156 & 157
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.158 & 159
Electronics Mechanic - Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components), Soldering
and Desoldering

Testing of Cold Continuity of PCB

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• cold solder joint/cautions
• loose and dry solder, broken tracks repairing.

A cold solder joint occurs when solder fails to melt entirely However, the detection of cold solder joints gets more
to form a proper joint. A cold solder joint or an improperly challenging when a lead-free soldering process is used.
formed joint can be the trigger for reliability problems of So it is best to try and avoid these cold solder joints from
an electronic assembly. Cold solder joints increase the arising.
electrical resistance of the solder joints, and hence reduce Here are a few things that you can do to avoid cold
the reliability of the solder joints. (Fig 1) solder joints:

D
Fig 1 • Use an appropriate reflow profile as per the solder
manufacturers specification.

E
• The peak temperature must be set of at least 15°C

H
above the melting point of the solder alloy for more
than 45 seconds.

S
• Try to identify any vibration sources that can cause
the solder to spread unevenly.

LI
• Use a good quality solder paste-alloy analysis should
be done to check for contaminants. He cold solder

B
E I
joints can be detected by visual checking or using a
R IM

magnifying glass. A cold solder joint usually looks dull,

U
whitish, and convex, or deformed, which is very different
from a proper solder joint.
P
E N

This how different a cold solder joint from a proper solder

There are a number of factors that can cause cold solder joint.
joints. These include: Fig 3 shows a properly soldered joint that is shining, bright,
©

• Improper melting or reflow or wetting of solder at the and concave in shape.

joints Fig33
Fig
• Disturbances such as vibrations while the solder is
cooling
B

• Too high a process temperature causes the flux to

break down prematurely
• Too low a process temperature at the solder joint -
O

can lead to incomplete wetting

• Unmatched geometry of the components
T

Cold solder joints can be detected by visual checking or

using a magnifying glass. Primarily, a cold solder joint
T

could look dull, whitish, and convex, or deformed, which

is very different from a proper solder joint. (Fig 2)
O

Fig 4 shows a cold solder joint that is dull looking, whitish,

N

convex, and deformed in shape.

FigFig4 4

Another way to detect a cold solder joint is by using a

multimeter. Since one of the effects of a cold solder joint
is an increase in resistance. A multimeter can be used to
test for this - it can be used to test for an increase in
electrical resistance or test the continuity of the circuit.
71
Identification of loose and dry solder, broken PCB from which you removed the loose sections Plug the
1 How to identify the broken PCB trace? soldering pencil into a 110-volt receptacle and wait for it
to get hot Clean the hot soldering tip by wiping it on a wet
Fig 5
soldering sponge““Apply a fresh "Linning coat of rosin-
core solder to the clean soldering pencil““tip. A properly
tinned tip will be a bright silvery color““Apply the rosin-
core solder to the bared copper traces on the printed
circuit““board. Use care to apply no more heat than is
necessary to melt the solder • Cut pieces of the 18-gauge
copper wire that are long enough to span the cut traces,
and tin these short lengths of wire with rosin-core solder““•
Pick up a piece of tinned wire with the tweezers and lay it
carefully across one of the traces where you removed a
loose section.““• Reassemble the device and test it to
see if it works properly.““
4. How to prepare the soldering for broken PCB
The traces on a printed circuit board are pathways that
traces?
conduct electricity and consist of either copper or silver.

D
PCB trace damage that occurs as a result of physical ““Next, you will have to prepare the printed circuit board
for soldering to reestablish the wired connection between

E
breakdowns or ongoing use can lead to major problems
that affect the parts and conductivity of the printed circuit the boards. For this, at first, find a 110V receptacle (power

H
board and the actual device. source) and plug in the soldering pencil in it.““Then wait
until the soldering pencil becomes hot. When the soldering
There are different causes of trace damage and these

S
tip gets hot,““wipe it using a wet soldering sponge. Make
include regular wear and tear, overheating, dust, power
sure to plug off the soldering pencil““before wiping it on
surges and lightning. If the trace is not hard to see due to

LI
the sponge. Also, ensure that the tip is free from every
being extremely thin, it is generally possible to identify
dirt and““oxidation for fine soldering later““5. How to layer
the damage by examining the pathway.

B the wiring of broken PCB traces?““Use tweezers to pick

E I
Since silver and copper are naturally bright and the tinned wires one after one carefully. Then lay the picked
R IM

conspicuous elements, they are easy to detect when there

U
wiring right on the traces from where you have removed
is a problem. Fixing damaged or defective pathways the loose traces lately After you have layered the copper
involves using the right material to solder the board in
P
wining on the traced gaps, you will require““soldering them
E N

order to restore the damaged circuit and enable electricity properly For this, use the soldering pencil tip and fuse
to flow without disruption through the circuit board. the 18-gauge copper wiring accurately in the holes. You
©

2 How to bridging broken PCB traces with wire? will have to repeat the wiring procedure to fill up each
You won’t be angle to solder directly over the broken loose trace and link the wiring appropriately.
traces. There’s an epoxy coating over most of the metal 5 How to locate the broken PCB traces?“
that solder won’t adhere to. You can scrape away the Use tweezers to pick the tinned wires one after one
epoxy with an awl or a pick until you get down to bare carefully. Then lay the picked wiring right on the traces
B

copper. You’ll know when you reach copper, as the color from where you have removed the loose traces lately.
changes from the tint of the PCB to bright, shiny copper
After you have layered the copper wiring on the traced
O

like a new penny. Expose a good 1/8 inch or 3mm of the

gaps, you will require soldering them properly. For this,
trace, if not a bit more. Clean the area, then apply a bit of
use the soldering pencil tip and fuse the 18-gauge
T

flux to the bare copper.

copper wiring accurately in the holes. You will have to
Strip a bit of wire tin the end, then solder the wire to one repeat the wiring procedure to fill up each loose trace
side of the trace. Cut the wire to length, then strip and tin
T

and link the wiring appropriately.

the other end. Position the wire on the board and apply a
How to locate the broken PCB traces?
O

bit of tape to hold the wire in place if you need to. Solder
the other end, then remove the tape. Let the solder cool, Use the free millimeter's probe to touch a single spot on
the board. Then use your finger with the foil move it over
N

then check to make sure the wire stays in place. You

want bright, shiny solder joints, not dull ones. Dull joints the components touching the soldered part. Thus you
indicate both a weak electrical and mechanical bond. will cover more area quicker and when you hear the
millimeter beeping - you have found your track on the
3 What is the process of fixing broken PCB traces?
PCB““
Mix the epoxy according to the manufacturer's instructions,
6 How to text he broken PCB traces?
and apply it sparingly to one side of the PCB Press the
two halves of the broken board together, and hold them The A stands for the amp which is the unit for electrical
until the epoxy takes hold““Cut through the broken copper current. Test all devices on the circuit board, one at a
traces using a razor knife Remove all of the““loose traces, time, by touching the red and black probes of the
and then carefully use the emery cloth to sand the traces millimeter to either side of the device. A zero current
reading indicates a short ci.

72 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.158 & 159
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.160
Electronics Mechanic - Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components), Soldering
and Desoldering

Surface Mount Technology (SMT)

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain surface mount technology
• describe advantages and disadvantages surface mount components.

Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method for It was reasoned that the wires that had traditionally been
producing electronic circuits in which the components used for connections were not actually needed for printed
are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit board construction. Rather than having leads placed
circuit boards (PCBs). An electronic device so made is through holes, the components could be soldered onto
called a surface-mount device (SMD). In the industry it pads on the board instead. This also saved creating the
has largely replaced the through-hole technology lead holes in the boards which added cost to the production

D
construction method of fitting components with wire leads of the bare PCBs.
into holes in the circuit board. Both technologies can be

E
As the components were mounted on the surface of the
used on the same board for components not suited to
board, as shown in the Fig. 2, rather than having
surface mounting such as large transformers and heat-

H
connections that went through holes in the board, the
sinked power semiconductors.
new technology was called surface mount technology or

S
An SMT component as shown in Fig.1 is usually smaller SMT and the devices used were surface mount devices,
than its through-hole counterpart because it has either SMDs. The idea for SMT was adopted very quickly

LI
smaller leads or no leads at all. It may have short pins or because it enabled greater levels of mechanisation to be
leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder used, and it considerably saved on manufacturing costs.
balls (BGAs), or terminations on the body of the

B
E I
component. Fig 2
R IM
U
Virtually all of today's mass produced electronics hardware
is manufactured using surface mount technology, SMT.
P
E N

The associated surface mount devices, and SMDs provide

many advantages over their leaded predecessors in terms
of manufacturability and often performance.
©

It was not until the 1980's that surface mount technology,

SMT became widely used. Once SMT started to be used,
the change from conventional leaded components to
surface mount devices, SMDs took place quickly in view
of the enormous gains that could be made using SMT.
B

TYPICAL SMT BOARD WITH TRANSISTORS, AND

Fig 1 PASSIVE COMPONENTS
O

To accommodate surface mount technology, SMT, a

completely new set of components was needed. New SMT
T

outlines were required, and often the same components,

e.g. ICs were sold as shown in Fig. 3 in both traditional
T

leaded packages and SMT packages. Despite this, the

gains of using SMT proved to be so large that it was
O

adopted very quickly.

N

Fig 3

SMT COMPONENT

Mass produced electronic circuit boards need to be

manufactured in a highly mechanized manner to ensure
the lowest cost of manufacture. The traditional leaded
electronic components do not lend themselves to this
approach. Although some mechanisation was possible,
component leads needed to be pre-formed. Also when
ICS WERE SOLDERED IN PCB BOARD
the leads were inserted into boards automatically problems
were often encountered as wires would often not fit
properly slowing production rates considerably.
73
Transistors and diodes: These components are often • Better EMC performance (lower radiated emissions)
contained in a small plastic package. The connections due to the smaller radiation loop area (because of the
are made via leads which emanate from the package and smaller package) and the smaller lead inductance
are bent so that they touch the board. Three leads are
Disadvantages
always used for these packages. In this way it is easy to
identify which way round the device must go. • Manual prototype assembly or component-level repair
is more difficult and requires skilled operators and more
Integrated circuits: There is a variety of packages which
expensive tools, due to the small sizes and lead
are used for integrated circuits. The package used depends
spacing of many SMDs.
upon the level of interconnectivity required. Many chips
like the simple logic chips may only require 14 or 16 pins, • SMDs cannot be used directly with plug-in breadboards
whereas other like the VLSI processors and associated (a quick snap-and-play prototyping tool), requiring
chips can require up to 200 or more. In view of the wide either a custom PCB for every prototype or the
variation of requirements there is a number of different mounting of the SMD upon a pin-leaded carrier. For
packages available. prototyping around a specific SMD component, a less-
expensive breakout board may be used. Additionally,
Advantages
strip board style proto boards can be used, some of
The main advantages of SMT over the older through-hole which include pads for standard sized SMD

D
technique are: components. For prototyping, "dead bug" bread
boarding can be used.

E
• Smaller components. As of 2012 smallest was 0.4 ×
0.2 mm (0.016 × 0.008 in: 01005). Expected to sample • SMDs' solder connections may be damaged by potting

H
in 2013 are 0.25 × 0.125 mm (0.010 × 0.005 in, size compounds going through thermal cycling.
not yet standardized)

S
• Solder joint dimensions in SMT quickly become much
• Much higher component density (components per unit smaller as advances are made toward ultra-fine pitch

LI
area) and many more connections per component. technology. The reliability of solder joints becomes
more of a concern, as less and less solder is allowed
• Lower initial cost and time of setting up for production.
for each joint. Voiding is a fault commonly associated

B
E I
• Fewer holes need to be drilled. with solder joints, especially when re- flowing a solder
R IM
U
• Simpler and faster automated assembly. Some paste in the SMT application. The presence of voids
placement machines are capable of placing more than can deteriorate the joint strength and eventually lead
P
to joint failure.
E N

136,000 components per hour.

• Small errors in component placement are corrected • SMT is unsuitable for large, high-power, or high-voltage
automatically as the surface tension of molten solder parts, for example in power circuitry. It is common to
©

pulls components into alignment with solder pads. combine SMT and through-hole construction, with
transformers, heat-sinked power semiconductors,
• Components can be placed on both sides of the circuit physically large capacitors, fuses, connectors, and
board. so on mounted on one side of the PCB through holes.
B

• Lower resistance and inductance at the connection; • SMT is unsuitable as the sole attachment method for
consequently, fewer unwanted RF signal effects and components that are subject to frequent mechanical
better and more predictable high-frequency stress, such as connectors that are used to interface
O

performance. with external devices that are frequently attached and

detached.
T

• Better mechanical performance under shake and

vibration conditions.
T

• Many SMT parts cost less than equivalent through-

hole parts.
O
N

74 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.160
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161
Electronics Mechanic - Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components), Soldering
and Desoldering
Classification of SMD IC packages
Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• identify different types SMD IC packages depends upon their size & pin details.

Package classifications Classification of ICS by the mounting method

Packaging trends Through - hole mount packages
Integrated circuits are classified into LSI, VLSI and ULSI Through hole packages have a structure in which the lead
is recent years pins are inserted and soldered into holes ( 0.8 to 1.0 mm
With increased functions and pin counts, IC packages in diameter) drilled through the printed circuit (PC) board,
have had to change significantly in the last few years in and find wide applications in electronic equipment where
order to keep - up with the advancement in semiconductor board space is not at a premium or where costs are a

D
development. constraint.
Functions required for conventional IC packages are as DIPs, and PGAs (pin grid array) are typical packages in

E
follows. this group.

H
1 To protect IC chips from the external environment Surface mount packages
2 To facilitate the packaging and handling of IC chips Surface mount packages have a flat structure in which

S
3 To dissipate heat generated by IC chips the lead pins are soldered directly to the soldered pattern
(called the mount pad) provided on the PC board, and are

LI
4 To protect the electrical characteristics of the IC used in high - pin - density IC package situations because
Standard dual - in - line packages (DIP), which fulfill these devices can be mounted on both sides of the PC board.

B
E I
basic requirements, have enjoyed wide usage in the QFPs and QFJs (PLCC) are typical packages in this
R IM

electronics industry for a number of years group.

U
With increasing integration and higher speed ICs, and Custom packages
with the miniaturization of electronic equipment, newer
P
Memory modules are packages which have several
E N

packages have been requested by the industry which memory ICs mounted on a PC board, Tape carrier
incorporate the functions listed below. packages (TCP ) using tape automated bonding (TAB)
1 Multi- pin I/O techniques, chip on board (COB) packages, or IC cad
©

2 Ultra- miniature packages packages. TCP and COB packages are custom designs
3 Packages suited to high density ICs conforming to the customer’s specifications.
4 Improved heat resistance for use with reflow soldering Classification by package materials
techniques. Packages are broadly classified into ceramic and plastic
B

5 High through put speed packages. Package materials can be selected according
to their application or operating environment.
6 Improved heat dissipation
O

Ceramic packages are known for their high reliability, but

7 Lower cost per pin
plastic packages are becoming more popular due to their
T

low cost (when compared to ceramic packages). Reliability

has improved considerably in the last few years marking
plastic a very attractive alternative to ceramic.
T
O

Type Package types Package symbol Pin count

N

Old New
Through hole
mounting type Ceramic Standard DIP AS AA 16, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24,
28, 40, 42, 48

75
 CER- DIP AS AB 8, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24,,
28, 32, 40, 42

PGA AS BA 73 2 , 88133 2 ,177 2 ,

209  2 , 257 12 , 301 2 ,
240, 365  2 , 400

D
The PGA pin count includes a pin for preventing incorrect insertion.

E
Package Name Characteristics

H
Dual in - line package DIP packages are hermetic ceramic package. The lead pitch is

S
2.54mm (100 mil) and the package body is made of ceramics. Metal or
glass may be used as a sealing material.

LI
Dual in - line package (Glass sealed) Dual in - line package are called “CER-DIP” package. The lead pitch is

B
E I
2.54 mm ( 100 mil) and the package body is molded with powder
R IM

ceramics. The sealing materials is glass.

U
Pin grid array PGA packages are featured by the leads which are drawn out vertically
P
from each package body and arranged on the spcified grid. The package
E N

body is made of ceramic, and the standard lead pitch is 2.54 mm ( 100
mil). PGA packages are suited to multi pin packaging.
©

SMD integrated circuits family

Packages type for surface mount integrated circuits can
be grouped into families.
B

The flat pack is old technology.

The QUAD flat pack and TSOP use newer technology.
O

Each family has certain characteristics in common such

as lead style, lead pitch, body size and case materials.
T

as shown in Fig. 1 & 2

SMD IC family overview
T

Package classifications
O

Lead styles
N

SMD integrated circuits have three types of basic leads.

They have their name depends upon their shape.
Gull - wing leads are small and quite fragile. They can
easily be damaged and must be handled with great care.
Gull - wing leads are used to get the highest number of
leads onto an IC. It is possible to get 40 to 80 leads per
linear inch ( 15 to 33 leads per cm) onto an IC using gull-
wing leads. Gull - wing leads are easy to inspect after
soldeirng.

76 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161
 J - leads are more sturdy than gull - wing leads, however,
they take up more space. With J- leads, you can only get
20 leads per linear inch (8 leads per cm) on an IC package.
Flat leads are also used on ICs. Flat leads must be stored
in special carriers to prevent lead damage.
Just prior to use, IC’s with flat leads are cut and bent into
gull - wings by using lead forming equipment. Lead forming
equipment is an extra expenses. Therefore, flat leads are
the least popular type of IC lead.
The words lead pitch are synonymous with lead space

D
E
H
S
Small outline, Integrated circuit

LI
Drawing Nomenclature Body width Lead type

B
E I
8-16 PIN SO = Smal outline 156 mil
R IM
U
P
E N

8-16 PIN SOM = Medium outline 220 mil* Gull 50 mil pitch
B ©

16-32 PIN SOL = “Large” outline

SOP = “Small” outline
O

package 300 mil

T
T

16-40 PIN SOJ or SOL - J = “J” -

O

Lead large outline 300 mil* J- Lead 50 mil

N

32-56 PIN VSOP = Very small

outline package 300 mil Gul wing 25 mil

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161 77
 8-30 PIN SSOP= Shrink small
outline package 208 mil Gull wing 25 mil

20-56 PIN QSOP = Quarter small

outline package 156 mil Gull wing 25 mil

Note : The length of the body is determined by the number Fig 6

of leads.
SOIC packaging

D
13 inch (330 mm) reels are standard for SOICs. The carrier

E
tape is always plastic and measures 12 mm to 32 mm in
width depending on the IC package size.

H
SOIC’s are also readily available in plastic tubes. These Type 11 20 to 56 lead 0.5 mm pitch
tubes are sometimes called magazines or sticks. as

S
shown in Fig. 4 Type 12 20 leads 1.27 mm pitch

LI
PLCC leaded chip carrier
The plastic body PLCC is the most popular leaded chip

B
E I
carrier. Its J - leads are always 50 mil ( 1.27 mm ) pitch.
R IM

They are commonly available from 18 to 100 leads.

U
PLCC’s are usually supplied in tubes or on tape and reel.
As an alternative to the plastic case, leaded chip carriers
P
E N

are available in ceramic, known as CLCC, and metal,

known as MLCC.
©

PLCCs fit into IC sockets and can be easily replaced in

the field.
PLCCs have been in use for over a decade and are now a
Tape & Reel 13” standard
common item. as shown in Fig.7
B

Tube
TSOP thin small outline package
O

The TSOP (Thin small outline package ) combines a low

profile package (1.0 mm high) with fine - pitch 19.7 mils
T

( .5mm) leads.
The TSOP provides a package which accommodates a
T

large silicon chip in a high density package.

O

TSOP’s are usually shipped in trays; however, tape and

reel and tubes are available on special request.
N

The overall dimensions of TSOPs include the leads (total

footprint). as shown in Fig. 5 & 6.
Fig 5

• Fits into IC sockets

• T & R or tubes
• Trends - PLCC is common item to new development

78 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161
LCC (leadless chip carrier)
The ceramic LCC is one of the most rugged packages
since it has no leads. LCCs are soldered directly to PC
boards by their solder pads, known as castellations. Most
LCCs come with 50 mil pitch gold castellations which
must be pre - coated with solder before mounting. as
shown in Fig. 8

The purpose of the bumpered corners is to protect the

leads during shipping, handling and assembly.
BQFPs are constructed in a plastic package; however,
they are also available with metal case, known as the
BMQUAD.
BQFPs always have gull - wing leads and are shipped in

D
trays, tubes or on tape and reel.

E
LCCs are usually designed for mill spc, aerospace and • JEDEC standard (USA)
high temperature applications. • Bumpered corners - Protects leads

H
LCC’s are shipped in either trays or tubes. • Gull - wing

S
Sometimes LCC’s are called LCCC (Leadless ceramic • Up to 196 leads
chip carrier)

LI
• Package options - Trays, tubes and T & R
• LCC
• True 25 mil (.636 mm) pitch
• Solderable castellation pads

B
E I
Flip chips
R IM

• 16 Pin to 44 pin ( up to 124 pin)

U
• Rugged, no leads to bend Flip chips are bare die with small solder bumps on the
bottom which serve as “leads”.
P
• Ceramic body
E N

The flip chip is soldered directly to a PC board (FR4 or

• High temp & mil spec. applications
ceramic) by placing the component on the board and
• Usually tubes or trays
©

applying heat. The solder bumps melt to corresponding

Quad flat pack nomenclature pads on the PC board.

There are many variations of quad flat packs depending The following solder type (Eutectic) is used for the bumps:
on package materials (plastic, ceramic or metal) and other FR4 boards 63% - 37% low melt ( 183°C)
B

standards.
Ceramic boards : 95% - 5% requires high temp.
Nomenclature
Bump on the die are around the perimeter and also in the
O

• QFP - Quad Flat Pack middle.

• PQFP - Plastic Quad Flat Pack
T

Since the parts are small, dimensions are specified in

• CQFP - Ceramic Multilayer QFP “microns” not millimeters.
• CERQUAD - Ceramic Quad Flat Pack
T

100μm = 1 millimeter
• MQUAD - Metal Quad Flat Pack
O

• MQFP - Metric Quad Flat Pack Important package specifiers

• TQFP - Thin Quad Flat Pack A Die size
N

• TAPEPAK - Molded Carrier Ring B Number bumps

• BQFP - Bumpered Quad Flat Pack
C Diameter of bumps
• LQFP - Low Quad Flat Pack
D Solder composition of bumps
BQFP - Bumpered Quad Flat Pack
E Bump pitch
The bumpered quad flat pack is built to American JEDEC
standards using true inch measurements. This means
that 25 mil lead pitch is truly 5 mils (.636 mm not .65
mm) as shown in Fig. 9.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161 79
Package symbols and codes Package Material
1) Package code (New package code) Code Material Applicable Package
The package codes given on the outline view are those C Ceramic Multi-layer ceramic package
specified in ED - 7303 (General rules for integrated circuits
package name and code) established by electronic G Ceramic Hermetic ceramic package
industries association of Japan (EIAJ) as shown below sealed with glass
x P Plastic Package molded with resin
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
QFN - Quad flat no leads
1 Package material
The Quad flat no leads package, or QFN is a very small
2 Package structure characteristics
square - shaped or rectangular surface - mount plastic
3 Package name package with no leads. It is basically a quad flat package,
except for the absence of leads protruding from its sides.
4 Number of package leads
Meta pads or lands around the periphery of the bottom of
5 Reference package dimensions the QFN package service as electrical connection points
to the outside world. Because the QFN has no leads an

D
6 Lead pitches
has shorter bond wire lengths, it exhibits less inductance
Examples than leaded packages and therefore provides a higher

E
1 P-HQFP 208-40 x 40-0.65 - K (HQFP 208- P-4040- electrical performance. The QFN package also includes

H
0.65-K) this indicates a plastic QFP type package an exposed thermal pad at the package bottom to
with a heat sink, consistingof 208 leads with a package facilitate heat dissipation from the die. as shown in

S
body size of 40 mm x 40 mm and a normal bending Fig. 10a & 10b.
lead pitch of 0.65 mm.

LI
Fig 10a
2 P-DIP 42-13.7 x 51.98-2.54 (DIP42-P-600-2.54) This
indicates a plastic DIP type package consisting of 42

B
E I
leads with package body width of 13.7mm package
R IM
U
body length of 51.98 mm and a lead pitch of 2.54 mm.
Package Names
P
E N

Code Package Name

QFP Quad Flat Package

©

QFJ Quad Flat J-Leaded Package

DIP Dual in -line Package Fig 10b
SOP Small Out-Line Package
B

SOJ Small Out-line J-Leaded Package

ZIP Zigzag in- line Package
O

PGA Pin Grid Array

T

BGA Ball Grid Array

LGA Land Grid Array
T

Number of Package Leads (Typical Example)

O

Code Package Name

N

0008 8 Ceramic package, or cerpack

0014 14 The ceramic package, or cerpack, is a hermetically sealed

rectangular ceramic package that has leads extending
0064 64 from both of its longer sides, thus forming two sets of in -
0144 144 line pins. It is therefore a type of dual -in-line package
(DIP) like the CerDIP. as shown in Fig.11.
0256 256
QSOP Quarter size outline package
The quarter size outline package, or QSOP is a small
rectangular surface - mount plastic package with gull
wing leads protruding out of its longer sides. The QSOP

80 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161
Fig 11 is attached to this heat slug, increasing the chip’s ability
to dissipate heat and thus handle more power. as shown
in Fig. 14
CLCC or LCC - Ceramic leadless chip carrier
The ceramic leadless chip carrier, or CLCC or LCC, is a
square or rectangular surface mount ceramic package
that has no leads. For electrical connection to the outside
world, the LCC instead uses flat metal contacts (or
comes in two standard body widths; the narrow body metallized castellations) known as pads around the four
QSOP which has a nominal body thickness of 150 mils sides of the package bottom. as shown in Fig. 15
and the wide body QSOP which has a nominal body
Fig 14
thickness of 300 mils. Typical QSOP lead counts range
from 16 to 28 leads for the narrow body and 36 to 44
leads for the wide body. The QSOP lead pitch is typically
25 mils. as shown in Fig. 12.
Fig 12

D
E
H
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Fig 15

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B
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P
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General notes on IC packages

Ceramic column grid array, or CCGA Side braze package
©

The Ceramic column grid array, or CCGA is a square - The side braze package, is one of the most mature IC
shaped or rectangular ceramic package that uses solder packages still in use today. It is a rectangular ceramic
columns for external electrical connection instead of leads package that has leads extending from both of its longer
or solder balls. These solder columns are arranged in a sides, thus forming two sets of in-line pins. It is therefore
B

grid or array at the bottom of the ceramic package body, a type of dual - in line package (DIP). Two other widely
hence the name ‘ceramic column grid array. The CCGA used DIP’s are the PDIP and the CerDIP. as shown in
is basically just a CBGA package that has solder Fig. 16.
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columns instead of solder balls. as shown in Fig. 13

Fig 16
T

Fig 13
T
O
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CPGA Ceramic pin grid array

The ceramic pin grid array, or CPGA is a square or
rectangular through- hole ceramic package whose pins
or leads are arranged in a square array at the bottom of
the package body. The CPGA can either have a first -
PSOP - Power small outline package sealed ceramic lid or a solder - sealed metal lid. The
CPGA is just one of several types of the PGA package.
The power small outline package, or PSOP is a rectangular The PGA is a popular choice for devices with high I/O
small outline IC package developed by amkor that counts such as microprocessors because of its high pin
integrates a copper heat slug in its plastic body. The die density. as shown in Fig. 17.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161 81
Fig 17 Fig 20

TDFN- Thin Dual flat no leads

The thin dual flat no leads package, or TDFN, is a very
small and thin square - shaped or rectangular surface -
DFN- Dual flat no leads mount plastic package with no leads. Instead of leads, it
uses metal pads along two sides of the package body for
The Dueal flat no leads package, or DNF is a very small
electrical connection to the outside world. It is basically
square - shaped or rectangular surface - mount plastic
a thinner version of the dual flat no leads (DFN) package.

D
package with no leads. Metal pads or lands along two
as shown in Fig. 21.
sides of the bottom of the DFN package serve as electrical

E
connection points to the outside world. The DFN is similar Fig 21
to the QFN, except that the latter has lands all around

H
the periphery of the package instead of just two sides
like the DFN. as shown in Fig. 18.

S
Fig 18

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B
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LFBGA - Low profile fine- pitch ball grid array

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The low profile fine pitch ball grid array, or LFPBGA, is a
P
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smaller version of the ball grid array (BGA) package. It is

basically an FBGA package that has a package height
ranging from 1.2 mm and 1.7 mm. It is therefore thicker
©

than the TFBGA and the VFBGA. as shown in Fig. 22

DPAK - Decawatt package
Fig 22
The Decawatt package, or DPAK is an IC package
developed by motorola to encase discrete high - power
devices. The DPAK is also known as the TO-252. The
B

acronym ‘DPAK’ can also stand for the term ‘Discrete

package’ DPAKs can have 3 or 5 terminals. as shown in
O

Fig. 19.
LGA - Land grid array (Fig.23)
Fig 19
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The land grid array or LGA is a package that uses metal

pads for external electrical connection instead of leads
T

(as in the pin grid array) or solder balls ( as in the ball grid
array). These metal pads, which are called ‘lands’ are
O

Fig 23
N

JLCC- J-Leaded ceramic chip carrier

The J-leaded ceramic chip carrier, or JLCC, is a square or
rectangular surface - mount ceramic package that has J-
formed leads around its periphery. The plastic molded
equivalent of the JLCC is the PLCC. as shown in Fig. 20.

82 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161
arranged in a grid or array at the bottom of the package Fig 27
body hence the name land grid array. The grid arrangement
of the lands of the LGA package allows it to have a high
land count, making it a popular packaging option for
devices with high I/O requirements.
TQFP Thin quad flat pack
The thin quad flat pack, or TQFP is a surface - mount IC
package with gull wing leads on all foru sides of the
package body. It is basically a thinner version of the
MQFP and LQFP. as shown in Fig. 24
Fig 24 TSOP -Thin small outline package
The thin small outline package, or TSOP is a rectangular
IC package with a thickness of 1.0 mm. There are two
types of TSOPS. The type I TSOP has its leads protruding
from the shorter edges of the package. The type II TSOP

D
has its leads protruding from the longer edges of the
package. as shown in Fig. 28

E
LQFP - Low profile quad flat pack Fig 28

H
The low profile quad flat pack or LQFP, is a surface -
mount IC package with leads extending from all four sides

S
of the package body. as shown in Fig. 25.

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Fig 25

B
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MLP- Micro lead frame package

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The micro lead frame package, or MLP is a JEDEC
P
compliant, very thin, near - CSP square - shaped or
E N

rectangular surface - mount plastic package uses metal

pads instead of leads for the electrical connection to the
TSSOP - Thin shrink small outline package
©

outside world. The MLP belongs to the same ‘no leads’

The thin shrink small outline package, or TSSOP, is a package family as the QFN and the DFN. as shown in
rectangular surface mount plastic package with gull wing Fig. 29
leads. It has a smaller body and smaller lead pitch than Fig 29
the standard SOIC package. It is also smaller and thinner
B

than a TSOP with the same lead count. as shown in

Fig. 26
O

Fig 26
T
T
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UTDFN - Ultra thin dual flat no leads

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The ultra thin dual flat no leads package, or UTDFN is a

very small and thin square - shaped or rectangular surface
- mount plastic package with no leads. Instead of leads,
MQFP- Metric quad flat pack it uses metal pad as long two sides of the package body
for electrical connection to the outside world. It is basically
The metric quad flat pack, or MQFP is a surface - mount
a thinner version of the thin dual flat no leads (TDFN)
IC package with gull wing leads on all four sides of the
package. as shown in Fig. 30.
package body. as shown in Fig. 27

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161 83
Fig 30
VSOP- Very small outline package
The very small out line package, or VSOP is one of several
smaller versions of the SOIC package, having a
compressed body and a tightened pitch for its gull wing
leads. Another smaller version of the SOIC is the SSOP.
as shown in Fig. 33

Fig 33

D
TFBGA - Thin profile fine pitch ball grid array
The thin profile fine pitch ball grid array or TFBGA, is a

E
MSOP - Micro small out line package thinner version of the FBGA package like all BGA

H
packages. TFBGA’s use solder balls that are arranged
The micro small outline package, or micro- SOP or MSOP, in a grid or array at the bottom of the package body for

S
is a very small rectangular plastic package with gull wing external electrical connection. The TFBGA is near - chip
leads protruding out of its longer sides. The MSOP is a - scale in size and features ball pitch values that are

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miniaturized version of the SSOP package, having a even tighter than those of the FBGA. as shown in
smaller footprint than the latter. as shown in Fig. 31. Fig. 34.

B
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UTQFN- Ultra thin quad flat no leads
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Fig 34
U
The ultra thin quad flat no leads package, or UTQFN is
every small and thin square- shaped or rectangular surface
P
- mount plastic package with no leads. Instead of leads,
E N

it uses metal pads around the periphery of the package

body for electrical connection to the outside world. It is
basically a thinner version of the thin quad flat no leads
©

(TQFN) package. as shown in Fig.32. TQFN - Thin quad flat no leads

Fig 31 The thin quad flat no leads package, or TQFN is a very
small and thin square - shaped or rectangular surface
mount plastic package with no leads. Instead of leads, it
B

uses metal pads around the periphery of the bottom of

the package body for electrical connection to the outside
O

world. It is basically a thinner version of the quad flat no

leads (QFN) package. as shown in Fig. 35
T

Fig 35
T
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Fig 32
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FBGA- Fine pitch ball grid array

The fine pitch ball grid array, for FPBGA or FBGA is a
smaller version of the ball grid array (BGA) package. As
in all BGA packages, FBGA’s use solder balls that are
arranged in a grid or array at the bottom of the package
body for external electrical connection. However, the FBGA
is near chip -scale in size, with a smaller and thinner

84 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161
body than the standard BGA package. As its name SOJ : Small outline J- lead package
implies, it also features a finer ball pitch (smaller distance
The small outline J-lead package or SOJ is a small
between balls) as shown in Fig. 36.
rectangular surface - mount plastic molded integrated
SSOP-Shrink small outline package circuit package with J-formed leads. The leads protrude
from the longer edge of the package. The SOJ is also
The shrink small outline package or SSOP is a smaller
sometimes referred to as SOJ or J- leaded small outline
or ‘shrunk’ version of the SOIC package having a
IC package. as shown in Fig. 39
compressed body and a tightened lead pitch. as shown
in Fig. 37. Fig 39

Fig 36

D
E
H
Fig 37 D2PAK or DDPAK- Double decawatt package

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The Double decawatt package, or D2PAK or DDPAK is

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the successor to the DPAK package which was designed
by Motorola to encase discrete high power devices. The

B D2PAK is bigger than the DPAK and comes in several

E I
R IM
versions with different terminal counts. The D2PAK which
U
has a flat heat sink at the back is basically the surface -
mount equivalent of the TO-220 through- hole package
P
and its therefore sometimes referred to as ‘SMD-220’.
E N

The D2PAK is also known as ‘TO-263’. as shown in

Fig. 40.
©

D3PAK - Decawatt package 3

Fig 40
The decawatt package 3 or D3PAK is a bigger version of
the D2PAK package. Just like the D2PAK ( and the DPAK
the D2PAK’s predecessor) the D3PAK is a surface - mount
plastic - molded package intended for high - power discrete
B

devices. The D3PAK is also known by other names such

as ‘TO-268’ and discrete package 3. as shown in Fig.
O

38
T

Fig 38
T

Fig 41
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161 85
SOIC - Small outline integrated circuit leading to better performance at high speeds. soldering
of BGA devices requires precise control and is usually
The small outline integrated circuit or SOIC is a small
done by automated processes. A BGA device is never
rectangular surface mount plastic molded integrated circuit
mounted in socket in use. as shown in Fig.44
package with gull wing leads. The leads protrude from
the longer edge of the package. It is one of the most Fig 44
commonly used surface mount packages today as show
in Fig. 41
Small outline Transistor (SOT) package
Small outline transistor (SOT) packages are very small,
inexpensive surface mount plastic - molded packages
with leads on their two long sides. Due to their low cost
and low profile. SOT’s are widely used in consumer
electronics. The SOT - 23 and the SC-70 packages are
two of the most widely used SOT packages today. Note
that a side from these two, there are many other SOT Plastic quad flat package aka PQFP
package types used in the IC industry. as shown in

D
The plastic quad flat pack, or PQFP is an IC package
Fig. 42
with leads extending from all four sides of the package

E
Fig 42 body. PQFP’s are predominantly square in shape,
although rectangular variants do exist. The PQFP is just

H
one of the many types of the quad flat pack (QFP) package.
as shown in Fig. 45.

S
PLCC- Plastic leaded chip carrier

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The plastic leaded chip carrier, or PLCC is a four - sided
plastic package that has “J” leads around its periphery.

B
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These “J” leads, occupy less board space than the gull -
R IM

wing leads that other packages like the SOIC have. PLCC
U
lead counts range from 18 to 84. PLCC packages can
CQFP - Ceramic quad flat pack either be square or rectangular in shape. The ceramic
P
E N

The ceramic quad flat pack, or CQFP is a ceramic IC equivalent of the PLCC is the JLCC. as shown in Fig. 46
package with leads extending from all four sides of the
package body. CQFP’s are predominantly square in Fig 45
©

shape, although rectangular variants do exist. The CQFP

is just one of the many types of the quad flat pack (QFP)
package. as shown in Fig. 43
B

Fig 43
O
T
T

Fig 46
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N

Ball grid array aka BGA

BGA packages are used to permanently surface mount
devices such as microprocessors. A BGA can provide
more interconnection pins than can be put on a dual in -
line or flat package. The whole bottom surface of the device
can be used, instead of just the perimeter. The leads are
also one average shorter than with a perimeter only type,

86 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.161
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.162 & 163
Electronics Mechanic - Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components), Soldering
and Desoldering

Identification of Pin 1 marking in various SMD IC packages

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• to identify the pin 1 marking of various SMD IC packages which is indicated in different methods
• how to differentiate the orientation of IC package pin details in order to avoid wrong soldering and to avoid
economic loss without damaging costly IC package like motherboard ICs.

Pin 1 marking in a DIP SMD IC As well see, there are plenty of examples of this, or close
variations on it. But there are also cases where there are
Fig 1 “no” direct marks, but you can instead rely on the orientation
of the text to understand the numbering. The text orientation
is consistent, and for chips of this shape (with pins on two

D
opposite sides), you can reliably assume that the polarity
mark goes to the left of the text.

E
Here are some classic and beautiful examples of chips

H
with well - marked polarity. These are “ceramic DIP”
integrated circuit packages.

S
Each has a molded half - moon shape as well as a more

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subtitle dot by pin 1. as shown in Fig 3

Fig 3

B
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P
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B ©

Here is a basic rule that applies for most integrated This is a modern higher - density variation on the same
circuits. There is a polarity mark somewhere. From that design. It is a wide, low - profile plastic package called a
O

polarity mark, move counterclockwise around the chip, 66-pin TSSOP ( and a 128 M bit DDR SDRAM, if you are
and number the pins starting at 1. as shown in Fig 1 curious). The orientation is given by the half - moon shape
T

A common polarity marker is a half - moon shape at one on the left hand side and by the dot in the lower left corner.
end of the chip. Another is a small dot by pin 1, or Now, that dot actually looks like it’s closer to pin 2 than
T

sometimes a small triangle or tab instead. Sometimes to pin 1 - Again, the maker often labels the corner where
pin 1 lives, not the individual pin. as shown in Fig 4 & 5.
O

several of these marks can appear. as shown in Fig 2

Often pin 1 is in a corner of the chip, and its only that Fig 4
N

corner - not the pin itself - that is marked by the small circle
or triangle.
In the above IC part number “THX1138D,” manufactured in
week 37 of 2013, and it has a mysterious lot or internal
code “OHAI” that may or may not be explained in the
datasheet. The polarity marks are a half - moon indentation
on the left hand side as well as a dot by pin 1. This device
has 20 pins, numbered counterclockwise along the two
edges from 1 to 20.

87
Fig 5 Fig 7

This 74 HC245D “ as shown in Fig. 6 octal bus transceiver”

chip from NXP has the half - moon shape on the left hand
side, plus a slightly more unusual polarity marking feature.

D
The entire front edge of the chip - the edge containing pin Fig 8
1 - is slightly beveled.

E
Fig 6

H
S
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B
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U
P
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©

Fig 9

And now here is a chip that has less of a “direct” indication

B

of its orientations - no dot or half moon shape. As we

discussed earlier, you can really on the orientation of the
text in cases like this, and imagine an effective polarity
O

mark on the left hand side of the chip. Pin 1 is on the power
left hand side.
T

If you look very closely, as shown in Fig 7 you will see that
there is one additional polarity marking feature, in that this
T

chip also has a very slightly beveled front edge.

O

His is a some what unusual seven - yes- seven pin DIP

chip. It is a neat little solid - state relay capable of
N

switching small loads on AC line voltage (0.9 A at up to 240

VAC) from a low - voltage digital input. Presumably, it has Some times you will come across very different looking
seven pins so that you can not put in backwards. This chip chips with very obvious polarity markers. This chip from
also relies on a combination of text orientation and level agilent has a gold stripe on the upper left hand corner. as
at the side with pin 1. as shown in Fig 8 shown in Fig 10
Careful : That apparent “dot’ is not a polarity indicator ; pin Pin 1 identification
1 is still at the corner of the chip. as shown in Fig 9 Sometimes a chip has a notched corner to indicate where
Here is one more variation. There is printed bar on the left pin 1 lives as shown in Fig 11. The white silkscreen on the
hand side of this chip to act as a polarity indicator, taking circuit board shows an exaggerated picture of this notching,
the place of the half - moon shape. by the lower - left corner.

88 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.162 & 163
 Fig 10 Fig 12

Fig 13

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Fig 11

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H
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B
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U
P
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Fig 14
©

The 486 is a good example of a chip with a notched corner,

while the 68030 has a gold stripe to indicate pin 1
This broadcom chip has a dot by the corner with pin 1, as
B

shown in Fig 12 but that is a pretty suitable mark . If you

chip already mounted to a board, that can provide some
O

better information to verify the orientation. For example,

pin 1 of this chip is also marked by a white do on the circuit
T

board, and the other three corners have a mark, as though

those corners were un-noticed.
T

Here is another chip that is some what ambiguous. Pin 1

is clearly marked with an arrow on the circuit board. If the
O

chip were loose it would be a little less clear because not

only is there a dot by pin 1, as shown in Fig 13 & 14 but
N

there is also apparently a dot by the opposite corner. It

may be just a coincidental mold mark, but it’s still
potentially confusing.
This is far from an exhaustive list, but is meant to show off
some of the common ways that chip orientation is
differentiated.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.162 & 163 89
Ball grid array and pin grid array components
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• study the structural details of ball grid array SMD ICs
• study the advantages and disadvantages of BGA package
• study the structural details of pin grid array package.

A ball grid array (BGA) is a type of surface mount Advantages of BGA

packaging (a chip carrier ) used for integrated circuits.
High density
BGA packages are used to permanently mount devices
such as microprocessors. A BGA can provide more The BGA is a solution to the problem of producing a
interconnection pins than can be put on a dual in-line or miniature package for an integrated circuit with many
flat package. The whole bottom surface of the device can hundreds of pins. Pin grid arrays and dual-in-line surface
be used, instead of just the perimeter. The leads are also mount (SOIC) packages were being produced with more
on average shorter than with a perimeter - only type, and more pins, and with decreasing spacing between
leading to better performance at high speeds. as shown the pins, but this was causing difficulties for the soldering
in Fig. 1 process. As package pins got close together, the danger

D
of accidentally bridging adjacent pins with solder grew.
Fig 1 BGAs do not have this problem if the solder is factory -

E
applied to the package.

H
Heat conduction
A further advantage of BGA packages over packages with

S
discrete leads (i.e packages with legs) is the lower thermal
resistance between the package and the PCB. This allows

LI
heat generated by the integrated circuit inside the
package to flow more easily to the PCB, preventing the

B
E I
chip from overheating.
R IM
U
Low - inductance leads
Soldering of BGA devices requires precise control and is
usually done by automated processes. BGA devices are The shorter an electrical conductor, the lower its unwanted
P
E N

not suitable for socket mounting. inductance, a property which causes unwanted distortion
of signals in high - speed electronic circuits. BGAs with
With the increasing component density of today’s their very short distance between the package and the
©

electronics printed circuit boards and the very high track PCB, have low lead inductances, giving them superior
densities that result, connectivity on many boards has electrical performance to pinned device.
become a problem. Even migrating to greater numbers of
layers for the PCB cannot overcome many of the problems. Improved PCB design as a result of lower track
To assist in resolving this problem an integrated circuit density : Track densities around many packages such
B

package known as the ball grid array, BGA was as the quad flat pack become very high because of the
introduced. The BGA components provide a far better very close proximity of the pins. A BGA spreads the
solution for many boards, but care is required when contacts out over the full are of the package greatly
O

soldering BGA components to ensure that the BGA solder reducing the problem.
process is correct and that the reliability is at least
T

The BGA package is robust :

maintained or preferably improved.
Packages such as the quad flat pack have very fine pins,
The ball grid array of BGA, is a very different package to
T

and these are easily damaged by even the most careful

those using pins, such as the quad flat pack. The pins of handling. It is almost impossible to repair them once the
O

the BGA package are arranged in a grid pattern and this pins are bent wing to their very fine pitch. BGAs do not
gives rise to the name. In addition to this, rather than suffer from this as the connections are provided by pads
N

having the more traditional wire pins for the connections, with the BGA solder balls on them which are very difficult
pads with balls of solder are used instead. On the printed to damage.
circuit board, PCB, on to which the BGA components are
to be fitted there is a matching set of copper pads to Lower thermal resistance : BGAs offer a lower thermal
provide the required connectivity. resistance between the silicon chip itself then quad flat
pack devices. This allows heat generated by the integrated
BGA packages offer many advantages over their quad flat circuit inside the package to be conducted out of the
pack rivals and as a result they are being used increasingly device onto the PCB faster and more effectively.
for the manufacture of electronic circuits.
Improved high speed performance : As the conductors
are on the underside of the chip carrier. This means that

90 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.162 & 163
the leads within the chip are shorter. Accordingly unwanted not give a full picture of how the BGA solder process has
lead inductance levels are lower, and in this way, Ball grid succeeded. It is possible that the joint may not be
array devices are able to offer a higher level of performance adequately made and that over time if will fall. For this the
than their QFP counterparts. only satisfactory means of test is a form of BGA inspection
using x-rays. This form of BGA inspection is able to look
BGA solder process
through the device at the soldered joint beneath.
One of the initial fears over the use of BGA components Fortunately, it is found that once the heat profile for the
was their solder ability and whether traditional forms of solder machine is set up correctly, the BGA components
connection. As the pads are under the device and not solder very well and few problems are encountered with
visible it is necessary to ensure the correct process is the BGA solder process.
used and it is fully optimized. Inspection and rework were
BGA rework
also concerns.
As might be anticipated, it is not easy to rework BGA
Fortunately BGA solder techniques have proved to be
assemblies unless the correct equipment available. If a
very reliable, and once the process is set up correctly
BGA components is suspected as being faulty, then it is
BGA solder reliability is normally higher than that for
possible to remove the device. This is achieved by locally
quad flat pack. This means that any BGA assembly tends
heating the BGA component to melt the solder underneath
to be more reliable. Its use is therefore now widespread

D
it. as shown in Fig 2
in both mass production PCB assembly and also
prototype PCB assembly where circuits are being

E
Fig 2
developed.

H
For the BGA solder process, reflow techniques
are used. The reason for this is that the whole

S
assembly needs to be brought up to a
temperature whereby the solder will melt

LI
underneath the BGA components themselves.
This can only be achieved using reflow

B
E I
techniques.
R IM
U
For BGA soldering, the solder balls on the package have
a very carefully controlled amount of solder, and when
P
E N

heated in the soldering process, the solder melts. Surface

tension causes the molten solder to hold the package in
the correct alignment with the circuit board, while the
©

solder cools and solidifies. The composition of the solder

alloy and the soldering temperature are carefully chosen
so that the solder does not completely melt, but stays
semi-liquid, allowing each ball to stay separate from its
neighbors.
B

BGA solder joint inspection

O

BGA inspection is one are of the manufacturing process

that has raised a considerable amount of interest since
T

the introduction of the first BGA components. BGA

inspection cannot be achieved in the normal way using In the BGA rework process, the heating is often achieved
straight forward optical techniques because, quite, in a specialized rework station. This comprises a jig fitted
T

obviously the solder joints are underneath the BGA with infrared heater, a thermocouple to monitor the
O

components and they are not visible. This creates temperature and a vacuum device for lifting the package.
problems for BGA inspection. It also created a Great care is needed to ensure that only the BGA is heated
N

considerable degree of unease about the technology when and removed. Other devices nearby need to be affected
it was first introduced and many manufactures undertook as little as possible otherwise they maybe damaged.
tests to ensure that they were able to solder the BGA
BGA technology in general and in particular the BGA
components satisfactorily. The main problem with
soldering process have proved themselves to be very
soldering BGA components is that sufficient heat must
successful since they were first introduced. They are now
be applied to ensure that all the balls in the grid melt
an integral part of the PCB assembly process used in
sufficiently for every BGA solder joint to be satisfactorily
most companies for mass production and for prototype
made.
PCB assembly.
The solder joints cannot be fully tested by checking the
electrical performance. While this form of test of the BGA
solder process will reveal conductivity at that time, it does

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.162 & 163 91
Pin grid array package extended to a low cost plastic version. However the route
interconnection on the PC board is difficult and the
A pin grid array, often abbreviated PGA, is a type of
connections are difficult to inspect. Surface mounting
integrated circuit packaging. In a PGA the package is
technique also offers a large number of pins. The
square or rectangular, and the pins are arranged in a regular
placement of the IC must be automatic and the soldering
array on the underside of the package. The pins are
technique not conventional. However, the quad flat pack
commonly spaced 2.54 mm (0.1”) apart, and may to may
has from 36 to 128 pins with spacing from 1 mm to 0.65
not cover the entire underside of the package. as shown
mm. It has potentially a low cost but the number of
in Fig. 3 & 4.
suppliers is very limited.
Pin grid array and variations (PGA/SPGA/CPGA/
PPGA)
Pin grid array or PGA packaging is the standard used for
most fifth generation processors, starting with the intel
80286 over a decade ago. PGA packages are square or
rectangular and have two or more rows of pins going
around their perimeter. They are inserted into a special

D
socket on the mother board or daughter card. PGA
packaging was invented because newer processors with

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wider data and address buses required a large number of
interface pins to the motherboard, and DIP packaging just

H
was not up to the task.

S
PGA comes in two different main material types. The
standard PGA used on most processors until recently is

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made from a ceramic material, and is also called CPGA
for that reason. Some newer processors use a plastic
package, called PPGA. The plastic package is both less

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expensive and thermally superior to the CPGA. It has a
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raised metal square area on is surface for heat transfer to
the heat sink that works better than the CPGA.
P
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Eventually, as the number of connections for Pentium and

PGAs are often mounted on printed circuit boards using later processors exceeded 200 and approached 300, intel
the through hole method of inserted into a socket. PGAs needed to be able to pack even more pins into the same
©

allow for more pins per integrated circuit than older amount of space. To do this, intel staggered the pin layout
packages such as dual in line package (DIP) so that they could be compressed more tightly. (The idea
is similar to how a wine rack stacks bottles.) This is
The familiar dual in line (DIL) package can have up to 68
sometimes called SPGA. Pentium and later chips are
leads with a spacing between pins of 2.54 mm. The chip
made with this design.
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carrier family has a pin count that ranges from 20 to 84,

with pin spacing of 1.274 mm; although pin counts above Finally, the Pentium pro processor uses a special from of
84 can be produced, the problems of handling become PGA called a “dual pattern PGA”. This is of course
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severe above 84 pins (the 84 pin chip carrier is because the pentium pro has a dual - chip package
approximately 30 x 30 mm). The PGA (Pin grid array) containing both the chip itself and its miniaturized,
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package allows up to 144 pins (spacing 2.54 mm). It has integrated secondary cache.
an high power dissipation capability and it is now being
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Re-flow soldering
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Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• explain the Reflow soldering and working principle.
N

Reflow soldering and working principle joints with a hot air pencil as shown in Fig. 1 reflow
soldering process.
Reflow soldering is a process in which a solder paste (a
sticky mixture of powdered solder and flux) is used toReflow soldering is the most common method of attaching
surface mount components to a circuit board, although it
temporarily attach one or several electrical components
can also be used for through-hole components by filling
to their contact pads, after which the entire assembly is
subjected to controlled heat, which melts the solder, the holes with solder paste and inserting the component
permanently connecting the joint. Heating may be leads through the paste. Because wave soldering can be
accomplished by passing the assembly through a reflow simpler and cheaper, reflow is not generally used on pure
through-hole boards. When used on boards containing a
oven or under an infrared lamp or by soldering individual
mix of SMT and THT components, through-hole reflow
92 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.162 & 163
 components begin oxide reduction on component leads
and pads. Too high a temperature can lead to solder
spattering or balling as well as oxidation of the paste, the
attachment pads and the component terminations.
Similarly, fluxes may not fully activate if the temperature
is too low. At the end of the soak zone a thermal
equilibrium of the entire assembly is desired just before
the reflow zone. A soak profile is suggested to decrease
any delta T between components of varying sizes or if the
PCB assembly is very large. A soak profile is also
recommended to diminish voiding in area array type
packages.

allows the wave soldering step to be eliminated from the Reflow zone
assembly process, potentially reducing assembly costs. The third section, the reflow zone, is also referred to as
The goal of the reflow process is to melt the solder and the "time above reflow" or "time above liquidus" (TAL),
heat the adjoining surfaces, without overheating and and is the part of the process where the maximum

D
damaging the electrical components. In the conventional temperature is reached. An important consideration is peak
reflow soldering process, there are usually four stages, temperature, which is the maximum allowable temperature

E
called "zones", each having a distinct thermal profile: of the entire process. A common peak temperature is 20-
preheat, thermal soak (often shortened to just soak), reflow, 40 °C above liquidus. This limit is determined by the

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and cooling. component on the assembly with the lowest tolerance for
high temperatures (the component most susceptible to

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Preheat zone thermal damage). A standard guideline is to subtract 5 °C
from the maximum temperature that the most valuable

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Maximum slope is a temperature/time relationship that
measures how fast the temperature on the printed circuit component can sustain to arrive at the maximum
board changes. The preheat zone is often the lengthiest temperature for process. It is important to monitor the

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of the zones and often establishes the ramp-rate. The process temperature to keep it from exceeding this limit.
R IM

ramp-up rate is usually somewhere between 1.0 °C and Additionally, high temperatures (beyond 260 °C) may
U
3.0 °C per second, often falling between 2.0 °C and 3.0 cause damage to the internal dies of SMT components
°C (4 °F to 5 °F) per second. If the rate exceeds the as well as foster intermetallic growth. Conversely, a
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maximum slope, damage to components from thermal temperature that isn't hot enough may prevent the paste
shock or cracking can occur. Solder paste can also have from reflowing adequately.
a spattering effect. The preheat section is where the
©

Time above liquidus (TAL), or time above reflow, measures

solvent in the paste begins to evaporate, and if the rise how long the solder is a liquid. The flux reduces surface
rate (or temperature level) is too low, evaporation of flux tension at the junction of the metals to accomplish
volatiles is incomplete. metallurgical bonding, allowing the individual solder powder
Thermal soak zone spheres to combine.
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The second section, thermal soak, is typically a 60 to

120 second exposure for removal of solder paste volatiles
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and activation of the fluxes (see flux), where the flux

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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.162 & 163 93
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.164
Electronics Mechanic - Basic SMD (2,3,4 terminal components), Soldering
and Desoldering

Pick and place machine

Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• working of pick and place machine
• stencil and stencil printer working.

Pick-and-place machine trays or sticks. Improvements in feeder technology mean

that tape format is becoming the preferred method of
Surface-mount technology placement systems, commonly presenting parts on an SMT machine.
called pick-and-place (SMT) component machines or
P&Ps, are robotic machines which are used to place Conveyor belt
surface-mount devices (SMDs) onto a printed circuit board Through the middle of the machine there is a conveyor belt,
(PCB). They are used for high speed, high precision

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along which blank PCBs travel, and a PCB clamp in the
placing of a broad range of electronic components, like center of the machine. The PCB is clamped, and the

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capacitors, resistors, integrated circuits onto the PCBs nozzles pick up individual components from the feeders/
which are in turn used in computers, consumer electronics trays, rotate them to the correct orientation and then place

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as well as industrial, medical, automotive, military and them on the appropriate pads on the PCB with high
telecommunications equipment. Similar equipment exists precision.

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for through-hole components.[1][2] This type of equipment
is sometimes also used to package microchips using the Inspection and visual system

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flip chip method. The part being carried from the part feeders on either side
Fig 1 of the conveyor belt to the PCB, it is photographed from

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below by using high resolution camera and lighting system.
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Its silhouette is inspected to see if it is damaged or

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missing (was not picked up), and the inevitable registration
errors in pickup are measured and compensated for when
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the part is placed. For example, if the part was shifted

0.25mm and rotated 10° when picked up, the pickup head
will adjust the placement position to place the part in the
©

correct location.
Stencil and stencil printer
Solder paste printing is the first process of the SMT
process, and it is a key process to ensure the quality of
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SMT It directly affects the soldering quality a reliability of

the surface assembly. At present, the most widely used
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is the automatic printing machine metal mesh solder

paste process. The automatic s paste printing machine is
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Operation mainly composed of the main body of the equipment, the

PCB transfer mechanism, the squeegee device, the printing
The placement equipment is part of a larger overall (work) t optical vision system, the computer control
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machine that carries out specific programmed steps to system, and the power it is composed of driving device, off-
create a PCB assembly. Several sub-systems work grid mechanism and stencil cleaning mechanism basic
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together to pick up and correctly place the components working principle of the solder paste printer is that after the
onto the PCB. These systems normally use pneumatic
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PCB is sent to the solder paste printer from the conveyor

suction cups, attached to a plotter-like device to allow the belt, the clamping device fix the XY-8 platform, and the
cup to be accurately manipulated in three dimensions. vision system is based on the two (or more) of the PCB and
Additionally, each nozzle can be rotated independently. the screen. Multi) Deviation of the coordinate value of the
Component feeds mark recognition point, and correct the deviation. The X-Y-
8 platform is adjusted by the drive motor, and the PCB is
Surface mount components are placed along the front accurately aligned with the stencil by the three directions
(and often back) faces of the machine. Most components of X-Y-8, and finally the solder paste is printed on the PCB
are supplied on paper or plastic tape, in tape reels that are pad through the special opening of the stencil.
loaded onto feeders mounted to the machine. Larger
integrated circuits (ICs) are sometimes supplied arranged Solder paste printing is the first process of the SMT
in trays which are stacked in a compartment. More process, and it is a key process to ensure the quality of
commonly used ICs will be provided in tapes rather than SMT. It directly affects the soldering quality and reliability
94
of the surface assembly. At present, the most widely used Second, the preparation before the operation of the solder
is the automatic printing machine metal mesh solder paste printing machine
paste process. The automatic solder paste printing machine
Make preparations before solder paste printing, craftsmen
is mainly composed of the main body of the equipment,
and technicians should do the following:
the PCB transfer mechanism, the squeegee device, the
printing (work) table, the optical vision system, the computer Familiar with the process requirements of the product
control system, and the power it is composed of driving According to the product process documents, receive the
device, off-grid mechanism and stencil cleaning PCB that has passed the inspection
mechanism. The basic working principle of the solder
paste printer is that after the PCB is sent to the solder Choose the correct solder paste material, printing machine
paste printer from the conveyor belt, the clamping device screen and squeegee, etc.,
fixes it on the XY-8 platform, and the vision system is Determine the reliable process, such as good positioning,
based on the two (or more) of the PCB and the screen. cleaning and wiping etc.,
Multi) Deviation of the coordinate value of the mark
recognition point, and correct the deviation. The X-Y-8 Make visual images of mark points etc.,
platform is adjusted by the drive motor, and the PCB is And while understanding the product structure process
accurately aligned with the stencil by moving in the three characteristics in depth, the best design plan should be

D
directions of X-Y-8, and finally the solder paste is printed optimized and selected, for different on set the corresponding
on the PCB pad through the special opening of the stencil. printing parameters in the printing program, such as

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Computer control system: The computer control interface working temperature, squeegee pressure and speed,
automatic cleaning cycle screen etc. At the same time, it

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is shown in the Fig below. The operator uses it to understand
the status of the printing press, perform file management is necessary to formulate strict process management and

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machine operations. The mouse is used to move the cursor process procedures to ensure solder paste printing finished
on the screen, and each button (select, next, exit) on the smoothly and well.

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mouse is used to set parameters operate the printing
press.

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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.3.164 95
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.165
Electronics Mechanic - PCB Rework

Introduction to ESD and PCB Rework

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• the trainees will be able to acquire the knowledge on general safety precautions to be followed in a SMD
soldering lab
• the trainee will be able to acquire the knowledge about the precautions to be followed to avoid the damage
of SMD components due electrostatic discharge (ESD).

General safety precautions to be followed while • Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called
performing soldering and desoldering work in a 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the iron's tip
laboratory or work place to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug in
• Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to
They are very hot (above 300°C) and will give you a wipe the tip clean on the sponge.

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nasty burn. • You are now ready to start soldering.

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• Take great care to avoid touching the mains cable with ESD protection
the tip of the iron. The iron should have a heat proof

H
cable for extra protection. Ordinary plastic cable melts • Proper precautions in handling SMDs should also be
immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a risk observed to avoid ESD (Electrostatic - Discharge)

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of burns and electric shock. • Electronics components are becoming smaller and

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• Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not faster but they are also becoming more sensitive
in use. Never put it down on your workbench, even for towards ESD.

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a moment. Normally the trainees used to follow the bad
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• Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is the release of static
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practice of keeping the hot soldering iron on the top of electricity when two objects come into contact. Familiar
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work bench and burn the work bench and burn the examples of ESD include the shock we receive when
power supply cable of CROs or function generator, and we walk across a carpet and touch a metal door knob
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other costly equipments. So instructor should train the
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and the static electricity we feel after drying clothes in

trainees from the beginning to follow the safe work a clothes dryer. A more extreme example of ESD is a
habits lightning bolt. Most ESD events are harmless, it can be
©

• Allow joints a minute or so to cool down before you an expensive problem in many industrial environments.
touch them. • ESD first requires a build - up of an electrostatic charge.
• Work in a well - ventilated area. The smoke formed as This occurs when two different materials rub together.
you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite One of the materials becomes positivity charged; the
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irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the other becomes negatively charged. The positively -
side of, not above, your work. charged material now has an electrostatic charge.
When that charge comes into contact with the right
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• Wash your hands after using solder. Solder contains material, it is transferred and we have an ESD event.
lead. The heat from the ESD event is extremely hot, although
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Preparing the soldering iron we do not feel it when we are shocked. However, when
the charge is released onto an electronic device such
• Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in. The iron
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as an expansion card, the intense heat from the charge

will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature can melt or vaporize the tiny parts in the card causing
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of above 300°C. the device to fail. Sometimes an ESD event can

• Dampen the sponge in the stand. The best way to do damage a device, but it continues to function. This is a
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this is to lift it out the stand and wet it by using distilled called a latent defect, which is hard to detect and
water to avoid corrosion of soldering iron tip, and significantly shortens the life of the device.
squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, • Synthetic carpeting - one can hardly move without
not dripping wet. generating a charge - avoid carpeting in your work area.
• Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. • Cathode ray tubes (oscilloscopes or monitors) can be
You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little dangerous sources of ESD- keep static sensitive
solder on the tip. components a safe distance away from the screen and
• Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will avoid touching the screen.
clean the tip.

96
• Many electronic devices are susceptible to low voltage ESD safe workstation layout
ESD events. For example , hard drive components are
An ESD workstation is defined as work area with materials
sensitive to only 10 volts. For this reason, manufacturers
and equipment that limit electrostatic voltages and ESD
of electronics devices incorporate measures to prevent
(Electrostatic discharge) shown in Fig.1.
ESD events throughout the manufacturing, testing,
shipping, and handling processes. For example, an
employee may wear a wrist strap when working with
devices or many wear ESD control footwear and work
on an ESD floor mat that causes the electrostatic
charge to go into the ground instead of into the device.
Sensitive devices can be packaged with materials that
shield the product from a charge.
• The rework station needs to be specifically designed to
minimise the effect of ESD, especially when various
studies around the world have revealed that 60-90
percent of defective devices are damaged due to ESD,
and 70 percent of these failures can be attributed to

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damage caused by ungrounded workers. So it becomes
really important that you take ESD - control systems

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seriously, or otherwise, the losses can be astonishingly

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high.
• A basic ESD control rule is ground all conductors Table Mat

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including workers at the rework station. Ground works
very efficiently in ESD - control systems and reliably A work surface that dissipates static from conductive items

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removes ESD to ground. For such a grounding system, placed on it shown in Fig. 2.
it is important that the electrical wiring system of our lab

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should be correct. All electrical outlets in our lab need
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to be evaluated for correct wiring of live, neutral and

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ground wires.
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A wrist strap is an effective method for ground the workers.
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The electrostatic discharge association's standard ANSI/

ESD SI.1-2006 defines a wrist strap as an assembled
©

device consisting of a wrist cuff and ground cord that

provides electrical connection of a pension's skin to the
ground. The standard document completely describe the
parameters for evaluation, acceptance and functional testing
of wrist straps. While the document describes the whole
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set of mechanical and electrical parameters over which a Common point ground cord
wrist strap needs to be evaluated and accepted, the most
important parameter amongst all is the wrist strap A cable and connector that connect a table mat and one
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continuity and resistance, which should be 1 meg - ohm or two wrist straps to ground. shown in Fig. 3 & 4.
20 percent, for acceptance. The document also suggests
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the testing procedure for the same. While you are buying
grounding materials, do check if they comply with the
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above - mentioned standard and specification.

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When you are working with sensitive electronics

components you should consider buying all the equipment
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for your workstation that is tagged as anti- static or ESD

- safe. The materials mentioned below are optional but can
be used for better electrostatic protected area (EPA).
1 ESD- tables, chairs and stools Wrist strap
2 ESD- safe toll kit (cutter, plier, desoldering pump, etc) A two part device including a wrist band and a coil cord
3 ESD- safe equipment like soldering iron that connects a person's skin to ground. ESD wrist
straps, also known as anti static wrist straps as show in
4 ESD- safe brush Fig.4, are used to prevent electrostatic discharge (ESD)
5 ESD -safe trays, bins and cabinets by safety grounding a person working with electronics
equipment or at an electronic assembly facility. It consists
of a bend of fabric with fine conductive fibers woven into
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.165 97
it. The fibers are usually made of carbon or carbon - filled
rubber, and the strap is bound with a stainless steel clasp
or plate. They are usually used in conjunction with an ESD
table mat on the workbench, or a special static dissipating
plastic laminate on the workbench surface.

ESD anti fatigue floor mats are made of 3/8” thick closed
- cell expanded polyvinyl chloride designed to provide

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comfort and reduce worker fatigue when used in static

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ESD wrist strap testing using a multimeter sensitive environment. Surface resistivity is 109-1010 Ohm.
The construction design of the ESD floor mat allows for

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Step 1 : Set the range of the multimeter to mega ohms effective static charge removal at a non - damaging flow rate
(M ) and emboss pattern make slip resistant. At the same time

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Step 2 : Plug the wrist strap's banana jack into the voltage the ESD anti fatigue mat is known to maintain a consistent
/ohm (V ) port on the multimeter. Connect a probe to the discharge throughout the life of the mat with no noticeable

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COM port on the multimeter. deterioration of effectiveness. Resistant to degradation by
inorganic acid, organic acids, detergent solutions, alcohol
Step 3 : Test the conductive metal button inside the wrist

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and mineral oil. Suggested service temperature of -20°F to
strap to verify that the resistance reading is between 0.9
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+160°F.
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M and 1.1 M as shown in Fig. 5.
Floor mat ground cord
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A cable and connector that connect a floor mat to ground

Heel grounder
©

A device for connecting a walking or standing person to

ground by using the moisture in the shoe as a body
connection and a conductive rubber tread as a connection
to a grounded mat or floor.
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ESD Heel grounders

ESD heel grounders provide a continuous ground path
between the operator and properly grounded ESD protected
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flooring. They are designed for use in applications where

user mobility is required, such as wave solder, kitting and
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quality control. “ESD protective flooring used with approved

footwear, may be used as an alternative to the wrist strap
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system for standing operations.” Heel grounders quickly

and effectively drain the static charges that are collected by
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the personnel during normal everyday activities. ESD heel

straps help protect your electronic assembly plant. shown
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in Fig. 7 & 8.

Floor Mat
A walking surface that dissipates static charge from
conductive items placed on it. shown in Fig 6

98 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.165
 Fig 11

Conductive gloves (shown in Fig.12)

Durable ESD slipper & Heel grounder
Conductive gloves are made of seamless knit nylon and
Conductive shoe covers
copper fiber yarns with urethane coating. The surface
Conductive shoe covers also known as polypropylene shoe resistivity is below 7.5 x 107. Electrostatic dissipative
covers, are non woven, spun bond fabric that helps filter (ESD) fiber yarns blended with low lint nylon which reduces
particulates. They have a conductive strip that protects static build - up on the glove surface for improved

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electronic devices from static charge. Covers are extra performance in electronics assembly.

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lightweight. For added safety, choose skid - free soles for
improved traction. They are packaged as 100 pieces per

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bag and 3 bags per case. shown in Fig.9

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ESD Finger cots ESD Aprons

ESD jackets, also known as ESD smocks, are lightweight
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ESD finger cots or pink ESD finger cots are commonly

used in electronic assembly, photonics, medical and and provide durable static shielding for use where
pharmaceutical manufacturing. Anti static finger cots are electrostatic charge is a concern. It has a lapel style collar
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powder free and are made of 100% latex material. These and is 3/4 length with 3 pockets. New ECX -500 fabric gives
finger cots meet MIL -STD - 105E for holes, tear, stains and low cost static - shielding during electronics assembly
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electrostatic properties. Pink in color. Style is rolled. process. Available in blue and white color. shown in Fig.13
shown in Fig. 10 & 11.
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.165 99
To install ESD workstation
1 Lay the table mat flat on the workbench with the snaps
toward the operator. TIP. Mild heat (sun light) will
remove creases caused by shipping.
2 Connect the common point ground cord to the table mat
by snapping it to the left or right snap. shown in Fig.14

7 Connect the common point ground cord and floor mat

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ground cord to ground. Use the green wire building
ground point as specified in EOS/ESD standard 6.

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Connection to this ground point most easily
accomplished by removing the center AC outlet plate

H
cover screw, placing the screw through the eyelets
from both ground cords, and replacing the screw. The

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3 Connecting the coil cord to the common point ground wires can be moved to the left and right sides of the
screw so that they do not obstruct the outlet. shown in

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cord by plugging the banana plug into one of the ground
cord’s . shown in Fig.15 Fig.18

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4 Snap the wrist band to the coil cord. TIP : Make sure
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that the operator wears the wrist band on bare skin and
tightens the band so that no gap exists between the
skin and the band. shown in Fig.16
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Cautionary notices
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Warning : only qualified personnel should work with

exposed AC outlets. Consult with a qualified electrician to
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make ground connection if necessary. AC voltage is

dangerous.
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Caution : Exercise extreme care when using energized

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equipment at an ESD workstation. Ground fault current

interrupters should be considered to avoid shock. Most
static control equipment is not designed to be used near
voltages greater than 250 volts.
8 Mount the ESD awareness sign above the work area
where it is clearly visible to both the operator and
5 Lay the floor mat on the floor in front of the workbench anyone approaching the work area. Before hanging the
with the snaps toward the bench. sign, clean any dust or oil from the wall before application
6 Connect the floor mat ground cord to one snap on the for better adhesion. Next, remove the cover tape from
floor mat. shown in Fig.17 the back of the adhesive strips, place the sign on the
wall, and press firmly across the entire sign so that all
of the adhesive contacts the wall. shown in Fig.19
100 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.165
 The required limit according to ANSI/ESD S20.20 is less
than ± 50V offset voltage (balance). In addition to that, the
discharge time to reduce + 1000V to +100 V and to reduce
-1000V to - 100 V should also be measured. Faster the
static elimination time, the better it is. Do look for one that
strictly complies with the ANSI /ESD S20.20 standard.
ESD bags ( as shown in Fig. 22)

9 Heel grounders : Open the velcro strap. Remove foot

from shoe and insert tab. Trim excess tab material with
scissors if necessary. Place foot back into shoe and
slip rubber cup onto the shoe’s hell. Close velcro strap.
Repeat procedure for other shoe. shown in Fig.20

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ESD bags, also known as general purpose ESD bags or

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static shielding bags, have buried metal shielding that
offers superior durability at a low cost. These ESD bags are

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recognized as the consistently reliable, readily available
and most competitively priced static shielding bags in the

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electronics industry. General purpose antistatic bags are
available in regular open top or zip lock. Light transmission

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of better than 50% allows for easy identification of static
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Newly installed work stations should be tested for continuity. devices without removal.
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A surface resistivity meter with a “resistance to ground” ESD bags are constructed from an alloy electrostatic
function can be used to test continuity from the ground shield with a tough layer of polyester protection, providing
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point to all part of the workstation. a level of abrasion and puncture resistance never before
Ionizers (shown in Fig.21) possible in a transparent shielding bag.
©

ESD Bins and containers (shown in Fig. 23 to 29)

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Bench top Ionizers are used in many high tech

manufacturing programs to control ESD (Electro Static
Discharge) in the work environment. EDS ionizers neutralize
a static charge via balancing the ions between the
molecules in the gasses of the surrounding air. They are
typically used to control static on isolated conductors that
can’t be grounded and isolated objects (like standard
plastics). ESD ionizers are perfect for removing contaminant
attraction caused by static as well as neutralizing static
charges from wide, focused or hard to reach areas.
Ionization is ideal when working with delicate electronic
products or large more robust assemblies.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.165 101
Fig 27

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102 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.165
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.166
Electronics Mechanic - PCB Rework

Introduction to non-soldering interconnection and printed circuit boards

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define crimping, wire wrapping, conductive adhesives, chip on board and tape automated bonding
• define printed circuit board and its types.

Crimping Conductive adhesives

A crimping tool is a device used to join two pieces of An electrically conductive adhesive is glue that is primarily
metal by deforming one or both of them in a way that used for electronics as shown in Fig.3. The electric
causes them to hold each other. The result of the tool's conductivity is caused by a component that makes 80%
work is called a crimp. A good example of crimping is the of the total mass of an electrically conductive adhesive.
process of FRC connector to the end of a cable as shown This conductive component is suspended in a sticky
in the Fig.1. component that holds the electrically conductive adhesive

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together. The particles of the conductive component are
in contact to each other and in this way make electric

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current possible.

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Fig 3

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P
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Wire wrapping
Wire wrap is a method to construct electronic circuit board CONDUCTIVE ADHESIVES
©

as shown in Fig 2. Electronic components mounted on

an insulating board are interconnected by lengths of
insulated wire run between their terminals, with the Chip on Board
connections made by wrapping several turns around a Chipboard may refer to
component lead or a socket pin. Wires can be wrapped
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A type of paperboard generally made from reclaimed paper

by hand or by machine, and can be hand-modified
stock; as shown in the Fig. 4
afterwards. It was popular for large-scale manufacturing
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in the 60s and early 70s, and continues to be used for • White lined chipboard, a grade of paperboard
short runs and prototypes. The method eliminates the
• Particle board, a type of engineered wood known as
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design and fabrication of a printed circuit board. Wire

"chipboard" in some countries
wrapping is unusual among other prototyping technologies
since it allows for complex assemblies to be produced
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Fig 4
by automated equipment, but then easily repaired or
modified by hand.
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Fig 2
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CHIP ON BOARD

WIRE WRAPPING AND TOOL

103
The bare chip is adhered and wire bonded to the board, The thickness of the copper layer on the PCB measured
and an epoxy is poured over it to insulate and protect it. in ounces per square foot or ounces. It can also be given
For illustrative purposes only, this picture shows a clear in micrometers, inches or mils.
epoxy. This side view shows how the wires connect the
FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate upon
chip to the printed circuit board (PCB) as shown in Fig.5.
which the vast majority of rigid PCBs are produced. A thin
Fig 5 layer of copper foil is laminated to one or both sides of an
FR-4 panel. Circuitry interconnections are etched into
copper layers to produce printed circuit boards. Complex
circuits are produced in multiple layers as shown in
Fig. 7.
Fig 7

CHIP ON BOARD SIDE VIEW OF PCB

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Tape automated bounding

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Tape-automated bonding (TAB) is a process that places

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CONSTRUCTION OF MULTI LAYER PCB
bare integrated circuits onto a printed circuit board (PCB)
by attaching them to fine conductors in a polyamide or Printed circuit boards are used in all electronic products.

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polyimide film, thus providing a to directly connect to Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point
external circuits as shown in Fig.6. construction. PCBs require the additional design effort to

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lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can
Process that places bare chips onto a printed circuit board
be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is
(PCB) by first attaching them to a polyimide film, the film

B
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cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as
is moved to the target location, and the leads are cut and
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components are mounted and wired with one single part.

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soldered to the board. This is also called a "tape carrier
Furthermore, operator wiring errors are eliminated.
package" (TCP), the bare chip is then encapsulated ("glob
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topped") with epoxy or plastic. Types of PCBs
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Fig 6 • Single side PCB

• Double side PCB
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• Multi layer PCB

Single side PCB
Single-sided printed circuit boards are easily designed
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and quickly manufactured as shown in Fig.8. Single

sided boards are available with surface finishes including
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Organic surface protectant (OSP), Immersion Silver, Tin,

and Gold plating along with both leaded and lead-free Hot
TAPE AUTOMATED BONDING
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Air Solder Level (HASL).

Printed Circuit Board
Fig 8
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A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and

electrically connects electronic components using
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conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from

copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
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PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided

(two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and inner layers).
Multi-layer PCBs allow much higher component density.
Conductors on different layers are connected with plated-
through holes called vias. Advanced PCBs may contain
components - capacitors, resistors or active devices -
embedded in the substrate. SINGLE SIDE PCB

The PCBs are manufactured with "1 oz copper" (~35μm Ex: Power supplies, Relays (automotive and industrial),
thick or 1.4 mils) on the outer layers. If there are inner Timing circuits, Sensor products
layers, they are almost always manufactured with "1/2
ounce copper"(~17.5μm thick or 0.7 mils)

104 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.166
Double Side PCB exotic ceramic fills. Multilayer can be built on ceramic,
copper, and aluminum. Blind and buried vias are
Double Sided PCBs (also known as Double-Sided Plated
commonly produced, along with pad on via technology.
Thru or DSPT) as shown in Fig. 9 circuits are the gateway
to higher technology applications. DSPT the advantage EX: Computers, File servers, Cell phone
of the plated through-hole is quickly adapted and allowed
Fig 10
electronic designs to expand in capability and shrink in
physical size. Today the double sided printed circuit board
technology remains the workhorse of the assembly
industry. There are limitless applications for old and new
designs.
Fig 9

MULTI LAYER PCB

Test of PCB

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In this blog some basic procedures for finding faults with
PCBs and fixing those faults. Though there are many

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circuit testing programs and probes available in the market
DOUBLE SIDE PCD BOARD

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for skilled technicians and test engineers there are no
Ex: Industrial controls, Power supplies, Converters, general guidelines. If you face some problems like when

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Control relays you end up removing an entire track (connection from
one component to another) on the PCB you can use a

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Multi- layer PCB simple piece of wire to imitate the connection. Solder the
Multilayer printed circuit boards (PCBs) representes the two ends of the wire where you think the connection should

B be present on the PCB as shown in Fig. 11.

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next major evolution in fabrication technology as shown
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in Fig. 10. From the base platform of double sided plated

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thru came a very sophisticated and complex methodology Fig 11
that would again allow circuit board designers a dynamic
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range of interconnects and applications.

Multilayer circuit boards were essential in the advancement
of modern computing. The multilayer PCB basic
©

construction and fabrication are similar to micro chip

fabrication on a macro size. The range of material
combinations is extensive from basic epoxy glass to
TESTING OF PCB
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Types of conformal coating and its removal methods

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• define conformal coating & its types
• explain how to coat the conformal coating
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• describe various method of removal of conformal coating.

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Conformal coating is a protective chemical coating or

Fig 1
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polymer film 25-75μm thickness that is applied onto the

printed circuit board. It is used to protect PCB from
damages due to contamination, salt spray, moisture,
fungus, dust and corrosion and also a physical barrier.
When coated, it is clearly visible as a clear and shiny
material as shown in Fig. 1.
CONFORMAL
COATING
APPLIED
AREA IN PCB

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.166
105
Construction of printing circuit board (Single Double, Fig 3
Multiple)
A PCB (Printed circuit board) or PWB (Printing wring
Board) is a complex circuitry of copper tracks on a heat
resistant material called PCB substrate. Electronic
components are soldered on this Circuit Board to control
flow of electricity in a preset matter for the electronic device
to work in a manner that it was designed for.

Fig 2

Double sided PCBS

Making double-sided PCBs involves the same kind of
layers as a single- sided board. The difference between

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double sided and single sided PCBs is that instead of
using a single sided copper core, the manufacture will

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start a core with copper on both sides. During production,

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they also drill holes called vias that they can plate or fill
with a conductive, ore nonconductive material. The

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electrical current travels from one side of the board to the
Different Types of PCB other though these vias. Double-sided PCBs have a higher

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1 Single Sided PCB or Single Layer PCB cost than single sided boards, but they provide twice as
much space for components.
2 Double Sided PCB or Double Layer PCB

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Electronics that need an intermediate level of circuit
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3 Multiplayer PCB complexity use double sided PCBs to operate. Double-

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4 Rigid PCB sided boards power more complicated devices than single-
sided PCBs, but they can’t handle advanced applications
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5 Fixed PCB or Flexible PCB
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like computers or smartphones. They appear in electronic

6 Rigid-Flex PCB or Rigid-Flexible PCB such as:
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Single sided PCB 1 LED lighting

A single-side PCB, Also known as a single-layer PCB, is 2 Vending machines
manufacturer begins with a base core material such as 3 Car dashboards
Copper on it. This copper material makes the board 4 Phone systems
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conductive
5 Industrial controls
Then they add a solder mask that insulates the conductive
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copper sheet below. Multilayer printed circuit boards

Rest of the layers with a silkscreen print that indicates Multilayer PCBs can support a high level of circuit
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the location for each part. When creating a single sided complexity because they consist of three or more copper
board, the manufacturer adds these layers to one side layers laminated together. The manufacturer starts a core
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only. that has the same materials as a typical single sided or

double sided PCB. After etching the inner core, they add
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Single –sided boards may not have the same complexity layers of prepreg, a soft fiberglass. This material keeps
as their counterparts, but they power a wide range of the layers together and becomes hard fiberglass after the
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everyday electronics. Since they cost so little to make, board goes though the hot press. As a result of the curing
you can find them in bulk-manufactured process, multilayer PCBs are tough and durable. If the
Devices like: manufacture is building a 4 Layer pcb they typically will
use one core, prepreg and they copper foil for the top and
1 cameras
bottom layers.
2 Audio equipment
We have complex technology like computers and data
3 Power supplies severs thanks to the high capacity of multilayer PCBs.
Other examples of devices powered by multilayer PCBs
4 Calculators
include:
5 solid state drives
6 prints

106 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.166
1 Fiber optics mask over the damaged area, ensuring it covers the entire
2 Smartphones affected section. Use a UV light source to cure the mask
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Larger
3 GPS system
Damaged Sections:
4 Scientific and space equipment
Masking Tape: If the damaged area is relatively large, you
5 Heart monitors can use masking tape to create a temporary barrier around
6 Atomic accelerators the damaged section. Apply the tape around the perimeter
ensuring it covers the unaffected areas. Then, carefully fill
Fig 4
in the damaged section with solder mask material using a
brush or syringe. Once the mask material has cured,
remove the masking tape.
Professional Repair: In cases where the damage is
extensive or involves intricate patterns, it is recommended
to seek professional assistance or specialized PCB repair
services. They can use advanced techniques such as laser
ablation or screen printing to accurately restore the solder
mask.

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Curing and Finishing: After applying the solder mask repair
material, ensure that it is fully cured according to the

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manufacturer’s instructions. Once cured, inspect the

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repaired area for any imperfections or inconsistencies. If
necessary, you can lightly sand or polish the repaired

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section to achieve a smoother surface finish.
Repair and damage track in PCB : It’s worth noting that the repaired solder mask may not

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Repair Pen: For minor scratches or small cracks, you match the original color or texture perfectly. Additionally,
can use a solder mask repair pen or paint to fill in the the repaired section may have slightly different electrical

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damaged area. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for or thermal characteristics compared to the surrounding
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applying the repair material. Typically, you would carefully solder mask. Therefore, it’s important to thoroughly test
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apply the repair pen over the damaged section and allow it the PCB after the repair to ensure its functionality and
to dry or cure. performance.
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UV Curable Mask: Another option is to use a UV curable Again, for precise and professional solder mask repairs, it
solder mask material. Apply a thin layer of the UV curable is advisable to consult experts or specialized PCB repair
services who have the necessary tools and experience.
©

Introduction to rework and repair concepts

Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the solder mask, solder joints, tracks, pads and plated through hole.
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Solder mask Mostly Green colours used as solder mask as shown in

Solder mask or solder stop mask or solder resist is a thin Fig.1a & 1b.
layer of polymer applied to the copper traces of a printed Solder mask as shown in Fig. 2a & 2b comes in different
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circuit board (PCB) for protection against oxidation short media depending upon the demands of the application.
circuits, corrosion, and other problems. Solder mask is
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The lowest-cost solder mask is epoxy liquid that is

a thin layer of polymer and to prevent solder bridges from silkscreened through the pattern onto the PCB. Other
closely spaced solder pads. A solder bridge is an types are,
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unintended electrical connection between two conductors

Liquid photoimageable solder mask (LPSM) inks.
by means of a small blob of solder. Once applied, openings
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must be made in the solder mask wherever components Dry film photoimageable solder mask (DFSM).
to be soldered. This is done by photolithography. Solder LPSM are silkscreened and sprayed on the PCB, exposed
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mask is mostly green in color, but is now available in to the pattern and developed to provide openings in the
many colors. pattern for parts to be soldered to the copper pads.
• Green DFSM is vacuum laminated on the PCB then exposed
• Matte Green and developed.
• Red All three processes go through a thermal cure after the
pattern is defined.
• Blue
Solder joints
• Yellow
The solder joints are very much important in construction
• White
of PCB as shown in Fig.3a & 3b.
• Black
• Matte Black
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.166 107
 Fig 3a

Fig 3b

Fig 1b

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• If the solder joints are poor

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• It will cause the equipment to not to work.
• There is a possibility that the solder joint could fail

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intermittently.

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• It will introduce noise into the circuit.
Fig.4 Shows the method of solder joints on PCB

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Good solder joint
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Most solder joints are good and do not cause any

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problems. A good solder joint will have a shiny finish to it,
and it should not have too much solder as shown in Fig.5.
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The contour of the solder around the joint should be slightly

concave.
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Fig 4
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Fig 2a
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Fig 5
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Fig 2b
Fig 6a

SOLDER MASK COVERS UP THE SIGNAL TRACES BUT LEAVES

THE PADS TO SOLDER.

108 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.166
Fig 6b Dry joints
Dry joints are the main problem of solder joint. These
solder joints may be completely open circuit, or they may
be intermittent, high resistance or noisy. Therefore it is
essential that no dry solder joints are present in any
electronics equipment.
It is easy to identify dry joints as shown in Fig.8a & 8b.
Good solder joints are shiny, where as dry joints have a
dull or matt finish.
Fig 8a

Fig 6c

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Fig 8b

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Poor solder joints
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Too much solder on a joint may lead to poor joints as

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shown in Fig. 6a, 6b, 6c
Excess solder on joints
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On printed circuit boards if too much solder is used then

it could spill over onto another track, causing a short circuit
as shown in Fig.7a & 7b.
©

When a dry joint is found, the solder on the joint should

Fig 7a be removed and care to be taken when re-soldering it, to
ensure that a good joint is made.
Tracks
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Commonly there is no recommended standard for track

sizes. Size of track will depend upon the requirements of
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the design, the routing space and clearance. Every design

will have a different set of electrical requirements which
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can vary between tracks on the board. As a general rule

bigger the track width is better. Bigger tracks have lower
DC resistance, lower inductance, can be easier and
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cheaper for the manufacturer to etch, and also easier to

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Fig 7b inspect and rework. The lower limit of track width will
depend upon the “track/space” resolution. For example,
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a manufacturer may quote a 10/8 track /space. This

means that tracks can not be less than 10 thou wide,
and the spacing between tracks, or pads, or any part of
tracks are the copper, can not be less than 8 thou. Always
quoted in thou’s, with track width first and then spacing.
IPC standard recommends 4 thou as being a lower limit.
A “thou” is 1/1000th of an inch = 1 thou (0.001 inch)
Fig.9 shows the tracks on the PCB.
Fig. 10 shows the damaged track on PCB which is to be
repaired.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.166 109
Pads assembly or automated insertion mount machines. PCBs
Fig. 11 shows the pads of PCB are initially had tracks printed on one side only. Later two
sides are used, and then multi-layer boards are using
Pad sizes, shapes and dimensions will depend upon the
now a days. Similarly, through holes became plated-
component used to assemble the board. There is an
through holes (PTH), Fig.13. is a Plated-Through Hole in
important parameter known as the pad/hole ratio. This is
a ten layer board.
the ratio of the pad size to the hole size. The pad should
be at least 1.8 times the diameter of the hole, or at least Plated-through holes are used to make the components
0.5 mm larger. This is to allow for alignment tolerances contact with required conductive layers and making
on the drill and the artwork on top and bottom layers. interconnections between the layers called vias.
This ratio gets more important the smaller the pad and In PTH electrolysis deposition are done after the holes
are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the
Fig 9 thickness, Finally the boards are screened, and plated
with metal. The amount of plating used in the hole depends
on the number of layers in the printed circuit board, however
only the least amount of metal is used for this process.
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-
diameter, drill bits are made up of solid coated tungsten

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carbide. Fig.14 shows the eyelets, which can be used to
repair if PTH or vias are damaged.

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Fig 12

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Fig 10

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P
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Fig 13
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Fig 11
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Fig 14
hole become, and particularly relevant to vias. Pads for
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components like resistors, capacitors and diodes should

be round, with around 70 thou. diameter being common.
Dual in line (DIL) components like IC’s are oval shaped
pads.
Pin.1 of the chip should be rectangular shape and other
pins are circular or oval.
Fig.12 shows the damaged pad which is to be reworked.
Plated-Through Hole
"Through-hole technology", refers the mounting system
used for electronic components inserted into holes in PCBs
and soldered to pads on the opposite side either by manual

110 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.4.166
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.167
Electronics Mechanic - Protection Devices and Electrical Control Circuits

Fuses-terminology-types-uses
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the purpose of the fuse in a circuit
• explain the types of fuse bases
• classify the different types of fuses and their uses.

Purpose of fuses : A fuse is a safety device used for the Cut - off factor : Time (period ) taken a fuse to interrupt
purpose of protecting a circuit against excess current. In the circuit in the event of a fault.
the event of excessive current, the fuse element melts
Fusing factor : Ratio between minimum fusing current
and opens up the circuit thereby protecting it from damage.
and current rating.
Symbols : These are the graphical symbols used to
illustrate an electrical fuse in electro - technical diagrams. fusing
Minimum fu sin g current

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Fusing factor =
General symbols of a fuse (Fig. 1a) Rated current

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Fuse with terminals and protective housing (Fig. 1b) The fusing factor for a re-wireable fuse varies between 1.4

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to 1.7 and may go up to 2.0, but for a HRC fuse it is 1.1
However, a fuse selected for over - current protection

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should not have a fusing factor of more than 1.4.

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The fusing factor for a re-wirable fuse varies between 1.4
to 1.7 and may go up to 2.0, but for a HRC fuse it is 1.1

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However, a fuse selected for over-current protection should
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not have a fusing factor of more than 1.4.

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Types of fuses used in domestic wiring:
Placement of fuses : In electrical installations, the fuses
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• Re-wirable type (up to 200A)

are always connected into the live wires (L1, L2 and L3 as
shown in Fig. 2) and never into the neutral N or the • Cartridge type (up to 1250A)
protective earth line (PE).
©

Rewirable type fuse (Fig. 3): The fuse element in this

type of fuse consists of a wire which may be replaced when
necessary. These fuses are simple in construction and
the initial cost as well as the renewal cost is very low.
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Terminology
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Fuse element : The part of the fuse which is designed

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to melt and open up a circuit.

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Fuse - carrier : The removable portion for carrying the

fuse element.
Fuse base : The fixed part of the fuse provided with
terminals for connection to the circuit which is suitable The fuse elements used in this type are tinned copper wire,
for the reception of the fuse - carrier. lead and tin alloy. Approximate sizes of fuse elements of
Current rating : Safe maximum current that can pass tinned copper wire or aluminium wire for use in semi-
continuously without overheating. enclosed fuses are shown in Table 1.
Fusing current : The current at which the fuse element The fuse element will melt after approximately 2 minutes
melts when carrying a current equal to twice the current rating.
However, the cut-off time factor varies in rewirable fuses
due to:
111
• the construction of the carrier (design of fuse-carrier/ 29.0 58 21 .8128 --
base)
30.0 60 -- ---- 1.00
• the manner in which the fuse wire has been fitted 34.0 70 20 .9144 1.22
• the length of time the fuse was in service 37.5 80 -- ---- 1.25
38.0 81 19 1.016 --
• ambient temperature
40.0 90 -- ---- 1.32
• the amount of current etc.
43.0 98 -- 1.1176 --
Small fuse wires in parallel in a carrier to carry a large 43.5 100 -- ---- 1.40
current should be avoided, as far as possible. The actual 45.0 106 18 1.2192 --
rating becomes less than the sum of the ratings of the
55.0 120 -- ---- 1.60
individual strands. A paralleling factor of 0.7 to 0.8 is used
to multiply the sum of the rating of individual strands to get 62.0 130 -- ---- 1.70
the actual current rating. 65.0 135 17 1.4224 --
Example: 35 SWG - copper wire has a fuse rating of 5 66.0 140 -- ---- 1.80
amps, and 3 strands in parallel together will a have current 69.0 150 -- ---- 1.85

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rating equal to 5x3x0.8=12 amps when 0.8 is taken as the 73.0 166 16 1.6256 --
paralleling factor. 75.0 175 -- --- 2.06

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Disadvantages of rewirable type fuse: 78.0 197 15 1.8288 --

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• Deterioration of the fuse element by oxidation due to 80.0 200 -- ---- 2.24
heating. 102.0 230 14 2.032 --

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130.0 295 13 2.3368 --
• Lack of discrimination.

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Table 1 • Effected by the fluctuation of the ambient temperature.
Approxi- Alumi- • Premature failure due to deterioration under normal

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Tinned copper wire
Current mate nium load.
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fusing
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rating wire • Low speed operation (poor cut-off factor)
for current Diameter dia. in
S.W.G.
Amp. in mm • External flash or arc on blowing.
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mm
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• Poor rupturing capacity (under short-circuit condition).

1.5 3 40 .12192 --
• Wrong rating possible by human error.
©

2.5 4 39 .13208 --
Rewirable-type fuses up to 16A rated current should not be
3.0 5 38 .1524 .195
used in locations where short circuit level exceeds 2 KA,
4.0 6 37 .17272 -- and those of higher ratings in locations where the S.C. level
5.0 8 35 .21336 -- exceeds 4 KA. (I.S. 2086-963)
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5.5 9 34 .23368 -- Cartridge fuses: Cartridge fuses are developed to overcome

6.0 10 33 .254 .307 the disadvantages of the rewirable fuses. Due to high
7.0 11 32 .27432 -- temperature, prolonged use and oxidation, rewirable fuses
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8.0 12 31 .29464 -- deteriorate and interrupt the supply even when carrying
normal current. As cartridge fuse elements are enclosed in
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8.5 13 30 .31496 --
an air tight chamber, deterioration does not take place.
9.5 15 -- ---- .400 Further the rating of a cartridge fuse could be accurately
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10.0 16 29 .34544 -- determined from its marking. However, the cost of

12.0 18 28 .37592 -- replacement of cartridge fuses is more than that of rewirable
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13.0 20 -- ---- .475 fuses.

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13.5 25 -- ---- .560 Cartridge fuses can be grouped as those with a:

14.0 28 26 .4572 -- • low rupturing capacity (Say rupturing capacity up to 50
15.0 30 25 .508 .630 KA.)
17.0 33 24 .5588 -- • high rupturing capacity. (Say rupturing capacity above
18.0 35 -- ---- .710 80 KA.)
20.0 38 23 .6096 -- Rupturing capacity is the ability of a fuse to open the faulty
21.0 40 -- ---- -- circuit without much arcing or damage to itself. For
22.0 45 -- ---- .750 domestic installations, low rupturing capacity fuses are
used whereas for high power factory installations, and for
24.0 48 22 .7112 .850
installations connected from high power sources, high
25.0 50 -- ---- .90 rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses are used.

112 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.167
Low rupturing capacity cartridge fuses can be further is connected between two metallic caps.
divided into:
This fuse can be plugged into the fuse socket as shown in
• Ferrule-contact cartridge fuses.(Fig. 4) Fig 4a or it can be fitted into a fuse base with a screw, in
a fuse- holder of the type shown in Fig. 4b.
Diazed screw-type cartridge fuses: This is shown in Fig. 5.
It is also not of a rewirable type. This type of fuse is
commonly used in domestic and industrial electrical
installations in many countries. It consists of the following
parts as shown in Fig. 5.
• Screw cap or fuse cartridge-holder (1)
• Fuse cartridge (2)
• Fitting screw or contact screw (3)
• Protective plastic or ceramic ring (4)
• Fuse base or fuse socket (5)

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Fuse cartridges are available for rated electric currents of: 2,

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4, 6, 10, 16, 20, 25, 35, 50 and 63 amperes. To prevent the
insertion of a fuse cartridge having a larger current rating than

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intended, the foot contacts of the fuse cartridges have
different diameters for each rated current(the smaller the

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current the smaller the diameter of the foot contact). As there
is also a separate fitting screw for each type of cartridge, it

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is not possible to insert, let's say, a 35 amp. fuse cartridge
• diazed screw-type cartridge fuses.(Fig. 5) into the fitting screw of a 25 amp fuse cartridge.

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Fig. 6 shows the inside of one of the afore-mentioned fuse
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cartridges. It shows the ceramic body of the cartridge with

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its foot and head contacts. The two contacts are linked by
a fuse wire which is embedded in sand. Each cartridge has
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a break indicator which will be ejected from the cartridge if

the fuse wire is burnt out. The parts of this cartridge, shown
in Fig. 6, are:
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B ©
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• head contact(1)
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• break indicator(2)
• fuse wire(3)
N

• sand filling(4)
• ceramic fuse body(5)
• foot contact. (6)
Ferrule-contact cartridge fuses: This type, shown in Fig. 4, For easy identification of the fuse cartridges and the
is used for protecting electrical and electronic circuits. corresponding fitting screws, they are marked with various
These are available in 25, 50, 100, 200, 250, 500 colours at the places shown in Fig. 7. For each current
milliamperes, and also in 1,2,5,6,10,16 & 32 amperes rating, a different colour is used.
capacity. Normally the current rating is written on one side
of the cap, and while replacing, the same capacity fuse
should be used. Its body is made of glass and the fuse wire
E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.167 113
 and normal loads whereas the delayed- action type is used for
motor circuits and highly inductive circuits.
High rupturing capacity fuses (Fig. 9): They are cylindrical
in shape and are made of a ceramic body filled in with a
chemically treated filling powder or silica to quench the
arcing quickly without any fire hazard.

Pink - 2 amperes Blue - 20 amperes

Brown - 4 amperes Yellow - 25 amperes
Green - 6 amperes Black - 35 amperes
Red - 10 amperes White - 50 amperes
Grey - 16 amperes Copper - 63 amperes
Fig 8 shows the flow of the electric current through the fuse
base and the fuse. In order to prevent the accidental Normally a silver alloy is used as the fusing element and

D
touching of a live line, the electrical supply must be when it melts due to the excessive current, it combines
connected to the terminal which is connected to the fixing with the surrounded sand/powder, and forms small globules

E
screw at the bottom of the base. without making an arc, spark or gas. HRC fuses can open
a short-circuited circuit within 0.013 second. It has an

H
indicator to show the fuse has blown. The rupturing
capacity of the fuse could be calculated from the following

S
formula.

LI
Rupturing capacity in MVA = Fault current  Circuit
in amperes voltage

B
E I
10 6
R IM
U
As HRC fuses are capable of opening circuits having very
high faulty currents, these are preferred in high power
P
E N

circuits even though the replacement cost is high.

©

Diazed type fuses are available in two categories,

a)quick-response type and b) delayed-action type.
The quick-response type is used for heating circuits

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)- types- construction- working- specification

B

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• explain the types, working principle and parts of a miniature circuit breaker.
O

• state the advantages and disadvantages of MCB

• explain the working of combination circuit breaker (ELCB + MCB)
T

• state the categories of MCB’s

• state the applications of MCBs.
T

Circuit Breaker a Thermal Magnetic

O

A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable b Magnetic hydraulic and

of making, and breaking currents under normal circuit c Assisted bimetallic
N

condition and also making, carrying current under normal

Thermal magnetic MCB
condition and breaking currents under abnormal circuit
conditions like a short circuit. As shown in Fig. 1, the switching mechanism is housed
in a moulded housing with phenolic moulded high
Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
mechanically strong switching dolly. This type of MCB is
A miniature circuit breaker is a compact mechanical also provided with bimetallic over load release.
device for making and breaking a circuit both in normal
The electric current gets through two contact tips one
condition and in abnormal conditions such as those of over
each on moving and fixed contact of silver graphite.
current and short circuit.
An arcing chamber incorporating de-ionising arc chutes
Types of MCB’s
for control and quick suppression of the arc is provided in
MCBs are manufactured with three different principles of the gap between two contacts. It has a ribbed opening
operation namely
114 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.167
 by arranging a powerful magnetic pull to deflect the bimetal
as shown in Fig. 4.

D
E
closed by metal grid which allows ventilation and escape
of gases.

H
For protection against over-load and short circuit, MCB’s
have thermal magnetic release unit. The overload is taken

S
care of by bimetallic strip, short circuit currents and over
loads of more than 100% are taken care by solenoid.

LI
Working
The bimetallic strip when flexing due to temperature rise

B
E I
caused by increasing normal rated current beyond 130%
R IM
U
rotates a trip lever carrying an armature to which it is to
brought into field of a solenoid. The solenoid is designed
P
to attract the armature to full position at about 700%
E N

overload or instantaneous short circuit current.

For initial portion of current wise (130% to 400%) tripping
©

of circuit breaker is due to thermal action, between 400 to

700% tripping is due to combined thermal and magnetic
action and beyond 700% due to fully magnetic action.
Magnetic hydraulic MCB
B

Magnetic hydraulic circuit breaker operates on the principle

of a solenoid and hydraulically damped plunger.
Construction and working
O

A movable ferrous plunger is held against a non-ferrous

tube containing polysiloxane liquid which have flat
T

temperature viscosity characteristic in temperature range

of 20 to 60°C. The solenoid is a series coil in the circuit
T

of MCB. As the plunger moves towards a pole piece, the

reluctance of magnetic path.
O

Containing the armature is cumulatively reduced leading

N

to some magneto motive force producing a progressively

increasing flux. The armature is then attracted causing This method utilises the magnetic field which is produced
the mechanism to trip and open the controls on overload when a current flows through the conductor. By locating
or short circuit. Instantaneous tripping occurs on very the bimetal near to a substantial section of ferrous material,
large currents 7 to 8 times the full load current. The the magnetic field associated with current flowing in the
construction of magnetic hydraulic tripping mechanism is bimetal will cause a sideways pull to be applied to the
as shown in Fig. 2. bimetal element, attracting the bimetal towards the ferrous
Assisted Bimetal Tripping MCB (Fig. 3) material. This sideways pull is arranged to coincide in
In the assisted bimetal form of construction, the time delay direction with the normal direction of movement of the
characteristic is provided by a thermally operated bimetal bimetal, which is powerful enough to deflect the bimetal (in
element which may be either directly or indirectly heated. heavy over load or short circuit condition) sufficiently to trip
Instantaneous tripping in short circuit condition is achieved the breaker.
E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.167 115
Design and rating of MCBs and are available in the following various combination of
poles and current ratings. (Fig. 5)
MCBs are normally rated for 25°C ambient temperature

D
E
used instead of using separate MCB and ELCB (earth
Sl.No. No. of poles Current

H
leakage circuit breaker). This combination not only allows
1 Single pole MCB 0.5 to 60A reduction in costs, but also ensures extremely efficient

S
protection from all low voltage and medium voltage electrical
2 Double pole MCB 5 to 60A
hazard of shock and fire caused by

LI
(ie. 2 MCBs with
common trip bar) 1 over current
2 short circuit

B
E I
3 Triple pole MCB 5 to 60A
R IM
3 earth leakage
4 Four pole MCB 5 to 60A
U
4 earth fault.
Isolators
P
Earth leakage circuit breakers are now
E N

An isolator is a switch only. These cannot be used for generally called Residual Current (RC) circuit
automatic tripping. Isolators are not meant for either breakers.
closing or breaking the circuit on load or short circuit.
©

Isolators have the same physical dimensions of MCBs Working

and are available in the following configurations and The RC + MCB combination employs a modular concept
ratings. for efficient operation. The MCB module consists of a
thermal trip (bimetallic) for overload protection and a
No. of poles Current rating
B

hammer trip (magnetic) for short circuit.

Single pole 30, 60, and 100A Operating system
The thermostatic bimetal has close calibration to provide
O

Single pole and Neutral 30, 60, and 100A

reliable protection without nuisance tripping.
Double pole 60, and 100A The hammer trip active current limiting system provides
T

Triple pole 60, and 100A high rupturing capacity during short circuits. The typical
trip time for clearing short circuits is only 2 to 3 millisecond.
T

Four pole 60 and 100A Specially designed arc chutes, arc runner and silver
graphite contact system ensures high reliability and a long
O

Breakers with neutral

maintenance free operating life.
Breakers are available with switched neutral for applications The residual current module works on the core balance
N

where the neutral is to be disconnected when the mains transformer principle. It includes high permeability magnetic
are switched off. They are available in current ratings from core and temperature resistant insulated copper wire
5 to 60 amp and in the following configurations. wound with high degree of symmetry to eliminate nuisance
1 Single pole and neutral tripping. The residual current signal from the core balance
transformer is fed to a super sensitive permanent relay.
2 Double pole and neutral This relay is calibrated to operate at about 100 micro volt
3 Triple pole and neutral Amp directly on the residual current energy. The relay
operates when the leakage power threshold is crossed
ELCB + MCB combination circuit breaker and activates the MCB tripping mechanism internally. All
Now a days some manufacturers have introduced an tripping mechanisms are truly current operated. They do
ELCB + MCB combination circuit breaker which can be not require any auxiliary power source other than the fault
leakage current energy itself.
116 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.167
The rated load currents of the RC + MCB combination are
6A, 10A, 16A, 20A, 25A, 32A and 35A. The bimetal trip is
so adjusted that no tripping will occur upto 1.3 times the
rated current.
Categories of MCBs
Certain manufacturers like Indo Kopp manufacture MCBs
in three different categories namely ‘L’ series, ‘G’ series,
and ‘DC’ series.
‘L’ series MCBs
‘L’ series MCBs are designed to protect circuits with
resistive loads. The tripping factor for current ratings upto
10 A is 1.6 In and for current ratings above 10 A is 1.35 In.
They are ideal for protection of equipment like Geysers,
ovens and general lighting systems.
‘G’ series MCBs 2 MCCBs provide equal amount of protection against
‘G’ series MCBs are designed to protect circuits with high faults as switch gears having HRC fuses.
inductive loads. The over load tripping factor for all current

D
Disadvantages
ratings is above 1.1 In. The magnetic tripping commences 1 MCCBs are much costlier.

E
above 7 times the rated current. G series MCBs are Application of (RC + MCB) combination circuit
suitable for protection of motors, air conditioners, hand breakers

H
tools, halogen lamps etc.,
1 All residential premises can have incoming protection
‘DC’ series MCBs after energy meter instead of fixing fuse and main

S
‘DC’ series MCBs are suitable for voltage upto 220V DC switch.
and have a breaking capacity up to 6kA.

LI
2 All domestic equipments like water heaters, washing
The tripping characteristics are similar to ‘L’ an ‘G’ series. machines, electric iron, pump sets etc.,
They find extensive application in DC controls, locomotives, 3 All construction and outdoor electrical equipments

B
E I
diesel generator sets etc., such as lifts, hosts, vibrators, polishing machines
R IM

Advantages of MCB
U
etc.,
1 Tripping characteristic setting can be done during 4 All industrial distribution and equipments
P
manufacture and it cannot be altered.
E N

5 All agriculture pump sets.

2 They will trip for a sustained overload but not for 6 Operation theaters and electrically operated medical
transient overload. equipment such as X-ray machines.
©

3 Faulty circuit is easily identified 7 All neon sign installations

4 Supply can be quickly restored 8 All low and medium voltage electrical distributions.
5 Tamper proof Technical specification of MCBs
6 Multiple units are available. Related voltage 240/ 415V AC 50Hz
Disadvantages
B

Up to 220V DC
1 Expensive Current rating 0.5, 1, 1.6, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.5,
2 More mechanically moving parts
O

10, 16, 20, 25, 32, 35, 40 and 63A.

3 They require regular testing to ensure satisfactory No. of poles 1,2,3
operation.
T

Types ‘L’ ‘G’ and ‘DC’ series

4 Their characteristics are affected by the ambient
Breaking capacity Upto to 9kA
temperature.
T

Mechanical life 1,00, 000 operations

Moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB)
Electrical life 50,000 operations
Moulded case circuit breakers are similar to thermo
O

magnetic type MCBs except that these are available in Overload capacity 15% over load
higher ratings of 100 to 800amp at 500V 3-phase. Housing Glass fiber reinforced polyester
N

In MCCB, thermal and magnetic releases are adjustable. Fixing Snap fixing on 35 mm DIN channel
A shunt release is also incorporated for remote tripping Types of terminals 25mm² box type terminal at the
and interlocking at MCCB. MCCBs are provided with incoming and outgoing.
under voltages release. There are two types of MCCB. Definition of Breaking capacity of MCB
1 Thermal magnetic type The short circuit breaking capacity of the circuit breaker is
2 Fully magnetic type the current more than the prospective fault current at the
The constructional feature of a fully magnetic MCCB point of installation of circuit breaker. Prospective fault
design is shown in Fig. 6. current is the maximum fault current which may have to be
Advantages of MCCB interrupted by the circuit breaker.
1 MCCBs occupy much less space in comparison to
fuse switch units or switch fuse units.
E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.167 117
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168
Electronics Mechanic - Protection Devices and Electrical Control Circuits

ELCB-types-working principle-specification
Objectives : At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• explain the working principle, different types and construction of an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
• explain the technical specifications of ELCB’s.

Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers

The sensation of electric shock is caused by the flow of
electric current through the human body to earth. When
a person comes in contact with electrically live objects like
water heaters, washing machines electric iron etc., the
extent of damages caused by this current depends on its

D
magnitude and duration.
This kind of current is called the leakage current which

E
comes in milli-amps. These leakage current being very

H
small in magnitude go undetected by the fuses/MCBs are
the major cause for the fires due to electricity.

S
The leakage current to earth also results in the wastage of
energy and excessive billing for electricity not actually

LI
used.
Residual current operated circuit breakers are inter-

B
E I
nationally accepted means of providing maximum protection
R IM

from electric shocks and fires caused due to earth leakage

U
current and also prevents the waste of electrical energy.
P
These residual current circuit breakers (RCCB) are
E N

popularly called as Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB).

Fig 1 shows the effect of electric current on human body
in various levels represented in graph.
©

Basically ELCBs are of two types namely voltage operated

ELCBs and the current operated ELCBs.
Voltage operated ELCB (Fig 2)
B

This device is used for making and breaking a circuit. It

automatically trips or breaks the circuit when the potential
O

difference between the protected metal work of the

installation and the general mass of earth exceeds 24V.
T

This voltage signal will cause the relay to operate. Voltage

operated ELCBs are meant to be used where it is not The above circuit shows the principle of operation of a
practicable to meet the requirements of IEE wiring voltage operated ELCB.
T

regulation by direct earthing or where additional protection

Current operated ELCB
is desirable. (Fig 2)
O

This device is used for making and breaking a circuit and

for breaking a circuit automatically when the vector sum of
N

current in all conductors feeding the circuit controlled by

the circuit breaker differs from zero by a predetermined
amount. Current operated ELCBs are much more reliable
in operation, easier to install and maintain.
Construction of ELCB
It consists of a Toroid ring made of high permeability
magnetic material. It has two primary windings each
carrying the current flowing through phase and neutral of
the installation. The secondary winding is connected to a
highly sensitive electron magnetic trip relay which operates
the trip mechanism.
118
Working principle of ELCB (RCD breaker)
The residual current device is a circuit breaker which
continuously compares the current in the phase with that
in the neutral. The difference between the two is called as
the residual current which is flowing to earth.
The purpose of the residual current device is to monitor the
residual current and to switch off the circuit if it rises from
a preset level. The arrangement of RCD is shown in
Fig. 3.

D
E
H
The main contacts are closed against the pressure of a

S
spring which, provides the energy to open them when the

LI
device trips. Phase and neutral current pass through
identical coils wound in opposing direction on a magnetic
circuit, so that each coil will provide equal but opposing

B
E I
numbers of ampere turns when there is no residual
R IM

current. The opposing ampere turns will cancel and no

U
magnetic flux will be set up in the magnetic circuit.
P
Fig 4 shows a 4 pole Residual current circuit breaker being
E N

connected in a 3-phase 4 wire system load circuit.

O
B ©
T
T

Nominal voltage - 240/415V 50Hz.

O

Sensitivities: ELCBs are designed to trip at leakage

Test Switch
currents of 30mA, 100mA, and 300mA.
N

As shown in Fig 5 test switch is a requirement of BS842.

Electrical life: More then 10,000 operations.
It is used to test the functioning of ELCB. When the test
button is pressed it circulates additional current through Mechanical life: 20000 to 100000 operations.
neutral coil which is determined by the value of current Tripping time - < 30ms.
limiting resistor R. As a result there exists a difference in
current flowing through phase and neutral coils and hence Time delayed RCCB
the ELCB trips off. There are cases, where more than one RCCB is used in an
Technical specification installation, for example a complete installation may be
protected by an RCCB rated at 100mA, while a socket
The current ratings of ELCB are 25A, 40A and 63A. intended for equipment may be protected by 30mA device.
No. of poles - 2 and 4 Discrimination of the two devices then becomes important.

E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168 119
For example an earth fault occurs in the equipment giving rated tripping current of the R.C.C.B.(ELCB) in ampere
an earth fault current of 250mA. Since the fault current is should not exceed 50 (i.e) ZE x It < 50.
higher, than the operating current of both devices both will
Where Z = Earth wire loop impedance
trip. It does not follow, that the device with smaller
operating current will trip first. This is a lack of discrimination It = Rated tripping current in Ampere
between the two devices. To ensure proper discrimination, Example
the device with a larger operating current, has a deliberate
time delay built into its operation. It is called time-delayed An ELCB with a rated tripping current of 30mA, the
RCCB. maximum possible Earth fault loop impedance will be
Calculation of Earth fault loop impedance 50
ZE (max)= 50/It =  1666 ohm
Earth wire from an equipment to the earth electrode is 0.03
called earth loop. Its impedance should not be more than
50 earth fault loop impedance in ohm, multiplied by the

Contactors-parts-functions-troubleshooting-symbols
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

D
• explain the basic contactor circuit with a single push-button station for start and stop
• state the function of a no-volt coil, its rated voltage, position of operation, its common troubles, their causes

E
and remedies.

H
i) Contactors: The contactor forms the main part in all the three sets of normally open, main contacts between
starters. A contactor is defined as a switching device terminals 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, two sets of normally

S
capable of making, carrying and breaking a load circuit at open auxiliary contacts between terminals 23 and 24, 13
a frequency of 60 cycles per hour or more. It may be and 14, and one set of normally closed auxiliary contact

LI
operated by hand (mechanical), electromagnetic, pneumatic between terminals 21 and 22. Auxiliary contacts carry less
or electro-pneumatic relays. current than main contacts. Normally contactors will not

B
E I
have the push-button stations and O.L. relay as an integrated
The contactors shown in Fig. 1 consist of main contacts,
R IM

part, but will have to be used as separate accessories

auxiliary contacts and no-volt coil. As per Fig 1, there are
U
along with the contactor to form the starter function.
The main parts of a magnetic contactor are shown in
P
E N

Fig. 1, and Fig. 2 shows the schematic diagram of the

contactor when used along with fused switches (ICTP),
push-button stations and OL relay for connecting a squirrel
©

cage motor for starting directly from the main supply. In the
same way the direct on-line starter consists of a contactor,
OL relay and push-button station in an enclosure.
B
O
T
T
O
N

120 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168
Functional description
Power circuit: As shown in Fig.2, when the main ICTP
switch is closed and the contactor K1 is operated, all the
three windings U V & W of the motor are connected to the
supply terminals R Y B via the ICTP switch, contactor and
OL relay.
The overload current relay (bimetallic relay) protects the
motor from overload (`motor protection'), while the fuses
F1/F2/F3 protect the motor circuit in the event of
phase-to-phase or phase-to-frame short circuits.
Control circuits
Push-button actuation from one operating location:
As shown in the complete circuit Fig. 3, and the control
circuit Fig. 3, when the `ON' push-button S3 is pressed, the
control circuit closes, the contactor coil is energised and

D
the contactor K1 closes. An auxiliary, a normally open
contact 13,14 is also actuated together with the main

E
contacts of K1. If this normally open contact is connected
in parallel with S3, it is called a self-holding auxiliary

H
contact.

S
After S3 is released, the current flows via this self-holding
contact 13,14, and the contactor remains closed. In order

LI
to open the contactor, S2 must be actuated. If S3 and S2 are
actuated simultaneously, the contactor is unaffected.

B
E I
In the event of overloads in the power circuit, the normally
R IM

closed contact 95 and 96 of overload relay `O' opens, and

U
switches off the control circuit. Thereby K1 switches `OFF'
the motor circuit.
P
E N

Once the contact between 95 and 96, is opened due to the

Purpose of overload relays: The overload relays protect the
activation of the overload relay `O', the contacts stay open
motor against repeated, excessive momentary surges or
and the motor cannot be started again by pushing the `ON'
©

normal overloads existing for long periods, or high currents

button S3. It has to be reset to normally closed position by
caused in two phases by the single-phasing effect. These
pushing the reset button. In certain starters, the reset could
relays have characteristics which help the relay to open the
be done by pushing the `OFF' button which is in line with
contactor in 10 seconds if the motor current is 500 percent
the overload relay `O'.
of the full load current, or in 4 minutes if the current is 150
B

percent of the full load current.

Tripping of starters: A starter may trip due to the following
O

reasons.
– Low voltage or failure of power supply
T

– Persistent overload on the motor

In the first instance, the tripping occurs through the coil
T

which opens the contacts when the voltage falls below a

certain level. The starter can be restarted as soon as the
O

supply is back to normal.

Push-button actuation from two operating locations:
N

The relay trips the starter when there is an overload. It can

If it is desired to switch a contactor off and on from either be restarted only after the relay is reset and the load
of the two locations, the corresponding OFF push-buttons becomes normal.
should be connected in series, and the ON push-buttons
No-volt coil: A no-volt coil consists of generally more
in parallel, as shown in the complete diagram Fig 4 and the
number of turns of thin gauge of wire.
control diagram Fig. 5.
Coil voltages: Selection of coils depends on the actual
If either of the two ON push-buttons is actuated, K1 is supply voltage available. A wide variety of coil voltages like
energised and holds itself closed with the help of 24V, 40V, 110V, 220 V 230/250 V, 380V 400/440V AC or
normally-open contact 13 & 14 which is closed by contactor DC are available as standard for contactors and starters.
K1. If either of the two OFF push -buttons is actuated, the
contactor opens. Troubleshooting in contactor: Table 1 gives the common
symptoms their causes and remedies.

E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168 121
 Table 1
Symptoms Causes Remedies
Motor does not start when the Open in no-volt coil circuit. Check the main voltage for lower
'start' button is pressed. However on than acceptable value. Rectify the
pressing the armature of the main voltage. Check the control
contactor manually, motor starts circuit wiring for loose connection.
and runs. Check the resistance of the no-volt
coil winding. If found incorrect
replace the coil.
Motor starts when `ON' button is Auxiliary contact in Check the parallel connection from
pressed. It however stops parallel with the start-button `ON' button terminals to the auxiliary
immediately when `ON' button is is not closing. contact of the contactor.
released. Rectify the defect.
Check the auxiliary contact points of
the contactor for erosion and pittings.
Replace, if found defective.
Motor does start when the start- Movable armature and fixed Dust or dirt or grit between the mating

D
button is pressed. However, a limb of electromagnet are surfaces of the electromagnetic core.
humming or chattering noise comes not stably attracted. Clean them.

E
from the starter. Low voltage supply. Find the cause
and rectify the defect.

H
Break in the shading ring in the case
of AC magnet.

S
Failure of contactor due to too much Higher incoming supply rating. Higher supply voltage than normal.
heating of the `No' volt coil. No-volt coil rating is not high. Reduce the incoming voltage.

LI
Voltage rating of the no-volt coil is

B less. Replace with standard rating,

E I
according to the main supply.
R IM
U
Motor does not restart immediately It takes a little time for the thermal Wait for 2 to 4 minutes before re-
P
after tripping of OL relay even bimetal to cool and reset. starting.
E N

though OL relay was reset.

Coil does not get energised even Open-circuited NVC. Check the nylon strip on relay.
though supply voltage is found NVC burnt out.
©

across the no-volt coil terminals. Check the nylon button below the
start button
Replace, if necessary.
Relay coil has been changed. Control circuit of relay open. Check the control circuit for open.
However motor does not start
B

when the start-button is pressed. Clean the control station contacts.

O

Overload relay not reset.

Humming or chattering noise. Low voltage. Feed the rated voltage.

T

Magnetic face between yoke Clean the surfaces of yoke and

T

and armature is not clean. armature.

Shading ring on iron core missing. Provide shading ring in the iron core
O

Relays-types-operations-specification-symbols
N

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• define a relay
• classify relays according to the operating force and function
• state the common codes used for specifying contacts and poles
• specify a relay
• explain the function of the shading coil in an AC relay
• state the causes of the failure of the relay
• identify the symbols used in relay as per I.S.2032 (Part XXVII).
Relay: A relay is a device which opens or closes an Relays are extensively used in electronics, electrical
auxiliary circuit under predetermined conditions in the engineering and many other fields.
main circuit.
122 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168
There are relays that are sensitive to conditions of voltage, latching device that locks the armature in the operated
current, temperature, frequency or some combination of position after the coil has been de-energised. Manual
these conditions. tripping of the locking mechanism, re-sets the relay.
Relays are also classified according to their main operating Electrical reset relays: An electrical re-set relay shown
force as stated under. in Fig. 2 has the same operating mechanism, but it
includes a second coil and armature to trip the latching
– Electromagnetic relays
mechanism. This system allows remote re-setting of the
– Thermal relays relays to their original position.
Electromagnetic relay: A relay switch assembly is a
combination of movable and fixed low-resistance contacts
that open or close a circuit. The fixed contacts are
mounted on springs or brackets, which have some
flexibility. The movable contacts are mounted on a spring
or a hinged arm that is moved by the electromagnet in the
relay as shown in Fig. 1.

D
E
Reed relays

H
Reed relays physically look different than other kinds of

S
relays. They consist of essentially magnetically actuated
reed switches, with actuating solenoids or coils.

LI
In the reed relay, freedom from contamination and the
limited number of moving parts, avoid many disadvantages

B
E I
of the conventional electromechanical relays. In addition
R IM

to the above, the contact resistance is kept to minimum

U
due to the fact the contact points are made either with gold
The other types of relays coming under this group are as
or rhodium. Further, these relays need very low power to
P
E N

follows.
operate and can handle a 250 watt solenoid load on their
Current sensing relay: A current sensing relay functions contacts.
whenever the current in the coil reaches an upper limit. The
©

There are three types of reed relays namely

difference between the current specified for pick up (must
operate) and non-pick up (must not operate) is usually – dry-reed relay
closely controlled. The difference in current may also be
– ferreed relay
closely controlled for drop out (must release) and non-drop
B

out (must not release). – mercury wetted contact relay

Under-current relay: Under-current relay is an alarm or Dry reed relay: Fig.3 shows this type of relay. Two
opposing reeds are sealed in to a narrow glass tube. The
O

protective relay. It is specifically designed to operate when

the current falls below a predetermined value. reeds overlap at their free ends. At the contact area, they
T

are usually plated with gold or rhodium to produce a low

Voltage sensing relay: A voltage sensing relay is used
contact resistance. They may have multipole multicontact
where a condition of under-voltage or over-voltage may
designs.
T

cause a damage to the equipment. For example, these

types of relays are used in voltage stabilizers. Either a
O

proportional AC voltage derived from a transformer or a

proportional DC derived from a transformer and rectifier is
N

used for this purpose.

Latching relays
Ferreed relay: The word ferreed denotes a reed relay in
Latching relays are capable of maintaining their contacts
which the dry-reed switch is contained with one or more
in the last assumed position without the maintained
magnetic members. The magnetisation can be changed
current in the coil. These relays hold their contacts in
by current pulses in associated coils.
position after power is cut off.
As shown in Fig. 4 in the magnetised state the magnetic
There are two basic kinds of latching relays called
members supply a field strong enough to close the
mechanical reset and electrical reset.
contacts. In the other magnetised state, the field is too
Mechanical re-set relays: Mechanical re-set relays weak to hold the contacts closed. An operating pulse
have a coil, an armature mechanism, and a mechanical through the coil produces the first state. A release pulse
E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168 123
produces the second state. The contacts can break or group. It takes time for the heating element to reach the
make within 5 micro-seconds duration. necessary temperature and more time to raise the
temperature of the bimetallic element. Therefore, thermal
relays are often used as time-delay relays.

Mercury wetted contact relay: As shown in Fig. 5 this

relay consists of a glass enclosed reed with its base
immersed in a pool of mercury. When the coil surrounding
the capsule is activated, mercury makes the contact

D
between fixed and movable contacts.

E
H
S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
Poles and contacts: Relays may operate single or as
multi-poles and may open or close specified contacts. In
P
writing specifications certain abbreviations as stated below
E N

Impulse relay: The impulse relay shown in Fig. 6 is a

are commonly used.
special single-coil relay. It has an armature-driven
mechanism that alternatively assumes one of two positions SP - Single pole
©

as the coil is pulsed. This mechanism moves the contact

SB - Single break
from one position to the other and back again as electrical
pulses are received. The relay can operate on AC or DC ST - Single throw
power.
DB - Double break
B

DP - Double pole
DM - Double make
O

DT - Double throw
T

NO - Normally open
3P - Three pole
T

NC - Normally closed
O

4P - Four pole
Clapper-type armature relay: The simplest contact
N

arrangement used in armature relays is the break-make or For example a 4PDT has a four-pole, double throw contact
transfer-contact combination. A clapper-type armature, arrangement.
shown in Fig. 7 opens or closes the contacts. A movable NO indicates the contacts are open in the unoperated
contact is attached directly to the armature by means of position of the relay and they are called as normally open
a flexible strip of metal. When the electromagnet operates, (NO) contacts.
the armature moves this contact, opening and closing the
two sets of contacts. NC indicates the contacts are closed in the unoperated
position of the relay and they are called normally closed
Thermal relay: A thermal relay shown in Fig. 8 is one that (NC) contacts.
operates by changes in temperature. Most of the bimetallic
relays where the bimetallic element changes its shape, in Table 1 given below lists some of the relay contact
response to changes in temperature comes under this combinations.

124 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168
Enclosures and mounts: Relays are normally enclosed
in plastic or metal caps to protect the operating parts
against dust and environment. Relays can be mounted to
the circuit direct by plug-in system, PCB mounting or may
be wired separately using screws terminals. These types
are shown in Fig. 9.
AC relay: In an AC relay magnet, the magnetic field
continually changes direction. With a 50 Hz supply the
magnetic field passes through zero 100 times per second.
At the time of zero field, the armature starts to release.
Although the field quickly builds up in the reverse direction,
a noisy chatter can result.
Table 1
Design Sequence Symbol

1 SPST-NO Make 1

D
E
2 SPST-NC Break 1

H
SPDT Break1 before make 2

S
3 SPDT Make 1 before break 2

LI
B
E I
4 SPDT Break 1 before make 2 before
R IM

(B-M-B) break 3
U
5 SPDT-NO Center OFF
P
E N
©

6 SPDT-NC-NO Double break 1

(DB-DM) double make 2
B

7 SPST-NO Double make 1

O

(DM)
T

8 SPST-NC Double break 1

T

(DB)
O

9 SPDT-NC Double break 1

N

(DB-DM) double make 2

To eliminate chatter, a shading coil as shown in Fig. 10 is

placed near the tip of the magnet pole face. This shading
coil establishes a magnetic field that lags the main
magnetic field slightly and aids in keeping the magnet
sealed when the main field passes through zero.

E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168 125
 Types of overload relay
An AC relay should not be used in DC supply.
There are two types of overload relays. They are :
The AC relay when connected to DC supply,
will draw more current in the absence of – magnetic overload relay
inductive reactance and result in burning out – thermal (bimetallic) overload relay.
the coil.
Normally there are 3 coils in a magnetic relay and 3 sets
Causes of relay failures: Relay failures are usually caused of heater coils in a bimetallic relay so that two coils will
by the gradual deterioration of the parts. This deterioration operate in case of single phasing which help in avoiding the
can be electrical, mechanical or chemical in nature. burning out of the motor.
The environmental shirks that contribute to physical Magnetic overload relay: The magnetic overload relay
breakdown include large temperature changes, shock, coil is connected in series with the motor circuits. The coil
vibration and voltage or current changes. Therefore, it is of the magnetic relay must be wound with a wire, large
important that these factors are taken into consideration enough in size to pass the motor current. As these
to ensure reliable performance of relays. overload relays operate by current intensity and not by
heat, they are faster than bimetal relays.
In general, when a relay fails, look for the following.

D
As shown in Fig. 11, the magnetic coil carries the motor
1 Improper control voltage.
current through terminals 2 and 2' which is in series with

E
2 Dirt, grease or gum on contacts or moving parts. the power circuit. The relay contacts, 95 and 96, are in
3 Excessive heating of parts: discolouration or charred series with the control circuit. When a current more than

H
insulation on coil or base. a certain stipulated value, as set by the relay set scale,
passes through the power circuit, the magnetic flux

S
4 Bending of moving parts. produced by the coil will lift the plunger in an upward
5 Corrosion or deposits on metal parts. direction. This upward movement makes the plunger tip to

LI
push the relay contact lever, and the contact between
6 Excessive wear on moving parts. terminals 95 and 96 opens. This breaks the no volt coil

B
E I
7 Loose connections. circuit and the contactor opens the power circuit to the
R IM

motor. The relay contacts between terminals 95 and 96

8 Improper spring tension.
U
stay open till the rest-button (not shown in the figure) is
9 Improper control pressure. pressed.
P
E N

10 Improper functioning of the time delay device.

While specifying relays the following particulars are
©

necessary.
Type of operating voltage

AC or DC
B

Sequence of operation
Operating voltage volts
O

Current rating amps

T

Coil resistance ohms

Number of contacts NO NC
T

Number of poles
O

Type of mount Bimetallic overload relays: Most bimetallic relays can

Type of enclosure be adjusted to trip within a range of 85 to 115 per cent of
N

the nominal trip rating of the heater unit. This feature is

Symbols used in relay circuit: Following are the I.S. useful when the recommended heater size may result in
symbols connected with the relays as per I.S.2032(Part unnecessary tripping, while the next larger size will not
XXVII). These may be used along with the contact symbols give adequate protection. Ambient temperatures affect
for illustrating the function of the relay. thermally-operated overload relays.
Purpose of overload relays: ==The overload relays The tripping of the control circuit in the bimetallic relay
protect the motor against repeated, excessive momentary results from the difference of expansion of two dissimilar
surges or normal overloads existing for long periods, or metals fused together. Movement occurs if one of the
high currents caused in two phases by the single-phasing metal expands more than the other when subjected to
effect. These relays have characteristics which help the heat. A U-shaped bimetallic strip is used in the relay as
relay to open the contactor in 10 seconds if the motor shown in Fig. 12. The U-shaped strip and a heater element
current is 500 percent of the full load current or in 4 minute
126 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168
inserted in the centre of the U compartments for avoiding
possible uneven heating due to variations in the mounting
location of the heater element.
As shown in Fig 12, under normal conditions, the bimetallic
strip pushes the pin against the leaf-spring tension, and
the point contacts 95 and 96 are in a closed position, and
hence the no-volt coil circuit is completed while the motor
is running. When a higher current passes through the
heater coil connected to terminals 2 and 2', the heat
generated in the coil heats up the bimetal strip which
bends inward. Hence the pin retracts in the right hand
direction and the leaf-spring opens the contact between 95
and 96 to open the contactor. The relay cannot be reset
immediately as the heat in the bimetallic strips require
some time for cooling.

D
E
H
S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.168 127
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.169 - 171
Electronics Mechanic - Protection Devices and Electrical Control Circuits

DC motor - principle and types

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the working principle of a DC motor
• state the different types of DC motors.
Introduction: A DC motor is a machine which converts For example, a loop of coil carrying current, when placed
DC Power energy into mechanical energy. It is similar to under north and south poles as shown in Fig 1b, rotates
a DC generator in construction. Therefore, a DC machine in an anticlockwise direction.
can be used as a generator or as a motor.
Types of DC motors: As the DC motors are identical in
Principles of a DC motor: It works on the principle that construction to that of DC generators, they are also
whenever a current-carrying conductor is kept in a uniform classified as series, shunt and compound motors,
magnetic field, a force will be set up on the conductor so depending upon their connection of field winding with the

D
as to move it at right angles to the magnetic field. It can be armature and supply.
explained as follows. Fig 1a shows the uniform magnetic
When the armature and field are connected in series, as

E
field produced by a magnet, whereas Fig 1b shows the
magnetic field produced around the current-carrying shown in Fig 2, it is called a series motor.

H
conductor. Combining the effects of Fig 1a and Fig 1b in Fig 2
one figure, Fig 1c shows the resultant field produced by the

S
flux of the magnet and the flux of the current-carrying
conductor. Due to the interactions of these two fields, the

LI
flux above the conductor will be increased and the flux
below the conductor is decreased as represented in Fig

B
E I
1c. The increased flux above the conductor takes a curved
R IM

path thus producing a force on the conductor to move it

U
downwards.
When the armature and field are connected in parallel
P
Fleming's Left Hand Rule: The direction of force produced
E N

across supply, as shown in Fig 3, it is called a shunt

on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field motor.
can be determined by this rule. As shown in Fig 1a, hold
©

the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left hand Fig 3

Fig 1
B
O

When the motor has two field coils, one in series with the
T

armature and the other in parallel with the armature, as

shown in Fig 4, it is called a compound motor.
T

Fig 4
O
N

The relation between applied voltage, back

emf, armature voltage drop, speed and flux
mutually at right angles to each other, such that the of DC motor, method of changing direction of
forefinger is in the direction of flux, and the middle finger is rotation.
in the direction of current flow in the conductor; then the
thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor.
128
Necessity of starters: Since the armature is stationary its speed. But such an arrangement will be purely manual
before starting, the back emf which is proportional to and needs constant monitoring. For example, if the motor
speed is zero. As the armature resistance is very small, is running, the resistance `R' will be excluded, and the
if the rated voltage is applied to the armature, it will draw moving arm position will be at position `N'. In case the
many times the full load current, and thereby, there is supply fails, the motor will stop but the moving arm will still
every possibility of damaging the armature due to heavy be in position `N'. When the supply returns, as there is no
starting current. Therefore, the starting current should be resistance included in the armature circuit through `R', the
limited to a safe value. This is done by inserting a armature may draw heavy current and may get damaged.
resistance in series with the armature at the time of To prevent such a happening a device called starter is used
starting for a period of 5 to 10 seconds. As the motor gains in motor circuits.
in speed, back emf is built up, and then the starting
In addition to the automatic inclusion of resistance at the
resistance could be gradually cut off. Fig 5 shows such an
time of starting, the starters may protect the motor from
arrangement. Resistance R is fully included in the armature
overload and will switch `off' the motor, when supply fails.
circuit by keeping the moving arm in position `S' at the time
These starters are named according to the number of
of starting, and then it is moved towards position `N' to
connecting terminals as explained subsequently.
exclude the resistance `R' when the motor has picked up
Types of starters: Starters used to start the DC motors

D
Fig 5 are generally of three types.
• Two-point starter

E
• Three-point starter

H
• Four-point starter

S
LI
Speed control methods of a DC motor and their applications
B
E I
R IM

Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

U
• explain the principle and the methods of controlling the speed of a DC motor.
P
Principle of speed control in DC motors: In certain industrial Methods of speed control in DC shunt motors and
E N

applications, the variation of speed is a necessity. In DC compound motors

motors the speed can be changed to any specified value
Armature control method: This method works on the
easily. This is the main reason for certain industries to
©

principle that the speed of the DC motor could be varied by

prefer DC motors for drives rather than AC motors. The
varying the back emf. As the back emf = V – IaRa, by
speed of a DC motor can be varied, based on the following
varying the armature resistance we can obtain various
simple relationship.
speeds. A variable resistance called controller is connected
It is known that the applied voltage = back e m f + armature in series with the armature as shown in Fig 1. The
B

resistance voltage drop controller should be selected to carry the armature current
for a longer period.
V = Eb + IaRa.
O

Hence Eb = V – IaRa and also

T

PN Z
the back emf Eb =  = KN
60 A
T

where K is a constant.
O

Eb V - Ia R a
N

Therefore N = = ..........Eqn.1
k k
From the above expression, it is clear that the speed of
a DC motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb, and Let the initial and final speeds of the motor be N1 and N2,
inversely proportional to flux (Ø). Thus the speed of the DC and the back emf be Eb1 and Eb2 respectively,
motor can be varied by changing either the back emf Eb or
the flux Øor both. In fact, if the back emf is decreased
Eb1
across the armature, the speed decreases, and if the flux Then N1 = .....Eqn.2 .
is decreased the speed increases. The following are the k
most common methods of controlling the speed of DC Eb2
N2 = .....Eqn.3 .
motors based on the above principle. k

E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.169 - 171 129
By dividing Eqn.3 by Eqn.2 we have
E N
N2 = b2 1 .
Eb1

By varying the controller resistance value in the armature

circuit, the back emf can be varied from Eb1 to Eb2, thereby,
the speed can be varied from N1 to N2.
Advantages
This method is suitable for constant load drives where
speed variations from low speed up to normal speed are When the resistance is increased in the field circuit, the
only required. field current and the flux are reduced. Due to the reduction
of flux, the speed is increased.
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Speeds below normal can only be obtained. • Higher speeds i.e. above normal speed only can be
• After setting the required speed, it changes with the obtained which will be stable from no load to full load.

D
change in the load because of speed variations not only • As the magnitude of the field current is low, the power
due to control resistance but also due to load. Hence loss in the field rheostat is minimum.

E
a stable speed cannot be maintained when the load • Control is easy, economical and efficient.

H
changes.
Disadvantages
• Power loss in the control resistance is high due to the • Owing to the very weak field, a reduced torque is

S
higher current rating, leading to low efficiency of the obtained at top speeds.
motor.

LI
• The operation at high speeds with a weak field
• Cost of control resistance is high due to the fact it has leads to commutation difficulties unless inter-poles
to be designed to carry the armature current. are used.

B
E I
• Requires expensive arrangement to dissipate the heat Application of shunt field control: This method is the
R IM

developed in the control resistance.

U
most widely used speed control method where speeds
Application of the armature control method: Suitable above normal are required, and at the same time, the load
for DC shunt and compound motors used in printing
P
applied to the motor changes often.
E N

machines, cranes and hoists where the duration of low

speed operation is minimum.
©

The shunt field control method: This method works on

the principle that the speed of the DC motor could be varied
by varying the field flux. For this, a variable resistance
(rheostat) is connected in series with the shunt winding as
shown in Fig 2.
B
O
T
T
O
N

130 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.169 - 171
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.172 &173
Electronics Mechanic - Protection Devices and Electrical Control Circuits

Stepper motor
Objectives: At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• state the theory of stepper motor
• list and explain the each type of stepper motor
• state the advantages, disadvantages and application of stepper motor.

Basic theory 2 Permanent-magnet (Fig 2)

A stepper motor is basically a synchronous motor. There
are no brushes. It is an electromechanical device converts
Power pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The
shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete
step increments when Power command pulses are applied

D
to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has
several direct relationships to these applied input pulses.

E
The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to
the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the

H
motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency
of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly

S
related to the number of pulses applied.

LI
This device does not rotate continuously, but it rotates in
the form of pulses. There are different types of motors

B
E I
available based on the stepper rotation, manufactured with
R IM
steps per revolution of 12,24,72,144,180 and 200 in
U
stepping angles of 300, 150, 50, 2.50, 20 and 1.80 per 3 Hybrid (Fig 3)
steps.
P
E N

Open loop operation

One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor
©

is its ability to be accurately controlled in an open loop

system. Open loop control means no feedback information
about position is needed. This type of control eliminates
the need for expensive sensing and feedback devices such
as optical encoders. The position is known simply by
B

keeping track of the input step pulses.

Stepper motor types: There are three basic stepper
O

motor types. They are

1 Variable-reluctance (Fig 1)
T
T

1 Variable-reluctance (VR): This type of stepper motor

has been around for a long time. It is probably the
O

easiest to understand from a structural point of view

N

(Fig 1) shows a typical VR stepper motor. This type

of motor consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and
a wound stator. When the stator windings are energized
with DC current the poles become magnetized.
Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted to
the energized stator poles.
2 Permanent magnet (PM): Often referred to as a "tin
can" or "can stock" motor the permanent magnet step
motor is a low cost and low resolution type motor with
typical step angles of 7.50 to 150 (48 - 24 steps/
revolution) PM motors as the name implies have
permanent magnets added to the motor structure
131
 (Fig 2). The rotor no longer has teeth as with VR motor. 7 It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous
Instead the rotor is magnetized with alternating north rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the shaft.
and south poles situated in a straight line parallel to
8 A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as
the rotor shaft. These magnetized rotor poles provide
the speed is proportional to the frequency of the input
an increased magnetic flux intensity and because of
pulses.
this the PM motor exhibits improved torque
characteristics when compared with the VR type. Disadvantages
3 Hybrid (HB): The hybrid stepper motor is more 1 Resonances can occur if not properly controlled
expensive than the PM stepper motor but provides 2 Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.
better performance with respect to step resolution,
torque and speed. Typical step angles for the HB Application
stepper motor range from 3.60 to 0.90 (100 - 400 steps There are different applications. Some of these include
per revolution) The hybrid stepper motor combines the printers, plotters, high-end office equipment, hard disk
best features of both the PM and VR type stepper drives, medical equipment, fax machines, automotive and
motors. The rotor is multi-toothed like the VR motor many more.
and contains an axially magnetized concentric magnet
around its shaft (Fig 3). The teeth on the rotor provide Stepper motor by varying

D
an even better path which helps guide the magnetic Clock pulses
flux to preferred locations in the airgap. This further

E
increases the detent, holding and dynamic torque A sample circuit to designed to control the stepper motor
using 555 IC shown below

H
characteristics of the motor when compared with both
the VR and PM types.

S
Fig 4
The two most commonly used types of stepper

LI
motors are the permanent magnet and the
hybrid types.

B
E I
Advantages and disadvantages
R IM
U
Advantages
P
1 The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the
E N

input pulse.
2 The motor has full torque at stand still (if the windings
©

are energized)
3 Precise positioning and repeatability of movement
since good stepper motors have an accuracy of 3-5% Above circuit produces clock pulsed by varying R1 R2 and
of a step and this error is non cumulative from one C1 out put clock pulsed frequency changes the out put
B

step to the next. clock pulsed given to stepper motor. Motor runs by varying
4 Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing. stepper motor driver circuit clock pulse frequency speed
changes.
O

5 Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in

the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is simply Stepper motors are controlled by input of electrical pulsed.
T

dependant on the life of the bearing Such that the speed of motor rotation is proportional to
the input pulse rate.
6 The motor’s response to digital input pulses provides
T

open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less pulse rate = 1.44
costly to control. (R1+2R2)C1
O
N

132 E&H : Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.5.172 & 173
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.174
Electronics Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Radio wave propagation - principles, fading etc

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the fundamentals of radio wave propagation
• explain the phenomena of fading & propagation characteristics through different media.

Radio wave propagation upper atmosphere, due to the sun. Understanding the
effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has
Radio wave propagation. A radio wave is form of radiant
many practical applications, from choosing frequencies
energy (electromagnetic radiation) that propagates at the
for international shortwave broadcasters to design reliable
speed of light (186,000 miles or 300, 000,000 meters per
mobile telephone systems, radio navigation and operation
second). Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves
of radar systems.
when they are transmitted, or propagated from one point
on the earth to another, or into various parts of the Radio propagation is also affected by several other factors

D
atmosphere. As a form of electromagnetic radiation, like determined by its path from point to point. This path can
light waves, radio waves are affected by the phenomena be a direct line of sight path or an over the horizon path

E
of reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization aided by refraction in the ionosphere, which is a region

H
and scattering. between 60 and 600 km approximately. Factors
influencing ionospheric radio signal propagation can
Radio wave propagation is affected by the daily changes

S
include sporadic -E, solar flares, geomagnetic storms,
of water vapor in the troposphere and ionization in the
ionospheric layers tilts and solar porton events.

LI
Table 1 : Radio frequencies and their primary mode of propagation

B
E I
Band Frequency Wave length Propagation via
R IM

ELF Extremely 3-30 Hz 100, 000 km

U
Frequency 10,000 km
P
E N

SLF Super low 30-300 Hz 10,000

Frequency 1,000 km
ULF Ultra low 0.3-3 kHz 1000-
©

Frequency 100 km
VLF Very low 3-30 kHz 100 km-10 km Guided between the earth and the ionosphere
Frequency
LF Low frequency 30-300 kHz 10 km-1 km Guided between the earth and the D layer of
B

the ionosphere and

Surface waves
O

MF Medium 300-3000 kHz 1000-100m E, F layer ionospheric refraction at night, when

T

frequency D layer absorption weakens

HF High frequency 3-30 MHz 100-10m E Layer ionospheric refraction
(Short wave) F1, F2 layer ionospheric refraction
T

VHF Very high 30-3000 MHz 10-1 m Infrequent E ionospheric (Es) refraction
O

frequency uncommonly F2 layer ionospheric refraction

during high sunspot activity up to 50 MHz and
N

rarely to 80 MHz. Generally direct wave.

Sometimes tropospheric ducting
UHF Ultra high 300-300 MHz 100-10 cm Direct wave. Sometimes tropospheric ducting
frequency
SHF Super high 3-30 GHz 10-1 cm Direct wave
frequency
EHF Extremely high 30-300 GHz 10-1 mm Direct wave limited by absorption
Frequency
THF Tremendously 0.3 - 3 THz 1-0.1 mm
high frequency

133
Surface modes ( ground wave) play significant roles. The D- layer, when present during
sunlight periods, causes significant amount of signal loss,
Surface wave
as does the E - layer whose maximum usable frequency
Lower frequencies (between 30 and 3, 000 KHz) have the can rise to 4 MHz and above, thus block higher frequency
property of following the curvature of the earth via ground signals from reaching the F2 - layer. The layers, or more
wave propagation in the majority of occurrences. appropriately “regions”, are directly affected by the sun
Early commercial and professional radio services relied on a daily diurnal cycle, a seasonal cycle and the 11-
exclusively on long wave, low frequencies and ground - year sunspot cycle and determine the utility of these
wave propagation. To prevent interference with these modes. During solar maxima, or sunspot highs and peaks,
services, amateur and experimental transmitters wire the whole HF range up to 30 MHz can be used usually
restricted to the higher (HF) frequencies, felt to be useless around the clock and F2 propagation up to 50 MHz is
since their ground - wave range was limited. Upon observed frequently depending upon daily solar flux 10.7
discovery of the other propagation modes possible at cm radiation values. During solar minima, or minimum
medium wave and short wave frequencies, the advantages sunspot counts down to zero, propagation of frequencies
of HF for commercial and military purposes became above 15 MHz is generally unavailable.
apparent. Amateur experimentation was then confined Multipath fading basics
only to authorized frequency segments in that range.

D
Multipath fading is a feature that needs to be taken into
Direct modes (line-of-sight) account when designing or developing a radio

E
Line of sight is the direct propagation of radio waves communications system. In any terrestrial radio
communications system, the signal will reach the receiver

H
between antennas that are visible to each other. This is
probably the most common of the radio propagation not only via the direct path, but also as a result of
reflections from objects such as buildings, hills, ground,

S
modes at VHF and higher frequencies. Because radio
signals can travel through many non - metallic objects, water, etc, that are adjacent to the main path.

LI
radio can be picked up through walls. This is still line - of The overall signal at the radio receiver is a summation of
sight propagation. Examples would include propagation the variety of signals being received. As they all have
between a satellite and a ground antenna or reception of different path lengths, the signals will add and subtract

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television signals from a local TV transmitter. from the total dependent upon their relative phases.
R IM
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Ionospheric modes (sky wave) At times there will be changes in the relative path lengths.
This could result from either the radio transmitter or
P
Sky wave
E N

receiver moving, or any of the objects that provides a

Sky wave propagation, also referred to as skip, is one of reflective surface moving. This will result in the phases of
the modes that rely on refraction of radio waves in the the signals arriving at the receiver changing, and in turn
©

ionosphere, which is made up of one or more ionized this will result in the signal strength varying as a result of
layers in the upper atmosphere. F2 - layer is the most the different way in which the signals will sum together. It
important ionospheric layer for long - distance, multiple - is this that causes the fading that is present on many
hop HF propagation, through F1, E and D - layers also signals.
B
O
T
T
O
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134 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.174
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175
Electronics Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Need for modulation & types of modulation

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the need for modulation
• explain various types modulation & demodulation techniques.

Need for modulation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies

(>20kHz). For this reason, modulation is always done in
The velocity of electromagnetic waves is 3 x 10 ms . On
8 -1
communication systems.
the other hand, the velocity of sound waves cannot be
used to transmit intelligence to far off place. Only Operating range
electromagnetic waves can be made to do this. The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The
Modulation is extremely necessary in communication greater the frequency of the wave, the greater is the energy
possessed by it. As the audio signal frequencies are small,

D
systems due to the following reasons.
these cannot be transmitted over large distance if radiated
Sub topics

E
directly into space. The only practical solution is to
1 Practical antenna length (L) modulate a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal

H
and permit the transmission to occur at this high frequency
2 Wireless communication (carrier frequency).

S
3 Operating range What is modulation?

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Practical antenna length (L) The best way to define modulation is
When free space is the communication channel, antennas The process of impressing low -frequency information to

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operate effective only when their dimensions are of the be transmitted on to a high -frequency wave, called the
R IM

order of the magnitude of wave length of the signal being carrier wave, by changing the characteristics of either its
U
transmitted. amplitude, frequency, or phase angle is called modulation.

u 3 x 108 Another definition for modulation is.

P
E N

Now, L     Hz
v v The process of altering the characteristics of the amplitude,
frequency, or phase and of the high - frequency signal in
λ = Wave length
©

accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating

u = Velocity of electro magnetic wave wave is called modulation.

v = Frequency to be radiated in Hz Types of modulation

The audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The sinusoidal carrier wave can be given by the equation.
B

Suppose a frequency of 20 kHz is to be radiated directly Vc = Vc Sin (Wct+θ) = Vc Sin 2πfct+θ)

into space. For this,
Vc = Maximum value
O

8
3 x 10 fc = Frequency
Length of antenna = m  15000 m  15 km
20 x 10 3
T

θ = Phase relation
this is too long antenna to be constructed practically. So, Wc = Angular velocity
T

it is impracticable to radiate audio signal directly into

t = time
space.
O

Since the three variables are the amplitude, frequency,

Let us now calculate the length of the antenna if a carrier
and phase angle, the modulation can be done by varying
N

wave of say, 1000 kHz is used to carry the signal.

any one of them. Thus there are three modulation types
namely.
3 x 10 8
Length of antenna = m  300 m • Amplitude modulation ( AM)
10 6
• Frequency modulation (FM)
An antenna of 300 m length can be easily construct. • Phase modulation (PM)
Wireless communication In India, radio broadcasting is done through amplitude
modulation. Television broadcasting is done with amplitude
One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should
modulation for video signals and frequency modulation
be carried wihtout wires (i.e) radiated into space. At audio
for audio signals.
frequencies, radiation is not practicable because the
efficiency of radiation is poor. However, efficient radiation

135
Amplitude modulation (AM) Amplitude modulated carrier wave
Definition Amplitude modulated carrier wave
The method of varying amplitude of a high frequency carrier From the figure we know that
wave in accordance with the information to be transmitted,
keeping the frequency and phase of the carrier wave 2Vin=Vmax- Vmin
unchanged is called amplitude modulation. The Vin = (Vmax-Vmin)/2
information considered as the modulating signal and it is
superimposed on the carrier wave by applying both of Vc=Vmax -Vin
them to the modulator. The detailed diagram showing the =Vmax - (Vmax-Vmin)/2
amplitude modulation process is given below. (Fig 1)
=(Vmax +Vmin)/2
Substituting the values of Vin= Vm and Vc in the equation
m =Vm/Vc, we get
M= Vmax-Vmin/Vmax + Vmin
As told earlier, the value of ‘m’ lies between 0 and 0.8.
The value of m determines the strength and the quality of

D
the transmitted signal. In an AM wave, the signal is
contained in the variations of the carrier amplitude. The

E
audio signal transmitted will be weak of the carrier wave

H
is only modulated to a very small degree. But if the value
As shown above, the carrier wave has positive and negative of m exceeds unity, the transmitter output produces

S
half cycles. Both these cycles are varied according to erroneous distortion.
the information to be sent. The carrier then consists of Limitations of amplitude modulation

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sine waves whose amplitudes follow the amplitude
1 Low efficiency- since the useful power that lies in the
variations of the modulating wave. The carrier is kept in
small bands is quite small, so the efficiency of AM

B
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an envelope formed by the modulating wave. From the
system is low.
R IM

figure, you can also see that the amplitude variation of

U
the high frequency carrier is at the signal frequency and 2 Limited operating range - The range of operation is
the frequency of the carrier wave is the same as the small due to low efficiency. Thus, transmission of
P
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frequency of the resulting wave. signals is difficult.

Modulation index (m) 3 Noise in reception- As the radio receiver finds it difficult
to distinguish between the amplitude variations that
©

The ratio between the amplitude change of modulated represent noise and those with signals, heavy noise
carrier wave to the amplitude of the normal carrier wave is is prone to occur in its reception.
called modulation index. It is represented by the letter
4 Poor audio quality - To obtain high fidelity reception,
‘m’.
all audio frequencies till 15 kilo Hertz must be
B

It can also be defined as the range is which the amplitude reproduced and this necessitates the band width of
of the carrier wave is varied by the modulating signal. 10 Kilo Hertz to minimize the interference from the
adjacent broadcasting stations. Therefore, in AM
O

m=Vm/Vc
broadcasting stations audio quality is known to be
Percentage modulation, %m=m*100 = Vm/Vc * 100 poor.
T

The percentage modulation lies between 0 and 80% Frequency modulation

T

Another way of expressing the modulation index is in The carrier frequency is varied according to the
terms of the maximum and minimum values of the instantaneous amplitude of message signal or modulating
O

amplitude of the modulated carrier wave. This is shown in signal by keeping the amplitude of carrier signal constant
the figure below. (Fig 2) is called frequency. (Fig 3)
N

Advantages of frequency modulation

Fig 2
• Frequency modulation has more noise resistivity when
compared to other modulation techniques. That is why
they are mainly used in broadcasting and radio
communications. And we are all well aware that radio
communication use mainly frequency modulation for
transmission. We know that noise will occur mainly
to the amplitude of the signal. In frequency modulation,
amplitude is made constant and only frequency is
varied, so we can easily find out the noise in the
amplitude by using a limiter.
136 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175
 Frequency modulation cannot be used to find out the
Fig 3 speed and velocity of a moving object. Static interferences
are more than compared to phase modulation. Outside
interference is one of the biggest disadvantages in the
frequency modulation. There may be mixing because of
nearby radio stations, pagers, construction walkie-talkies
etc.
To limit the band width in the frequency modulation, we
use some filter which will again introduce some distortions
in the signal.
Transmitters and receiver should be in same channel
and one free channel must be there between the systems.
Application of frequency modulation (FM)
• Frequency modulation is used in radio’ which is very
common in our daily life.

D
• Frequency modulation is used in audio frequencies
• The frequency modulation is having greater resistance to synthesize sound.

E
to rapid signal strength variation, which we will use in
• Used in applications of magnetic tape storage.
FM radios even while we are travelling and frequency

H
modulation is also mainly used in mobile Phase modulation

S
communication purposes. PM, is used in many applications to carry both analog
• For transmitting messages in frequency modulation, and digital signals. Keeping the amplitude of the carrier

LI
it does not require special equipments like linear signal constant, the phase is varied according to the
amplifiers or repeaters and transmission levels or instantaneous amplitude of information signals.

B
E I
higher when compared to other modulation techniques. Advantages and disadvantages of phase modulation
R IM

It does not require any class C or B amplifiers for

U
increasing the efficiency. • The main advantages of phase modulation is that it
has less interference from static, which is why we use
• Transmission rate is good of frequency modulation
P
E N

this type of modulation in finding, out the speed or

when compared to other modulation that is frequency velocity of a moving object. In frequency modulation,
modulation can transmit around1200 to 2400 bits per we cannot find out the velocity of moving object.
second.
©

• The main disadvantage is phase ambiguity comes if

• Frequency modulation has a special effect called we increase the phase modulation index, and data
capture effect in which high frequency signal will loss is more and we need special equipment like
capture the channel and discard the low frequency or frequency multiplier for increasing the phase
weak signals from interference.
B

modulation index.
Disadvantages of frequency modulation
Applications of phase modulation
In the transmission section, we do not need any special
O

• Phase modulation application is not different from

equipment but in the reception, we need more complicated
frequency modulation. Phase modulation is also used
demodulations for demodulating the carrier signal from
T

message or modulating signal. in communication systems.

• It may be used in binary phase shift keying
T
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175 137
Fundamentals of antenna, various parameters, types & applications
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the fundamentals of antenna
• explain various types & parameters of antennas
• explain the applications of various antennas.

Antenna fundamentals Some antennas are rated in comparison to dipole

antennas, which is denoted by the suffix dBd. Hence
An antenna is a device for converting electromagnetic
dipole antennas have a gain of 0 dBd (=2.14 dBi)
radiation in space into electrical currents in conductors
or vice - versa, depending on whether it is being used for Note: Majority of documentation refers to dipole antennas
receiving or for transmitting, respectively. Passive radio as having a gain of 2.2 dBi. The actual figure is 2.14 dBi,
telescopes are receiving antennas. It is usually easier to but is often rounded up.
calculate the properties of transmitting antennas.
You can also use the dB abbreviation to describe the
Fortunately, most characteristics of a transmitting antenna
power level rating of antennas.
(e.g its radiation pattern) are unchanged when the antenna
is used for receiving, so we often use the analysis of a dBi - For use with isotropic antennas

D
transmitting antenna to understand a receiving antenna dBd- With reference to dipole antennas
used in radio astronomy.

E
The power rating difference between dBd and dBi is
An antenna is an electrical device designated to radiate
approximately 2.2 that is, 0 dBd = 2.2 dBi.

H
or capture electromagnetic (EM) waves. In order to
properly appreciate this definition, and the physical Antenna types

S
operation of antennas as a whole, we will have to familiarize
Each type of antenna offers different coverage capabilities.
the reader with some basic electromagnetic concepts.

LI
As the gain of an antenna increases, there is some
The physical laws governing all classical electromagnetic tradeoff to its coverage area. Usually high- gain antennas
phenomena are maxwell’s equations. First introduced offer longer coverage distances, but only in a certain

B
E I
by the scottish scientish james clark maxwell, in his direction. The radiation patterns below help to show the
R IM

famous article. “A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic coverage areas of the styles of antennas that are
U
field’, in 1864. Omnidirectional, Yagi and Patch antennas.
P
An antenna gives the wireless system three fundamental Omnidirectional antenna
E N

properties gain, direction and polarization. Gain is a

measure of increase in power. Direction is the shape of An omnidirectional antenna (Fig 1) is designed to provide
a 360 degree radiation pattern. This type of antenna is
©

the transmission pattern. A good analog for an antenna is

the reflector in a flashlight. The reflector concentrates and used when coverage in all directions from the antenna is
intensifies the light beam in a particular direction similar required. The standard 2.14 dBi “Rubber duck” is one style
to what a parabolic dish antenna would do to a RF source of omnidirectional antenna.
in a radio system.
B

Antenna gain
Antenna gain is measured in decibels, which is a ratio
O

between two values. The gain of a specific antenna is

compared to the gain of an isotropic antenna. An isotropic
T

antenna is a theoretical antenna with a uniform three -

dimensional radiation pattern (similar to a light bulb with
T

no reflector). dBi is used to compare the power level of a

given antenna to the theoretical isotropic antenna. The
O

U.S FCC uses dBi in its calculations. An isotropic antenna

is said to have a power rating of 0 dB, meaning that it
N

has zero gain /loss when compared to itself.

Unlike isotropic antennas, dipole antennas are real Figure. Omnidirectional antennas
antennas. Dipole antennas have a different radiation
Directional Antennas
pattern compared to isotropic antennas. The dipole
radiation pattern is 360 degrees in the horizontal plane Directional antennas come in many different styles and
and 75 degrees in the vertical plane (assuming the dipole shapes. an antenna does not offer any added power to
antenna is standing vertically) and resembles a donut in the signal; it simply redirects the energy it receives from
shape. Because the beam is slightly concentrated, dipole the transmitter. By redirecting this energy, it has the effect
antennas have a gain over isotropic antennas of 2.14 dB of providing more energy in one direction and less energy
in the horizontal plane. Dipole antennas are said to have in all other directions. As the gain of a directional antenna
a gain of 2.14 dBi (in comparison to an isotropic antenna). increases, the angle of radiation usually decreases,

138 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175
providing a greater coverage distance, but with a reduced and commercial applications where an RF antenna is
coverage angle. Directional antennas include patch needed that has gain and directivity.
antennas (Fig 2) Yagi antennas (Fig 3) and parabolic, Not only is the gain of the Yagi antenna important as it
dishes. Parabolic dishes have a very narrow RF energy enables better levels of signals to noise ratio to be
path and the installer must be accurate in aiming these achieved, but also the directivity can be used to reduce
types of antennas these at each other. interference levels by focusing the transmitted power to
Fig 2 : Directional Antenna areas where it is needed, or receiving signals best from
where it emanate.
Figure 3 : Yagi antenna
Typical Yagi Uda antenna used for

D
E
H
S
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television reception
Yagi antenna / Yagi /Uda antenna
Yagi antenna history

B
E I
The full name for the antenna is the Yagi - Uda antenna.
R IM

The Yagi antenna derives its name from its two Japanese
U
inventors Hidetsugu Yagi and Shintaro Uda. The RF
antenna design concept was first outlined in a paper that
P
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Yagi presented in 1928.

Yagi antenna - the basics (Fig 5)
B ©

The yagi antenna sometimes called the yagi - Uda RF

O

antenna is widely used where gain and directivity are

required from an RF antenna design. (Fig 4)
T

In this section
T

• Yagi antenna
O

• Yagi antenna theory

• Yagi antenna gain
N

• Yagi impedance & matching Basic concept of Yagi Uda antenna

The Yagi antenna or Yagi - Uda antenna / aerial is one of The Yagi antenna design has a dipole as the main radiating
the most successful RF antenna designs for directive or driven element. Further ‘parasitic’ elements are added
antenna applications. which are not directly connected to the driven element.

The Yagi or Yagi - Uda antenna is used in a wide variety These parasitic elements within the Yagi antenna pick
of applications where an RF antenna design with gain up power from the dipole and re- radiate it. The phase is
and directivity is required. in such a manner that it affects the properties of the RF
antenna as a whole, causing power to be focused one
The Yagi has become particularly popular for television particular direction and removed from others.
reception, but it is also used in very many other domestic

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175 139
The parasitic elements of the Yagi antenna operate by re-
radiating their signals in a slightly different phase to that
of the driven element. In this way the signal is reinforced
in some directions and cancelled out in others. It is found
that the amplitude and phase of the current that is induced
in the parasitic elements in dependent upon their length
and the spacing between them and the dipole or driven
element. (Fig 6)

Yagi antenna radiation pattern

Parabolic antenna (Fig 8)

D
E
H
S
Yagi Uda antenna showing element types

LI
There are three types of element within a Yagi antenna.
A parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic
• Driven element : The driven element is the Yagi antenna reflector, a curved surface with the cross - sectional shape

B
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element to which power is applied. It is normally a half of a parabola, to direct the radio waves. The most common
R IM

wave dipole or often a folded dipole. form is shaped like a dish and is popularly called a dish
U
• Reflector : The Yagi antenna will generally only have antenna or parabolic dish. The main advantage of a
one reflector. This is behind the main driven element, parabolic antenna is that it has high directivity. It functions
P
E N

i.e the side away from the direction of maximum similarly to a search light or flash light reflector to direct
sensitivity. the radio waves in a narrow beam, or receive radio waves
from one particular direction only. Parabolic antennas
©

Further reflectors behind the first one add little to the have some of the highest gains, that is, they can produce
performance. However many designs use reflectors the narrowest beam widths, of any antenna type. In order
consisting of a reflecting plate, or a series of parallel rods to achieve narrow beam widths, the parabolic reflector
simulating reflecting plate. This gives a slight improvement must be much larger than the wave length of the radio
in performance, reducing the level of radiation or pick - up
B

waves used, so parabolic antennas are used in the high

from behind the antenna, i.e in the backwards direction. frequency part of the radio spectrum, at UHF and
Typically a reflector will add around 4 to 5 dB of gain in microwave (SHF) frequencies, at which the wave lengths
O

the forward direction. are small enough that conveniently - size reflectors can
be used.
T

Director : There many be none, one or more reflectors in

the Yagi antenna. The director or directors are placed in Parabolic antennas are based on the geometrical property
front of the driven element, i.e in the direction of maximum of the paraboloid that the paths FP1Q1, FP2Q2, FP3Q3 are
T

sensitivity. all the same length. so a spherical wave front emitted by

a feed antenna at the dish’s focus F will be reflected into
O

The antenna exhibits a directional pattern consisting of a an outgoing plane wave L travelling parallel to the dish’s
main forward lobe and a number of spurious side lobes. axis VF. (Fig 9)
N

The main one of these is the reverse lobe caused by

radiation in the direction of the reflector. The antenna can Basic antenna parameters
be optimized to either reduce this or produce the An antenna does not radiate uniformly in all directions.
maximum level of forward gain. Unfortunately the two do For the sake of reference, we consider a hypothetical
not coincide exactly and a compromise on the antenna called an isotropic radiator having equal radiation
performance has to be made depending upon the in all directions. A directional antenna is one which can
application. (Fig 7) radiate or receive electromagnetic waves more effectively
in some directions than in others. The relative distribution
of radiated power as a function of direction in space (i.e.,
as function of θ and φ) is called the radiation pattern of the
antenna. Instead of 3D surface, it is common practice to
show planar cross action radiation pattern. E- plane and
140 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175
H- plane patterns give two most important views. The E-
plane pattern is a view obtained from a section containing
maximum value of the radiated field and electric field lies
in the plane of the section. Similarly when such a section
is taken such that the plane of the section contains H
field and the direction of maximum radiation.
A typical radiation pattern plot is shown in Fig 10 below.
Typical radiation pattern in polar coordinates
Typical radiation pattern in rectangular coordinates
(Fig 11)

D
E
H
S
LI
B
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R IM
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Introduction to AM, FM & PM, SSB-SC, DSB - SC modulation & demodulation
P
E N

techniques
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
©

• explain the AM modulation & demodulation techniques

• explain the modulation techniques of SSB-SC, DSB - SC in AM
• explain the FM modulation & demodulation techniques
• explain the PM modulation & demodulation techniques.
B

Amplitude modulation index & depth modulation. The amplitude modulation, AM, modulation
Amplitude modulation index and modulation depth are index can be defined as the measure of extent of amplitude
O

key parameters for any AM transmission as it is necessary variation about an un - modulated carrier.
to keep the index or depth within limits to reduce distortion As with other modulation indices, the modulation index
T

and interference. for amplitude modulation (AM) indicates that amount by

It is often necessary to define the level of modulation that which the modulated carrier varies around its static un -
T

is applied to a signal. modulated level.

O

In order to have a standard method of achieving this a When expressed as a percentage it is the same as the
factor or index known as the modulation index is widely depth of modulation. In other words it can be expressed
N

used for this. A complementary figure known as the as.

amplitude modulation depth is also seen on many
occasions. M
Modulation index m =
A
As an indicator of the level of modulation on an amplitude
modulated signal, the modulation index is important - too A = carrier amplitude
low level of modulation and the modulation does not utilize
M = modulation amplitude
the carrier efficiently - too high and the carrier can become
over modulated causing sidebands to extend out beyond Where :
the allowed bandwidth causing interference to other users.
A is the carrier amplitude . M is the modulation amplitude
AM modulation index basics and is the peak change in the RF amplitude from its
unmodulated value.
Modulation indices are described for various forms of
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175 141
From this it can be seen that for an AM modulation index Amplitude modulated index of more than 1.0 i.e over
of 0.5, the modulation causes the signal to increase by a - modulated (Fig 3)
factor of 0.5 and decrease to 0.5 of its original level.
Broadcast stations in particular take measures to ensure
Amplitude modulation depth that the carrier of their transmissions never become over
modulated. The transmitters incorporate limiters to prevent
A complementary figure to modulation index is also used
more than 100% modulation. However they also normally
for amplitude modulation signals. Known as the modulation
incorporate automatic audio gain controls to keep the
depth, it is typically the modulation index expressed as
audio levels such that near 100% modulation levels are
a percentage.
achieved for most of the time.
Thus a modulation index of 0.5 would be expressed as a
modulation depth of 50%.
However often the two terms and figures are used
interchangeably and figures for a modulation index of 50%
are often seen where the index is 0.5
Modulation index / modulation depth examples

D
Typically the modulation index of a signal will vary as the
modulating signal intensity varies. However some static

E
values enable the various levels to visualized more easily.
Amplitude modulated index of 0.5 (Fig 1)

H
When the modulation index reaches 1.0, i.e a modulation

S
depth of 100% the carrier level falls the zero and rise to
twice its non - modulated level.

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AM - Modulator & demodulator
In this section we describe the circuits used for generation

B
E I
and demodulation of amplitude modulated signals. An
R IM
U
analog multiplier IC AD633( Analog devices) has been
used to generate the AM signal. The AD 633 is a
P
functionally complete, four quadrant, analog multiplier. It
E N

includes high impedance, differential X and Y inputs, and

a high impedance summing input (Z). The low impedance
©

output voltage is a nominal 10V full scale provided by a

buried zener. The functional diagram of the AD633 is
shown in figure 4.

Amplitude modulated index of 1.0 (Fig 2) Functional block diagram from Fig 4, we find that
B

Any increase of the modulation index above 1.0, i.e 100% ( X1  X2) ( Y1  Y 2)
modulation depth causes over modulation. The carrier W Z
10 V
O

experiences 180° phase reversals where the carrier level

would try to go below the zero point. These phase reversals Details of AD633 is available in the data sheet.
T

give rise to additional side bands resulting from the phase

reversals (phase modulation) that extend out, in theory
to infinity. This can cause serious interference to other
T

users if not filtered.

O
N

Envelope detection process

For a sinusoid ally modulated signal, if the time constant
of the detector is chosen such that

142 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175
 Fig 5
1  1  m 2 

RC 
2fm  m  , the detector can always follow the
 
message envelope.
Double - side band suppressed carrier transmission
(DSB-SC)
It transmission in which frequencies produced by amplitude
modulation (AM) are symmetrically spaced above and
below the carrier frequency and the carrier level is reduced
to the lowest practical level, ideally being completely
suppressed.
In the DSB - SC modulation, unlike in AM, the wave
carrier is not transmitted; thus, much of the power is
distributed between the side bands, which implies an
increase of the cover in DSB-SC, compared to AM, for

D
the same power used.
DSB-SC transmission is a special case of double - side

E
band reduced carrier transmission. It is used for radio
data systems.

H
Single - side band modulation

S
In radio communications, single - side band modulation
(SSB) or single - side band suppressed - carrier (SSB-

LI
SC) is a refinement of amplitude modulation which uses
transmitter power and band width more efficiently.

B
E I
Amplitude modulation produces an output signal that has
R IM

twice the bandwidth of the original base band signal. Single

U
- side band modulation avoids this band width doubling,
and the power wasted on a carrier, at the cost of increased
P
E N

device complexity and more difficult tuning at the receiver.

Illustration of the spectrum of AM and SSB signals is
shown in Fig 5. The lower side band (LSB) spectrum is
©

inverted compared to the baseband. As an example, a

2 KHz audio base band signal modulated onto a 5 MHz
carrier will produce a frequency of 5.002 MHz if upper Fig 6
side band (USB) is used or 4.998 MHz is LSB is used.
B

Frequency modulation
A signal may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave.
O

In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency

T

modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier

wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.
(Compare with amplitude modulation, in which the
T

amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency

remains constant) Fig 6.
O

In analog signal applications, the difference between the

N

instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier is

directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input
- signal amplitude. seizures via EEG. FM is widely used for broadcasting
Digital data can be encoded and transmitted via a carrier music and speech, two - way radio systems, magnetic
wave by shifting the carrier's frequency among a tape- recording systems and some video- transmission
predefined set of frequencies - a technique known as systems. In radio systems frequency modulation with
frequency - shift keying (FSK). FSK is widely used in sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling
modems and fax modems, and can also be used to send naturally - occurring noise.
morse code. Radio teletype also uses FSK. Frequency modulation is known as phase modulation when
Frequency modulation is used in radio, telemetry, radar, the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the
seismic prospecting, and monitoring newborns for FM signal.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175 143
Modulation index IC based AM transmitter circuit
As in other modulation systems, the value of the IC 555 (IC1) is used as a free running multivibrator
modulation index indicates by how much the modulated designed for a frequency of around 600 kHz. The frequency
variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to of the multivibrator can be calculated as follows:
variations in the carrier frequency. f =1.443(R1+2R2) C1 where R1 and R2 in ohms, capacitor
C1 in microfarads, and frequency f in hertz. This
f f x m ( t ) frequency can be changed by simply replacing R2 with a
h  variable resistor or C1 with gang capacitors. A condenser
fm fm
microphone is used for audio signal input.
where fm is the highest frequency component present in The IC 555 multivibrator is used as a voltage-to-frequency
the modulating signal xm(t), and is the peak frequency - converter. The output of the condenser microphone is given
deviation -i.e the maximum deviation of the instantaneous to pin 5 of ICI, which converts the input voltage or voice
frequency from the carrier frequency. For a sine wave signal into appropriate frequency at output pin 3. This
modulation, the modulation index is seen to be the ratio frequency produces an electromagnetic wave, which can
of the amplitude of the modulating sine wave to the be detected by a near by AM radio receiver, and you can
amplitude of the carrier wave (here unity) hear your own voice in that radio. (Note that if there is no

D
If h< 1, the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its noise in receiver, tune it to 600 kHz.)
bandwidth is approximately 2fm. Sometimes modulation The circuit operates with a 9V regulated power supply or

E
index h<0.3 rad is considered as narrowband FM otherwise a 9V battery. For antenna, connect 2-3m long wire at
wideband FM.

H
pin 3. (Fig 7)
Noise reduction

S
Fig 7
A major advantage of FM in a communications circuit,

LI
compared for example with AM, is the possibility of
improved signal to noise ratio (SNR). Compared with an
optimum AM scheme, FM typically has poorer SNR below

B
E I
a certain signal level called the noise threshold, but above
R IM

a higher level - the full improvement or full quieting threshold

U
- the SNR is much improved over AM. The improvement
depends on modulation level and deviation. For typical
P
E N

voice communications channels, improvements are

typically 5-15 dB. FM broadcasting using wider deviation
can achieve even greater improvements. Additional
©

techniques, such as pre - emphasis of higher audio

frequencies with corresponding de-emphasis in the
receiver, are generally used to improve overall SNR in FM
circuits. Since FM signals have constant amplitude, FM
B

receivers normally have limiters that remove AM noise,

further improving SNR.
O
T
T
O
N

144 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.175
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.176
Electronics Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Block diagram of AM & FM transmitter, FM generation & detection

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the working of AM transmitters
• explain the working of FM transmitters
• list the types of FM detection
• sketch the different types of FM detector circuits.

AM transmitters The various sections of the figure(1) are:

Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM • Carrier oscillator
transmitters. These transmitters are used in medium wave • Buffer amplifier
(MW) and short wave (SW) frequency bands for AM
broadcast. The MW band has frequencies between 530 • Frequency multiplier

D
KHz and 1650 KHz, and the SW band has frequencies • Power amplifier
ranging from 3 MHz to 30 MHz. The two types of AM

E
transmitters that are used based on their transmitting • Audio section

H
powers are. • Modulated class C power amplifier
High level AM transmitters Carrier oscillator

S
Low level AM transmitters The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signals, which

LI
High level transmitters are high level modulation, and low lies in the RF range. The frequency of the carrier is always
level transmitters use low level modulation. very high. Because it is very difficult to generate high

B
E I
frequencies with good frequency stability, the carrier
The choice between the two modulation schemes depends
R IM

oscillator generates a sub multiple with the required carrier

U
on the transmitting power of the AM transmitter. In frequency. This sub multiple frequency is multiplied by
broadcast transmitters, were the transmitting power may the frequency multiplier stage to get the required carrier
P
be of the order of kilowatts, high level modulation is
E N

frequency. Further, a crystal oscillator can be used in

employed. In low power transmitters, where only a few this stage to generate a low frequency carrier with the
watts of transmitting power are required, low level best frequency stability. The frequency multiplier stage
modulation is used.
©

then increases the frequency of the carrier to its required

High level and low level transmitters value.
Below Fig 1 show the block diagram of high level and low Buffer amplifier
level transmitters. The basic difference between the two The purpose of the buffer amplifier is to first matches the
B

transmitters is the power amplification of the carrier and output impedance of the carrier oscillator with the input
modulating signals. impedance of the frequency multiplier, the next stage of
O

High level AM transmitter the carrier oscillator. It then isolates the carrier oscillator
and frequency multiplier.
T

This is required so that the multiplier does not draw a

large current from the carrier oscillator. If this occurs, the
T

frequency of the carrier oscillator will not remain stable.

Frequency multiplier
O

The submultiples frequency of the carrier signal, generated

N

by the carrier oscillator, is now applied to the frequency

multiplier through the buffer amplifier. This stage is also
known as harmonic generator.
The frequency multiplier generates higher harmonics of
Figure (1) is drawn for audio transmission. In high level carrier oscillator frequency. The frequency multiplier is a
transmission, the powers of the carrier and modulating tuned circuit that can be tuned to the requisite carrier
signals are amplified before applying them to the frequency that is to be transmitted. Power amplifier
modulator stage, as shown in Fig 1. In low level modulation, The power of the carrier signals is then amplified in the
the powers of the two input signals of the modulator stage power amplifier stage. This is the basic requirement of a
are not amplified. high level transmitter. A class C power amplifier gives high
power current pulses of the carrier signal at its output.

145
Audio section The double TT matching network also filters unwanted
frequency components appearing at the output of the last
The audio signal to be transmitted is obtained from the
stage of the transmitter. The output of the modulated
microphone, as shown in Fig 1. The audio driver amplifiers
class C power amplifier may contain higher harmonics,
the voltage of this signal. The amplification is necessary
such as second and third harmonics, that are highly
to drive the audio power amplifier. Next, a class A or a
undesirable. The frequency response of the matching
class B power amplifier amplifies the power of the audio
network is set such that these unwanted higher harmonics
signal.
are totally suppressed, and only the desired signal is
Low level AM transmitter coupled to the antenna.
FM transmitter (Fig 4)
The FM transmitter has three basic sections
1 The exciter section contains the carrier oscillator,
reactance modulator and the buffer amplifier
2 The frequency multiplier section, which features several
frequency multipliers.

D
3 The power output section, which includes a low level
power amplifier, the final power amplifier, and the

E
The low level AM transmitter shown in the Fig 2 is similar
impedance matching network to properly load the power
to a high level transmitter, except that the powers of the

H
section with the antenna impedance.
carrier and audio signals are not amplified. These two
signals are directly applied to the modulated class C power

S
amplifier.

LI
Modulation takes place at the stage, and the power of
the modulated signal is amplified to the required
transmitting power level. The transmitting antenna then

B
E I
transmits the signal.
R IM
U
Coupling of output stage and antenna
The output stage of the modulated class C power amplifier
P
E N

feeds the signal to the transmitting antenna. To transfer

maximum power from the output stage to the antenna it The essential function of each circuit in the FM transmitter
is necessary that the impedance of the two sections
©

may be described as follows.

match. For this, a matching network is required. The
matching between the two should be perfect at all The exciter
transmitting frequencies. As the matching is required at 1 The function of the carrier oscillator is to generate a
different frequencies, inductors and capacitors offering stable sine wave signal at the rest frequency, when no
B

different impedance at different frequencies are used in modulation is applied. It must be able to linearly change
the matching networks. frequency when fully modulated, with no measurable
change in amplitude.
O

The matching network must be constructed using these

passive components. This is shown in Fig 3 2 The buffer amplifier acts as a constant high impedance
T

load on the oscillator to help stabilize the oscillator

frequency. The buffer amplifier may have a small gain.
T

3 The modulator acts change the carrier oscillator

frequency by application of the message signal. The
O

positive peak of the message signal generally lowers

the oscillator's frequency to a point below the rest
N

frequency, and the negative message peak raises the

The matching network used for coupling the output stage oscillator frequency to a value above the rest frequency.
of the transmitter and the antenna is called double TT The greater the peak to peak message signal, the larger
network. This network I consists of two inductors. L1 and the oscillator deviation.
L2 and two capacitors, C1 and C2. The values of these Frequency multiplier
components are chosen such that the input impedance
Frequency multipliers are tuned input, tuned output RF
of the network between 1 and 1. Shown in figure (3) is
amplifiers in which the output resonant circuit is tuned to
matched with the output impedance of the output stage
a multiple of the input frequency. Common frequency
of the transmitter. Further, the output impedance of the
multipliers are 2x, 3x and 4x multiplication. A 5x frequency
network is matched with the impedance of the antenna.
multiplier is sometimes seen, but its extreme low efficiency

146 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.176
forbids widespread usage. Note that multiplication is by It can be seen from the diagram that changes in the
whole numbers only. slope of the filter, reflect into the linearity of the
demodulation process. The linearity is very dependent
Power output section
not only on the filter slope as it falls away, but also the
The final power section develops the carrier power, to be tuning of the receiver - it is necessary to tune the receiver
transmitted and often has a low power amplifier driven off frequency and to a point where the filter characteristic
the final power amplifier. is relatively linear.
The impedance matching network is the same as for the The final stage in the process is to demodulate the
AM transmitter and matches the antenna impedance to amplitude modulation and this can be achieved using a
the correct load on the final over amplifier. simple diode circuit. One of the most obvious
Frequency Multiplier disadvantages of this simple approach is the fact that
both amplitude and frequency variations in the incoming
A special form of class C amplifier is the frequency signal appear at the output. However the amplitude
multiplier. Any class C amplifier is capable of performing variations can be removed by placing a limiter before the
frequency multiplication. detector.
For example a frequency double can be constructed by A variety of FM slope detector circuits may be used, but

D
simply connecting a parallel tuned circuit in the collector the one below shows one possible circuit with the
of a class C amplifier that resonates at twice the input applicable wave forms. The input signal is a frequency

E
frequency when the collector current pulse occurs, it modulated signal. It is applied to the tuned transformer
excites or rings the tuned circuit at twice the input (T1, C1, C2 combination) which is offset from the centre

H
frequency. carrier frequency. This converts the incoming signal from
just FM to one that has amplitude modulation

S
Slope FM detector (Fig 5)
superimposed upon the signal.
The very simplest from of FM demodulation is known as

LI
slope detection or demodulation. It consists of a tuned This amplitude signal is applied to a simple diode detector
circuit that is tuned to a frequency slightly offset from the circuit. D1, Here the diode provides the rectification, while
C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components,

B
E I
carrier of the signal.
and R1 provides a load
R IM

As the frequency of the signals varies up and down in

U
frequency according to its modulation, so the signal moves FM slope detection advantages & disadvantages
up and down the slope of the tuned circuit. This causes
P
FM slope detection is not widely used, and yet it has
E N

the amplitude of the signal to vary in t line with the some limited applications. Knowing the advantages and
frequency variations. In fact at this point the signal has disadvantages enables the technique to be used where
both frequency and amplitude variations. applicable. (Fig 6)
©

Fig 5 Fig 6
B
O
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.176 147
 Advantages Disadvantages

Simple - can be used to provide Not linear as the output is dependent upon the curve
of FM demodulation when only an AM detector is present a filter
Enable FM to be detected without any Not particularly effective as it relies on centering the
additional circuitry signal part of the way down the filter curve where signal
strengths are less.
Both frequency and amplitude variations are accepted
and therefore much higher levels of noise and
interference are experienced

Ratio detector another. When a steady carrier is applied to the circuit

When circuits employing discrete components were more the diodes act to produce a steady voltage across the
widely used, the Ratio and Foster - seeley detectors were resistors R1 and R2, and the capacitor C3 charges up as
widely used. Of these the ratio detector was the most a result.

D
popular as it offers a better level of amplitude modulation The transformer enables the circuit to detect changes in
rejection of amplitude modulation. This enables it to the frequency of the incoming signal. It has three windings.

E
provide a greater level of noise immunity as most is The primary and secondary act in the normal way to
amplitude noise, and it also enables the circuit to operate produce a signal at the output. The third winding is un-

H
satisfactorily with lower levels of limiting in the preceding tuned and the coupling between the primary and the third
IF stages of the receiver. (Fig 7) winding is very tight, and this means that the phasing

S
between signals in these two windings is the same.

LI
Fig 7
The primary and secondary windings are tuned and lightly
coupled. This means that there is a phase difference of

B
E I
90 degrees between the signals in these windings at the
R IM

centre frequency. If the signal moves away from the centre

U
frequency the phase difference will change. In turn the
phase difference between the secondary and third windings
P
E N

also varies. When this occurs the voltage will subtract

from one side of the secondary and add to the other causing
an imbalance across the resistors R1 and R2. As a result
©

this causes a current to flow in the third winding and the

modulation to appear at the output.
The capacitors C1 and C2 filter any remaining RF signal
which may appear across the resistors. The capacitor
B

C4 and R3 also act as filters ensuring no RF reaches the

audio section of the receiver.
O

Ratio detector advantages & disadvantages

As with any circuit there are a number of advantages and
T

The operation of the ratio detector centres around a disadvantages to be considered when choosing between
frequency sensitive phase shift network with a transformer several options.
T

and the diodes that are effectively in series with one

O

Advantages Disadvantages
N

Simple to construct using discrete components High cost of transformer

Offers good level of performance and Typically lends itself to use in only circuits using discrete
components and not integrated within an IC

148 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.176
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.177
Electronics Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Type of radio receivers, superheterodyne receiver, block diagram, principles,

characteristics, advantages and disadvantages
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the basic principles and characteristics of radio reception.
• list the different types of radio receivers.
• explain the advantages and disadvantages of different types of radio receiver.
• sketch the blocks of Superheterodyne radio receiver.
Principle of radio receivers
The modulated wave emitted from a transmitting antenna
in the form of electromagnetic waves(energy) travels in
free space at the speed of light (3x108 meters/sec). The

D
distance of electromagnetic waves travel depends upon
the chosen type of transmitting antenna and the

E
transmitted power.

H
As shown in Fig 1, if a wire is suspended above the ground
in the region where the electromagnetic waves are

S
traveling. The passing electromagnetic waves induces a
small voltage in the wire.

LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
©

Although the induced voltage in the suspended wire is

very small, of the order of microvolts, the wave-form of the
induced voltage is an exact replica of the signal
transmitted by the transmitting antenna. Thus the
B

suspended wire acts as a receiving antenna.

If the received weak signal, at the receiving antenna is
O

processed, the information (voice and music etc.) which

modulates the carrier at the transmitter can be reproduced.
T

Selecting required electromagnetic waves (signal)

As already discussed in previous units, the frequency
T

Since several transmitting antennas of several stations response of the parallel tuned circuit in Fig 3a will be as
transmit information(voice and music etc.) simultaneously shown in Fig 3b. How good is this parallel tuned circuit,
O

into air, the electromagnetic waves of several stations in selecting a particular frequency signal is termed as the
simultaneously exist in free space. All these selectivity of the circuit. This selectivity of the tuned circuit
N

electromagnetic waves corresponding to several stations in a receiver decides whether or not the receiver suffers
intercept(cut) the receiving antenna at the same time. from interference of unwanted stations.
Each of these simultaneously induces voltages in the
receiving antenna as shown in Fig 2. Hence, the receiving AM receiver and frequency bands
antenna or the aerial will have signal voltages AM broadcasting is restricted to the following frequency
corresponding to several transmitting stations as shown bands;
in Fig 2.
Medium wave (MW) band 530KHz to 1650KHz
The first job of a radio receiver is to select a particular
station signal in which we are interested and reject the Short wave(SW)band 3MHz to 26 MHz
rest of signals. This can be done easily using a tuned Broadcasting stations, transmitting amplitude
circuit as shown in Fig 3a. modulated(AM) MW band signals rely on ground waves

149
for propagation. The SW band AM transmitters on the side from the tuned circuit and provides proper impedance
other hand rely both on ground waves and sky waves for matching to the antenna.
propagation. hence, the distance covered by MW stations
Generally ferrite core antenna coil is wound on insulating
is much less than that of SW stations.
material such as paper or plastic. The gauge of wire used
The receiving antenna of AM receivers and the number of turns used for the antenna coils
designed to receive MW band station and the SW band
In earlier days a lengthy copper wire or a lengthy copper
station differ.
tape made of a thin copper wire mesh as shown in Fig 4
were used as receiving antennas. Types of radio receivers
There are mainly 4 types of radio receivers .they are listed
as follows
1 Basic crystal Radio Receiver.
2 T.R.F.RadioReceiver.
3 Reflex radio Receiver
4 Superheterodyne Radio Receiver.

D
1 Basic crystal Radio Receiver

E
Here is the schematic diagram for a very basic crystal
radio set Fig 7. This basic radio uses no power other than

H
Due to the large space occupied by these antennas, a that provided by the transmitting antenna from the radio
station.

S
loop antenna couple to an antenna transformer as shown
in Fig 5 is used.

LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
©

The ferrite rod antenna is shown in fig 6. This antenna

with ferrite, having an extremely high permeability has
excellent pick-up/receiving characteristics.
B

This circuit consists of an inductor (also called a coil), a

variable capacitor (used to be called a variable condenser),
a germanium diode (formerly called a crystal), a filtering
O

capacitor and finally very high impedance headphones.

T

The inductor has taps on it one to connect the antenna

and other to connect the detector diode.
T

The variable capacitor is usually connected across the

whole of the inductor to form a tuned circuit for our crystal
O

radio set.
Earth connection for crystal radio set
N

For the crystal radio set circuit to perform at all well you
need a very good earth connection.
The symbol connected to the top of the inductor or coil
and variable capacitor denotes an antenna. The higher
and longer (50' or 17 meter s) this antenna is, the
better the likely reception.
The antenna transformer used to couple the selected signal
Radio signals (waves) such as we encounter in the AM
to the next stage is often referred to as antenna coil rather
radio band have two halves. One half travels across the
than antenna transformer. The primary winding of the
surface of the earth at the speed of light through people,
antenna coil (antenna transformer) isolates the antenna
buildings and other objects. The other half, a mirror image,

150 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.177
travels beneath the surface of the earth. This radio wave amplifiers which improves the selectivity and test
has a definite length. Its length is the speed of light divided sensitivity of the radio receiver.
by the frequency. These radio waves we want to detect
• The selectivity is improved over that of simple crystal
with our crystal radio set.
receiver .The selectivity is improved because we have
Variable Capacitor: .A capacitor which tuned about 15 introduced a stage of RF amplification before the
pF to 365 pF. detector circuit.
Inductor or Coil: Here an air core inductor wound on • Although theoretically it is possible to further improve
some suitable non metallic form. the sensitivity of the receiver by adding additional RF
amplifier stages. In practice several problems and
Diode: In lieu of the old crystal detector we use a
difficulties arise if the number of RF amplifier stages
germanium diode of the 1N34 or OA90 type.
are more. Some of these difficulties are listed below;
Fixed Capacitor: This is for filtering and may be 0.001 • Because of the instability problem, the number of RF
μF, 1 nF or 1000 pF type (all those values are the same - stages that can be used is limited. It is practically
just expressed in different units). impossible to build a very high gain RF amplifier merely
Headphones: This is by far the hardest part to obtain. by connecting several stages together. Each stage is
The type used for hi-fi will network here. Ideally you need obviously operating at the same frequency and it is

D
high impedance 2,000 ohm types, but these are nearly very easy to have positive feedback from the latter
impossible to find. You can sometimes buy 1,000 ohm stages to the input. Even though the voltage feedback

E
crystal earpieces. The headphone is a high impedance may very small, because of a high gain of the amplifier
stages, conditions for self-oscillation are almost always

H
load for the crystal set and as we are working on free
power from the air we can't load it down. The power is not present. Therefore the amplifier may turn around and
work as an oscillator.

S
available. Remember we're using free power from the sky.
Frequency range: The frequency range of a set like this • The other problem is to do with tracking. Every stage

LI
is mainly determined by the square root of the ratio of has its own tuned circuit and it is necessary to vary
Maximum Capacitance to Minimum Capacitance of the resonant frequency of each tuned circuit in such a

B
E I
variable capacitor. way that all tuned circuit have the same resonant
R IM

frequency. Apart from the practical difficulty of obtaining

A.M. Radio band: This would cover about 530 KHz to
U
ganged capacitor with many sections, the inevitable
about 1650 KHz. This is slightly more than a 3:1 ratio. stray capacitance in the various parts of the circuit
P
E N

2. T.R.F. Receiver upset the matching of each stage.

A tuned radio frequency receiver (or TRF receiver) is a • The next problem has to do with the fidelity of the final
type of radio receiver that is composed of one or more audio output. Although additional tune circuits improve
©

tuned radio frequency (RF) amplifier stages followed by a the selectivity and results in excellent sensitivity, the
detector (demodulator) circuit to extract the audio signal overall response becomes very sharp. It is as though
and usually an audio frequency amplifier. This type of a single tuned circuit with an extremely high Q value
receiver was popular in the 1920s. Early examples could is being used. In order to receive the transmitted
B

be tedious to operate because when tuning in a station program information, a receiver which can respond not
each stage had to be individually adjusted to the station's only to the carrier but also to the side bands is required.
frequency, but later models had ganged tuning, the tuning As the receiver becomes more and more selective,
O

mechanisms of all stages being linked together, and the side bands get eliminated increasingly. Therefore,
operated by just one control knob as shown in the block the audio frequency response becomes restricted.
T

diagram (fig 8). • Although the above drawbacks severely limit the use
of TRF-receivers these receivers are used in some
T

applications in which the radio receiver is expected to

receive only a few station and is used sparingly.
O

3 Reflectional receiver
N

A reflectional radio receiver (Fig 9) (also called a reflex

radio) is a radio receiver in which the same amplifier is
used for both the high-frequency radio (RF) and low-
frequency sound (AF) signals. The radio signal from the
output of the amplifier passes detection and then re-enters
the input of the amplifier. During the second pass, the
By the mid 1930s it was replaced by the superheterodyne sound frequency is amplified then passed to the earphone.
receiver . The German company Telefunken applied the German
patent 293300 in the year 1913 for the reflex receiver.
Limitations in the crystal receiver can be largely over-
come by what are known as TRF receivers. This type of Reflectional radio receivers were used because fewer
receiver essentially consists of a chain of radio frequency amplifier devices are needed. They also consume less
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.177 151
electricity than a receiver designed with two separate input frequencies. New signals are seen at frequencies
amplifiers. that are the sum and difference of the two input signals,
i.e. if the two input frequencies are f1 and f2, then new
signals are seen at frequencies of (f1+f2) and (f1-f2).
To take an example, if two signals, one at a frequency of
600 KHz and another at a frequency of 1055KHz are mixed
together then new signals at frequencies of
455KHzand1655KHz are generated.
Design and principle of operation
In the superhet radio, the received signal enters one inputs
However, this design is less stable, with the possibility of of the mixer. A locally generated signal (local oscillator
breaking into unwanted oscillation. A greater level of skill signal) is fed into the other. The result is that new signals
and experience is needed to debug the assembled device are generated. These are applied to a fixed frequency
before it starts working. For a reflex circuit to work properly, intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier and filter. Any signals
bypassing and filtering are major considerations also. that are converted down and then fall within the pass-
band of the IF amplifier will be amplified and passed on to

D
It is important to ensure that the signal is at all time entirely
the next stages. Those that fall outside the pass-band of
operating within the linear range of the amplifier, or else
the IF are rejected. Tuning is accomplished very simply

E
inter-modulation (IM) will occur. It is difficult to judge when
by varying the frequency of the local oscillator.
minor amounts of non-linearity occur in an amplifier. A

H
reflex circuit will immediately produce severe distortion The advantage of this process is that very selective fixed
and possible oscillation as soon as the signal exceeds frequency filters can be used. They are normally at a lower

S
the linear range of the active component's curves. As this frequency than the incoming signal. This enables their
is the circumstance where the active device begins to performance to be better and less costly.

LI
work as a detector, which means it is mixing signal with
the AF being fed back to amplify. This adds considerable

B
E I
difficulty to the making of a circuit which is dependably
R IM

free of problems for all signals available.

U
4. Superheterodyne Receiver (Fig 10)
P
E N

Edwin Armstrong the US Engineer invented the superhet

or superheterodyne receiver as we know it today with a
fixed frequency, intermediate frequency, filter and a variable
©

local oscillator. His idea was developed in 1918.

Basic superheterodyne block diagram and
The superheterodyne receiver revolves around the process
functionality
of mixing. Here RF mixers are used. (This is not the same
as mixers used in audio desks where the signals are The basic block diagram of a basic superhet receiver is
B

added together). shown below in Fig 11. This details the most basic form
of the receiver and serves to illustrate the basic blocks
When two signals are beating together it is found that the
and their function.
O

output contains signals at frequencies other than the two

T
T
O
N

• The way in which the receiver works can be seen by frequency and accept those on the wanted frequency.
following the signal as it passes through the receiver. It must also be able to track the local oscillator so
• Front end amplifier and tuning block: Signals enter that as the receiver is tuned, so the RF tuning remains
the front end circuitry from the antenna. on the required frequency. Typically the selectivity
provided at this stage is not high. Its main purpose is
This block performs two main functions: to reject signals on the image frequency which is at a
• Tuning: The tuning is applied to the RF stage. The frequency equal to RF + 2IF. As the tuning within this
purpose of this is to reject the signals on the image block provides all the rejection for the image response,

152 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.177
 it must be at a sufficiently sharp to reduce the image • Audio amplifier: The output from the demodulator is
to an acceptable level. However the RF tuning may the recovered audio. This is passed into the audio
also help in preventing strong off-channel signals from stages where they are amplified and presented to the
entering the receiver and overloading elements of the headphones or loudspeaker.
receiver.
Image frequency interference
• Amplification: In terms of amplification, the level is
Assume two broadcasting stations are transmitting at two
carefully chosen so that it does not overload the mixer
different frequencies say, 800 KHz and 1710 KHz
when strong signals are present, but enables the
respectively. suppose a receiver is tuned to station
signals to be amplified sufficiently to ensure a good
broadcasting at 800 KHz, then the local oscillator
signal to noise ratio is achieved. The amplifier must
produces a frequency of 1255 KHz (800 KHz + 455 KHz
also be a low noise design. Any noise introduced in
=1255 KHz ) for an IF of 455 KHz . suppose, an undesired
this block will be amplified later in the receiver.
station transmitting at 1710 KHz happens to reach the
• Mixer / frequency translator block: The tuned and mixer input, then the local oscillator frequency of 1255
amplified signal then enters one port of the mixer. The KHz, also can mix with this undesired signal of 1710 KHz
local oscillator signal enters the other port. The and produces IF of 455 KHz (1710 KHz -1255KHz = 455
performance of the mixer is crucial to many elements KHz). This results in two signals of 455 KHz reaching the

D
of the overall receiver performance. It should be as IF stage for amplification.
linear as possible. If not, then spurious signals will be
Since the IF amplifiers amplify all signals in the frequency

E
generated and these may appear as 'phantom' (ghostly
range of 455 KHz, both the station signals get amplified
appearing) received signals.

H
and are available for detection. When the signal are
• Local oscillator: The local oscillator may consist of detected and further amplified by the audio amplifiers,

S
a variable frequency oscillator that can be tuned by the audio signal so produced will be a mix of the information
altering the setting on a variable capacitor. Alternatively broadcasted from the two stations. This causes confusion

LI
it may be a frequency synthesizer that will enable and unintelligible information. This phenomenon is called
greater levels of stability and setting accuracy. Image Frequency Interference. The unwanted frequency
of 1710 KHz is called the image frequency. The effect of

B
E I
• Intermediate frequency amplifier, IF block: Once
image frequency interference is shown in Fig 12
R IM

the signals leave the mixer they enter the IF stages.

U
These stages contain most of the amplification in the • Image frequency interference is one major disadvantage
receiver as well as the filtering that enables signals on of superheterodyne receiver operation.
P
E N

one frequency to be separated from those on the next.

• The problem of image frequency interference,
Filters may consist simply of LC tuned transformers
possibilities of minimizing it and its consequences are
providing inter-stage coupling, or they may be much
listed below;
©

higher performance ceramic or even crystal filters,

dependent upon what is required. The criterion for • Image frequencies can be prevented by using highly
choosing a suitable intermediate frequency is, the IF selective RF amplifier circuits.
value should not coincide with the frequency of any • However, inclusion of RF stage in commercial radio
powerful radio station (or its harmonics). With the
B

receivers will be quite expensive. Also high selectivity

above in mind the following IF values have been may result in chopping-off of a portion of the received
standardized by the Electronic industries side bands.
O

association(EIA) for different types of receivers which

are used throughout the world; • By making the intermediate frequency (IF) value as
T

high as possible such that the image frequencies are

Types of receiver Broadcast band IF value outside the RF band of the receiver.
AM receivers 530 KHz to 25 MHz
T

• However, if the value of IF is very high than the

FM receivers 88 KHz to 108 MHz selectivity will be such that, unwanted RF signal from
O

an adjacent station will also be picked up resulting in

• Detector / demodulator stage: Once the signals have
an another type of interference . This is called adjacent
N

passed through the IF stages of the superheterodyne

channel interference. In addition, a high value of IF
receiver, they need to be demodulated. Different
result in tracking difficulties. Hence the IF cannot be
demodulators are required for different types of
very high also.
transmission, and as a result some receivers may have
a variety of demodulators that can be switched in to Advantages and drawbacks of the superheterodyne
accommodate the different types of transmission that design
are to be encountered. Different demodulators used
An important advantage of superheterodyne receivers is
may include:
that the intermediate-frequency amplifier does not need
• AM diode detector, Synchronous AM detector (in AM to be tuned, Regardless of the frequency of the incoming
receivers),Basic FM detector,PLL FM detector OR signal. For this reason, superheterodyne receivers are
Quadrature FM detector(in FM receiver) easy to tune. Only the input circuit, radio-frequency
amplifier, and local oscillator needed to be tuned. Such
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.177 153
tuning is usually carried out by means of a single control A disadvantage of superheterodyne receivers is the
knob. Since the intermediate-frequency amplifier is not possibility of spurious responses due to frequency
tunable, multicircuit electric filters can be readily used in conversion. The image frequency and the frequency of
it to provide high selectivity, and the required signal the desired signal exhibit a mirror-like symmetry. Another
amplification can be easily obtained. Automatic frequency example of a spurious response is the noise-produced
control and automatic gain control can also be incorporated signal distortions that appear as whistles. Methods of
without difficulty. minimizing spurious responses include increasing the
radio-frequency selectivity of the receiver and choosing
an intermediate frequency that is outside the frequency
range of the desired incoming signals.

D
E
H
S
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R IM
U
P
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O
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154 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.177
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.178
Electronics Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Block diagram of FM Receivers, AM/FM-RF Alignment

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• sketch the block of FM receiver
• explain the function of limiter circuit in FM receiver
• explain the working of discriminator circuit
• explain the advantage of radio detector over discriminator
• explain the with circuit detector the working of radio detector
• explain the IF alignment and RF alignment in receiver.

FM Receiver an IF signal of 10.7 MHz. This signal is then amplified by

The block diagram of an FM superheterodyne receiver is the IF amplifier. The output of the IF amplifier is applied to
shown in Fig 1 the limiter circuit. The limiter removes the noise in the
received signal and gives a constant amplitude signal.

D
A typical FM receiver block diagram shown in Fig 1 is
This circuit is required when a phase discriminator is used

E
quite similar to that of AM receiver. The RF amplifier
amplifies the received signal intercepted by the antenna. to demodulate an FM signal.

H
The amplified signal is then applied to the mixer stage. The output of the limiter is now applied to the FM
The second input of the mixer comes from the local discriminator or detector, which recovers the modulating

S
oscillator. The two input frequencies of the mixer generate signal.

LI
B
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R IM
U
P
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©

However, this signal is still not the original modulating level. However, AGC may be provided using an AGC
B

signal. Before applying it to the audio amplifier stages, it detector. This generates a dc voltage to control the gains
is deemphasized. De-emphasizing attenuates the higher of the RF and IF amplifier.
O

frequencies to bring them back to their original amplitudes

However, notice that a limiter stage appears between the
as these are boosted or emphasized before transmission.
IF stage and the detector stage. This is one way an FM
T

The output of the deemphasized stage is the audio signal, receiver can reject noise. Fig 2 shows what happens in a
which is then applied to the audio stages and finally to limiter stage.
T

the speaker.
In the limiter shown in Fig 2 the input signal is very noisy.
It should be noted that a limiter circuit is required with the The output signal is noise -free. By limiting or by amplitude
O

FM discriminators. If the demodulator stage uses a ratio clipping, all the noise spikes have been eliminated. Some
detector instead of the discriminator, then a limiter is not FM receivers uses two stages of limiting to eliminate most
N

required. This is because the ratio detector limits the noise interference.
amplitude of the received signal.
Limiting cannot be used in a AM receiver because the
In FM receivers, generally, AGC is not required because amplitude variations carry the information to the detector.
the amplitude of the carrier is kept constant by the limiter In FM reception, the frequency variations contain the
circuit. Therefore, the input to the audio stages controls information. Amplitude clipping in a FM receiver will remove
amplitudes and there are no erratic changes in the volume just the noise but does not remove the information.

155
Detection in FM is more complicated than in AM. Since not demodulate the signal. To detect a FM signal needs
FM contains several side bands above and below the a double tuned discriminator circuit shown in Fig 3.
carrier, a signal nonlinear detector (such as a diode) will

D
E
H
S
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R IM
U
P
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O
B ©

The discriminator circuit shown in Fig 3 can serve as an

FM detector. The discriminator works by having two
T

resonant points. One is above the carrier frequency, and

one is below the carrier frequency.
T

In the discriminator circuit shown in Fig 3, when the carrier

O

is unmodulated, D1 and D2 will conduct an equal amount.

This is because the circuit is operating where the
N

frequency response curves cross . The amplitude is equal

for both tuned circuits at this point. The current through
R1 will be equal to the current through R2. If R1 are equal
in resistance, the voltage drops will also be equal. Since
the two voltages are series-opposing, the output voltage
will be zero. This means , carrier is at rest(no modulation),
the discriminator output is zero. The frequency response
curves of this discriminator is shown in Fig 4.

156 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.178
In the frequency response curves for the discriminator Automatic frequency control
circuit, fo represents the correct point on the curves for The output of the discriminator can also be used to correct
the carrier. In a FM receiver, the station's carrier frequency any drift in the receiver oscillator frequency. FM detector
will be heterodyned to fo. This represents a frequency of feeds a signal to the audio amplifier and to a stage marked
10.7 MHz for broadcast FM receivers. The heterodyning AFC. AFC stand for automatic frequency control. If the
process allows one discriminator circuit to demodulate oscillator output frequency happens to change for some
any signal over the entire commercial FM band. reason, then, fo will not exactly be 10.7 MHz. There will
Suppose the carrier shifts higher in frequency because of be a steady DC output voltage from the discriminator.
modulation, this will increase the amplitude of the signal This DC voltage can be used as a control voltage to
in L2C2 and decrease the amplitude in L1C1. Hence there change the oscillator frequency automatically and set it
will be more voltage across R2, and less across R1. Thus back to 10.7 MHz.
the output of the discriminator goes positive. The discriminator circuit discussed above work fairly well;
On the other hand when the carrier shifts below fo, the but they are sensitive to amplitude changes. This is why
signal is closer to the resonant point of L1C1. More voltage one or two limiters are needed for noise free reception.
will drop across R1, and less across R2. Hence, the output An improved method of FM detection is by using the ratio
goes negative. detector instead of the discriminator. Ratio detectors are

D
not very sensitive to the amplitude of the signal. This makes
The output from the discriminator circuit will be, it possible to build receivers without limiters and still

E
- zero when the carrier is at rest, provide good noise rejection. FM detector circuits used
in FM receivers are generally used in conjunction with

H
- positive when the carrier moves higher in frequency,
integrated circuits(IC's).They usually have the advantage
and
of requiring no alignment or only one adjustment whereas

S
- negative when the carrier moves lower in frequency. alignment for discriminators and ratio detectors is more
time-consuming.

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Thus the output of the discriminator is a function of the
carrier frequency.

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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.178 157
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.179
Electronics Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Digital modulation and demodulation techniques, sampling, quantization,

encoding
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the principle of digital communication
• list the fundamental techniques of digital modulation and demodulation
• explain the term of sampling
• explain the meaning of quantization
• describe the terms of encoding.

Digital communication is the physical transfer of data in it is transmitted directly through the physical wires and if
terms of a digital bit stream or a digitized analog signal the signal is analog, it is first converted to digital form
over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication using PCM and then transmitted through physical wires

D
channel. (Fig 1) like coaxial cable or optical fibers.

E
In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated
by a discrete signal.

H
Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-

S
to-analog conversion, and the corresponding demodulation
as analog-to-digital conversion.

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Fundamental Techniques
The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are

B
E I
based on keying: (Fig 3)
R IM

The messages are either represented by a sequence of

U
pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission),
or by a limited set of continuously varying wave forms
P
E N

(pass-band transmission), using a digital modulation

method.
The pass-band modulation and corresponding
©

demodulation (also known as detection) is carried out by

modem equipment. (Fig 2)

• ASK (Amplitude-Shift Keying): A finite number of

B

amplitudes are used.

• FSK (Frequency-Shift Keying): A finite number of
O

frequencies are used.

PSK (Phase-Shift Keying): A finite number of phases
T

•
are used
• QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation): A finite
T

number of at least two phases and at least two

O

amplitudes are used.

Amplitude Shift Keying - ASK
N

Amplitude shift keying (ASK) is a digital modulation

process, in which digital message signal is modulated
According to the most common definition of digital signal, with the high frequency carrier. The amplitude of the carrier
both baseband and pass-band signals representing bit- is changed according to the message signal. It is similar
streams are considered as digital transmission, while an to AM When input = high i.e. at logic 1, output's amplitude
alternative definition only considers the baseband signal is same as high frequency carrier's amplitude. When input
as digital, and pass-band transmission of digital data as = low i.e. at logic 0, output is 0. Hence the information of
a form of digital-to-analog conversion. the message signal is contained in the amplitude of the
carrier signal i.e. if input is 1, carrier is on and if input is 0.
In case of digital transmission, the message signal is carrier is off. Therefore, it is also known as On Off keying.
transmitted in the form of 0’s and 1's. If the signal is digital, (Fig 4)

158
 of digital modulation in the high-frequency radio spectrum,
and has important applications in telephone circuits.
The digital message signal is modulated with the high
frequency carrier. The frequency of the carrier is changed
according to the message signal. It is similar to FM When
input = high i.e. at logic 1, carrier frequency is shifted up
i.e. frequency increases. When input = low i.e. at logic 0,
carrier frequency is shifted down i.e. frequency decreases.
Hence the information of the message signal is contained
in the frequency of the carrier signal.

ASK demodulation
Demodulation is the process of recovering the original
message signal from the modulated signal .i.e., the reverse
process of modulation. It is also known as Detection. An
Ideal demodulator should produce an output as same as

D
the original message signal before modulation.

E
But practically it is not possible, due the presence of
noise (like Gaussian noise, white noise, short noise,

H
etc...), hence, deviations occur after demodulation, this
is known as Distortion.

S
The ASK demodulator, which is designed specifically for FSK demodulation

LI
the symbol-set used by the modulator, the presence or The FSK demodulation methods for FSK can be makes
absence of a sinusoid in a given time interval needs to be all positive voltages into binary 1's and all negative voltages
determined the amplitude of the received signal and maps

B
E I
into binary 0's.This type of demodulator was very popular
it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the
R IM

due to its relative simplicity and its noncritical tuning.

original data. Frequency and phase of the carrier are kept
U
Phase-locked-loop (PLL) demodulators are a more recent
constant. (Fig 5) technique, but they have very similar performances to that
P
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of FM detector demodulators.(Fig 7)
O
B ©

Advantages of FSK
• Low Noise, Since Amplitude Is Constant
T

Advantages of Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) • Power Requirement Is Constant

• Operates In Virtually Any Wireless communication
T

The main advantage of ASK modulation is generation of

Available
ASK is very much easy. Both ASK modulation and
O

demodulation processes are relatively inexpensive. The • High Data Rate

ASK technique is also commonly used to transmit digital • Used In Long Distance Communication
N

data over optical fiber. There are many other advantages

of ASK, Such as Amplitude-shift keying transmitters are • Easy To Decode
very simple and transmitter current is low. • Good Sensitivity
Disadvantages of Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) Disadvantages of FSK
ASK is linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, • Complex Circuits.
distortion and propagation condition on different routes in
PSTN (Public switched telephone network).It requires • Coherent FSK is not often used in practice due it the
excessive bandwidth and is therefore a waste of power. difficulty and cost in generating two reference
frequencies close together at the receiver.
Frequency Shift Keying - FSK (Fig 6)
• It requires more bandwidth.
Frequency shift keying (FSK) is the most common form
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.179 159
• The FSK is not preferred for the high speed modems Disadvantages of PSK
because with increase in speed, the bit rate increases.
• More complex signal detection / recovery process, than
Phase Shift Keying - PSK: in ASK and FSK.
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme • Low bandwidth efficiency.
that conveys data by changing, or modulating the phase
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation - QAM
of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is both an analog
The digital message signal is modulated with the high
and a digital modulation scheme. It conveys two analog
frequency carrier. The phase of the carrier is changed
message signals, or two digital bit streams, by changing
according to the message signal. It When input = low i.e.
(modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier waves, using
at logic 0, output wave is 180 degrees out of phase with
the amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation
the carrier is similar to PM When input = high i.e. at logic
scheme or amplitude modulation (AM) analog modulation
1, output wave is in phase with the carrier. i.e. 0 degrees
scheme.
phase. (Fig 8)
The two carrier waves, usually sinusoids, are out of phase
with each other by 90° and are thus called quadrature
carriers or quadrature components - hence the name of

D
the scheme. The modulated waves are summed, and the
final waveform is a combination of both phase-shift keying

E
(PSK) and amplitude-shift keying(ASK).

H
In the digital QAM case, a finite number of at least two
phases and at least two amplitudes are used and it also

S
used extensively as a modulation scheme for digital
telecommunication systems.

LI
The QAM modulator and QAM demodulator are key
elements within any quadrature amplitude modulation

B
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Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of system.
R IM

distinct signals to represent digital data. PSK uses a finite

U
number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of The modulator and demodulator are used to encode the
binary digits. signal, often data into the radio frequency carrier that is
P
E N

to be transmitted. Then the demodulator is used at the

The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the remote end to extract the signal from the RF carrier so
symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase that it can used at the remote end.
©

of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it

represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires As quadrature amplitude modulation is a complex signal,
the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received specialised QAM modulators and demodulators are
signal to a reference signal. (Fig 9) required.
QAM modulator basics
B

The QAM modulator essentially follows the idea that can

be seen from the basic QAM theory where there are two
O

carrier signals with a phase shift of 90° between them.

These are then amplitude modulated with the two data
T

streams known as the I or In-phase and the Q or

quadrature data streams. These are generated in the
T

baseband processing area. (Fig 10)

O
N

Advantages of PSK
• PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while it
requires/occupies the same bandwidth as ASK
• More efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are
possible, compared to FSK.
• High power efficiency
• It is used in low data rate wireless communication.

160 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.179
The two resultant signals are summed and then processed respect to the two double sideband suppressed carrier
as required in the RF signal chain, typically converting constituents of the overall signal.
them in frequency to the required final frequency and
Systems include circuitry for carrier recovery that often
amplifying them as required.
utilizes a phase locked loop - some even have an inner
It is worth noting that as the amplitude of the signal varies and outer loop. Recovering the phase of the carrier is
any RF amplifiers must be linear to preserve the integrity important otherwise the bit error rate for the data will be
of the signal. Any non-line varieties will alter the relative compromised.
levels of the signals and alter the phase difference, thereby
Advantages of QAM
distorting the signal and introducing the possibility of data
errors. (Fig 11) • QAM appears to increase the efficiency of transmission
for radio communications systems by utilizing both
amplitude and phase variations.
• The advantage of using QAM is that it is a higher order
form of modulation and as a result it is able to carry
more bits of information per symbol.
• By selecting a higher order format of QAM, the data

D
rate of a link can be increased.

E
• Baud Rate (Baud Rate - No. of symbols per second)
is high.

H
Disadvantages of QAM

S
• First it is more susceptible to noise. Receivers for use
with phase or frequency modulation are both able to

LI
use limiting amplifiers that are able to remove any
amplitude noise and thereby improve the noise

B
E I
reliance.
R IM

• The second limitation is also associated with the

U
amplitude component of the signal. When a phase or
frequency modulated signal is amplified in a radio
P
E N

transmitter, there is no need to use linear amplifiers,

whereas when using QAM that contains an amplitude
component, linearity must be maintained.
©

• Almost always requires a highly stable local oscillator

The QAM demodulator is very much the reverse of the • In the optical domain this is very expensive.
QAM modulator.
Sampling
B

The signals enter the system, they are split and each
side is applied to a mixer. One half has the in-phase local In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a
oscillator applied and the other half has the quadrature continuous signal to a discrete signal. A common example
O

oscillator signal applied. (Fig 12) is the conversion of a sound wave (a continuous signal)
to a sequence of samples ( discrete-time signal). (Fig 13)
T
T
O
N

The basic modulator assumes that the two quadrature

signals remain exactly in quadrature.
A further requirement is to derive a local oscillator signal
for the demodulation that is exactly on the required
frequency for the signal. Any frequency offset will be a
change in the phase of the local oscillator signal with

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.179 161
A sample is a value or set of values at a point in time or
space. A theoretical ideal sampler produces samples
equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous
signal at the desired points. After sampling, the process
of converting a continuous-valued discrete-time signal to
a digital (discrete-valued discrete-time) signal is known
as analog-to-digital conversion
Sampling is usually done by using PAM (Pulse Amplitude
Modulation). In this the analog signal is sampled at a
given pulsing frequency.
Criteria for Sampling:
The criteria for sampling is given by Nyquist, known as
Nyquist sampling theorem. The Nyquist sampling theorem
provides a prescription for the nominal sampling interval
required to avoid aliasing. It may be stated simply as
follows: 3 Flat- top Sampling (Fig 16)

D
"The sampling frequency should be at least twice the • This is similar to Natural Sampling

E
highest frequency contained in the signal." • In this the top is made flat irrespective of the signal
form

H
Types of Sampling
There are three basic types of sampling used in the • This is usually used for Quantization as it gives higher

S
process of sampling process. SNR values when compared to natural sampling.

LI
They can be differentiated by their output waveform that
they produce and the process involved in producing them.

B
E I
1 Ideal Sampling (Fig 14)
R IM

• In this the samples are the instants of that time

U
• It is obtained by Pulse Modulation with
P
E N

• Pulse of low duty cycle ideally, not possible but is

used for theoretical purpose.
B ©

Quantization
O

Quantization in digital signal processing, is the process

T

of mapping a large set of input values to a (countable)

smaller set - such as rounding values to some unit of
precision.
T

A device or algorithmic function that performs quantization

O

is called a quantizer.
The round-off error introduced by quantization is referred
N

2 Natural Sampling (Fig 15) to as quantization error.

• In this the samples are not the instant but of a small In analog-to-digital conversion, the difference between the
period of time actual analog value and quantized digital value is called
quantization error or quantization distortion. This error is
• It is obtained by PAM.
either due to rounding.. The error signal is sometimes
• This is usually used for the comparison of sampled modeled as an additional random signal called quantization
output at various time intervals of various signals noise because of its stochastic behavior. Quantization is
• It has low SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio - The amount of involved to some degree in nearly all digital signal
original signal present to that of the noise in given processing, as the process of representing a signal in
signal). digital form ordinarily involves rounding. Fig 17(a b,c)

162 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.179
 Encoding
An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software
program, algorithm that converts information from one
format (code) to another for the purpose of standardization,
speed and security.
In telecommunication it is a device used to change a signal
such as bit stream into a code.
The encoding is used to follow up standards so that type
conversion from one to another doesn't affect the overall
process. E.g.: NRZ-S is used in USB communication
irrespective of the type of hardware, thus they ensure a
standard. The usually used coding technique is line-coding
technique. It is the coding technique followed to coding
only single bit at a time.
Line coding consists of representing the digital signal to

D
be transported by an amplitude- and time-discrete signal
that is optimally tuned for the specific properties of the

E
physical channel (and of the receiving equipment). The
waveform pattern of voltage or current used to represent

H
the 1's and 0's of a digital data on a transmission link is
called line encoding.

S
The common types of line encoding are

LI
a Unipolar encoding.
• Return to Zero (RZ).

B
E I
R IM

b Polar encoding.
U
• Non-Return to Zero Level (NRZ-L).
P
E N

• Non-Return to Zero Space (NRZ-S).

The output of the quantization depends on the resolution
• Non-Return to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I).
of the quantizer, i.e., if a sinusoidal wave to be quantized
©

is given to a 2-bit quantizer then the output has 4 levels in • Non-Return to Zero Mark (NRZ-M).
its output,
c Bipolar encoding.
If it is a 3-bit quantizer then the output has 8 levels, thus
• Alternate Mark Inversion(AMI)
the number of levels can be given based on the resolution
B

of the quantizer, i.e., the number of output bits of the d Manchester encoding.
quantizer. Unipolar Encoding
Quantization Error
O

Unipolar encoding or Return to Zero is a line code. A

• When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - positive voltage represents a binary 1, and zero volts
T

the coded signal is an approximation of the actual indicates a binary 0. It is the simplest line code, directly
amplitude value. encoding the bit stream, and is analogous to on-off keying
in modulation. (Fig 18)
T

• The difference between actual and coded value

(midpoint) is referred to as the quantization error.
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.179 163
In unipolar NRZ the duration of the MARK pulse (Γ) is • Contains low frequency components. Causes "Signal
equal to the duration (To) of the symbol slot. (Fig 19) Droop" (explained later).
Advantages • Does not have any error correction capability.
• Simplicity in implementation. • Does not possess any clocking component for ease
of synchronisation.
• Doesn't require a lot of bandwidth for transmission.
• Is not transparent. Long string of zeros causes loss of
Disadvantages synchronisation.
• Presence of DC level (indicated by spectral line at 0
Hz).

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164 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.179
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.180
Electronics Mechanic - Communication Electronics

Modulation and Demodulation of analog signal using PAM, PPM,PWM

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• processing of PAM, PPM and PWM
• Demodulation of PAM, PPM and PWM.

Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is the basic from of output pin. Its pulse frequency is designed at least twice
pulse modulation in which the signal is sampled at regular that of audio signal. The collector of transistor is coupled
intervals and each sample is made proportion to the with low frequency audio signal through positive clamper
amplitude of the modulating signal at the sampling instant. using capacitor C1 and diode D1.
The processing of PAM signal is shown in Fig 1. The two
signals i.e, modulating signal and sampling signal or carrier
signal are sent to the sampler (Multiplier) stage where

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the amplitude of the signal proportional to the modulating
signal through which information is carried. This is PAM

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signal

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The PAM signal along with the message signal and the The positive clamping will shift the level of audio signal
sampling signal, that is the carrier train of pulses waveform above ‘O’ volt. The output at the collector of transistor is
plotted in time domain are shown in Fig 2. PAM wave as shown in Fig 3. The amplitude of pulse
©

generated by the IC555 varies in accordance with the

PAM circuit using IC555 and NPN transistor is shown in instantaneous amplitude of information signal.
Fig 3. The timer chip is wired in as table multivibrator
configuration with the NPN transistor base at terminal
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165
Demodulation of PAM to detect all the three original message signals at receiving
end.
PAM signal is demodulated by the low pass filter circuit
shown in Fig 4. The RC network eliminates high frequency Multiplexing of AM signal
ripples and generates the demodulated signal proportional Analog signals are easily multiplexed by using frequency
to the PAM input signal. division multiplexing (FDM) technique for multiplexing AM
signals for transmission. FDM is a networking technique
in which multiple data signals are combined for
simultaneous transmission via a shared communication
medium. FDM uses a carrier signal at a discrete frequency
for each data stream and then combines many modulated
signals into one in such a manner that each individual
signal can be retrieved at the destination.
The following Fig 5 shows the process of FDM of three
voice signals with different carrier frequencies are
modulated and sent together over a cable by using FDM
technique
Demultiplexing of AM signal

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In FDM a guard band frequency of 9 khz is provided
Demultiplexing is the reverse process of the multiplexing
between different AM channels to keep signals from
action the demultiplexer is also known as ‘DEMUX’

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interfering with each other. This process of multiplexing
A demux circuit separates multiple analog or digital of AM signal is adopted at Transmitter and then goes to

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separates form one signal received over a single shared media at different slots of frequency.
medium such as a single conductor of copper wire or Since the PAM, PPM and PNM are analog signals, the

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fiber optical cable multiplexing of these signals are required with FDM

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Now, each modulated signal is applied at demodulators technique.

Fig 5

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166 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.6.180
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.181
Electronics Mechanic - Microcontroller (8051)

Introduction to Microprocessor and Microcomputer Architecture

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• introduction of micro processor and micro controller
• architecture of micro processor and micro controller
• Difference between micro processor and micro controller.

Introduction to Microprocessor and Microcomputer generally have an 8-bit data bus and a 16-bit processor
Architecture will have 16-bit data bus.
A microprocessor is a programmable electronics chip that • Control Bus: The control bus carry control signals,
has computing and decision making capabilities similar which consists of signals for selection of memory or I/
to central processing unit of a computer. Any O device from the given address, direction of data
microprocessor-based systems having limited number of transfer and synchronization of data transfer in case

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resources are called microprocessor. Nowadays, of slow devices.
microprocessor can be seen in almost all types of
A typical microprocessor consists of arithmetic and logic

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electronics devices like mobile phones, printers, washing
unit (ALU) in association with control unit to process the
machines etc. Microprocessors are also used in advanced

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instruction execution. Almost all the microprocessors are
applications like radars, satellites and flights. Due to the
based on the principle of store-program concept. In store-
rapid advancements in electronic industry and large scale

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program concept, programs or instructions are
integration of devices results in a significant cost reduction
sequentially stored in the memory locations that are to
and increase application of microprocessors and their

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be executed. To do any task using a microprocessor, it is
derivatives.
to be programmed by the user. So the programmer must
have idea about its internal resources, features and

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supported instructions. Each microprocessor has a set
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of instructions, a list which is provided by the
microprocessor manufacturer. The instruction set of a
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microprocessor is provided in two forms. binary machine
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code and mnemonics.

Microprocessor communicates and operates in binary
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number 0 and 1. The set of instructions in the form of

binary patterns is called a machine language and it is
• Bit: A bit is a single binary digit. difficult for us to understand. Therefore, the binary patterns
are given abbreviated names, called mnemonics, which
• Word: A word refers to the basic data size or bit size forms the assembly language. The conversion of
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that can be processed by the arithmetic and logic unit assembly-level language into binary machine - level
of the processor. A 16-bit binary number is called a language is done by using an application called assembler.
word in a 16-bit processor.
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Classification of Microprocessors:
• Bus: A bus is a group of wires/lines that carry similar
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information. Based on their specifications, applications and

architecture microprocessors are classified.
• System Bus: The system bus is a group of wires/
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lines used for communication between the Based on size of data bus:
microprocessor and peripherals.
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• 4-bit microprocessor
• Memory Word: The number of bits that can be stored • 8-bit microprocessor
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in a register or memory element is called a memory

word. • 16-bit microprocessor

• Address Bus: It carries the address, which is a unique • 32-bit microprocessor

binary pattern used to identify a memory location or Based on application
an I/O port, For example, an eight bit address bus has
eight lines and thus it can address 28 = 256 different • General-purpose microprocessor used in general
locations. The locations in hexadecimal format can computer system and can be used by programmer
be written as 00H - FFH. for any application. Example, 8085 to Intel Pentium.

• Data Bus: The data bus is used to transfer data • Microcontroller - microprocessor with built - in
between memory and processor or between I/O device memory and ports and can be programmed for any
and processor. For example, an 8-bit processor will generic control application. Example, 8051.

167
 • Special-purpose processors - designed to handle • Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
special functions required for an application. processors
Examples, digital signal processors and
2 8085 Microprocessor Architecture
applications specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
chips. The 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit processor available
as a 40-pin IC package and uses +5 V for power. It can
Based on architecture:
run at a maximum frequency of 3 MHz. Its data bus width
• Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) is 8-bit and address bus width is 16-bit, thus it can address
processors 216 - 64 KB of memory. The internal architecture of 8085
is shown is Fig 2.

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Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Accumulator A (8) FT AG Register
The ALU performs the actual numerical and logical
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operations such as Addition (ADD), Subtraction (SUB), B (8) C (8)

AND, OR etc.
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Register D (8) E (8)

H (8) L (8)
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The 8085 includes six registers, one accumulator and

one flag register, as shown in Fig 3. In addition, it has two
Stack Pointer (SP) (16)
10-bit register, stack pointer and program counter.
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The 8085 has six general - purpose registers to store 8- Program Counter (PC) (16)
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bit data, these are identified as B,C,D,E,H and L, they

can be combined as register pairs - BC, DE and HL to
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perform some 16-bit operations. The programmer can use Data Bus Address Bus
these registers to store or copy data into the register by
8 lines Bidirectional 16 lines unidirectional
using data copy instructions.

168 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.181
Accumulator unidirectional and the lower order lines (A0-A7) are
The accumulator is an 8-bit register that is a part of ALU. multiplexed (time-shared) with the eight data bits (D0-
This register is used to store 8-bit data and to perform D7) and hence, they are bidirectional.
arithmetic and logical operations. • Control Bus: Control bus are various lines which have
specific functions for coordinating and controlling
Flag register microprocessor operations. The control bus carries
The ALU includes five flip-flop, which are set or reset after control signals partly unidirectional and partly
an operation according to data condition of the result in bidirectional. The following control and status signals
the accumulator and other register. are used by 8085 processor:
i ALE (output): Address Latch Enable is a pulse that
is provided when an address appears on the AD0-
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 AD7 lines, after which it becomes 0.
S Z AC P CY ii RD (active low output): The read signal indicates
For examples, after an addition of two numbers, if the that data are being read from the selected I/O or
result in the accumulator is larger than 8-bit, the flip-flop memory device and that they are available on the
uses to indicate a carry by setting CY flag to 1. When an data bus.

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arithmetic operation results in zero. Z flag is set to 1. The iii WR (active low output): The Write signal indicates
S flag is just a copy of the bit D7 of the accumulator. A that data on the data bus are to be written into a

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negative number has a 1 in bit D7 and a positive number selected memory or I/O location.
has a 0 in 2’s complement representation. The AC flag is iv IO/M (output): It is a signal that distinguished

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set to 1, when a carry result from bit D3 and passes to bit between a memory operation and an I/O operation.
D4. The P flag is set to 1, when the result in accumulator

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When I
contains even number of 1s.
IO/M = 0 it is a memory operation and

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Program Counter (PC)
IO/M = it is an I/O operation.
This 16-bit register deals with sequencing the execution
v S1/S0 (output): These are status signals used to

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of instructions. This register is a memory pointer. The
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specify the type of operation being performed, they
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microprocessor uses this register to sequence the
are listed in Table 1.
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execution of the instructions.
Stack pointer (SP) Table 1 Status signals and associated operations
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The stack pointer is also a 16-bit register, used as a S1 S0 States

memory pointer. It points to a memory location in R/W
memory, called stack. 0 0 Halt
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Instruction Register/Decoder 0 1 Write

It is an 8-bit register that temporarily stores the current 1 0 Read
instruction of a program. Latest instruction sent here from
1 1 Fetch
memory prior to execution.
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Control Unit The schematic representation of the 8085 bus structure

Generates signals on data bus, address bus and control is as shown in Fig 3. The microprocessor performs
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bus within microprocessor to carry out the instruction, primarily four operations.
which has been decoded. i Memory Read: Reads data (or instruction) from
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• Data bus: Data bus carries data in binary form between memory
microprocessor and other external units such as
ii Memory Write : Writes data (or instruction) into
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memory. It is used to transmit data. i.e information

memory
results of arithmetic etc width of 8085 microprocessor.
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Data bus is in directional in nature. The data bus width iii I/O Read: Accepts data from input device.
of 8085 microprocessor is 8-bit i.e, 28 combination of iv I/O Write: Sends data to output device.
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binary digits and are typically identified as D0-D7. Thus

The 8085 processor performs these functions using
size of the data bus determines what arithmetic can
address bus, data bus and control bus.
be done. If only 8-bit wide their largest number is
11111111 (255 in decimal).Therefore, larger numbers 3 8085 Pin Description
have to be broken down into chunks of 255. This slows Properties:
microprocessors.
• It is a 8-bit microprocessor.
• Address Bus: The address bus carries addresses and
is one way bus from microprocessor to the memory • Manufactured with N-MOS technology.
or other devices 8085 microprocessor contain 16-bit • 40 Pin IC package.
address bus and are generally identified as A0-A15.
• It has 16-bit address bus and thus has 216 = 64 KB
The higher order address lines (A8-A15) are
addressing capability.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.181 169
 • Operate with 3 MHz single phase clock + 5 V • Address bus
single power supply. • Data bus
The Logic pin layout and signal groups of the 8085 • Control & status signals
microprocessor are shown in Fig 3. All the signals are • Power supply and frequency signals
classified into six groups:
• Externally initiated signals
Fig 3 • Serial I/O signals
Address and Data Buses:
• A8 - A15 (output, 3-state): Most significant eight
bits of memory addresses and the eight bits of the
I/O addresses. These lines enter into tri-state high
impedance state during HOLD and HALT modes.
• AD0 - AD7 (input/output, 3-State): Lower significant
bits of memory addresses and the eight bits of the
I/O addresses during first clock cycle. Behaves as
data bus during third and fourth clock cycle. These

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lines enter into tri-state high impedance state during
HOLD and HALT modes.

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Control & Status Signals:

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• ALE: Address latch enable
• RD: Read control signal.

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• WR: Write control signal

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• IO/M: S1 and S0 : Status signals
Power Supply & Clock Frequency:

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• Vcc: +5 V power supply
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• Vss: Ground reference

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• X1, X2: A crystal having frequency of 6 MHz is
connected in these two pins.
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• CLK: Clock output.

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170 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.181
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
Electronics Mechanic - Microcontroller (8051)

Architecture of 8051
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• understand the architecture of 8051 microcontroller
• differentiate between microprocessor and microcontroller.
Microcontroller the system cost is very high. Microcontrollers are the
The main reason for the development of microcontroller is devices that actually fit the profile “Computer - on - a chip”
to overcome the drawback of the microprocessor. Even as it consists of a main processing unit or processor along
though microprocessors are powerful devices, they require with some other components that are necessary to make
external chips like RAM, ROM input/output ports and it a complete computer. The components that are present
other components in order to design a complete working on a typical microcontroller IC are CPU, memory, input /
system. This made it economically difficult to develop output ports and timers. The block diagram of a
microcontroller is shown below in Fig 1.

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computerized consumer appliances on a large scale as

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Microcontrollers are basically used in embedded systems. can be either CISC (complex instruction set computer) or
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Microcontrollers can be classified based on bus width, RISC (Reduced instruction set computer. Majority of
memory structure and instruction set. Bus width indicates microcontrollers follow CISC architecture with over 80
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a the size of the data bus. instructions. Microcontrollers can also be divided based
on their computer architecture into von neumann and
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Microcontrollers can be classified as 8-bit, 16- bit or 32-bit harvard.

based on the bus width. Higher bus widths often result in
better performance. Microcontrollers can be divided into Functions of different ICs used in the microcontroller
two types based on their memory structures ; Embedded kit
memory and external memory. In case of embedded 1 EPROM : 27256 ( 32k x 8 EPROM)
memory microcontrollers, the required data and program
memory is embedded into the IC. Whereas external The micro -51 EB LCD has a standard EPROM configuration
memory microcontrollers do not have program memory of 32KB. The address for the monitor EPROM is 0000-
embedded on them and require an external chip for the 3FFF. EPROM expansion is C000-FFFF.
same. Now a day, all microcontrollers are embedded 2 RAM : 61256 ( 256K x 16 BIT SRAM)
memory microcontrollers. The classification based on
instruction set is similar to that of a microprocessor. They The micro - 51 EB LCD has 32 KB of read /write program

171
/ data memory using one 61256 whose address is from 5 Address Latch : (74LS273)
4000 to BFFFF. The micro - 51 EB LCD has one more
It is used to latch the address (A0-A7) from AD lines (AD0-
32KB of read/write data memory using one 61256 whose
AD7). The latch stores the number output by the 8051
address is 0000-3FFF and C000-FEFF.
from the data bus. So that the LED can be lit with any 8
3 Parallel I/O interface : 8255 PPI (Programmable bit binary number.
peripheral interface)
6 Data bus buffer : (72LS244)
Intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface 24
It connect 8 bit of input data to I/O peripheral devices.
programmable I/O lines configured as three 8 bit ports
direct bit set / reset capability. Three modes of operation 7 LCD interface and LCD module : ( IC74174)
namely basic I/O, strobed I/O and bidirectional bus. The LCD is display is driven by both address latch and data
4 RS485 Drivers and RS232 drivers : ICL 232 (RS232) bus buffer.
and 74LBC184D (RS485) The following table shows some of the difference between
8051 is used for serial communication with associated microprocessors and microcontrollers.
diver for interface immunity and overcoming attenuation.

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Microprocessor Microcontroller

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Microprocessor assimilates the function of a central Microcontroller can be considered as a small computer
processing unit (CPU) on to a single integrated circuit (IC) which has a processor and some other components

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order to make it a micro computer chip.

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Microprocessors are mainly used in designing general Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled
purpose systems from small to large and complex devices

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systems like super computers

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Microprocessors are basic components of personal Microcontrollers are generally used in embedded
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computers system .
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A microprocessor based system can perform numerous A microcontroller based system can perform single of
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tasks very few tasks .

The main task of microprocessor is to perform the In addition to performing the tasks of fetch, decode and
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instruction cycle repeatedly. This includes fetch, execute, a microcontroller also controls its environment
decode and execute. based on the output of the instruction cycle.

In order to build or design a system (Computer, a The IC of a microcontroller has memory (both RAM,
microprocessor has to be connected externally to some ROM) integrated on it along with some other
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other components like memory (RAM and ROM) and input components like I/O devices and timers
output ports
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The overall cost of a system built using a microprocessor Cost of a system built using a microcontroller is less,
is high. This is because of the requirement of external all the components are readily available.
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components.

Generally power consumption and dissipation is high Power consumption is less

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because of the external devices. Hence it requires

external cooling system.
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The clock frequency is very high usually in the order of Clock frequency is less usually in the order of Mega
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Giga Hertz. Hertz.

172 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
Architecture of PIC Microcontroller • Read Only Memory (ROM)
Central Processing Unit (CPU) • Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only

PIC microcontroller’s CPU is not different like other Memory (EEPROM)

microcontroller CPU, which includes the ALU, controller • Flash Memory
unit, the memory unit, and accumulator. ALU is mainly
• Stack
used for arithmetic and logical operations. The memory
unit is used to store the commands after processing. Input Output (I/O) Ports
The control unit is used to control the internal & external
The PIC microcontroller consists of 5-ports, namely Port-
peripherals, and the accumulator is used to store the
A, Port-B, Port-C, Port-D and Port-E.
final results and further processes.
BUS
Memory Organization
BUS is used to transfer and receive the data from one
The memory module of the PIC microcontroller peripheral to another as shown in Fig 3. It is categorized
architecture consists of Random Access Memory (RAM) into two types as data bus and address bus.The Data
Read Only Memory (ROM) and STACK. Bus is used to transfer or receive the data.

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Memory Organization Fig 3

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Random Access Memory (RAM)

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(RAM) The Random access memory is used to store the
information temporarily in its registers. It is categorized

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into two banks, each bank has so many registers. The
RAM registers are categorized into two types, namely

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Special Function Registers (SFR) General Purpose
Registers (GPR).

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General Purpose Registers (GPR)
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As the name implies, These registers are used for general
purpose only. For instance, if we want to multiply any The address bus is used to transfer the memory address
P
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two numbers by using this microcontroller. Usually, from the peripherals to the Central Processing Unit(CPU).
registers are used for multiplying and storing in other Input /Output pins are used to interface the exterior
registers. So, GPR registers don’t have any superior peripherals; both the UART and USART are serial
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function,- CPU can simply access the data in the communication protocols, used to interface with serial
registers. devices such as GPS, GSM, IR, Bluetooth, etc.
Analog to Digital (A/D) Converter
Special Function Registers (SFR)
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A/D converter is shown in Fig 4 . It is used to convert

As the name implies, SFRs are used only for special analog voltage values to digital voltage values. An A/D
purposes. These registers work based on the module in PIC Microcontroller Controller comprises of 5-
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function assigned to them, and these registers inputs for 28-pin devices and 8-inputs for 40-pin devices.
cannot work as a normal register. For instance, if The operation of the A/D converter is controlled by special
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you cannot use the STATUS register for storing the registers like ADCON0 & ADCON1. The upper and lower
information, SFRs are used for viewing the status of the bits of the converter are stored in registers like ADRESH
and ADRESL. In this process, it needs 5V of an analog
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program. So, the user cannot change the SFR’s function;

the function is given by the manufacturer at the time of reference voltage.
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built-up.
Fig 4
Memory Organization
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The memory organization of Peripheral Interface Controller

(PIC) is shown in Fig 2 which includes the following:

Fig 2

Timer/Counters
PIC microcontroller has four-timer/counters wherein the
one 8-bit timer and the remaining timers have the choice
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188 173
to select 8 or 16-bit mode. Timers are used for generating Interrupts
accuracy actions, for example, creating specific time
PIC microcontroller consists of 20 internal and 3-external
delays between two operations.
interrupt sources which are allied with different peripherals
like USART, ADC, Timers, and so on.

Pin details of 8051, Internal data memory, SFR and on-chip features
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• pin diagram of 8051
• data memory and special function registers
• utilization of on - chip resources such as ADC.

The pin diagram of 8051: 8051 is a 40 pin There are 4 ports in 8051 IC (Port 0, Port 1, Port 2 and
microcontroller with I/O ports (Ref.Fig 1) Port 3) 32 pins are function as I/O port lines and 24 of
these lines are dual purpose (P0, P1, P3). Each can
operate as I/O, or as a control line or part of the address
or data bus. Eight lines in each port can be used in

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interfacing to parallel devices like printers, DAC etc., or
each line the port can be used in interfacing to single bit

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devices like LED’s, switches, transistors, solenoid,
motors and loudspeakers.

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PORT 0 (32-39 Pins )

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It is a dual purpose port ( P0.0-P0.7). For simple design it

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is used as I/O ports. For larger design with external
memory, it is used as multiplexed address and data bus
(AD0-AD7)

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PORT 1(1-8 Pins )
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It is a dedicated I/O port ( P1.0-P1.7). It is used only to
interface with the external devices.
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PORT 2 (21-28 Pins )

It is a dual purpose port (P2.0-P2.7). It is used as I/O port
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or higher byte of address bus (A8-A15).

PORT 3 (10-17 Pins )
It is a dual purpose port (P3.0- P3.7) It is used as I/O
port, or used to special features of 8051 (Table 1)
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Table 1
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BIT Name BIT Address Alternate function

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P 3.0 RXD B0H Receive data for serial port

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P 3.1 TXD B1H Transmit data for serial port

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P 3.2 INT0 B2H External interrupt 0

P 3.3 INT1 B3H External interrupt 1

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P 3.4 T0 B4H Timer /counter 0 external input

P 3.5 T1 B5H Timer/counter 1 external input

P 3.6 WR B6H External data memory write stroke

P 3.7 RD B7H External data memory read stroke

P 1.0 T2 90H Timer/ Counter 2 external input

P 1.1 T2EX 91 H Timer /Counter 2 capture / reload

174 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
RST (9 Pin No ) 21 SFRs are available, out of 21, 11 are bit
addressable and 10 are byte addressable
It is a master reset input pin. It should be kept high to
start - up 8051. P0 (80 H) : Port 0, bit addressable
On- chip oscillator (18-19 Pins) SP (81 H) : Stack pointer
It is a crystal oscillator with stabilizing capacitor connected DPL (82 H) : Data pointer low byte
to pin number 18 and 19. The normal crystal frequency
DPH (83 H) : Data pointer high byte
is 12 MHz.
PCON (87H) : Power control register
Power connection (20,40 Pins)
TCON (88H) : Timer control register, bit addressable
The 8051 operates at +5V DC. Pin No. 40 is Vcc. Pin No.
20 is Vss (GND) TMOD (89H) : Timer mode register
PSEN (Program store enable ) (29 Pin No) TL0 (8AH) : Timer 0 low byte
PSEN is an output and control signal to enable the TL1 (8BH) : Timer 1 low byte
external memory.
TH0 (8CH) : Timer 0 high byte
ALE (Address Latch Enable) (30 Pin No)

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TH1 (8DH) : Timer 1 high byte
ALE is an output signal to control demultiplexing the

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P1 (90H) : Port 1, bit addressable
address and data bus. ALE signal oscillates at 2 MHz.
SCON (98H) : Serial port control register, bit addressable

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EA (External access) (31 Pin No)
SBUF (99H) : Serial data buffer, byte addressable
It is an input signal is generally kept high ( +5VDC) or low

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(GND). If EA is high 8051 executes program from internal P2 (A0H) : Port 2, bit addressable

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ROM. If EA is low it executes program from external IE (A8H) : Interrupt enable, bit addressable
memory.
P3 (B0H) :Port 3, bit addressable

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Internal data memory
IP (B8H) : Interrupt priority, bit addressable
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128 Bytes of internal data memory is divided in to two

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parts, Part I is RAM (00- 7FH) Part II is special function PSW (D0H) : Program status word, bit addressable
registers (SFR) (80-FFH)
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ACC (E0H) : Accumulator, bit addressable
E N

RAM On-chip features of 8051 philips microcontroller

i Register Bank (00H-1FH) 4 banks (Bank 0,1,2,3 ) Each The derivative of 8051 philips microcontroller is most
©

bank consisting of 8 register (R0-R7) powerful 8 bit microcontroller. It has got an 8 bit CPU
ii Bit addressable RAM (20 H-2FH) optimized for control application. 64 K program memory
space, 64K data memory space, 4K bytes of on - chip
iii General purpose RAM (30 H-7FH) program memory. 128 bytes of on - chip data memory, 32
B

i. Register banks bi-directional and individually addressable I/O lines, two

16 bit timer / counters, one full duplex serial port and 6
The bottom 32 locations of internal memory contain the source /5- vector interrupt with two priority level on - chip.
O

register banks. The 8051 instruction set supports of 8

registers R0 through R7, and by default these registers Utilization of on - chip resources such as ADC
T

are addresses 00H-07H. The PCF 8591 is a single - chip, single - supply low -
ii. Bit addressable RAM power 8 bit CMOS data acquisition, device with four analog
T

inputs, one analog output and a serial I2C - bus interface.

There are 128 general - purpose bit addressable locations
The functions of the device include analog input
O

at byte addresses 20 H through 2FH (8 bits /byte X 16

multiplexing, on- chip track and hold function, 8 bit analog-
bytes = 128 bits ). These addresses are accessed as
to-digital conversion and an 8- bit digital - to analog
N

bytes or as bits, depending on the instruction.

conversion. The maximum conversion rate is given by the
For example, to set bit 67H, the following instruction could maximum speed of the I2C- bus.
be used.
Features and benefits
Set B 67H • Single power supply
Note that “Bit address 67H” is the most significant bit at • Operating supply voltage 2.5V to 6.0V
“byte address 2CH”.
• Low standby current
iii. General purpose RAM
• Serial input and output via I2C- bus
General purpose RAM consisting of address location(30H-
7FH) which is byte addressable available to programmer • I2C address selection by 3 hardware address pins
to store data /programs.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188 175
• Max sampling rate given by I2C- bus speed • 8-bit successive approximation A/D conversion
• 4 Analog inputs configurable as single ended or • Multiplying DAC with one analog output.
differential inputs
Applications
• Auto- incremented channel selection
Supply monitoring
• Analog voltage range from VSS to VDD
Reference setting
• On - chip track and hold circuit

Instruction set of 8051, arithmetic and logical function

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• write program for adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing two 8 bit numbers
• write program for logical and, or function for two 8 bit numbers.

Assembly software for 8051 packed BCD representations.

Here some simple assembly language programs for 8051 Examples
microcontroller are given to understand the operation of ADD A, #84 - Immediate addressing mode

D
different instructions and to understand the logic behind
particular program. SUBB A, R2 - Register addressing mode

E
MOVC A, @ A+DPTR ; A ← ext_code_mem (A+DPTR) ADD 73h, a - Direct addressing mode

H
MOVC A, @ A+PC ; A ← ext_code_mem (A+PC) ADDC @R1, 25h - Indirect addressing mode

S
8051 Instruction set iii. Logic instructions

LI
The 8051, 8-bit microcontroller family instruction set The MCS - 51 family microcontrollers perform basic logic
includes 111 instructions, 49 of which are single - byte, operations on both bit and byte operands.
45 two - byte and 17 three - byte instruction. The instruction

B
E I
Bit level (single operand) operations
opcode format consists of a function mnemonic followed
R IM

In 8051 internal RAM and SFRs can be addressed by the

U
by a destination & source operand field. The instruction
set is divided into four functional groups. address of each bit within a byte. This bit addressing is
very convenient when we wish to alter a single bit of a
P
E N

• Data transfer byte. The ability to operate on individual bits creates the
• Arithmetic need for the area of RAM that contains data addresses
that hold a single bit. The bit addresses are numbered
©

• Logic from 00H to 7FH to represent the 128d bit addresses that
• Control transfer exist from byte addresses 20H to 2FH.
i. Data transfer instructions CLR sets a or any directly addressable bit to zero (0)
B

Data transfer operations are divided into three classes: SETB sets and directly bit - addressable bit to one (1).
• General - purpose CPL is used to complement the contents of the A register
without affecting any flag, or any directly addressable bit
O

• Accumulator - specific location.

• Address - object
T

RL, RLC, RR, RRC, SWAP are the five operations that
None of these operations affects the PSW flag settings can be performed on A. RL, rotate left, RR, rotate right,
except a POP or MOV directly to the PSW. RLC, rotate left through carry, RRC, rotate right through
T

carry and SWAP, rotate left four. Four RLC and RRC and
Examples
O

CY flag become equal to the last bit rotated out. SWAP

MOV A, # 45 - Immediate addressing mode rotates A left four places to exchange bits 3 through 0
N

with bits 7 through 4.

MOV A, R1 - Register addressing mode
Byte level (two operand) operations
MOV 45h, A - Direct addressing mode
ANL performs bits wise logical AND of two operands (for
MOV @ R1, 32 h - Indirect addressing mode
both bit and byte operands) and returns the result to the
ii. Arithmetic instructions location of the first operand.
The MCS - 51 family microcontrollers have four basic ORL performs bit wise logical OR of two source operands
mathematical operations. Only 8- bit operations using (for both bit and byte operand) and returns the result to
unsigned arithmetic are supported directly. The overflow the location of the first operand.
flag, however, permits the addition and subtraction
XRL performs logical exclusive OR two source operands
operation to serve for both unsigned and signed binary
(byte operands) and returns the result to the location of
integers. Arithmetic can also be performed directly on
the first operand.
176 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
Example Direct - 128 Internal RAM locations, any I/O port, control
or status register
ANL A, #45h - Immediate addressing mode
@Ri - Indirect internal or external RAM location addressed
ORL A, R2 - Register addressing mode
by register R0 or R1
XRL 52h, A - Direct addressing mode
#data - 8-bit constant included in instruction
ANL @R3, 65h - Indirect addressing mode
#data 16- 16- bit constant included as bytes 2 and 3 of
iv. Control transfer instructions instruction.
There are three classes of control transfer operations: bit - 128 software flags, any bit - addressable I/O pin,
unconditional calls, returns, jumps, conditional jumps, control or status bit
and interrupts. All control transfer operations, some upon
A - accumulator
a specific condition, cause the program execution to
continue a non - sequential location in program memory. Notes on program addressing modes
Example addr16- Destination address for LCALL and LJMP may
be anywhere within the 64-kbyte program memory address
CJNE A, #22H, loop - Immediate addressing mode
space.

D
DJNZ R1, loop - Register addressing mode
addr11- Destination address for ACALL and AJMP will

E
DJNZ 30H, loop - direct addressing mode be within the same 2- kbyte page of program memory as
the first byte of the following instruction.
JMP @A + DPTR - Indirect addressing mode

H
rel - SJMP and all conditional jumps include an 8-bit offset
Notes on data addressing modes
byte. Range is +127/- 128 byts relative to the first byte

S
Rn- Working register R0-R7 of the following instruction.

LI
Instruction set summary
Mnemonic

B
E I
R IM

Arithmetic operations Description Byte Cycle

U
ADD A, Rn Add register to accumulator 1 1
P
E N

ADD A, direct Add direct byte to accumulator 2 1

ADD A @Ri Add indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

©

ADD A, # data Add immediate data to accumulator 2 1

ADDC A, Rn Add register to accumulator with carry flag 1 1

B

ADDC A, direct Add direct byte to A with carry flag 2 1

ADDC A, @ Ri Add indirect RAM to A with carry flag 1 1

O

ADDC A, # data Add immediate data to A with carry flag 2 1

T

SUBB A, Rn Subtract register from A with borrow 1 1

SUBB A, direct Subtract direct byte from A with borrow 2 1

T

SUBB A, @Ri Subtract indirect RAM from A with borrow 1 1

O

SUBB A, #data Subtract immediate data from A with borrow 2 1

N

INC A Increment accumulator 1 1

INC Rn Increment register 1 1

INC direct Increment direct byte 2 1

DEC @Ri Increment indirect RAM 1 1

DEC A Decrement accumulator 1 1

DEC Rn Decrement register 1 1

DEC direct Decrement direct byte 2 1

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188 177
 DEC @Ri Decrement indirect RAM 1 1

INC DPTR Increment data pointer 1 2

MUL AB Multiply A and B 1 4

DIV AB Divide A by B 1 4
DA A Decimal adjust accumulator 1 1

Logic Operations Description Byte Cycle

ANL A, Rn AND register to accumulator 1 1

ANL A, direct AND direct by the to accumulator 2 1

ANL A, @Ri AND indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

D
ANL A, @data AND immediate data to accumulator 2 1

E
ANL direct, A AND accumulator to direct byte 2 1

H
ANL direct, #data AND immediate data to direct byte 3 2

ORL A, Rn OR register to accumulator 1 1

S
ORL A, direct OR direct byte to accumulator 2 1

LI
ORL A, @Ri OR indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

B
E I
ORL A, #data OR immediate data to accumulator 2 1
R IM
U
ORL direct, A OR accumulator to direct byte 2 1
P
E N

ORL direct, #data OR immediate data to direct byte 3 2

XRL A, Rn Exclusive OR register to accumulator 1 1

©

XRL A, direct Exclusive OR direct byte to accumulator 2 1

XRL A, @Ri Exclusive OR indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

XRL A, #data Exclusive OR immediate data to accumulator 2 1

B

XRL direct, A Exclusive OR accumulator to direct byte 2 1

O

XRL direct, #data Exclusive OR immediate data to direct byte 3 2

T

CLR A Clear accumulator 1 1

CPL A Complement accumulator 1 1

T

RL A Rotate accumulator left 1 1

O

RLC A Rotate accumulator left through carry 1 1

N

RR A Rotate accumulator right 1 1

RRC A Rotate accumulator right through carry 1 1

SWAP A Swap nibbles within the accumulator 1 1

178 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
Data transfer Description Byte Cycle

MOV A, Rn Move register to accumulator 1 1

MOV A, direct Move direct byte to accumulator 2 1

MOV A, @Ri Move indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1

MOV A, #data Move immediate data to accumulator 2 1

MOV Rn, A Move accumulator to register 1 1

MOV Rn, direct Move direct byte to register 2 2

MOV Rn, #data Move immediate data to register 2 1

MOV direct, A Move accumulator to direct byte 2 1

MOV direct, Rn Move register to direct byte 2 2

D
MOV direct, direct Move direct byte to direct byte 3 2

E
MOV direct, @Ri Move indirect RAM to direct byte 2 2

H
MOV direct, #data Move immediate data to direct byte 3 2

S
MOV @Ri, A Move accumulator to indirect RAM 1 1

LI
MOV @Ri, direct Move direct byte to indirect RAM 2 2

MOV @Ri, #data Move immediate data to indirect RAM 2 1

B
E I
R IM
MOV DPTR, #data 16 Load data pointer with a 16 - bit constant 3 2
U
MOV A, @A+DPTR Move code byte relative to DPTR to accumulator 1 2
P
E N

MOVC A, @A, +PC Move code byte relative to PC to accumulator 1 2

MOVX A, @Ri Move external RAM ( 8-bit addr.) to A 1 2

©

MOVX A, @DPTR, A Move A to external RAM (16-bit addr.) 1 2

PUSH direct Push direct byte onto stack 2 2

XCH A, Rn Exchange register with accumulator 1 1

B

XCH A, direct Exchange direct byte with accumulator 2 1

O

XCH a, @Ri Exchange indirect RAM with accumulator 1 1

T

XCHD A, @Ri Exchange low- order nibble indir. RAM with A 1 1

T

Boolean variable manipulation

O

Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle

N

CLR C Clear carry flag 1 1

CLR bit Clear direct bit 2 1

SETB C Set carry flag 1 1

SETB bit Set direct bit 2 1

CPL C Complement carry flag 1 1

CPL bit Complement direct bit 2 1

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188 179
 Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle

ANL C, bit AND direct bit to carry flag 2 2

ANL C, /bit AND complement of direct bit to carry 2 2

ORL C, bit OR direct bit to carry flag 2 2

ORL C, /bit OR complement of direct bit to carry 2 2

MOV c, bit Move direct bit to carry flag 2 1

MOV bit, C Move carry flag to direct bit 2 2

Program and Machine control

Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle

D
ACALL addr16 Absolute subroutine call 3 2

E
LCALL addr16 Long subroutine call 3 2

H
RET - Return from subroutine 1 2

RETI - Return from interrupt 1 2

S
AJMP addr16 Absolute jump 3 2

LI
LJMP addr16 Long jump 3 2

B
E I
SJMP rel Short jump (relative addr.) 3 2
R IM
U
JMP @A + DPTR Jump inidrect relative to the DPTR 1 2
P
E N

JZ rel Jump if accumulator is zero 2 2

JNZ rel Jump if carry flag is not zero 2 2

©

JC rel Jump if carry flag is set 2 2

JNC rel Jump if carry flag is not set 2 2

JB bit, rel Jump if direct bit is set 3 2

B

JNB bit, rel Jump if direct bit is set 3 2

O

JBC bit, rel Jump if direct bit is set and clear bit 3 2
T

CJNE A, direct, rel Compare direct byte to A and jump if not equal 3 2

CJNE A, #data, rel Compare immediate to A and jump if not equal 3 2

T

CJNE Rn, #data, rel Compare immed. to reg. and jump if not equal 3 2
O

CJNE @Ri, #data, rel Compare immed. to ind. and jump if not equal 3 2
N

DJNZ Rn, rel Decrement register and jump if not zero 2 2

DJNZ direct, rel Decrement direct byte and jump if not zero 3 2

NOP No operation 1 1

Program 1: 16 - bit addition Theory :

Objective As there is only one 16- bit register in 8051, 16-bit addition
is performed by using ADDC instruction twice, i.e adding
To perform 16-bit addition of the two 16-bit data using
LSD first and MSD next.
immediate addressing and store the result in memory.

180 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
Example MOVX @DPTR, A
The program is to add the 16-bit data 1234 with the data HLT : SJMP HLT
5678 and store the result at the locations 4150 and 4151
Object codes
using immediate addressing.
Result : (4150) = AC (LSB); (4151) = 68 (MSB) Memory Object Mnemonics
addresses codes
DATAL1 = 34; DATAL2 = 78
DATAM1 = 12; DATAM2 = 56 4100 C3 CLR C
DATAM1 - MSD OF DATA1, 4101 74 MOV A,#DATAL1
DATAM2 - MSD OF DATA2, 4102 34
DATA1 - LSD OF DATA1,
4103 34 ADDC. A, #DATAL2
DATA2 - LSD OF DATA 2,
4104 78
Flowchart:
4105 90 MOV DPTR, #4150
Program for 16 bit addition (refer manual)

D
16- Bit Addition 4106 41

E
↓ 4107 50

H
Start 4108 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A

S
↓ 4109 A3 INC DPTR

LI
(A) = MSB of I Operand 410A 74 MOV A, #DATAM1

B 410B 12
E I
↓
R IM

410C 34 ADDC A, #DATAM1

U
ADD (A) with MSB of II operand

↓ 410D 56
P
E N

Store MSB of result in memory 410E F0 MOVX @DPTR,A

©

↓ 410F 80

(A) = LSB of II operand 4110 FE HERE, SJMP HERE

↓ Program 2 - 8 bit subtraction

B

ADD (A) with LSB of II operand Objective

To perform subtraction of two 8-bit data using immediate
↓
O

addressing and store the result in memory.

Store LSB of result in memory Theory
T

↓ Using the accumulator, subtraction is performed and the

result is stored. Immediate addressing is employed. The
T

Stop SUBB instruction writes the result in the accumulator.

O

Program : Example
N

CLR C Sample data : DATA1 = 20

MOV A, #DATAL1 DATA 2 = 10
ADDC A, #DATAL2 Result : (4500) = 10
MOV DPTR, # 4150
MOVX @DPTR, A
INC DPTR
MOV A, #DATAM1
ADDC A, #DATAM2

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188 181
Flow chart Exercises
8 - bit subtraction i. Subtract the contents of location 4500 from the contents
↓ of location 4501 and store the result at location 4600.

Start Sample data : (4500) = 56

↓ (4501) = 6A

Clear carry flag Result : (4600) = 14

↓ ii. Perform the same subtraction using two’s complement

addition.
Get I operand in A
Program 3 - 8 bit multiplication
↓
Objective
Subtract II Operand from A
To obtain the product of two 8-bit data using immediate
↓ addressing and store the result in memory.
Store result in memory Theory

D
↓ The 8051 has a “MUL” instruction unlike many other 8-bit

E
Stop processors. MUL instruction multiplies the unsigned eight
- bit integers in A and B. The low - order byte of the product

H
CLR C is left in A and the high- order byte in B. If the product is >
MOV A, #DATA1 255, the overflow flag is set. Otherwise it is cleared. The

S
carry flag is always cleared.
SUBB A, #DATA2

LI
Example
MOV DPTR, #4500
Let us multiply the contents of registers A and B and
MOVX @DPTR, A

B
E I
store the 16-bit result at locations 4500 and 4501.
R IM

Here : SJMP Here Sample data : DATA 1= 0A

U
Object codes DATA2 = 88
P
E N

Memory Object Mnemonics (4500) = 50 (LSB)

addresses codes (4501) = 05 (MSB)
©

4100 C3 CLR C 8-bit Multiplication

4101 74 MOV A,#DATAL1 Start

4102 20 ↓
B

Get multiplier in A
4103 94 SUBB A, #DATAL2
↓
O

4104 10
Get Multiplicand in B
4105 90 MOV DPTR, #4500
T

↓
4106 45 Multiply A with B
T

4107 00 ↓
O

4108 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A Store result in memory

N

↓
4109 80 Here: SJMP here
Stop
410A FE
Program
Procedure MOV A, #DATA1
i Enter the op codes and data in the trainer MOV B, #DATA2
ii Execute the program and verify for results MUL AB
iii Change data and see that correct results are obtained. MOV DPTR, #4500
MOVX @DPTR, A

182 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
INC DPTR (4552) = 99
MOV A, B (4553) = 99
MOVX @DPTR, A (4554) = 99
Here : SJMP Here (4561) = 99 - Second number
Object codes (4562) = 99
Memory Object Mnemonics (4563) = 99
address codes
(4564) = 99
4100 74 MOV A,#DATAL1
Result : (4570) = 98
4101 0A
(4571) = 99
4102 75 MOV A,#DATAL2 (4572) = 99
4103 F0 (4573) = 99

4104 88 (4574) = 01

D
Program 4 - 8 bit division
4105 A4 MUL AB

E
Objective
4106 90 MOV DPTR, # 4500

H
To divide an 8-bit number by another 8-bit number and
4107 45 store the quotient and remainder in memory.

S
4108 00 Theory

LI
4109 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A The 8051 has a “DIV” instruction unlike many other 8-bit
processors. DIV instruction divides the unsigned eight -

B
E I
410A A3 INC DPTR bit integer in A by unsigned 8-bit integer in register B. The
R IM
accumulator receives the integer part of the quotient and
U
410B E5 MOV A, B register B receives the integer remainder. The carry and
flags will be cleared.
410C F0
P
E N

Example
410D F0 MOVX, @DPTR, A
Let the divisor and dividend be in registers B and A
©

410E 80 Here : SJMP here respectively.

410F FE Data : DATA 1 = 65 - Dividend

DATA2 = 08 - Divisor
Procedure
Result : (4500) = 0C - Quotient
B

i. Enter the above opcode from 4100

(4501) = 05= Remainder
ii. Execute the program; see that the result is stored
O

correctly. Flow Chart

iii. Change data and check if the results are correct each 8 bit by 8- bit division
T

time.
Start
Exercises
T

↓
i. Obtain the square of a number stored in memory
Geet dividend in A
O

Sample : (4500) = 0A
↓
N

Result : (4600) = 64
Get divisor in B
ii. Obtain the fourth power of 08 using MUL instruction
↓
and store the result in memory.
Divide A by B
Result : (4500) = 10 (MSB)
↓
(4501) = 00 (LSB)
Store LSB & MSB of the result in memory
iii. Do a decimal multi - byte addition in 32-bit and store
the result in memory. ↓
Data : (4500) = 04 - Count Stop
(4551) = 99 - First number
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188 183
Program
410A A3 INC DPTR
MOV A, #DATA1 ; Load Acc. with dividend
410B E5 MOV A, B
MOV B # DATA2 ; Load Reg. B with divisor
DIV AB 410C F0
MOV DPTR, # 4500 410D F0 MOVX, @DPTR, A
MOVX @DPTR, A ; Store quotient at 4500
410E 80 Here : SJMP here
INC DPTR
MOV A, B ; Store remainder at 4501 410F 0E
MOVX @DPTR, A 4110 41
HLT : SJMP HLT
Procedure
Object codes
i. Enter the opcodes and the data in the trainer
Memory Object Mnemonics
address codes ii. Execute the program and check for results

D
iii. Change data and check for the corresponding results.
4100 74 MOV A,#DATAL1

E
Discussion
4101 65
One’s complement is nothing but the logical operation

H
4102 75 MOV B,#DATAL2 ‘NOT’ In this example, the CPL instruction has been
employed . Since the two’s complement of a number is

S
4103 F0
its one’s complement +1, by INC instruction has been

LI
4104 08 employed. It can also be performed by adding 1 to one’s
complement number by using ADD instruction.
4105 84 DIV AB

B
E I
Exercise
R IM

4106 90 MOV DPTR, # 4500

i) Obtain the one’s and two’s complement of the data 77
U
4107 45 and store it in memory.
P
Result : One’s complement (4500) = 88
E N

4108 00
Two’s complement (4501) = 89
4109 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
©

Timer on the microcontroller kit

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• Explain the function of timer is 8051
B

• design a delay program using timer in microcontroller kit.

The 8051 microcontroller has two independent 16 bit up clock signal. That means for an 8051 running at 12 MHz,
O

counting timers named timer 0 and timer 1 and this article the timer clock input will be 1 MHz. That means the timer
is about generating time delays using the 8051 timers. advances once in every 1μS and the maximum time delay
T

Generating delay using pure software loops have been possible using a single 8051 timer is (216) x (1μS) =
already discussed here but such delays are poor in 65536μS. Delays longer than this can be implemented
T

accuracy and cannot be used in sensitive applications. by writing up a basic delay program using timer and then
Delay using timer is the most accurate and surely the looping it for a required number of time. We will see all
O

best method. these in detail in next following sections.

N

A timer can be generalized as a multi - bit counter which Designing a delay program using 8051 timers
increments / decrements itself on receiving a clock signal
While designing delay programs in 8051, calculating the
and produces an interrupt signal up on roll over. When
initial value that has to be loaded in to TH and TL registers
the counter is running on the processor’s clock, it is called
forms a very important thing. Let us see how it is done.
a “Timer”, which counts a predefined number of processor
clock pulses and generates a programmable delay. When Assume the processor is clocked by a 12MHz crystal.
the counter is running on an external clock source (may That means, the timer clock input will be 12MHz/12=1MHz
be periodic or aperiodic external signal) it is called a
“counter” itself and it can be used for counting external That means, the time taken for the timer to make one
events. increment = 1/1MHz= 1μs.
In 8051, the oscillator output is divided by 12 using a For a time delay of “X” μS the timer has to make “X”
divide by 12 network and then fed to the timer as the increments.
184 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
216= 65536 is the maximum number of counts possible The above delay routine can be looped twice in order to
for a 16 bit timers. get a 2mS delay and it is shown in the program below.
Let TH be the value that has to be loaded to TH registed Main : MOV R6, #2D
and TL be the value that has to be loaded to TL register. LOOP : ACALL DELAY
Then, THTL = Hexadecimal equivalent of (65536-X) where DJNZ R6, LOOP
(65536-X) is considered in decimal.
SJMP Main
Example
Delay : MOV TMOD, #00000001B
Let the required delay be 1000 μS =(ie; 1mS)
MOV TH0, #0FCH
That means X = 1000
MOV TL0, #018H
65536- X = 65536 - 1000 = 64536
SETB TR0
645536 is considered in decimal and converting it to
hexadecimal gives FC18 Here : JNB TF0, here

That means THTL = FC18 CLR TR0

CLR TF0

D
Therefore TH=FC and TL = 18
Program for generating 1mS delay using 8051 timer RET

E
The program shown below can be used for generating Few points to remember while using timers

H
1mS delay and it is written as a subroutine so that you • Once timer flag (TF) is set, the programmer must clear
can call it anywhere in the program. Also you can put this it before it can be set again

S
in a loop for creating longer time delays (multiples of
1ms). Here timer 0 of 8051 is used and it is operating in • The timer does not stop after the timer flag is set. The

LI
MODE1 (16 bit timer). programmer must clear the TR bit in order to stop the
timer.
Delay : MOV TMOD< #0000001B/ Sets timer 0 to MODE1

B
E I
(16 bit timer). Timer 1 is not used • Once the timer overflows, the programmer must reload
R IM

the initial start values to the TH and TL registers to

U
MOV TH0, #0FCH // TH0 register with FCH begin counting up from.
MOV TL0, #018H // Loads TL0 register with 18H
P
• We can configure the desired timer to create an
E N

SETB TR0 // Starts the timer 0 interrupt when the TF flag is set.
Here : JNB TF0, Here// Loops here until TF is set (ie ; • IF interrupt is not used, then we have to check the
©

until roll over) timer flag (TF) is set using some conditional branching
instruction.
CLR TR0 // Stops timer 0
• Maximum delay possible using a single 8051 timer is
CLR TF0 // Clear TF0 flag
65536μS and minimum is 1 μS provided that you are
B

RET using a 12MHz crystal for clocking the microcontroller.

Application of 8051 (motor, traffic control)

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

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• explain the application of 8051 microcontroller

• design the circuit to control of DC motor using 8051.
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Application of 8051 microcontroller

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A microcontroller is a versatile chip which can be used in shaft, commutator etc., The DC motor required large
various fields starting from simple consumer electronics currents of the order of 400 mA for its rotation. But this
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to high end medical, automobile and defense application much amount of current cannot be generated by the ports
also. So now a day the microcontrollers are found in every of the microcontroller. So if it is directly connect the DC
walk of life. motor to the ports of the controller it may draw high current
for its operation from the port and hence the
Interfacing DC motor to 8051 using L293D
microcontroller may be damaged. So we use a driving
A DC motor runs in response to the applied DC current. It circuit along with opto isolator provides an additional
prodcues torque by using both electric and magnetic field. protection to the microcontroller from large currents.
The DC motor has rotor, stator, field magnet brushes, (Fig 1)

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188 185
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Assembly language program to control DC motor using 8051

ORG 0000H Remarks
Main Set B P1.2
MOV P1, # 00000001B Motor runs in clockwise
B

ACALL Delay
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MOV P1, #00000010B Motor runs in anticlockwise

ACALL Delay
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SJMP Main Motor rotates continuously in clockwise for some time

and anticlockwise for some time
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Delay MOV R4, # FFH Load R4 register with FF

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MOV R3, #FFH Load R3 register with FF

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LOOP1 DJNZ R3, LOOP1 Decrement R3 until it is zero

LOOP2 DJNZ R4, LOOP2 Decrement R4 until it is zero
RET Return to the main program

Traffic light control Interfacing traffic light with 8051

Traffic lights, which may also be known as stop lights, The traffic light controller section consists of 12 Nos. point
traffic lamps, traffic signals, signal lights, robots or LEDS are arranged by 4 lanes in PS/8051 trainer kit.
semaphore, are signaling devices positioned at road Each lane has go (green), listen (yellow) and stop (red)
intersections, pedestrian crossings and other locations LED is being placed (Refer Fig 2).
to control competing flows of traffic.

186 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
About the colors of traffic light control 8506 C0 83 PUSH DPH
Traffic lights alternate the right of way of road users by
displaying lights of a standard color (red, yellow/amber, 8508 C0 83 PUSH DPL
and green), using a universal color code (and a precise 850A 90 40 03 MOV DPTR, #CNTL PORT
sequence to enable comprehension by those who are
color blind). In the typical sequence of colored lights. 850D F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
Illumination of the green light allows traffic to proceed in 850E D0 82 POP DPL
the direction denoted.
8510 D0 82 POP DPL
Illumination of the yellow/ amber light denoting, if safe to
do so, prepare to stop short of the intersection, and 8512 A3 INC DPTR
Illumination of the red signal prohibits any traffic from
8513 E0 LOOP 1: MOVX @DPTR, A
proceeding.
Usually, the red light contains some orange in its hue, 8514 C0 83 PUSH DPH
and the green light contains some blue, for the benefit of 8516 C0 82 PUSH DPL
people with red - green color blindness, and “green” lights

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in many areas are in fact blue lenses on a yellow light 8518 90 40 00 MOV DPTR, # PORTA
(which together appear green)

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851B F0 MOVX @ DPTR, A
PIN assignment with 8051

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851C D0 82 POP DPL
LAN direction 8051 lines Modules

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851E D0 83 POP DPH
South P1.0 Go

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P1.1 Listen 8520 A3 INC DPTR
P1.2 Stop
8521 E0 MOVX @DPTR, A

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East P1.3 Go
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8522 C0 83 PUSH DPH

P1.4 Listen
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P1.5 Stop 8524 C0 82 PUSH DPL
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North P1.6 Go 8526 90 40 01 MOV DPTR, #PORT B

P1.7 Listen
P3.0 Stop 8529 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
©

West P3.1 Go 852A 12 85 36 LCALL DELAY

P3.2 Listen
P3.3 Stop 852D D0 82 POP DPL

852F D083 POP DPH

B

PWR 13-16 NC
17,19 Vcc 8531 A3 INC DPTR
18, 20 GND
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8532 DA DF DJNZ R2, LOOP 1

Assembly program to interface traffic light
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8534 80 CA SJMP START

Opcode Mnemonics
8536 7F 10 DELAY: MOV
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Title :
R7, # 10H
Program to interface
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8538 7D FF LOOP P3, MOV

Traffic light with 8051 R6, # 0FFH
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CNTL PORT : 4003

853C 00 LOOP2 : NOP
PORT A : 4000
853D 00 NOP
PORT B : 4001
853E DE FC DJNZ R6, LOOP2
Memory Opcode Mnemonics
Address 8540 DD F8 DJNZ R5, LOOP3
8500 90 85 45 Start : MOV DPTR, # TRE 8542 DF F4 DJNZ R7, LOOP4
8503 7A 0C MOV R2, #0C 8544 22 RET
8505 E0 MOVX @DPTR, A
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188 187
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TRE: 8545
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8545 21H, 09H, 10H, 00H (South way)

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8549 0CH, 09H, 80J, 00H (East way)

854D 64H, 08H, 00H, 04H (North way)
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8551 24H, 03H, 02H, 00H (West way)

8555 End
Note: The schematics sections given is, traffic light
connected to port 1 and port 3 the sample program is
given based on 8255

188 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.7.182 - 188
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.189
Electronics Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Different types of Level Sensors and their workings

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define the transducers, sensors and basics of passive & active transducers
• explain thermistor, its types and construction details
• describe the working principle, features, applications, advantage & disadvantages.

Transducers and sensors physical change in some characteristic that changes in

response to some excitation, for example heat or force is
Transducer
converted into an electrical signal.
A transducer is a device that is used to convert a physical
There are different types of Sensors and Transducers,
quantity into its corresponding electrical signal or vice
both analogue & digital and input & output available to
versa. In most of the electrical systems, the input signal
choose from. The type of input or output transducer being

D
will not be an electrical signal, but a non-electrical signal.
used, really depends upon the type of signal or process
This will have to be converted into its corresponding
being "Sensed" or "Controlled" but we can define a sensor

E
electrical signal if its value is to be measured using
and transducers as devices that converts one physical
electrical methods.

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quantity into another.
Sensor: Devices which perform an "Input" function are
Simple Input/ Output System using Sound
commonly called Sensors because they "sense" a

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Transducers as shown in Fig. 1

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There are different types of sensors and transducers use really depends upon the quantity being measured or
available in the market, and the choice of which one to controlled. The more common types given in the table 1.
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Table 1
Physical quantity being Input Device (Sensor) Output Device (Actuator)
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measured by the sensor

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Light Level Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) Lights & Lamps

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Photodiode, Photo-transistor LED's & Displays

Solar Cell Fibre Optics
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Temperature Thermocouple, Thermistor, Heater, Fan

Thermostat, Resistive Temperature
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Detectors
Force/Pressure Strain Gauge, Pressure Switch Lifts & Jacks
Load Cells Electromagnet, Vibration
Position Potentiometer, Encoders Motor, Solenoid
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch Panel Meters
LVDT
Speed Tacho-generator, Reflective/Slotted AC and DC Motors
Opto-coupler, Doppler Effect Sensors Stepper Motor, Brake
Sound Carbon Microphone, Piezo-electric Bell
Crystal Buzzer, Loudspeaker
189
Analogue and Digital Sensors Digital Sensors
Analogue Sensors As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete
digital output signals or voltages that are a digital
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or
representation of the quantity being measured. Digital
voltage which is generally proportional to the quantity being
sensors produce a Binary output signal in the form of a
measured. Physical quantities such as Temperature,
logic "1" or a logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF"). This means then
Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are all
that a digital signal only produces discrete (non-
analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in
continuous) values which may be outputted as a single
nature. For example, the temperature of a liquid can be
"bit", (serial transmission) or by combining the bits to
measured using a thermometer or thermocouple which
produce a single "byte" output (parallel transmission).
continuously responds to temperature changes as the
liquid is heated up or cooled down. as shown in Fig. 2 Light Sensor used to produce an Digital Signal
Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal In our simple example as shown fig.3 the speed of the
rotating shaft is measured by using a digital LED/Opto-
detector sensor. The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft
(for example, from a motor or robot wheels), has a number
of transparent slots within its design, As the disc rotates

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with the speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor
in turn producing an output pulse representing a logic "1"

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or logic "0" level.

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Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that

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are changing smoothly and continuously over time. These
signals tend to be very small in value from a few mico-
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volts (uV) to several milli-volts (mV), so some form of

amplification is required. Then circuits which measure
analogue signals usually have a slow response and/or
©

low accuracy. Also analogue signals can be easily

converted into digital type signals for use in micro-
controller systems by the use of analogue-to-digital
converters (ADCs).
B

Basics of passive and active transducers

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• define the classification of the transducers
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• explain the various type of passive and active transducers

• describe the procedure for selection of transducers.
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A transducer is a device that is used to convert a physical

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quantity into its corresponding electrical signal. In most

of the electrical systems, the input signal will not be an
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electrical signal, but a non-electrical signal. This will have

to be converted into its corresponding electrical signal if
its value is to be measured using electrical methods.
A transducer will have basically two main components.
They are as shown in Fig. 1
Sensing Element : The physical quantity or its rate of
change is sensed and responded to by this part of the Transduction Element : The output of the sensing
transistor. element is passed on to the transduction element. This
element is responsible for converting the non-electrical
signal into its proportional electrical signal.

190 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.189
There may be cases when the transduction element Optical Level Sensors
performs the action of both transduction and sensing.
Optical level sensors are used to detect liquid including
Different Types of Level Sensors and their Workings poised materials, interface between two immiscible liquids
and the occurrence of sediments. They are working based
A level sensor is one kind of device used to determine the
on the changes of transmission in infrared light emitted
liquid level that flows in an open system or closed system
from an IR LED. The interference from the produced light
The level measurements can be available in two types
can be reduced by using a high energy IR diode and pulse
namely continuous measurements and point level
modulation methods.
measurements. The continuous level sensor is used to
measure the levels to a precise limit whereas point level Continuous optical level sensors, on the other hand, use
sensors used to determine the level of liquid whether that the highly internes laser light that can infuse dusty
is high or low. environments and notice liquid substances. They are
commonly used in applications like leak detection and
Fig
Fig42 tank level measurement
RTD Configuration
An RTD can be connected in a two, three or four-wire

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configuration. The two-wire configuration is the simplest
and also the most error prone. In this setup, the RTD is

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connected by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge circuit
and the two output voltage is measured. The disadvantage

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of this circuit is that the two connecting lead wire
resistances add directly two RTD’s resistance and error

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LEVEL SENSORS is incurred.

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Generally these sensors are connected to an output unit
for sending out the results to a monitoring system The

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present technologies use wireless transmission of
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information to the monitoring system, which is very useful

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in important and hazardous locations that cannot be
simply accessed by common workers.
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Classification of Level sensors

Ultrasonic Level sensors
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Level sensors are classified according to their working

principle and their applications.
Ultrasonic level sensors are used to detect the levels of Classification of transducers (Passive & Active)
sticky liquid substances and bulkiness materials as well. 1. Passive Type Transducers
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They are worked by producing audio waves at the range

of frequency from 20 to 200 kHz. These waves are then a) Resistance Variation Type
replicated back to a transducer The ultrasonic level
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Resistance Strain Gauge - The change in value of

sensors are used to control the liquid level, fine-grained resistance of metal semi-conductor due to elongation or
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solids within mining and powders, food and beverage compression is known by the measurement of torque,
industries and chemical processing displacement or force.
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Capacitance Level Sensors Resistance Thermometer / Resistance Temperature

These sensors are used to detect the liquid levels like Detector (RTD) - The change in resistance of metal wire
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slurries and aqueous liquids They are operated by using due to the change in temperature known by the
a probe for checking level changes. These level changes measurement of temperature
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are transformed into an along signals. The probes are Resistance Hygrometer - The change in the resistance
generally made of conducting wire by PTFE insulation of conductive strip due to the change of moisture content
But stainless steel probes are extremely response and is known by the value of its corresponding humidity.
hence they are appropriate for measuring non-conductive
substance granular or materials with low dielectric Hot Wire Meter - The change in resistance of a heating
constant. These types of sensors are very simple to use element due to convection cooling of a flow of gas is known
and clean as they do not have any moving components. by its corresponding gas flow or pressure.

They are commonly used in applications like Tank level Photoconductive Cell - The change in resistance of a
monitoring in chemical, water treatment, food, battery cell due to a corresponding change in light flux is known
industries and involving high pressure and temperature. by its corresponding light intensity.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.189 191
Thermistor - The change in resistance of a semi- incidence on photo-emissive surface is known by its
conductor that has a negative co-efficient of resistance is corresponding light flux value.
known by its corresponding measure of temperature.
Hall Effect - The voltage generated due to magnetic flux
Potentiometer Type - The change in resistance of a across a semi-conductor plate with a movement of current
potentiometer reading due to the movement of the slider through it is known by its corresponding value of magnetic
as a part of an external force applied is known by its flux or current.
corresponding pressure or displacement.
Ionisation Chamber - The electron flow variation due to
b) Capacitance Variation Type the ionisation of gas caused by radio-active radiation is
known by its corresponding radiation value.
Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge - The change
in capacitance due to the change of distance between 2. Active Type
two parallel plates caused by an external force is known
Photo-voltaic Cell - The voltage change that occurs
by its corresponding displacement or pressure.
across the p-n junction due to light radiation is known by
Dielectric Gauge - The change in capacitance due to a its corresponding solar cell value or light intensity.
change in the dielectric is known by its corresponding
Thermocouple - The voltage change developed across
liquid level or thickness.
a junction of two dissimilar metals is known by its

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Capacitor Microphone - The change in capacitance due corresponding value of temperature, heat or flow.
to the variation in sound pressure on a movable diaphragm

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Piezoelectric Type - When an external force is applied
is known by its corresponding sound.
on to a quartz crystal, there will be a change in the voltage

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c) Inductance Variation Type generated across the surface. This change is measured
by its corresponding value of sound or vibration.

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Eddy Current Transducer - The change in inductance
of a coil due to the proximity of an eddy current plate is Moving Coil Type - The change in voltage generated in a

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known by its corresponding displacement or thickness. magnetic field can be measured using its corresponding
value of vibration or velocity.
Variable Reluctance Type - The variation in reluctance

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of a magnetic circuit that occurs due to the change in Selection of Transducer
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position of the iron core or coil is known by its

Selection of a transducer is one of the most important
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corresponding displacement or pressure.
factors which help in obtaining accurate results. Some of
Proximity Inductance Type - The inductance change the main parameters are given below.
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of an alternating current excited coil due to the change in

• Selection depends on the physical quantity to be
the magnetic circuit is known by its corresponding
measured.
pressure or displacement.
©

• Depends on the best transducer principle for the given

Differential Transformer - The change in differential
physical input
voltage of 2 secondary windings of a transformer because
of the change in position of the magnetic core is known • Depends on the order of accuracy to be obtained
by its corresponding force, pressure or displacement.
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• Based on whether the transducer is active or passive.

Magnetostrictive Transducer - The change in magnetic Characteristic of transducer
properties due to change in pressure and stress is known
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by its corresponding sound value, pressure or force. All transducers, irrespective of their measurement
requirements, exhibit the same characteristics such as
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d) Voltage and Current Type range, span, etc.

Photo-emissive Cell - Electron emission due to light
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Thermistors
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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

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• define thermistor and its types

• define construction and working principle, salient features of the thermistor
• describe the application, advantages & disadvantages.

Thermistor: A thermistor is a temperature sensor constructed of

A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor semiconductor material that exhibits a large modification
whose resistance is dependent on temperature. The term in resistance in proportion to a tiny low modification in
is a combination of "thermal" and "resistor". It is made of temperature. Thermistor is inexpensive, rugged, and
metallic oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical reliable and responds quickly. Because of these qualities
shape and then encapsulated with an impermeable thermistors are used to measure simple temperature
material such as epoxy or glass. measurements, but not for high temperatures. Thermistor
is easy to use, cheap, and durable and responds

192 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.189
predictably to a change in temperature. Thermistors are
mostly used in digital thermometers and home appliances
such as refrigerator, ovens, and so on. Stability, sensitivity
and time constant are the final properties of thermistor
that create these thermistors sturdy, portable, cost-
efficient, sensitive and best to measure single-point
temperature. Thermistors are available in different shapes
like rod, disc, bead, washer, etc. This article gives an
overview of thermistor working principle and applications.
Types of thermistor:
There are a number of ways in which thermistors can be
categorised into the different thermistor types. The first
is dependent upon the way they react to heat. Some
increase their resistance with increasing temperature,
while others exhibit a fall in resistance.
It is possible to use a very simplified equation for the Construction

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curve of a thermistor to expand this idea:
The device is manufactured from materials like sintered
Δ R = k x ΔT mixtures of oxides of metals such as manganese, nickel,

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Where cobalt, and iron. Their resistances range from 0.4 ohms

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to 75 mega-ohms and they may be fabricated in wide
Δ R = change in resistance. variety of shapes and sizes. Smaller thermistors are in

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Δ T = change in temperature. the form of beads of diameter from 0.15 millimeters to 1.5
millimeters. Such a bead may be sealed in the tip of

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k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance. solid glass rod to form probe which is easier to mount
In most cases the relationship between temperature and than bead. Alternatively thermistor may be in the form of

B disks and washers made by pressing thermistor material

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resistance is non-linear, but over small changes a linear
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relationship can be assumed. under high pressure into flat cylindrical shapes with
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diameter from 3 millimeters to 25 millimeters. Washers
There are two types of thermistor
may be stacked and placed in series or parallel to increase
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1 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) power disciplining capability. As shown in Fig. 3.
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2 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC):
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Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor, when

the temperature increases, resistance decreases.
Conversely, when temperature decreases, resistance
increases as shown in the Fig 1. This type of thermistor
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is used the most.

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Working Principle
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A thermistor is an inexpensive and easily obtainable

temperature sensitive resistor, thermistor working principle
is, its resistance is depending upon temperature. When
T

temperature changes, the resistance of the thermistor

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changes in a predictable way, the benefits of using a

thermistor are accuracy and stability, there are two types
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of thermistors available as NTC and PTC, their symbols

are shown in Fig 4.

Positive Temperature coefficient (PTC):

A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When
temperature increases, the resistance increases, and
when temperature decreases, resistance decreases as
shown in the Fig 2.This type of thermistor is generally
used as a fuse.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.189 193
Salient features of thermistor 2 In general, thermistors are more fragile than RTDs and
thermocouples and therefore require delicate handling
1 Thermistors are compact, rugged and inexpensive.
and mounting. Another drawback of them is that
2 It exhibit high stability. because they consist of semiconductors, they are
3 The response time of thermistor can vary from a more prone to permanent de-calibration (drifting out of
fraction of second to minutes, depending on the their specified tolerance). Contrary to applicability of
characteristics and contraction of the thermistor. RTDs and thermocouples, use of thermistors is
generally limited to a temperature range of few hundred
4 The response time varies inversely with the dissipation degrees Celsius.
factor.
3 Small mass of thermistors also makes them
5 The dissipation factor varies with the degree of thermal susceptible to self-heating errors.
isolation of the thermistor.
Temperature sensor ICs :
6 The upper temperature limits is depending on physical
changes in the material and the contact materials Temperature sensor ICs are classified into different types
like voltage output, current output, digital output, resistance
7 A low current must be allowed through the thermistor output silicon and Diode temperature sensors. Modern
to avoid self heating. semiconductor temperature sensors offer high accuracy

D
Application and high linearity over an operating range of about 55°C to
+150°C. Internal amplifiers can scale the output to convient

E
1 Temperature control of air conditioner and refrigerator. values, such as 10mV/°C. As an example the LM 35

H
2 Room temperature monitoring temperature sensor outline diagram is shown in the
Figs 5a and 5b
3 Surge Suppression in power lines in SMPS.

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Fig 5a
4 This device is used to measure the temperature of

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incubators.
5 NTC thermistors are used to measure and monitor

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batteries while they are kept for charging.
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6 They are used to know the temperature of oil and
coolant used inside automotive engines.
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Advantages of Thermistor
1 When the resistors are connected in the electrical
©

circuit, heat is dissipated in the circuit due to flow of Fig 5b

current. This heat tends to increase the temperature
of the resistor due to which their resistance changes.
For the thermistor the definite value of the resistance
is reached at the given ambient conditions due to which
B

the effect of this heat is reduced.

2 In certain cases even the ambient conditions keep on
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changing, this is compensated by the negative

temperature characteristics of the thermistor. This is
T

quite convenient against the materials that have positive

resistance characteristics for the temperature. Feature of LM35 Temperature Sensor:
T

3 The thermistors are used not only for the measurement • Calibrated directly in Celsius.
of temperature for the measurement of power etc.
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• Rated for full -55°C to +150°C range

4 They are also used as the controls, overload protectors,
Suitable for remote applications
N

giving warnings etc. •

5 The size of the thermistors is very small and they are • Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
very low in cost. However, since their size is small • Operated from 4 to 30 volts
they have to be operated at lower current levels.
• Low self-heating
Disadvantages
• ±1/4°C of typical nonlinerarity
1 The high resistivity of thermistors is a significant
advantage, since it leads to very small errors, which
could be even hundred time smaller compared to
measurement errors of RTDs.

194 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.189
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.190
Electronics Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Thermocouple
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define thermocouple and its working principle
• explain the various type of thermocouple .
• describe the application, advantages & disadvantages
• explain the characteristics curve graph of mV Vs temperature measured.

Thermocouple and its working principle exhaust, diesel engines.

Thermocouple is a device consisting of two dissimilar 2 Temperature measurement of industrial processes and
conductors or semiconductors that contact each other at fog machines.
one or more points as shown in fig.1. A thermocouple
3 For process temperature measurement of Steel,
produces a voltage when the temperature of one of the

D
Cement , Petro chemical etc.,
contact points differs from the temperature of another, in
a process known as the thermoelectric effect. Advantage:

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Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature
1 Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large

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sensor for measurement and control and can also convert
temperature range, from - 270 up to 3000 °C (for a
a temperature gradient into electricity.
short time, in inert atmosphere).

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2 They are less suitable for applications where smaller

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temperature differences need to be measured with high
accuracy, for example the range 0-100 °C with 0.1 °C
accuracy

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Disadvantage :
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1 Thermocouples measure their own temperature.
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2 Thermocouples can error in reading their own

temperature, especially after being used for a while,
or if the insulation between the wires loses its
©

resistance due to moisture or thermal conditions

3 Beware of electrical hazards using thermocouples, they
are electrical conductors. RTD's are less sensitive to
electrical noise.
Type of thermocouples
B

4 Thermocouples DO NOT MEASURE AT THE

Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach JUNCTIONS! They can't, it is physically impossible to
intermediate temperatures, as covered by nickel alloy
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have a temperature gradient at a point.

thermocouple types E,J,K,M,N,T. Also shown are the
noble metal alloy type P, and the pure noble metal 5 The distance between thermocouple and heater
T

combinations gold-platinum and platinum-palladium. element will generate a thermal lag which can be
compensated by the temperature controller.
Applications
T

1 Temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine

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Strain gauges and load cell

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• explain the strain gauges and its types
• define construction and working principle & gauge factor
• explain the load cell and strain gauge load cell
• describe the application, advantages and disadvantages.

Strain Gauges by a suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate. As the

object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its
A strain gauge (or strain gage) is a device used to measure electrical resistance to change. This resistance change,
strain on an object. The most common type of strain gauge usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related
consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object as shown in Fig 1.
195
 Hydraulic detectors offer a solution and work much like
simple syringes. Syringes are essentially hydraulic
pistons where a small movement of fluid in a large piston
(the part you press with your finger) produces a much
larger movement of fluid in a small piston attached to it
(the needle where the fluid comes out). It's easy to see
how this can be used in a strain gauge: you simply connect
your large piston to whatever it is that's producing the
strain and use a smaller piston in a smaller tube, marked
with a scale, to indicate how much movement has
occurred. The relative size of the pistons determines how
Types of strain gauges much the movement you're trying to detect is scaled up.
Typically, hydraulic strain gauges like this multiply
There are four main types of strain gauges: mechanical,
movement by a factor of 10 or so and are commonly used
hydraulic, electrical resistance, and piezoelectric.
in geology and Earth science. As shown in Fig 3.
1 Mechanical
2 Hydraulic

D
3 Electrical Resistance
4 Piezoelectric

E
Mechanical strain Gauge

H
Suppose you have a crack forming in a wall of your home
because of subsidence and you want to know if it's getting

S
any worse. Call in the building inspectors and they'll

LI
probably glue a piece of tough, plexiglass plastic, ruled
with lines and a scale, directly over the crack. Sometimes
known as a crack monitor, you'll find it's actually made

B
E I
up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom layer has a
R IM

ruled scale on it and the top layer has a red arrow or

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Electrical Resistance strain gauge
pointer. You glue one layer to one side of the crack and
one layer to the other so, as the crack opens, the layers If you're designing something like an airplane wing,
P
E N

slide very slowly past one another and you can see the typically you need to make far more sophisticated
pointer moving over the scale. Mechanical strain gauges measurements (and many more of them) than a simple
as shown in Fig 2. mechanical strain gauge will allow. You might want to
©

measure the strain during takeoff, for example, when the

Fig 2 engines are producing maximum thrust. You can't go
sticking little plastic strain gauges onto the wing and walk
out to measure them during a flight! But you can use
electrical strain gauges to do much the same thing from
B

a flight recorder in the cockpit.

The most common electrical strain gauges are thin,
O

rectangular-shaped strips of foil with maze-like wiring

patterns on them leading to a couple of electrical cables.
T

You stick the foil onto the material you want to measure
and wire the cables up to your computer or monitoring
T

MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGE

circuit. When the material you're studying is strained,
Hydraulic strain Gauge the foil strip is very slightly bent out of shape and the
O

maze-like wires are either pulled apart (so their wires are
One of the problems with strain gauges is detecting very stretched slightly thinner) or pushed together (so the wires
N

small strains. You can imagine, for example, a situation are pushed together and become slightly thicker).
where your house is slowly subsiding but the amount of Changing the width of a metal wire changes its electrical
movement is so small that it won't show up-perhaps until resistance, because it's harder for electrons to carry
the damage is done. With a simple crack detector such electric currents down narrower wires. So all you have to
as the ones described above, it takes 1mm of building do is measure the resistance and, with a bit of calculation,
movement to produce 1mm of movement on the surface you can calculate the strain. If the forces involved are
of the crack detector. But what if we want to detect small, the deformation is elastic and the strain gauge
movements smaller than this that doesn't show up on a eventually returns to its original shape-so you can keep
scale? In this case, what we really need is a strain gauge making measurements over a period of time, such as
with leverage that amplifies the strain, so even a tiny during the test flight of a prototype plane as shown in
movement of the detecting element produces a very large Fig 4.
and easily measurable movement of a pointer over a scale.
196 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.190
Fig 4 which is defined as the change in resistance R for the
given value of applied strain ∈. As shown in fig 6 working
principle of strain gauge.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGE

Piezoelectric Strain Gauge Load cell:

D
Some types of materials, including quartz crystals and A load cell is a device that is used to convert a force into
electrical signal. Strain gauge load cells are the most

E
various types of ceramics, are effectively "natural" strain
gauges. If you push and pull them, they generate tiny common types of load cells. There are other types of

H
electrical voltages between their opposite faces. This load cells such as hydraulic (or hydrostatic), Pneumatic
phenomenon is called piezoelectricity (pronounced Load Cells, Piezoelectric load cells, Capacitive load cells,

S
pee-ay-zo electricity) and it's probably best known as a Piezo resistive load cells. etc.
way of generating the timekeeping signal in quartz Load cells are used for quick and precise measurements.

LI
watches. Measure the voltage from a piezoelectric sensor Compared with other sensors, load cells are relatively
and you can calculate the strain very simply. Piezoelectric more affordable and have a longer life span as shown in

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strain gauges are among the most sensitive and reliable Fig 7.
R IM

and can withstand years of repeated use as shown in

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Fig 5.
Fig 5
P
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B ©

Uses of Load Cells

PIEZOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE
O

Load cells are used in several types of measuring

Principle of Working - Strain Gauges instruments such as laboratory balances, industrial
T

scales, platform scales and universal testing machines.

When force is applied to any metallic wire its length Installed load cells in glass fiber nests to weigh albatross
increases due to the strain. The more is the applied force, chicks. Load Cells are used in a wide variety of items
T

more is the strain and more is the increase in length of such as the seven-post shaker which is often used to
the wire. If L1 is the initial length of the wire and L2 is the setup race cars.
O

final length after application of the force, the strain is given

as: Strain gauge load cell
N

∈ = (L2-L1)/L1 Through a mechanical construction, the force being

sensed deforms a strain gauge as shown in the Fig 8.
Further, as the length of the stretched wire increases, its The strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as a
diameter decreases. Now, we know that resistance of change in electrical resistance, which is a measure of
the conductor is the inverse function of the length. As the the strain and hence the applied forces. A load cell usually
length of the conductor increases its resistance decreases. consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge
This change in resistance of the conductor can be configuration. Load cells of one strain gauge (Quarter
measured easily and calibrated against the applied force. Bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge) are also available.
Thus strain gauges can be used to measure force and The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a
related parameters like displacement and stress. The input few millivolts and requires amplification by an
and output relationship of the strain gauges can be instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output
expressed by the term gauge factor or gauge gradient,
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.190 197
of the transducer can be scaled to calculate the force the gauges in proportion to the load. Other load cells are
applied to the transducer. fading into obscurity, as strain gauge load cells continue
to increase their accuracy and lower their unit costs.
Advantages of strain Gauge
1 There is no moving part.
2 It is small and inexpensive.
Disadvantages of strain Gauge
1 It is non-linear.
2 It needs to be calibrated.
Application of Strain gauge
Strain gauge load cells are the most common in industry.
These load cells are particularly stiff, have very good 1 Residual stress
resonance values, and tend to have long life cycles in 2 Vibration measurement
application. Strain gauge load cells work on the principle
3 Torque measurement

D
that the strain gauge (a planar resistor) deforms/stretches/
contracts when the material of the load cells deforms 4 Bending and deflection measurement

E
appropriately. These values are extremely small and are
relational to the stress and/or strain that the material load 5 Compression and tension measurement

H
cell is undergoing at the time. The change in resistance 6 Strain measurement
of the strain gauge provides an electrical value change

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Advantages of load cells
that is calibrated to the load placed on the load cell.
1 Rugged and compact construction

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Strain gauge load cells convert the load acting on them
into electrical signals. The gauges themselves are bonded 2 No moving parts
onto a beam or structural member that deforms when

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weight is applied. In most cases, four strain gauges are 3 Can be used for static and dynamic loading
R IM

used to obtain maximum sensitivity and temperature

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4 Highly Accurate
compensation. Two of the gauges are usually in tension,
5 Wide range of measurement
P
and two in compression, and are wired with compensation
E N

adjustments. The strain gauge load cell is fundamentally 6 Can be used for static and dynamic loading
a spring optimized for strain measurement. Gauges are
Disadvantages of load cells
mounted in areas that exhibit strain in compression or
©

tension. The gauges are mounted in a differential bridge 1 Calibration is a tedious procedure
to enhance measurement accuracy. When weight is
applied, the strain changes the electrical resistance of
B
O
T
T
O
N

198 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.190
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.191
Electronics Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain about RTD and its types.
• define construction and working principle of the RTD (PT100).
• describe the application, limitation, advantages & disadvantages.

Resistance Temperature Detectors In RTD devices Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD), as the name used metals. These three metals are having different
implies, are sensors used to measure temperature by resistance variations with respect to the temperature
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with variations. That is called resistance-temperature
temperature. characteristics as shown in Fig.2. Platinum has the
temperature range of 650°C, and then the Copper and
RTDs are relatively immune to electrical noise and Nickel have 120°C and 300°C respectively. The figure-2

D
therefore well suited for temperature measurement in shows the resistance-temperature characteristics curve
industrial environments, especially around motors,

E
of the three different metals. For Platinum, its resistance
generators and other high voltage equipment. changes by approximately 0.4 ohms per degree Celsius

H
A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance of temperature.
Temperature Detector is a device which is used to

S
determine the temperature by measuring the resistance

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of pure electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a
temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature
with high accuracy, RTD is the only one solution in

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industries. It has good linear characteristics over a wide
R IM

range of temperatures. The physical appearances of

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different RTDs are shown in Fig 1a & 1b.
P
E N
©

The purity of the platinum is checked by measuring R100

/ R0. Because, whatever the materials actually we are
using for making the RTD that should be pure. If it is not
B

pure, it will deviate from the conventional resistance-

temperature graph. So α and β values will change
depending upon the metals.
O

Types of RTDs based on wires color code : (Fig 3)

T

Main trend for industrial resistance temperature detector

is platinum RTD due to physical stability and high
applicable temperature.
T

There are the other RTDs such as Nickel, Platinum-cobalt,

O

and so on.
N

RTD Configuration
An RTD can be connected in a two, three, or four-wire
configuration. The two-wire configuration is the simplest
and also the most error prone. In this setup, the RTD is
connected by two wire to a wheatstone bridge circuit and
the output voltage is measured. The disadvantage of this
circuit is that the resistance of two connecting lead wires
are added directly to the RTDs resistance and an error is
incurred.

199
 D
2- Wire Configuration of different lead resistances, which was a possible

E
The four-wire configuration consists of two current leads problem with the three-wire configuration is commonly
used when a highly accurate measurement is required

H
and two potential leads that measure the voltage drop
across the RTD. The two potential leads are high resistance for the application.

S
to negate the effect of the voltage drop due to current Note: Refer to the RTD user manual/datasheet
flowing during the measurement. for type of RTD based on lead colour

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This configuration is ideal for cancelling the lead wire
resistances in the circuit as well as eliminating the effects

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R IM
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P
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O
B ©
T
T
O

Pt-100 working principle Pt100 types

A platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD) Pt100 There are basically three styles of Pt100 sensing
N

is a device with a typical resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C (it is elements. Each style has unique characteristics and
called Pt100). It changes resistance value as its advantages.
temperature changes following a positive slope (resistance Wire wound Element: The wire wound sensor is the
increases when temperature is increasing).as show in simplest sensor design. The sensing wire is wrapped
Fig 4a & 4b. around an insulating mandrel or core. The winding core
They have been used for many years to measure can be round or flat, but must be an electrical insulator.
temperature in laboratory and industrial processes, and The coil diameter provides a compromise between
have developed a reputation for accuracy, repeatability, mechanical stability and allowing expansion of the wire
and stability. A RTD can typically measure temperatures to minimize strain and consequential drift. as shown in
up to 850 °C. Fig. 5

200 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.191
 an erroneous reading. Thus, the electric current through
the RTD resistance must be kept sufficiently low and
constant to avoid self-heating. Because of this the RTD
is used only up to maximum 600°C
Applications of RTDs include
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
Coiled Element: The coiled sensor shown in Fig. 6 is a
method to produce a "strain free" design. A strain free • Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement

D
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement

E
RTD's should be used

H
• When accuracy and stability are a requirement of the
customer's specification

S
design allows the sensing wire to expand and contract
free of influences from other materials in the assembly. • When accuracy must extend over a wide temperature

LI
Techniques similar to those used in this design are used range
in Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRT), • When area, rather than point sensing improves control
which are used as laboratory standards.
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• When a high degree of standardization is desirable
R IM

Thin Film Element: The thin film sensing element is

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Advantages of Resistance Temperature Detectors
manufactured by depositing a very thin layer of platinum
on a ceramic substrate. This layer is usually just a 10 to • The advantages of using RTDs include:
P
E N

100 angstroms (1e-8 centimeters) thick. The platinum film

• Linear over wide operating range
is coated with epoxy or glass. This coating helps protect
deposited platinum film and acts as a strain relief for the • Wide temperature operating range
©

external lead wires as shown in Fig 7. The advantage of

• High temperature operating range
• Interchangeability over wide range
• Good stability at high temperature
B

Disadvantages of Resistance Temperature Detectors

The disadvantages of using RTD's include:
O

• Low sensitivity
T

the thin film Platinum RTD is low cost and low thermal • Higher cost than thermocouples
mass. The low thermal mass makes them respond faster • No point sensing
T

and they are easier to assemble into small packages.

Disadvantages are that they are not as stable as wire • Affected by shock and vibration requires three or four-
O

wound RTDs. wire operation

N

Limitations of RTD
In the RTD resistance, there will be I2R power dissipation
by the device itself that causes a slight heating effect.
This is called as self-heating in RTD. This may also cause

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.191 201
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.192
Electronics Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Displacement measurement using LVDT

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define LVDT
• explain the working principle and operation of LVDT
• state the advantages, disadvantages and application of LVDT.
Details of LVDT and its construction Movement of the core from this point in either direction
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used causes the signal to increase (Fig 2c). As the windings
to measure displacement. LVDTs operate on the principle are wound in a particular precise manner, the signal output
of a transformer. As shown in Fig 1, an LVDT consists of has a linear relationship with the actual mechanical
a coil assembly and a core. The coil assembly is typically movement of the core.
mounted to a stationary form, while the core is secured The secondary output signal is then processed by a phase-

D
to the object whose position is being measured. The coil sensitive demodulator which is switched at the same
assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on the frequency as the primary energising supply. This results

E
hollow form. A core of permeable material can slide freely in a final output which, after rectification and filtering, gives
through the center of the form. The inner coil is the primary, D.C. or 4-20mA output proportional to the core movement

H
which is excited by an AC source as shown. Magnetic and also indicates its direction, positive or negative from
flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two the central zero point (Fig 2d).

S
secondary coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil.

LI
B
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R IM
U
P
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B ©

LVDTs Working principle

O

The LVDT or Linear Variable Differential Transformer is a

well established transducer design which has been used
T

throughout many decades for the accurate measurement

of displacement and within closed loops for the control of
T

positioning. So, how does an LVDT work? In its simplest

form, the design consists of a cylindrical array of a primary
O

and secondary windings with a separate cylindrical core Advantage:

which passes through the centre. (Fig 2a).
N

The distinct advantage of using an LVDT displacement

The primary windings (P) are energized with a constant transducer is that the moving core does not make contact
amplitude A.C. supply at a frequency of 1 to 10 kHz. with other electrical components of the assembly, as with
This produces an alternating magnetic field in the centre resistive types, as so offers high reliability and long life.
of the transducer which induces a signal into the Further, the core can be so aligned that an air gap exists
secondary windings (S &S ) depending on the position of around it, ideal for applications where minimum
the core. mechanical friction is required.
Movement of the core within this area causes the The LVDT design lends itself for easy modification to fulfill
secondary signal to change (Fig 2b). As the two secondary a whole range of different applications in both research
windings are positioned and connected in a set and industry.
arrangement (push-pull mode), when the core is positioned
at the centre, a zero signal is derived.
202
Disadvantages of LVDT each level and reading for corresponding temperatures
are recorded and compared to confirm the correct working
• Very high displacement is required for generating high
of thermocouple sensor.
voltages.
In the same method of experiment, the RTD can also be
• Shielding is required since it is sensitive to magnetic
fixed on the stand under the lit fire flame of the candle .
field.
For different height of the flame, corresponding resistance
• The performance of the transducer gets affected by variations of each temperature across the output terminals
vibrations of the RTD is measured using ohm meter and its working
• Its is greatly affected by temperature changes. can be ascertained.

• Internally non contact but externally has to be Fig 3

connected where the measurement has to be made
• Not feasible for very long range measurements
Applications of LVDT
LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from
fraction millimeter to centimeter.

D
Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as

E
a device to measure force, weight and pressure, etc..

H
Testing of thermocouple sensor under laboratory
setup

S
The thermocouple sensor can be tested in the laboratory

LI
by fixing the thermowell bulb on a stand under a lit fire of
a candle, as shown in Fig 3. The height of the candle has
to be increased form the base as per the graduated scale

B
E I
mashing on the stand. The output voltage produced but
R IM

the sensor is measured using a DC millivolt meter for

U
P
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O
B ©
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.192 203
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.193
Electronics Mechanic - Sensors, Transducers and Applications

Proximity sensors
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define proximity switches
• explain the different types of proximity switches
• describe the selection, advantages and disadvantages.

Proximity sensors The value 9.85*1012 F/M is a constant denoted by ∈0 and

Proximity sensors detect the presence of objects without is called the dielectric constant of free space.
physical contact. It detects the presence or absence of From the equation it is clear that the value of capacitance
objects using electromagnetic fields, light, and sound. C and the distance between the parallel plates,d are
There are many types, each suited to specific applications inversely proportional to each other. An increase of
and environments. distance between the parallel plates will decrease the

D
Types of proximity capacitance value correspondingly. The same theory is
used in a capacitive transducer. This transducer is used

E
1 Capacitive to convert the value of displacement or change in pressure

H
2 Inductive in terms of frequency.

3 Photo electric Parts of Capacitance Transducer (Fig 2)

S
Capacitive Transducers As shown in the figure 2, a capacitive transducer has a

LI
static plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm with a
It is important to know the basics of a parallel plate dielectric in between. When a force is exerted to the outer
capacitor. Being the simplest form of a capacitor, it has side of the diaphragm the distance between the diaphragm

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E I
two parallel conducting plates that are separated to each and the static plate changes. This produces a capacitance
R IM

other by a dielectric or insulator with a permittivity of E

U
which is measured using an alternating current bridge or
(for air). Other than paper, vacuum, and semi-conductor a tank circuit.
depletion region, the most commonly used dielectric is
P
E N

air. as shown in Fig 1.

O
B ©
T
T

A tank circuit is more preferred because it produces a

Due to a potential difference across the conductors, an change in frequency according to the change in
O

electric field develops across the insulator. This causes capacitance. This value of frequency will be corresponding
the positive charges to accumulate on one plate and the to the displacement or force given to the input.
N

negative charges to accumulate on the other. The capacitor Advantages

value is usually denoted by its capacitance, which is
measured in Farads. It can be defined as the ratio of the • It produces an accurate frequency response to both
electric charge on each conductor to the voltage difference static and dynamic measurements.
between them. Disadvantages
The capacitance is denoted by C. In a parallel plate • An increase or decrease in temperature to a high level
capacitor, C = [A*∈r*9.85*1012 F/M]/d will change the accuracy of the device.
A - Area of each plate (m) • As the lead is lengthy it can cause errors or distortion
d - Distance between both the plates (m) in signals.

∈r - Relative Dielectric Constant

204
Inductance Type Inductive Transducers In the above arrangements the supply of the current and
the output is obtained from the same coil or circuit.
The inductance type of the inductive transducers simple
single coil is used as the transducer. When the mechanical Advantages
element whose displacement is to be measured is moved,
1 Non contact type
it changes the permeance of the flux path generated by
the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit 2 Maintenance free
and the corresponding output. The output from the circuit 3 pnp or npn type
is calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it
directly gives the valve of the parameter to be measured. 4 360°-viewable output indicators for easy operation and
maintenance
The Fig 3 shows the single coil inductive circuit. Here the
magnetic material is connected to the electric circuit and 5 Electrical protections against short circuits, overload,
it is excited by the alternating current. At the bottom there transient noise, false pulses and reverse polarity (DC
is another magnetic material that acts as the armature. models) to help reduce downtime and maintenance
As the armature is moved, the air gap between the two costs
magnetic material changes and the permeance of the flux Disadvantages
generated by the circuit changes that changes the
Virtually nil but following may be noted

D
inductance of the circuit and its output. The output meter
directly gives the valve of the input mechanical quantity. 1 Cannot be repaired

E
2 Must be free from oil and dust

H
3 Cable connections to be checked regularly

S
Photoelectric sensors

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Photoelectric sensors are so versatile that they solve the
bulk of problems put to industrial sensing. Because
photoelectric technology has so rapidly advanced, they

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now commonly detect targets less than 1 mm in diameter,
R IM

or from 60 m away. Classified by the method in which

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light is emitted and delivered to the receiver, many
photoelectric configurations are available. However, all
P
E N

In the Fig 4, coil is wound around the round hollow photoelectric sensors consist of a few of basic
magnetic material and there is magnetic core that moves components: each has an emitter light source (Light
inside hollow magnetic material. In the above circuits the Emitting Diode, laser diode), a photodiode or
©

change in the air gap or the change in the amount of the phototransistor receiver to detect emitted light, and
magnetic material in the circuit can be used to produce supporting electronics designed to amplify the receiver
the output proportional to the input. signal. The emitter, sometimes called the sender,
transmits a beam of either visible or infrared light to the
B

detecting receiver.
All photoelectric sensors operate under similar principles
as shown in fig. 5 Identifying their output is thus made
O

easy; dark-on and light-on classifications refer to light

T

reception and sensor output activity. If output is produced

when no light is received, the sensor is dark-on. Output
from light received, and it's light-on. Either way, deciding
T
O
N

Another arrangement of the coils is shown in figure 3,

where two coils are used. In this circuit the movement of
the core changes the relative inductance of the two coils
and over all inductance of the circuit. This system is used
in the devices along with the inductive bridge circuit. In
this circuit the change in the induction ratio of the two
coils provides the output proportional to the mechanical
input.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.193 205
on light-on or dark-on prior to purchasing is required unless increase precision, response speed is the same as with
the sensor is user adjustable. (In that case, output style non-laser sensors - typically around 500 Hz.
can be specified during installation by flipping a switch or
One ability unique to through-beam photoelectric sensors
wiring the sensor accordingly.)
is effective sensing in the presence of thick airborne
Through-beam contaminants. If pollutants build up directly on the emitter
or receiver, there is a higher probability of false triggering.
The most reliable photoelectric sensing is with through-
However, some manufacturers now incorporate alarm
beam sensors. Separated from the receiver by a separate
outputs into the sensor's circuitry that monitor the amount
housing, the emitter provides a constant beam of light;
of light hitting the receiver. If detected light decreases to a
detection occurs when an object passing between the
specified level without a target in place, the sensor sends
two breaks the beam. Despite its reliability, through-beam
a warning by means of a built in LED or output wire.
is the least popular photoelectric setup. The purchase,
installation, and alignment of the emitter and receiver in Through-beam photoelectric sensors have commercial and
two opposing locations, which may be quite a distance industrial applications. At home, for example, they detect
apart, are costly and laborious. With newly developed obstructions in the path of garage doors; the sensors have
designs, through-beam photoelectric sensors typically offer saved many a bicycle and car from being smashed.
the longest sensing distance of photoelectric sensors - Objects on industrial conveyors, on the other hand, can

D
25 m and over is now commonplace. New laser diode be detected anywhere between the emitter and receiver,
emitter models can transmit a well-collimated beam 60 as long as there are gaps between the monitored objects,

E
m for increased accuracy and detection. At these and sensor light does not "burn through" them. (Burn-
distances, some through-beam laser sensors are capable through might happen with thin or lightly colored objects

H
of detecting an object the size of a fly; at close range, that allow emitted light to pass through to the receiver.)
that becomes 0.01 mm. But while these laser sensors

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Application and selection of proximity sensor:
Proximity Sensor comparison table -1

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Technology Sensing Range Applications Target Materials

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Inductive <4-40 mm Any close - range detection of Iron Steel Aluminum
P
ferrous material Copper etc.
E N
©

Capacitive <3-60 mm Close - range detection of Liquids Wood Granulates

B

non - ferrous material Plastic Glass etc.

O
T
T

Photoelectric <1mm - 60 mm Long - range small or large Silicon Plastic Paper

target detection Metal etc.
O
N

Ultrasonic <30 mm - 3 mm Long - range detection of Cellophane Foam Glass

targets with difficult surface liquid Powder etc
properties. Color/ reflectivity
insensitive.
.

206 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.8.193
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.194
Electronics Mechanic - IoT Applications

Internet Of Things (IOT)

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• identify IOT things
• application of IOT
• different functional building block of IOT architecture.

loT stands for Internet of Things It refers to the Internet of Things (IoT) is the networking of physical objects
interconnectedness of physical devices, such as that contain electronics embedded within their architecture
appliances and vehicles, that are embedded with software, in order to communicate and sense interactions amongst
sensors, and connectivity which enables these objects cach other or with respect to the external environment. In
to connect and exchange data. This technology allows the upcoming years, IoT-based technology will offer
for the collection and sharing of data from a vast network advanced levels of services and practically change the
of devices, creating opportunities for more efficient and way people lead their daily lives. Advancements in

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automated systems medicine, power, gene therapies, agriculture, smart cities.
and smart homes are just a very few of the categorical

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examples where loT is strongly established

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Main components used in IoT: 3 Gyro Sensors

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• Low power embedded systems: Less battery 4 Obstacle Sensors

consumption, high performance are the inverse factors
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5 RF Sensor
that play a significant role during the design of electronic
systems. 6 IR Sensor
• Sensors: Sensors are the major part of any IoT 7 MQ-02/05 Gas Sensor
applications. it is a physical device that measures and
8 LDR Sensor
detect certain physical quantity and convert it into
signal which can be provide as an input to processing 9 Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
or control unit for analysis purpose.
Working with loT Devices:
Different types of Sensors: • Collect and Transmit Data: For this purpose sensors
1 Temperature Sensors are widely used they are used as per requirements in
different application areas
2 Image Sensors
207
• Actuate device based on triggers produced by 14 Security
sensors or processing devices: If certain condition
is satisfied or according to user's requirements if certain 15 Biochip Transponders (For animals in farms)
trigger is activated then which action to performed that 16 Heart monitoring implants(Example Pacemaker, ECG
is shown by Actuator devices. real time tracking)
• Receive information: From network devices user or Advantages of IoT:
device can take certain information also for their
analysis and processing purposes. 1 Improved efficiency and automation of tasks.

• Communication Assistance: Communication 2 Increased convenience and accessibility of information

assistance is the phenomena of communication 3 Better monitoring and control of devices and systems
between 2 network or communication between 2 or
more loT devices of same or different Networks. This 4 Greater ability to gather and analyze data.
can be achieved by different communication protocols 5 Improved decision-making
like MQTT, Constrained Application Protocol, ZigBee,
6 Cost savings
FTP, HTTP etc.
Disadvantages of IoT:

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1 Security concerns and potential for hacking or data
breaches

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2 Privacy issues related to the collection and use of

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personal data

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3 Dependence on technology and potential for system
failures

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4 Limited standardization and interoperability among
devices.

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5 Complexity and increased maintenance requirements
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6 High initial investment costs
7 Limited battery life on some devices.
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8 Concerns about job displacement due to automation.

Application Domains: IoT is currently found in four
9 Limited regulation and legal framework for loT, which
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different popular domains

can lead to confusion and uncertainty.
1 Manufacturing/Industrial business - 40.8
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of devices that
2 Healthcare - 30,38 allows them to communicate and exchange data with
3 Security-7.78 other smart devices over the Internet. The embedded
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sensors and software make these material things 'smart.

4 Retail - 8.38 In this post, we'll explore the various applications of loT
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Modern Applications: and what its future looks like.

1 Environment Applications of IOT:

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2 Smart Grids and energy saving Agriculture: The ever-increasing world population drives
up the demand for agricultural products. However, the
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3 Smart cities/Street light migration of young people to big cities destabilizes the
human resource required for agricultural development. loT
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4 Smart homes/Home automation

and related technologies can be pivotal in automating
5 Earthquake detection farming processes and fulfilling food demand
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6 Radiation detection/hazardous gas detection Consumer Applications: The Internet of Things makes
7 Smartphone detection people's lives easier by monitoring and managing their
lifestyles. There is a massive market for intelligent
8 Smart walk a waste management electronics, watches, television systems, health tracking,
9 Traffic monitoring and virtual reality. In addition, IoT is leading the market
with applications such as home security and personal
10 Wearables
asset tracking
11 Smart door lock protection system
Healthcare: Wearable loT devices provide a range of
12 Robots and Drones benefits to patients and healthcare providers alike. By
extension, loT enables healthcare professionals to monitor
13 Healthcare and Hospitals, Telemedicine applications

208 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.194
patients remotely The devices can automatically collect time traffic data to provide updates on traffic incidents
patients' health vitals like blood pressure heart rate. and congestion. In addition, early warming messages save
temperature and more. commute time during peak hours.
Insurance: loT is altering traditional business models Hospitality: Many hotels allow quests to control air
like insurance. It simplifies and accelerates the claim and conditioning heating, or ventilation from a central location.
underwriting process. Besides reducing costs, digital Television control and greeting devices are also common.
networking via loT generates additional revenues Cross- Moreover, Internet of Things devices alert the staff about
selling and more significant customer interaction become various appliances operating status. As a result,
a strategic component for insurers technicians can fix critical appliances even before any
Manufacturing: The Internet of Things creates a more major functionality loss occurs.
technically driven environment for manufacturing industries. Water Supply: Water scarcity is a reality loT applications
It can automatically track development cycles, facilitate have a potential solution to monitor control, and regulate
the production flow, and manage inventories. the quality and usage of water. Besides, it also maintains
Retail: toT devices can collect vital data on a products associated equipment such as pumps, pipes, etc. Smart
shopping lifecycle Once this data is processed and water technology connects water systems with people.
analyzed, retail managers can make valuable decisions Fleet Management: loT enables predictive fleet

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to improve retail operations and the customer experience maintenance by boosting visibility, efficiency and
Transportation: loT applications integrate personal and manageability. It helps to monitor cargo better and

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commercial vehicles by improving communication and improves driver operation. In addition to? devices can
predict maintenance and help replace parts before the

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information distribution Besides connecting consumers
and goods, it offers benefits such as route optimization, issue gets too expensive.

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automobile tracking, weather monitoring, distance Smart Pollution Control: loT devices and attached
coverage, and more sensors are stationed at key city locations They monitor

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Utilities/Energy: A grid can have loT capabilities with pollution levels and periodically upload data to the loT
intelligent meters, receivers, sensors, and energy boxes cloud. The system then processes the information to

B trigger public actions such as diversions or road closures.

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communicating toT applications in utilities generate
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revenue, improve efficiency, and conserve resources. Utility Smart Cities: A smart city has better public utilities,
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providers can keep up with the rising demand by optimizing infrastructure, services, and more Smart meters allow
energy and distribution with the help of loT utility companies to regulate energy flow efficiently, while
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Traffic Monitoring: Intelligent traffic monitoring helps connected vehicles make public transit tremendously
improve decision-making and achieve urban growth. An efficient. In addition, smart grids are coming up to conserve
loT-based system collects processes, and analyzes real- resources and lower peak hour stress.
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.194 209
Features of IoT Smart lighting control
The following are major IoT features This solution refers to smart city street light using loT
network while performing visual management so that
• Connectivity: Establishing a proper connection managers can clearly understand the status information
between all loT devices and the loT platform, which of each street lamp in each block. At the same time,
could be a server or the cloud. each street lamp has built-in sensors or smart plugs to
• Analyzing: After connecting all of the relevant things, preset lighting equipment, to ensure that the switch state
it is time to analyze the data collected in real-time and lighting brightness of each lamp can be accurately
and use it to build effective business intelligence. controlled, so as to truly realize on-demand lighting and
achieve the effect of energy saving.
• Integrating: loT integrates various models to improve
user experience. Information release system
Smart street light using IoT can broadcast advertising
• Artificial Intelligence: loT makes things smart and
messages to nearby passersby while integrating beacons.
improves people's lives by utilizing data.
Smart city environmental monitoring
• Sensing in loT: In loT technologies, sensor devices
detect and measure environmental changes and report Smart street lighting system integrated urban environment
sensor to monitor temperature, humidity, noise, air quality

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their status.
(PM25, etc.). The use of street lamp coverage has
• Active Engagement: loT allows connected advantages of wide area more points, to achieve the urban

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technology, products, or services to engage in active high- density urban micro-environment

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engagement with one another
Street lamp charging pile
• Endpoint Management: Endpoint management is Installing charging piles for new energy vehicles on smart

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critical for all loT systems. otherwise, the system will street lamps is the best way to build distributed charging
fail completely

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stations for new energy vehicles on roads. At present,
Smart Street Light using IoT charging piles for integrated new energy vehicles are
generally AC charging piles with a power of 7KW and a

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slow charging speed. They are mainly used to supplement
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the new energy vehicles parked in street lamps. It can be

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seen that with the further increase of the number of new
energy vehicles, the combination of DC charging piles
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with faster charging speed and street lamps will also

appear.
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Facility monitoring
Smart street lighting using loT integrate monitoring
modules of urban infrastructure, such as manhole cover
monitoring, water level monitoring and other sensor
modules, which can effectively sense the status and
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information of urban infrastructure and provide various

services for smart cities. The application provides the data.
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Alarming
As an important part of smart city, smart street lighting The smart street lighting system with panic button
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uses wireless loT sensors, Zigbee, GPRS, Lora and integrated can push the alarm information to the information
Bluetooth communication technology to connect the street bar of the display screen and the monitoring terminal of
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lamps in the city in series, forming the Internet of things, the service center, and link with the video monitoring
and realizing the remote centralized control and system to deal with emergencies in time. Malignant
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management of street lamps According to the traffic flow, incidents, to prevent the expansion of danger, and
time, weather conditions and other conditions, the scheme effectively solve the security problems in public places.
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can automatically adjust the brightness, remote control

lighting, abnormal will take the initiative to alarm, but also Smart water management using loT
can cooperate with other sensors to play the function of It is better to implement an intelligent water management
anti-theft and remote meter reading. Smart street lighting system. Nowadays, most techies are focusing on the
using loT can effectively control the energy consumption, new Smart Water Management using IoT IoT is a gigantic
thus enhance the level of public lighting management, technology that processes a standard process for
decrease the cost of maintenance and management and industrial units. The water sector coerces 100% attention
use the calculation of sensory information processing and to multiple resources in relevant amounts. The smart water
analysis to make intelligent response and intelligent techniques offer enhanced regulation over a water body,
decision support, make the city road lighting to achieve a or wastewater treatment plant. The on-demand app
"smart" state. development companies have started to focus on the lol
sector.

210 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.194
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Internet of Things applies a series of proceedings & Eradication of wastage

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methodologies to satisfy the demands & needs with Smart water management aids to reduce water usage
inadequacy in terms of quantity of water. The usage of consumed in enormous amounts for different fields like
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sensors in industrial water areas advances the different agriculture, production sector, agriculture, etc. It
sectors through real-time monitoring systems and instant contemplates the multiple practices of farming, agricultural
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alert systems. With the aid of lol-driven scalable solutions, applications faming Mesly everyone has started to enforce
it is feasible to measure the level of misused water and & agriculture softs are to process the tasks.
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get immediate alerts when there is water leakage in the

Enhanced water quality
tank.
The improvement of water quality eradicates contagions
Working Process Of Smart Water Management
due to the wastage of acidification. To enhance water
Smart water management using loT provides the quality, prominent industries are using trendier IoT
solution for the firms to regulate water flow by techniques and sensors to regulate real-time monitoring.
interconnecting smart sensors and smart meters. The
Optimizes efficiency factor
main role of the sensors and meters is to collect water
flow data and generate analytical water performance The loT-enabled smart water management aids in the
reports. With the aid of web dashboards, industries observe improvement of the efficiency factor of water distributors
the utilization of water and water treatment plants. By developing robust
solutions, multiple firms maintain different movements like

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.194 211
temperature, the flow of water, pressure, etc. The overall typical savings. Next, sustainability is one of the important
preservation helps to eradicate downtime & detriment of benefits for water industries: Smart water management
apparatus. plays a vital role in different fields like construction, energy
Execution of leakage control production, etc.

One can achieve water leakage control by executing a Wastewater Management

smart water management system. The leakage sensors The main contradiction in water management is the
are fixed along with the pipelmes A recent report estimates leakage of water and regulation of water through multiple
that nearly three billion dollars are needed to fix the channels. Initially, the lol sensors are placed at the system
impairment. The conie amount is calculated for about one point to detect water level, check water quality, leakage
year. of chemicals, etc. It automatically sends notifications to
Striking advantages the concened authorities by sending data through the
cloud system and solves the issue as soon as possible.
There is a list of benefits of executing an lo I enabled An additional advantage of smart water management is
Smart water management of system. These benefits to manipulate chemical issues in the water.
directly influence a series of factors like consumption,
and conservation We can discuss in detail different Wastewater Treatment

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advantages one by one. One of the main benefits of smart In this present era. lol methodologies are securing the
water management is to increase the transparency factor. water sector. The inventive solutions help to resolve the

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The collective data relies on stakeholders activities and complications of the wastewater treatment system. These
supply chain. This one automatically results in the solutions include level monitoring of water quantity. At

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processing of decisions on how to increase operations. the same time, it also aids in the calculation of origin
The lol-driven scalable solutions enable authorities to value. Instant alerts will be sent to the user by

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automate the process and enhance human power Well- interconnecting with their smart devices. At the same time,
defined water management systems possess the ability trends & technology provide efficient & quicker wastewater

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to detect bugs & respond instantly to eradicate damages. treatment and eradicate wastages due to leakages.
An automated data-driven approach translates data into

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212 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.194
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.195
Electronics Mechanic - IoT Applications

Embedded system used in IOT

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• IOT and embedded system
• market scope of embedded system and IOT.

IoT and an Embedded System specific functions, possessing qualities of a good product
design like low power consumption secured architecture
Internet of Things is defined as a process in which objects reliable processor.
are equipped with sensors, actuators and processors that
involve hardware board design and development software Market scope for Embedded systems and the Internet
systems, web APIs and protocols, which together create of Things
a connected environment of embedded systems. Embedded systems are part and parcel of every modem
Embedded systems will play an important role in Internet electronic component. These are low power consumption

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of Things (IoT) due to their unique characteristics and units that are used to run specific tasks for example
remote controls, washing machines, microwave ovens

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features such as real time computing, low power
consumption, low maintenance and high availability are RFID tags, sensors actuators and thermostats used in

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becoming the key enabler of loT. various applications networking hardware such as
switches routers. modems, mobile phones, PDAs.
This connected environment allows technologies to get

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connected across multiple devices, platforms, and Usually embedded devices are a part of a larger device
where they perform specific task of the device For example

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networks, creating a web of communication to interact
digitally with the world. This connected embedded embedded systems are used as networked thermostats
systems are changing interactions and behavior with the in Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

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environment, communities and homes, and even with our systems, in Home Automation embedded system are
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own bodies. used as wired or wireless networking to automate and

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control lights security, audiovisual systems sense climate
There are embedded systems in our day today life in the change, monitoring, etc.
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form of commercial systems ke vending machines smart

kiosks, AC controller, connected cars, hotel bill printers, Embedded systems will also be at the cornerstone for
etc, which are capable of performing a unique variety of the deployment of many Internet of Things (IoT) solutions
©

operations Hence, when & comes to designing of these especially within certain industry verticals and Industrial
embedded loT systems, they need to be designed for Internet of Things (IoT) applications.
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213
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.196
Electronics Mechanic - IoT Applications

Role and Scope of IoT in present and future market place, Smart objects,
wired and wirless technologies
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• to understand the current market scenario of IoT
• to comprehend the future market trends of IoT in India
• to realize the technologies which enable communication among IoT devices.
Role and Scope of IoT in Present and Future market represent themselves digitally, they can be controlled from
place anywhere. The connectivity then helps us capture more
Internet of Things can connect devices embedded in various data from more places, ensuring more ways of increasing
systems to the internet. When devices/objects can efficiency and improving safety and IoT security.

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1.9 billion devices are expected to be connected in India growth like increased mobility, the evolution of smarter
which leads to grow this market 31 times from the current lifestyle, improved decision making, data analysis etc.
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market share of 5.6 this year. India has already more than 100 smart city initiatives
1.1 IoT Market Trends in India planned. The focus is to enable seamless communication
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not only amongst humans but between machine to ma-

Indian IoT market has huge potential and expected to grow
chine and machines to humans.
across industries in manufacturing, automotive,
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transportation and logistics. IoT is set to become a major https://wire19.com/future-of-iot-in-india-current-market-

differentiation in driving the next generation of services and trends-and-use-cases/
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products. 1.2 Future of IoT

At present, there are approximately 7.6 billion people on
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Everyone wants a world which is connected to the internet

the Earth. Nearly, 3.7 billion of these are connected to the and everything in it - from your smartphone to computers
Internet; roughly 50% of such connected population re- to watches and refrigerators can communicate in real- time.
sides in Asia and 24% amongst them belongs to India. Internet of Things certainly makes it possible Future of IoT
A number of IoT startups In India (roughly 70%) have seems to be very bright as this is feeding and empowering
emerged a few years back only. Healthcare and manufac- Data Science and Artificial Intelligence in a big way. Data
turing are popular verticals attracting a lot of investor in- from IoT networks enables us to have better tracking,
terests. ThingsCloud, Doxper, SeeHow, Uncanny Vision, monitoring, prediction, management and control of various
IOT Pot are some of the popular IoT startups. Market forces systems in different industries. Manufacturing,
like cloud computing and analytics are the key drivers of transportation, healthcare and utility sectors show more
IoT. There are several factors too that contribute to its potential for IoT growth in the coming future.

214
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.197
Electronics Mechanic - IoT Applications

Smart Objects
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• introduction of smart objects
• application of wired, cables, hubs etc.
Components & Technologies of IoT etc.) uniquely addressable and based on standard
Smart Objects communication protocols.

The concept of smart in IoT is used for physical objects In a day to day life, people have a lot of object with internet
that are active, digital, networked, can operate to some or wireless or wired connection.
extent autonomously, reconfigurable and has local control • Smartphone
of the resources. The smart objects need energy, data
• Tablets
storage, etc.

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• TV computer
A smart object is an object that enhances the interaction

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with other smart objects as well as with people also. The These objects can be interconnected among them and
world of IoT is the network of interconnected facilitate our daily life (smart home, smart cities) no mat-

H
heterogeneous objects (such as smart devices, smart ter the situation, localization, accessibility to a sensor,
objects, sensors, actuators, RFID, embedded computers, size, scenario or the risk of danger.

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Fig 1

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Smart objects are utilized widely to transform the physical are mature technology and it is easy to get plugged into
environment around us to a digital world using the Internet if phone lines, power lines, and coaxial cable lines are
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of things (IoT) technologies. A smart object carries blocks available.

of application logic that make sense for their local situation
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and interact with human users. A smart object sense,

log, and interpret the occurrence within themselves and
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the environment, and intercommunicate with each other

and exchange information with people.
Wired Components
IoT technology is deployed in many ways so no single
network solution is right. It depends on the situation and
where the devices are located.
Ethernet Cable Hub
A wired network uses Ethernet cable to connect to the Hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects
network. The Ethernet cable is in turn connected to a multiple wires coming from different branches, for example,
DSL or cable to the network gateway. The wired networks the connector in star topology which connects different
215
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are
sent to all connected devices.
Bridge
A bridge is a repeater; with add on the functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source
and destination. Bridge is a Data link Layer Device. It is
also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the
same protocol. It has a single input and single output
port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design
that can boost its efficiency and performance. Switch is
a Data link Layer Device. The switch can perform error
checking before forwarding data that makes it very efficient
as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward

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good packets selectively to correct port only. Gateway
Routers A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to

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connect two networks together that may work upon
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets
different networking models. They basically work as the

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based on their IP addresses. Router is mainly a Network
messenger agents that take data from one system,
Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs

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interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways
together and have a dynamically updating routing table
are also called protocol converters and can operate at
based on which they make decisions on routing the data

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any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex
packets.
than switch or router.

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Wireless Technologies Bluetooth Low Energy, Bluetooth Smart

Setting up a wireless network is a simple process that Bluetooth is a short-range communications technology,
involves configuring it to get it up and running in no time. which has become important in computing and consumer
With the evolution of network technologies, a wide range products. It will be the key for wearable products
of solutions like RFID, Bluetooth, WiFi as well as the connecting to Internet of Things via smartphones in most
less familiar ones like - ZigBee, Z-Wave or UWB (Wltra cases. For IoT applications it is Bluetooth Low-Energy or
Wide- Band). Bluetooth Smart, which is more important since its power
consumption is lower than Bluetooth.

216 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.197
Unlike Bluetooth, Bluetooth Smart cannot be used for file vides fast data transfer and can handle high quantities of
transfers and its data packet size is smaller. data. But its power consumption is likely to be too high
for many IoT applications.
• Frequency: 2.4GHz
• Frequencies: 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands
• Range: less than 150m
• Range: Approximately 50m
• Data Rates: 1Mbps
• Data Rates: 150-200Mbps is typical, 600 Mbps maxi-
Zigbee
mum, latest 802.11-ac offers 500Mbps to 1Gbps
ZigBee and its various industrial profiles are based on
Cellular
IEEE802.15.4 protocol, which is an industry-standard
wireless networking technology. It is meant for applications Any IoT application that requires operations over long
requiring limited data transfers at low transfer rates within distances can take advantage of Cellular GSM, 3G, 4G.
100m range, typically in a home or building. It has Cellular is suitable for high volumes of data, but the cost
advantages in complex systems requiring low-power and power consumption for managing high volumes of data
operation, high levels of security, high scalability, high transfer are likely to be too high for most IoT applications.
node counts and can support wireless control and sensor Cellular is suitable for sensor driven, low data projects,
networks in IoT applications. transferred over the Internet.

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• Frequency: 2.4GHz • Frequencies: 900, 1800, 1900, 2100MHz

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• Range: less than 100m • Range: 35km max for GSM, 200km max for HSPA

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• Data Rates: 250kbps • Data Rates: less than 170kps GPRS, less than
384kbps EDGE, less than 2Mbps UMTS, less than
WiFi

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10Mbps HSP, 3-10Mbps LTE
WiFi connectivity is an obvious choice for developers,

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especially within home environments and LANs. It pro-

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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.197 217
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.198
Electronics Mechanic - IoT Applications

Different functional building blocks of IoT architecture

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• to understand basic IoT architecture representation
• to realize the working process of connected components
• ability to develop an architecture functional blocks for the given application.

IoT Architecture 1.1 Basic Architecture

IoT architecture comprises a collection of physical objects, While every IoT system is different, the foundation of each
sensors, cloud services, developers, actuators, Internet of Things architecture as well as its general data
communication layers, users, business layers, and IoT process flow is same. The below diagram shows the four
protocols. layers

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First layer consists of the Things, which are objects and the cloud and analytics,.
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connected to the Internet which by means of their Gateways provide a place for the local preprocessing of
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embedded sensors and actuators are able to sense the sensor data which is squeezed into useful bundles ready
environment around them and gather information that is for further processing.
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then passed on to IoT gateways. To pick up physical

Another aspect that the gateways support is security.
parameters in the outside world or within the object itself,
Because the gateways are responsible for managing the
they need sensors. These can be either embedded in the
information flow in both directions, with the help of proper
devices themselves or implemented as standalone objects
encryption and security tools they can prevent IoT cloud
to measure and collect telemetry data. For an example,
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data leaks as well as reduce the risk of malicious outside

think of agricultural sensors whose task is to measure
attacks on IoT devices.
parameters such as air and soil temperature and humidity,
soil pH levels or crop exposure to sunlight. 1.1.3 Layer 3
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Another indispensable element of this layer are the The third layer is represented by edge devices responsible
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actuators. Being in close collaboration with the sensors, for further processing and enhanced analysis of data. This
they can transform the data generated by smart objects layer is also where visualization and machine learning
into physical action. technologies are applied. Data is transferred to data
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centers which can be either cloud-based or installed

Example
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locally, where the data is stored, managed and analyzed

Let's assume a smart watering system with all the in depth for actionable insights.
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necessary sensors in place. Based on the input provided

1.2 IoT Architecture
by the sensors, the system analyses the situation in real
time and commands the actuators to open selected water Because of the wide domain of internet objects, there is
valves located in places where soil humidity is below the no single consensus on IoT architecture, which is
set value. The valves are kept open until the sensors report universally agreed
that the values are restored to default. Obviously, all of
1.2.1 Architecture Components
this happens without a single human intervention.
Things. A "thing" is an object equipped with sensors that
1.1.2 Layer 2
gather data which will be transferred over a network and
The Second stage consists of IoT data acquisition actuators that allow things to act .
systems and gateways that collect the great mass of
Gateways. Data goes from things to the cloud and vice
unprocessed data, convert it into digital streams, filter
versa through the gateways. A gateway provides
and pre-process it so that it is ready for analysis. Gateway
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 1.2.2 Device management
To ensure sufficient functioning of IoT devices, there are
some procedures required to manage the performance of
connected devices (facilitate the interaction between
devices, ensure secure data transmission and more):
- Device identification to establish the identity of the
device to be sure that it's a genuine device with trusted
software transmitting reliable data.
- Configuration and control to tune devices according to
the purposes of an IoT system. Some parameters need
to be written once a device is installed (for example,
unique device ID). Other settings might need updates
(for example, the time between sending messages with
data).
- Monitoring and diagnostics to ensure smooth and

D
secure performance of every device in a network and
reduce the risk of breakdowns.

E
- Software updates and maintenance to add functionality,

H
fix bugs, address security vulnerabilities.
1.2.3 User management

S
connectivity between things and the cloud part of the IoT
Along with device management, it's important to provide
solution, enables data preprocessing and filtering before

LI
control over the users having access to an IoT system.
moving it to the cloud and transmits control commands
going from the cloud to things. User management involves identifying users, their roles,

B
E I
access levels and ownership in a system. It includes such
Cloud gateway facilitates data compression and secure
R IM

options as adding and removing users, managing user

U
data transmission between field gateways and cloud IoT
settings, controlling access of various users to certain
servers. It also ensures compatibility with various protocols
information, as well as the permission to perform certain
P
and communicates with field gateways using different
E N

operations within a system, controlling and recording user

protocols depending on what protocol is supported by
activities and more.
gateways.
©

1.2.4 Security monitoring

Streaming data processor ensures effective transition of
input data to a data lake and control applications. No data Security is one of the top concerns in the internet of things.
can be occasionally lost or corrupted. Connected things produce huge volumes of data, which
need to be securely transmitted and protected from cyber-
criminals.
B
O
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.198 219
 D
E
H
S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

220 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.9.198
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199-204
Electronics Mechanic - Fiber Optic Communication

Fiber optic communication

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define the fiber optic communication
• explain the block diagram and function of the fiber optic communication
• state the advantages and disadvantages of the optical fiber communication
• state the applications of the fiber optic communication.
Fiber optics is a branch of optics that deals with the study When the input data in the form of electrical signals, is
of propagation of light through transparent dielectric given to the transmitter circuitry; it converts them into light
wave guides. signal with the help of a light source. This source is of LED
whose amplitude, frequency and phases must remain
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting
stable and free from fluctuations in order to have efficient
information from one place to another by sending pulses
transmission. The light beam from the source is carried

D
of light through an optical fiber.
by a fiber optic cable to the destination circuitry wherein
A simple typical optical fiber telecommunication system the information is transformed or converted back to the

E
is as shown in Fig 1. electrical signal by a receiver circuit.

H
The Receiver circuit consists of a photo detector along
with an appropriate electronic circuit, which is capable of

S
measuring magnitude, frequency and phase of the optic
field. This type of communication uses the wave lengths

LI
near to the infrared band that are just above the visible
range. Both LED and Laser can be used as light sources

B
E I
based on the application.
Fiber-optics have revolutionized the telecommunication
R IM
U
industry and have played a major role in this. Because of Visible light range
its advantages over electrical signal transmission, optical
Light is an electromagnetic signal like radio wave. It can
P
fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications
E N

be modulated by the information signal and sent over the

in core networks in the developed world. Optical fiber is
fiber- optic cable. The frequency of light is extremely
used by many telecommunication companies to transmit
high; it can be used to accommodate very wide bandwidth
©

telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable

of the information and extremely high data rates can be
television signals.
achieved with excellent reliability. Fig 3 shows the
A detailed block diagram of optical fiber communication frequency spectrum and wavelengths of visible light
system is shown in Fig 2. spectrum.
B
O
T
T
O
N

Basic elements of a fiber optic communication system 3 Photo detector

There are three main basic elements of fiber optic Accessories like connectors, switches, OFC couplers,
communication system. They are multiplexing devices, amplifiers and splicer are also
essential elements in this optical fiber communication
1 Compact light source
system.
2 Low loss optical fiber
221
 1 Wider band width: Optical fiber have greater
information capacity than metallic cable because of
the inherently wider bandwidth upto several thousand
GHz available with optical frequencies. It has higher
information carrying capacity.
2 Lower loss: With fiber-optic cables, there is less
signal attenuation over long distances.
3 Small size and Light weight: Optical fibers are very
small diameter in the range from 10 micrometers to 50
micrometers. The space occupied by the fiber cable
is negligibly small as compared to the conventional
electrical copper cables.
4 Security: Fiber-optic cables cannot be "tapped" as
easily as electrical cables.
1 Compact light source: Depending on the
applications, the light source requirements may vary. 5 Environmental immunity: OFC cables are more
The requirements of the sources including power, resistant to environment extremes including weather

D
speed, spectral line width, noise, ruggedness, cost, variations than metallic cables. Optic cables also
operate over a wide temperature range and are less

E
temperature, and so on. Two components are used
as light sources: light emitting diodes (LEDs) and affected by corrosive liquids and gases.

H
laser diodes. 6 Electrical Isolation: Optical -fibers are fabricated
The light emitting diodes are used for short distances and from glass or plastic polymers, they are electrical

S
low data rate applications due to their low bandwidth and insulators therefore they do not exhibit earth loop,
interference problems, electromagnetic waves or any

LI
power capabilities. Two such LEDs structures include
Surface and Edge Emitting Systems. The surface emitting high current lightning.
diodes are simple in design and are reliable, but due to its 7 Potential low cost and maintenance: In comparison

B
E I
broader line width and modulation frequency limitation, with the copper conductors optic-fiber offers low cost
R IM

edge emitting diodes are mostly used. Edge emitting line communication. This is because many miles of
U
diodes have high power and narrower line width optical cables are easier and less expensive to install
capabilities. than the same amount of copper wire or cable.
P
E N

For longer distances and high data rate transmission, Disadvantages

Laser Diodes are preferred due to its high power, high The cost of interfacing equipments necessary to convert
©

speed and narrower spectral line width characteristics. electrical signals to optical signals is more. (Optical
But these are inherently non-linear and more sensitive to transmitters, receivers). Splicing fiber optic cable is also
temperature variations. more difficult.
2 Low loss optical fiber: The purpose of optical fiber 1 Expensive over short distance.
is to transmit light signal from transmitter to receiver.
B

Optical fiber is a cable, which is also known as 2 Requires highly skilled installers.
cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of low loss 3 Adding additional nodes is difficult.
O

material. An optical fiber considers the parameters

Ruggedness: The main disadvantage of the fiber-optic
like the environment in which it is operating, the
cable is its small size and brittleness makes more difficult
T

tensile strength, durability and rigidity. The fiber optic

to work with it.
cable is made of high quality extruded glass (si) or
plastic, and it is flexible. The diameter of the fiber optic Fiber-Optic Applications: Telecommunication
T

cable is in between 0.25 to 0.5mm (slightly thicker applications are widespread, ranging from global networks
to desktop computers. This involves the transmission of
O

than a human hair).

voice, data, or video over distances of less than a meter
3 Photo detectors: The purpose of photo detectors is
to hundreds of kilometers using fiber designs.
N

to convert the light signal back to an electrical signal.

Two types of photo detectors are mainly used for Optical fiber is used extensively for transmission of data.
optical receiver in optical communication system: PN Multinational firms need secure, reliable systems to
photo diode and avalanche photo diode. Depending transfer data and financial information between buildings
on the applications wavelengths, the material to the desktop terminals or computers and to transfer
composition of these devices may vary. These data around the world. Cable television companies also
materials include silicon, germanium, InGaAs, etc. use optical fiber communication system for the delivery
of digital video and data services. The high bandwidth
Advantages
provided by fiber makes it perfect choice for transmitting
The primary advantages of the Fiber-optic cables over broadband signals, such as high-definition television
conventional cables and radio waves are: (HDTV) telecasts.

222 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart highways Another important application for optical fiber is the
with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and biomedical industry. Fiber-optic systems are used in
changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-based most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of
telemetry systems. digital diagnostic images. Other applications for optical
fiber include space, military, automotive, and the industrial
sector.
Optical fiber
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define optical cable
• explain the construction details of an optical cable
• define refractive index and total internal deflection
• explain the working principle of an optical cable
• state the types of fiber
• differentiate the single mode and multi mode optical cable.
What is an optical fiber? Cladding: Cladding is an outer optical material that

D
protects the core. The main function of the cladding is
Typically, fiber optics are long, thin strands of glass
that it reflects the light back into the core. When light
(SiO2) about the diameter of human hair; some can be

E
enters through the core (dense material) into the cladding
made out of plastic. Long distance telecommunication
(less dense material), it changes its angle, and then

H
systems always use glass because of its lower optical
reflects back to the core.
absorption during transmission to maintain the signal

S
strength. When arranged in bundles, they are called Buffer jacket: The main function of the buffer is to
optical cables which are used to transmit light signals protect the fiber from damage while arranged in optical

LI
containing information over long distances. cables. These bundles are protected by the cable's
strength members covering.
Construction of optical fiber: The structure of optical

B
E I
fiber is shown in Fig 1. Outer jacket: Fiber optic cable's jackets are available in
R IM

different colours that can easily make us recognize the

U
exact colour of the cable we are dealing with. The colour
yellow clearly signifies a single mode cable, and orange
P
E N

colour indicates multimode. It is also given mechanical

strength to the optical cables.
Characteristics of light: Reflection: The bouncing
©

back of rays of light from a polished and shiny surface is

called reflection of light.
Refraction: It is the bending of light ray that occurs when
the light ray passes from one medium to the other.
B
O
T

1 Core
T

2 Cladding
3 Buffer
O

4 Jacket
N

Core
The core of a fiber cable is a cylinder of plastic or silica or
glass that runs all along the fiber cable's length, and Angle of incidence: The angle at which light strikes a
offers protection by cladding. The diameter of the core surface with respect to the normal.
depends on the application used. Due to internal
reflection, the light travelling within the core reflects from Angle of reflection: The angle at which light is reflected
the core and the cladding boundary. The core cross from a surface.
section needs to be a circular one for most of the Index of refraction: The index of refraction (or refractive
applications. index) is a way of measuring the speed of light in a
material. Light travels fastest in vacuum, such as in outer

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204 223
space. The speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000 boundary between the two materials is very important.
kilometers (186,000 miles) per second. The refractive When a ray is incident on the interface between two
index is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the dielectrics of differing refractive indices, refraction occurs.
speed of light in that medium. The refractive index of a The light is refracted and also partly reflected internally in
vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. the same medium; which is referred as Partial Internal
Reflection.
Total internal reflection: The heart of an optical
communication system is the optical fiber that acts as the Classification of optical fiber: There are two basic
transmission channel carrying the light beam loaded with ways of classifying fiber
information.
1 Based on the modes
When the light ray strikes the interface at an angle
i Single mode fiber ii Multi mode fiber
greater than the critical angle, the light ray does not pass
through the interface into the glass. The effect is as if a 2 Based on index of refraction varies across the cross
mirror existed at the interface. section of the cable.
When this occurs the angle of reflection is equal to the i Step index fiber ii Graded index fiber
angle of incident as if a real mirror were used. This action Single mode fibers: The single mode optical fiber SMF
is known as total internal reflection.

D
(mono mode optical fiber, single mode optical wave
Critical angle is the angle of incidents that causes the guide, or uni mode fiber) type has the smaller core

E
refracted light to travel along the interface between two diameter in the order of 3.5 x 10-4 inches or 9 microns and
different media. If the angle of incidents is made greater a cladding diameter of 125 mm. These fibers are used in

H
than the critical angle, the reflection occurs instead of telephone and television due to small cores.
refraction.

S
Working principle of fiber optic cable: The principle of

LI
operation of an optical fiber lies in the behavior of light as
shown in Fig 3 that the light always travels in straight line
and at constant speed. In this, the light propagates in

B
E I
straight lines, but it is reflected inside the optical Fiber.
R IM
U
Million and trillion times of reflected by the clad, it acquires
the shape of the optical fiber. So effectively, it is said to
P
have been travelling along the Fiber as shown in the
E N

Fig 3. It changes its direction only if there is a change in

the dielectric medium . The propagation of light within an This SMF is designed to carry only a single ray of light
optical fiber is necessary to take in to account the (mode). Although the ray travels parallel to the length of
©

refractive index of the dielectric medium. the fiber, it is often called transverse mode since its
electromagnetic vibrations occur perpendicular
(transverse) to the length of the fiber.
Multi mode fibers: The MMF type has larger core
B

diameters on the order of

2.5 x 10-3 inches or 62.5 microns as to transmit many
signals per fiber. While the number of light reflections
O

increased as the light passes through the core increases.

It creates the ability for more data to pass through at a
T

given time. Because of the high dispersion and attenuation

rate with this type of fiber, the quality of the signal is
T

reduced over long distances. This application is typically

used for short distance, data and audio/video applications
O

in LANs. RF broadband signals commonly used by the

cable companies, cannot be transmitted over multimode
N

Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of fiber.

velocity of light in vacuum to velocity of light in medium.

Velocity of light in vacuum

Refractive index =
Velocity of light in medium

Since, the velocity of light in any solid, transparent

material is less than in vacuum, the refractive index of
such material is always greater than 1. A ray of light
travels slowly in an optical medium than one that is less
dense. Now, the direction that the light approaches the

224 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
Difference between Single Mode & Multi Mode iii Maximum attenuation: 1.0dB/ kilometer
iv Capable to support tensile load of 180 Kg
v Capable of minimum crush resistance of 152 Kg/cm
vi Cable should be tight buffered, ie., the fiber should not
be placed loosely in cladding layer.
2 Multi mode fiber
i Thickness of fiber: 8.3 to 125 micrometer.
ii Wave length (to be used): 850 nano meter,1550 nano
Small core(9 microns) Larger core than single- meter.
mode cable (50 microns iii Capable to support tensile load of 180 Kg.
or greater)
iv Capable of minimum crush resistance of 152 Kg/cm.
Less dispersion Allows greater dispersion
and therefore, loss of v Folded core ie., fibers with cladding layer should have
signal. been closely bunched together.

D
Suited for long-distance Used for long-distance

E
applications (upto-3 km) application, but shorter
than single-mode(upto

H
2 km)

S
Used lasers as the light Uses LEDs as the
source for distances of light source often

LI
several thousand meters within LANs or distances
of a couple of hundred
meters.

B
E I
R IM

The following IST specifications for the selection and

U
installation of fiber-optic cable and associated hardware
are intended to ensure a reliable and consistent fiber optic
P
E N

media infrastructure
1 Single mode fibers
©

i Thickness of fiber: 8.3 to 125micro meter

ii Wave length (to be used): 1310 nano meter,1550
nano meter
B

Losses in optical fibers

O

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• state the types of losses in the fiber optics
T

• explain the attenuation losses in an optical cable

• define dispersion
T

• state the types of dispersion and explain about each type.

O

Losses: The Signal transmitting through the fiber is

degraded by two mechanisms. (Fig 1)
N

1 Attenuation 2 Dispersion
Both are important to determine the transmission
characteristics of the fiber at operating wavelength.
Attenuation: Power loss in a fiber cable is probably the
most important characteristics of the cable. Power loss is
often called as attenuation.
Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or
loss of light power that occurs as light pulses propagate
through the length of the fiber.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204 225
Attenuation has several adverse effects on performance,
including reducing the system bandwidth, information
transmission rate, efficiency, and overall system capacity.
Total power loss in an optical fiber cable is
A(dB) = 10 log (Pout/Pin)
Where
A(dB) - Total reduction in power level, attenuation.
Pout - Cable output power (watts) and
Pin - Cable input power (watts)
The basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are
1 Absorption
optical fiber. Group velocity means the velocity at which
2 Scattering and energy in a pulse travel along the fiber.
3 Radiative losses of the optical energy Types of dispersion

D
Absorption is related to the fiber material and scattering Disperson is mainly 2 types

E
also due to the fiber material and with structural
1 Intramodal dispersion
imperfections in the optical waveguide.

H
2 Intermodal dispersion
Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber under
Intermodal dispersion is divided into

S
goes a bend (both microscopic and macroscopic) of finite
radius of curvature as shown in Fig 2. i Material or chromatic dispersion

LI
ii Waveguide dispersion

B
E I
iii Group velocity dispersion (GVD) or Modal dispersion
R IM

Intramodal dispersion
U
Intramodal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs
P
within a single mode.
E N

It arises due to group velocity being a function of

wavelength. The increasing spectral width of the optical
©

Dispersion: Dispersion means the spreading of light source will increase the intramodal dispersion.
pulse as it propagates through the fiber as shown in Intermodal distortion (or) Multimode dispersion
Fig 3.
1 The intermodal distortion arises due to the variation in
It introduces Inter Symbol interference (ISI). It limits the the group delay for each individual mode at single
B

information carrying capacity of fiber. frequency.

The dispersion effect can be explained on the basis of 2 This distortion is available in multimode fibers.
O

behaviour of group velocities of the guided modes in the

T

Encoding and decoding of light

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
T

• define encoding and decoding of light

O

• explain the different types of optical sources

• diode and different types of optical decoders
N

• state the requirement of photo detectors used in the optical communication system.

Encoding in optical fiber transmission means the

transmission of analog optical information through fiber
optics digitally as shown in Fig 1.
This improves the acceptable signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
by 20 to 30 dB over analog transmission.
Transmitter
Fiber optic transmitters are typically composed of a
buffer, driver and optical source. The buffer provide both
an electrical connection and isolation between the

226 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
transmitter and the electrical system supplying the data. the junction and light is generated when these electrons
The driver provides electrical cover to the optical source. recombine with holes in valence band to emit a photon.
Finally the optical source converts the electrical current
LED can be used in fiber transmission applications must
to the light energy with the same pattern.
have
Optical source
i High Radiance output or brightness.
Optical Sources are active components whose
ii Fast transmission response time.
fundamental function is to convert the electrical energy
into optical energy(light) in an effective manner. Hence iii High quantum efficiency.
the optical sources are transducers.
LASER diode
Optical source is major component in an optical
LASER is acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
transmitter.
Emission of Radiation. (Fig 3)
Popularly used optical sources are Light emitting diode
(LED) and semiconductor laser diodes (also referred to
as injection laser diodes or ILDs).
Requirements of light sources for communication

D
i Light output should be highly directional.

E
ii It must require very small power for its operation.

H
iii Optical output should be stable irrespective of changes
in temperature.

S
iv The light source should have compact size and high

LI
efficiency.
v High optical output power and coupling efficiency. Ideal LASER light is single-wavelength only. This is

B
E I
related to the molecular characteristics of the material
vi It is essential that the source is comparatively cheap
R IM
being used in the LASER. It is formed in parallel beams
and highly reliable in order to compete with
U
and in single phase. That is, it is coherent.
conventional transmission techniques.
Laser diode is available in two different packages as
P
E N

Almost all these requirements are satisfied by LASER shown in Fig 4.

and LED. Both operate in forward-biased mode.
1 LED-Monochromatic incoherent source.
©

2 LASER-Monochromatic coherent source.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LEDs are used in optical communication systems that
B

require bit rate less than approximately 100-200 mbps. It

is mostly coupled with multimode fiber.
O

It covers broad spectrum of wavelengths and the emitted

power is proportional to the diode current. (Fig 2)
T

1 Can type package

T

2 Frame type package

O

The lasing medium can be a gas, a liquid, an insulating

crystal, or a semiconductor.
N

Principle of operation
The three different mechanisms are shown in Fig 5
below.

Emission of light from LED

Conduction band of the semiconductor is populated by
electrons injected into it. By the forward current through

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204 227
1 Absorption: An atom in a lower level absorbs a 3 Stimulated emission: An incident photon causes an
photon and moves to an upper level. upper level atom to decay and emitting a "stimulated"
photon whose properties are identical to those of the
2 Spontaneous emission: An atom in an upper level
incident photon. The term "stimulated" underlines the
can decay spontaneously to the lower level and emit
fact that this kind of radiation only occurs if an incident
a photon if the transition between upper and lower
photon is present. The amplification arises due to the
energy level. This photon has a random direction and
similarities between the incident and emitted photons.
phase.

Comparison of LASER & LED

The differences between LASER and LED for various parameters are listed in the TABLE below.

Sl. No. Parameter LASER LED

1. Output beam Coherent Incoherent

2. Coupling co efficiency High Low

D
3. Output power High Low

E
4. Cost Expensive Less

H
5. Application Moderate Long distance

S
distance with with high data rate
low data rate

LI
6. Circuit complexity Complex Simple

B
E I
7. Temperature dependent More Less
R IM
U
P
E N

Optical receiver: Optical receiver (photo detector)

converts the variation in optical power into a corresponding
variation in the electric current. The design of an optical
©

receiver is much more complicated than that of an optical

transmitter because the receiver must first detect weak,
distorted signals and then make decisions on what type
of data was sent based on an amplified version of this
distorted signal.
B

The optical receiver can be broken down into three parts.

These consist of:
O

1 Channel coupler (Output)

T

2 Detector
3 Signal processor
T

Channel coupler (Output): In a fiber system, the output

O

coupler merely directs the light emerging from the fiber

into the light detector. This light is radiated in a pattern Optical amplifiers: In order to transmit signals over long
N

identical to the fiber's acceptance cone as shown in distances (100 km) it is necessary to compensate for
Fig 6. attenuation losses within the fiber““Initially this was
accomplished with an optoelectronic module consisting
Detector: The detector is an essential component of an
of an optical receiver, a regeneration and equalization
optical fiber communication system and is one of the
system, and an optical transmitter to send the
crucial elements which decides the overall system
data““Although functional this arrangement is limited by
performance.
the optical to electrical and““electrical to optical
The information being transmitted must now be taken off conversions.
the carrier wave. In the fiber system, the optic wave is
• Several types of optical amplifiers have since been
converted into an electric current by a photo detector.
demonstrated to replace the OE-electronic
regeneration systems.
228 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
• These systems eliminate the
need for E-O and O-E conversions.
• This is one of the main reasons for the success of
today's optical““communications systems.

Rare Earth Doped Fiber Amplifier characteristics:

Rare earth doped fiber amplifiers are finding increasing
importance in optical communications systems. Perhaps
Optical amplifiers: The general form of an optical the most important version is erbium doped fiber amplifiers
amplifier (EDFAs) due to their ability to amplify signals at the low
loss 1.55 um wavelength range.
Some types of OAs that have been demonstrated
Characteristics of EDFAS (advantages):
include:
• High power transfer efficiency from pump to signal

D
• Semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs) power (50%)

E
• Fiber Raman and Brillouin amplifiers • Wide spectral band amplification with relative flat gain
(>20 dB)- useful for““WDM applications
• Rare earth doped fiber amplifiers (erbium-EDFA 1500

H
nm. praseodymium-PDFA 1300 nm) • Saturation output 1 mW (10 to 25 dBm)
• Gain-time constant long (>100 msec) to overcome

S
The most practical optical amplifiers to date include the
patteming effects and inter-““modulation distortions
SOA and EDFA types New pumping methods and

LI
(low noise).
materials are also improving the performance of Ram in
amplifiers. • Large dynamic range.

B
E I
• Low noise figure
R IM

• Polarization independent
U
• Suitable for long-haul applications.
P
Disadvantages of EDFAS:
E N

• Relatively large devices (km lengths of fiber)- not

easily integrated with other devices
©

• ASE-amplified spontaneous emission. There is always

Characteristics of SOA types: some output even with““no signal input due to some
excitation of ions in the fiber-spontaneous noise.
• Polarization dependent-require polarization
maintaining fiber • Cross-talk effects
B

• Gain saturation effects

• Relatively high gain-20 dB
• An energy level diagram for Er doped silica is shown
• Output saturation power 5-10 dBm below.
O

• Large BW • Pumping is primarily done optically with the primary

T

pump wavelengths at 148 jump and 0.98 m. As

• Can operate at 800, 1300, and 1500 nm wavelength
indicated atoms pumped to the 41 (11/2) 0.98 um
regions.
band decays to the primary commission transition
T

• Compact and easily integrated with other devices band. Pumping with 1.48 um light is directly to the
O

upper transition levels of the emission band.

• Can be integrated into arrays
• Semiconductor lasers have been developed for both
• High noise figure and cross-talk levels due to nonlinear
N

pump wavelengths.
phenomenon such as 4-““wave mixing
• 10-20 mW of absorbed pump power at these
This last feature restricts the use of SOAS wavelengths can produce 30-40 dB of amplifier gain.
• Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA)- similar to a • Pump Efficiencies of 11 dB/mW achieved at 980 nm.
laser cavity. Used as a discrete amplifiers. They can • Pumping can also be performed at 820 and 670 nm
be integrated into arrays of amplifying switching and with GaAlAs laser diodes. Pump efficiencies are
gating devices. Finding application in all optical 3R lower but these lasers can be made with high output
regeneration systems power.
• Limited in operation below 10 Gb/s (Higher rates are
possible with lower gain)

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204 229
Typical Absorption Gain Spectrum for Erbium Doped

D
• The divisions have been designated as““
Fiber:
S-Band 1480-1520 nm

E
• Since the gain spectrum of erbium resembles a 3-
level atom it is possible to model the gain properties C-Band 1521-1560 nm

H
using this approach. L-Band 1561-1620 nm
• Several different wavelength bands have been (Note some variability in these values is common)

S
designated for wavelength division multiplexing and
EDFAs have been designed to operate in these

LI
bands.

Pulse modulation technique

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

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• define pulse
• state the types of pulse modulation
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• explain PCM,PAM,PWM and PPM

• state the advantages, disadvantage and applications of each type of modulation
• compare the different types of pulse modulation techniques.
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Pulse Types of modulation

A pulse is an abruptly changing voltage or current wave AM, FM modulation & demodulation already
which may or may not repeat itself as shown in Fig 2. The we discussed in Semester 3 Communication
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Fig 2(b) Shows a repetitive pulse train and Fig 2(c) shows Electronics topic. Here we can discussed with
a pulse with its trailing and leading edges. PWM, PPM.
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230 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
Pulse modulation
It may be defined as a modulation system in which some
parameter of a train of pulse is varied in accordance with Disadvantages of Pulse Code Modulation
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. In this

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1 Specialized complicated complex circuitry is required
system, waveforms are sampled at regular intervals and for transmitting and encoding.

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the information is transmitted through the sampling rate.
The parameters of the pulses which may be varied are : 2 Pulse code modulation receivers are costlier than

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amplitude, width (or duration), position and time etc other modulation receivers.
In pulse modulation, there are different types of modulation 3 Developing pulse code modulation is bit complicated

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techniques for analog and digital as given below: and checking the transmission quality is also difficult

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and takes more time.
PCM : Pulse Code Modulation for Digital Modulation.
4 It requires larger bandwidth than normal analog signals
PPM : Pulse Position Modulation for Analog Modulation

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PWM : Pulse Width Modulation for Analog Modulation. 5 Channel bandwidth should be more for digital
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PAM : Pulse Amplitude Modulation for Analog encoding.
Modulation.
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6 Decoding also needs special equipments and they
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1 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) are also too complex.

PCM will transmit the analog in a digital form, whose Applications of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
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signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and quantized 1 Pulse code modulation is used in telecommunication
at same quantum levels to digital code as shown in Fig 3. systems, air traffic control systems etc.
We know that digital code is nothing but binary code
which consists of 1's and 0's that is logic1 and logic0. So 2 Pulse code modulation is used in compressing the
data that is why it is used in storing data in optical disks
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we will transmit the digital data in the form of 1's and 0's.
When the signal is received by the receiver, demodulator like DVD, CDs etc. PCM is even used in the database
in the receiver will demodulate the binary signal back into management systems.
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pulses with same quantum levels like in modulator and 3i Pulse code modulation is used in mobile phones,
these pulses are again used for regenerating the required normal telephones etc.
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analog signal.
4 Remote controlled cars, planes, trains use pulse code
Advantages of Pulse Code Modulation modulations technique.
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1 Pulse code modulation will have low noise addition 2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
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and data loss is also very low.

In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of regular
2 The received signal is exact replica of the transmitting
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interval of periodic pulses or electromagnetic pulses are

signal without any distortion loss. varied in proportion to the sample of modulating signal or
3 PCM can encode the data. message signal as shown in Fig 4. This is an analog type
of modulation. These sample pulses can be transmitted
4 Multiplexing of signals can also be done using pulse directly using wired media or we can use a carrier signal
code modulation. Multiplexing is nothing for adding for transmitting through wireless. It is almost equal to
the different signals and transmitting the signal at amplitude modulation.
same time.
Advantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
5 Pulse code modulation permits the use of pulse
regeneration. 1 It is the base for all digital modulation techniques and
it is simple process for both modulation and
6 PCM can be used in storing data. demodulation technique.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204 231
2 No complex circuitry is required for both transmission

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and reception. Transmitter and receiver circuitry is
simple and easy to construct.

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3 PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals

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and can carry the message or information at the same
time.

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Disadvantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Advantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

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1 Bandwidth should be large for transmitting the pulse 1 Noise interference is less due to amplitude has been
amplitude modulation signal. made constant.

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2 The frequency varies according to the modulating 2 Signal can be separated very easily at demodulation
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signal or message signal. Due to these variations in and noise can also be separated easily.
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the signal frequency, interferences will be there. So
noise will be great. Pulse amplitude signal varies, so 3 Synchronization between transmitter and receiver is
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not required.
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power required for transmission will be more, peak

power is also, even at receiving more power is required Disadvantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
to receive the pulse amplitude signal.
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1 Power will be variable because of varying in width of

Applications of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) pulse. Transmitter can handle the power even for
1 It is mainly used in Ethernet which is type of computer maximum width of the pulse.
network communication. 2 Bandwidth should be large to use in communication,
should be huge even when compared to the pulse
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2 It is also used for photo biology which is a study of

photosynthesis. amplitude modulation.
Applications of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
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3 Used as electronic driver for LED lighting.

4 Used in many micro controllers for generating the 1 PWM is used in telecommunication systems.
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control signals etc. 2 PWM can be used to control the amount of power
3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Duration delivered to a load without incurring the losses. So,
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Modulation (PDM): this can be used in power delivering systems.

3 Audio effects and amplifications purposes also used.
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It is a type of analog modulation. In pulse width modulation

or pulse duration modulation, the width of the pulse 4 PWM signals are used to control the speed of the
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carrier is varied in accordance with the sample values of robot by controlling the motors.
modulating signal as shown in Fig 5. In this the amplitude
is made constant and width of pulse and position of pulse 5 PWM is also used in robotics.
is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal. 6 Embedded applications.
The conventional method of generating a PWM modulated 7 Analog and digital applications etc.
wave is to compare the message signal with a ramp
4 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
waveform using a comparator. The block diagram required
for the generation of a simple PWM is shown in the In the pulse position modulation, the position of each
Fig 6. pulse in a signal by taking the reference signal is varied
according to the sample value of message or modulating
signal instantaneously. In the pulse position modulation,

232 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
width and amplitude is kept constant. It is a technique that
uses pulses of the same breadth and height but is
displaced in time from some base position according to
the amplitude of the signal at the time of sampling. The
position of the pulse is 1:1 which is proportional to the
width of the pulse and also proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of sampled modulating signal.
The position of pulse position modulation is easy when
compared to other modulation.
Pulse width generator is used for generating pulse width
The waveform of the Pulse position modulation is as modulation signal which will help to trigger the monostable
follows. (Fig 7) multivibrator, here trailing edge of the PWM signal is
used for triggering the monostable multivibrator. After
triggering the monostable multivibrator, PWM signal is
converted into pulse position modulation signal.
Advantages of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
1 Pulse position modulation has low noise interference

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when compared to PAM because amplitude and
width of the pulses are made constant during

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modulation.

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2 Noise removal and separation is very easy in pulse
position modulation.

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3 Power usage is also very low when compared to other

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modulations due to constant pulse amplitude and
width.

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Disadvantages of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
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1 The synchronization between transmitter and receiver
is required, which is not possible for every time and we
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need dedicated channel for it.
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2 Large bandwidth is required for transmission same as

pulse amplitude modulation.
The Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is a modulation
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technique designed to achieve the goals like simple 3 Special equipments are required in this type of
transmitter and receiver circuitry, noise performance, modulations.
constant bandwidth and the power efficiency and constant
Applications of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
transmitter power.
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1 Used in non coherent detection where a receiver does

In Pulse Position Modulation the amplitude of the pulse
not need any Phase Locked Loop(PLL) for tracking
is kept constant as in the case of the FM and PWM to
the phase of the carrier.
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avoid noise interference. Unlike the PWM the pulse width

is kept constant to achieve constant transmitter power. 2 Used in radio frequency (RF) communication.
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Fig 8 shows the block diagram of PPM. 3 Also used in contactless smart card, high frequency,
RFID (radio frequency ID) tags, etc.
It requires pulse width generator and monostable
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multivibrator.
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204 233
 Comparison between PAM,PWM,PPM
The differences between PAM,PWM and PPM are given in the table below:
Sl. No. PAM PWM(or PDM, PLM) PPM

1. Amplitude of the carrier The width (or duration or length) of The relative position of the
pulse is proportional to the carrier pulse is proportional to carrier pulse is proportional to
the amplitude of the the amplitude of the modulating the amplitude of the modulating
modulating signal. signal. signal.
2. The B.W. of the transmitting The B.W. of the channel depends The B.W.of the channel depends
channel depends upon the upon rise time of the pulse upon the rise time of the pulse.
width of the pulse. B.W. = ½ t B.W. = ½ t
Where t is the rise time
3. The instantaneous power of The instantaneous power of The instantaneous power of the
the transmitter varies. the transmitter varies. transmitter remains constant.
4. Noise interference is high. Noise interference is low. Noise interference is low.

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5. Similar to amplitude Similar to frequency modulation Similar to phase modulation(PM)
modulation(AM) (AM)

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1 Fiber optic cable connector g Enterprise systems connection connector

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• A fiber - optic cable connector is a mechanical device (ESCON) - ESCON connectors were developed by
which is used to terminate the end of a fiber-optic IBM for interfacing peripheral storage devices,

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cable and it enables a quicker connection and h Fiber distributed data interface connector (FDDI)
disconnection with respect to joining which is a - FDDI provides data transmission at 100 Mbps in a

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permanent, method of joining. The use of fiber-optic dual ring token local area network within a 200-
cable connectors net result is attenuation in signal kilometer rang. The FDDI connector connects network

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strength. equipment to a wall plug.
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• It consists of an adapter and two connector plugs.

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i Opti-jack Connector - The opti-jack duplex connector
Most of the connectors are spring loaded so that the resembles the universal RJ-45 connector.
two fiber faces remains pressed together, leaving no
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air-gap between them, when the connectors are mated. j LX-5 Connector - The LX-5 provides high density,
high performance and reliable connections.
• Separate connectors are made for glass to glass
k MT-RJ Connector - The single polymer ferrule duplex
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fibers and teflon to teflon fibers. Different types of fiber

optic cable connectors are shown in fig.1 is described MT-RJ connector includes alignment.
as follows: I MU Connector - MU connectors have a reduced
a Standard connector (SC) - SC connectors use a footprint and are new generation connectors used
mainly in dense applications.
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ceramic ferrule to deliver accurate alignment of the

Single Mode Fiber (SMF). m MT Connector - The MT connector is a ribbon cable
b Ferrule core connector (FC) - FC connectors are that has 12 fiber connectors.
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widely used in fiber optic networks. This connector n E2000 Connector - Modern day telecommunication
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used a threaded container and a position locatable networks increasingly make use of E2000 connectors.
notch to achieve exact locating of the Single Mode
o Local connector (LC) - which is in the shape of
Fiber (SMF) in relation to the receiver and the optical
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round.
source.
• The most widely used connector for fiber optic cable
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C Straight Tip (ST) connector - The ST connector’s

is SMA (Subminiature version-A).
keyboard bayonet design is similar to that of a BNC
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(Bayonet Nut Connector or bayonet Neill-Concelman) 2 Precautions and safety aspects while handling
connector. optical cables
d SMA (Subminiature version-A) connector - The • Optical fibers are made of glass or plastic fibers
obsolete SMA connector was the forerunner to the ST therefore, following safety precaution should be taken
connector. into consideration while using them.
e Lucent connector (LC) - The LC, sometimes referred Micro bending: A problem that often occurs in cabling of
to as the little connector, is a small form factor FOC the optical fiber is the twisting of the fiber core axis an a
that uses a 1.25mm ferrule. microscopic scale within the cable form. This phenomenon
known as micro bending result from small lateral forces
f Plastic fiber optic cable connector - There are
exerted on the fiber during the cabling process and it
relatively fewer plastic connectors available when
causes losses due to radiation in both multimode and
compared to glass fiber.
234 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
single mode fiber. Do bend the fiber more than 200% of • Protect the fiber from sharp edges otherwise that can
its core diameter. damage its protection jacket and harm the cladding
and core.
Example:
• Fiber should not come in contact of any abrasive or
• Diameter of bend for optical fiber 125mm will be 25
acetone etc.
mm
• Do not throw the pieces of fibers in dustbin etc. and do
• Diameter of bend for optical fiber of 400mm will be
keep pieces of glass with optical fibers.
80mm.
• Do not keep eatables or beverages near the ends of
• Do not keep any heavy load or hand machine on the
optical fibers as they have a high radiation.
fiber.

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Fiber optical splicing

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define splicing
• state the related tools used along with splicer
• explain cleaving
• explain various steps involved in the splicing.

Introduction In practice, to cover larger distance and as well as to

repair the OFC cuts, joints have to be made i.e. OFC has
Splicing is the process of joining two ends of optical fiber
to be joined. This joining is called as splicing.
using electric arc or mechanical means.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204 235
Fiber splicing is a complicated procedure and requires Splicing machine
skilled manpower to achieve. We should completely
A special machine which is used to join the fiber using
clean off the gel component when the cable end is
fusion technique.
stripped for termination.
Clever (diamond cutter)
The necessary tools and accessories for splicing are
splicing machine, cleaver, cable cutter, iso-propyl alcohol It is used to cut optical fiber perpendicular to cable axis
and tissue paper as shown in Fig 1 and 2. exactly by 90 degrees.
Multi purpose cutter (stripper)
It is used to remove primary coating of fiber.
Iso-propyl alcohol, acetone and tissue paper
It is used to clean the dust of fiber before splicing.
Fusion splicing
Splicing is the practice of joining two fibers together
without using fiber connectors as shown in Fig 3. Two
types of fiber splices exist: fusion splicing and mechanical
splicing. Splicing may be made during installation or

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repair.

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Fig 3

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Splices generally have lower loss and better mechanical
integrity than connectors, while connectors make system

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are used to connect fiber cables in outdoor applications
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and connectors terminate fiber cables inside buildings.
Fusion splicing process has to use high temperature heat
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generated by electric arc and fuse two glass fibers

together (end to end with fiber core aligned precisely).
The tips of two fibers are butted together and heated so
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they melt together. This is normally done with a fusion

splicer, which mechanically aligns the two fiber ends,
then applies a spark across the fiber tips to fuse them
together.
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Testing of optical fiber

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• define testing
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• state the different procedures followed for testing

• explain different types of testing of fiber optic component.
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Fiber testing ii Reference test cables that match the cables to be

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After the installation of cable, next step is testing. Testing tested and mating adapters, including hybrids if
is the process to evaluate the performance of fiber optic needed.
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components (like fiber, connectors, splices, LED or laser iii Fiber tracer or Visual fault locator.
sources, detectors and receivers), cable plants and
systems. Testing confirms their performance, iv Cleaning materials - lint free cleaning wipes and
specifications and helps understand how they will work pure alcohol.
together. v OTDR and launch cable for outside plant jobs.
Procedures are required under the testing some are 2 Documentation: This is an important part of the
listed below testing of fiber. Make sure all cable layouts are
1 Selection of tools available before testing the network. Prepare a spread
sheet of all the cables and print a copy for recording
i Source and power meter, optical loss test set or each test data.
test kit with proper equipment adapters for the
cable network are required for testing.
236 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
3 Safety notes: Fiber optic sources, including
test equipment, are generally too low in power to
cause any eye damage, but it's still a good idea to Fig 1
check connectors with a power meter before looking
into it. Some systems like CATV have very high
power and they could be harmful.
Types of testing
There are three basic tests
1 Visual inspection for continuity or connector checking
2 Loss testing
3 Network Testing.
Visual inspection
Visual tracing: Continuity checking makes sure that the to distinguish the signal from noise; too much power
fibers are not broken and to trace a path of a fiber from overloads the receiver and causes errors too.

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one end to another through many connections by using
a visible light "fiber optic tracer" or "pocket visual fault Measuring the power requires a power meter. For that,

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locator". It looks like a flashlight or a pen-like instrument the meter must be set to the proper range (usually dBm,
with a light bulb or LED source that mates to a fiber optic sometimes microwatts, but never "dB" that's a relative

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connector. Attach a cable to test to the visual tracer and power range used only for testing loss!) and the proper
wavelengths matching the source being used.

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look at the other end to see the light transmitted through
the core of the fiber. If there is no light at the end, go back To measure the receiver power, a reference test cable

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to intermediate connections to find the faulty section of (tested and known to be good) is attached with the meter
the cable. to the output side of the cable ., or to a reference test
cable (tested and known to be good) that is attached to

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Visual fault location: A higher power version of the
the transmitter, acting as the "source", to measure
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tracer uses a laser that can also find faults. The red laser
transmitter power as shown in Fig 2.
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light is powerful enough to show breaks in fibers or high
loss connectors. It also use this gadget to optimize Fig 2
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mechanical splices or pre polished-splice type fiber optic

connectors.
Visual connector inspection: Fiber optic microscopes
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are used to inspect connectors to check the quality of the

termination procedure and diagnose problems. A well
made connector will have a smooth, polished, scratch
free finish and the fiber will not show any signs of cracks,
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chips or areas where the fiber is either extended from the

end of the ferrule( connector) or pulling back into it.
Turn on the transmitter/source and note the power the
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The magnification for viewing connectors can be 30 to

400 times but it is best to use a medium magnification. meter measures. Compare it to the specified power for
the system and make sure it's enough power but not too
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The best microscopes allow you to inspect the connector

from several angles, either by tilting the connector or much.
having angle illumination to get the best picture of what's Loss Testing
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going on. Check to make sure the microscope has an

easy-to-use adapter to attach the different types of Testing loss is the difference between the power coupled
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connectors to the microscope. into the cable at the transmitter end and what comes out
at the receiver end. Testing for loss requires measuring
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Optical power ("Absolute" vs. "Relative"): Practically the optical power lost in a cable (including connectors ,
every measurement in fiber optics refers to optical power. splicers, etc.) with a fiber optic source and power meter
The power output of a transmitter or the input to receiver by using good reference cables.
are "absolute" optical power measurements, that is, it
can measure the actual value of the power. Loss is a The accuracy of the measurement is depends on the
"relative" power measurement. A simple method for the quality of reference cables used.
power measurement is shown in Fig 1. Turn on the source and select the wavelength required
Measuring power: Power in a fiber optic system is like for the loss test. Turn on the meter, select the "dBm" or
voltage in an electrical circuit - it's what makes things "dB" range and select the wavelength value for the loss
happen! It's important to have enough power, but not too test. Measure the power at the meter. This is the reference
much. Too little power and the receiver may not be able power level for all loss measurements as shown in the
Fig 3.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204 237
Fig 3 There are two methods that are used to measure loss,
"single-ended loss" and "double-ended loss". Single-
ended loss uses only the launch cable, while double-
ended loss uses a receive cable attached to the meter
also. Single-ended loss is measured by connecting
together with the cable has to be tested, to the reference
launch cable and measuring the power out the far end
with the meter.
In a double-ended loss test, can attach the cable to test
between two reference cables, one attached to the
source and the other to the meter.

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238 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.10.199 - 204
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210
Electronics Mechanic - Digital Panel Meter

Introduction of panel meter

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain analog panel meter
• explain digital panel meter
• describe the working of a seven segment display
• state the types of seven segment display.
Introduction accept multiple inputs and have adjustable or bar graph
displays that allow users to easily switch between these
Panel meters are instruments that display an input signal
inputs. Displays may also have totalizing, recording,
in analog or digital form. These are available in two types
conditioning, or other functional capabilities.
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1 Analog panel meter (APM)

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2 Digital panel meter (DPM)

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Analog Panel Meter (APM)

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An analog panel meter uses a moving pointer and a dial
to display information, and works on either the band or

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the jewel and pivot method. A taut band device uses a
pointer suspended between two ribbons of metal. Able to

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withstand high-shock. It generally measures direct current
(DC). The less accurate pivot and jewel unit has a coil and Digital panel meter have two types of displays

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pointer supported by polished steel, which fits into two
1 LED Display
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jewel bearings. Better at withstanding vibration, it typically

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measures alternating current (AC) as shown in Fig 1. 2 LCD display
Digital panel meters are available in LED or LCD display.
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LED (Light Emitting Diode) display is the easiest to see

even in small character heights and is available in colour.
LCD (liquid Crystal Display) can be either unlighted
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"transflective" that depends on ambient lighting or back

lighted and can be hard to read at certain angles and
lighting. Since Digital Panel Meters actually measure
voltages in discrete steps, all inputs must be scaled to
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match the full count range of the meter. A 3 digit digital

panel meter has a count range of 0-999 where a 3½ digit
doubles the count to 1999 for very little extra electronics
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circuits. Scaling for the Digital Panel Meters is

accomplished by using a voltage divider usually dividing
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down the input by a factor of 10, 100, 1000 although there

are other factors used.
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Types of DPM and its use

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An analog panel meter is more economical than its digital 1 4 digit voltmeter and Ammeter - it is capable to
counterpart, but it is less accurate. Non-linear movement measure upto 9999 volts or amperes
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can produce errors, and the small meter screen can be

difficult to interpret. It typically displays one value, however, 2 Three phase voltmeter and Ammeter - it is capable
so it's considered quicker to read. Analog meters are to measure to 3 phase volts or amperes
useful when relative change is more important than 3 3½ digit voltmeter and Ammeter - it is capable to
absolute accuracy. measure up to 1999 volts or amperes in 3 phase star
Digital Panel Meter (DPM) circuit
A digital panel meter is used to measure and display all 4 4½ digit voltmeter and Ammeter - it is capable to
types of processes and electrical variables, voltage measure up to 19999 volts or amperes
current, flow, speed, etc. It has a bright LED display that 5 4 and 5 digits frequency meter
presents information in an alphanumerical format with
little or no ambiguity. Many digital panel meters can 6 Digital power factor meter

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7 Digital wattmeter. Types of seven-segment display
Seven-segment display There are two important types of 7-segment LED display.
A seven segment display (SSD), or Seven-Segment 1 Common Anode (CA) Seven-segment
Indicator (SSI) is the most basic electronic display device 2 Common Cathode (CC) Seven-segment
that can display digits from 0-9 is shown in Fig 3.
1 Common Anode (CA) Seven-segment display
In common anode type, all the anodes of 8 LED's are
connected to the common terminal and cathodes are left
free. Thus, in order to glow the LED, these cathodes have
to be connected to the logic '0' and anode to the logic '1'.
as shown in Fig 5.

Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks,

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electronic meters, Radio, Microwave ovens, Basic
calculators, and other electronic devices etc.

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Concept and visual structure

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A seven-segment display consists of seven elements
that are made of either LCDs (Liquid Crystal Display) or

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LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes). The elements are labelled
from a to g as shown in Fig 4.

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2 Common Cathode (CC) Seven-segment display
As the name indicates cathode is the common pin for this

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type of seven segments and remaining 8 pins are left
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free. Here, logic low is applied to the common pin and
logic high to the remaining pins as shown in Fig 6.
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7-segment display truth table

Truth table shows the data to be applied to the seven
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segments to display the digits. In order to display digit'0'

on seven segment , segments a , b , c , d , e and f are
applied with logic high and segment g is applied with logic
low.
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Depending on which elements are turned ON, the display

decimal numerals 0 to 9. In a common cathode display,
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the cathodes of all the LEDs are joined together and the
individual segments are illuminated by HIGH voltages. In
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a common anode display, the anodes of all the LEDs are

joined together and the individual segments are illuminated
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by connecting to a LOW voltage.

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Pin diagram of seven-segment display

Working of seven segment display
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Seven segment display works by glowing the respective

LEDS in the number. The display is controlled using pins
that are left freely. Forward biasing of these pins in a
sequence will display the particular number or alphabet.
Depending on the type of seven segments the segment
pins are applied with logic high or logic zero.
For example to display Number '1' segments b and c are
to be switched on and the remaining segments are
required to be switched off. In order to display two digits
two seven segments are used.

240 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210
 TABLE 1
The TABLE 1 shows the decimal number and respective
segments to glow its value on the display.

Decimal Individual segments illuminated

number a b c d e f g

0 On On On On On On Off
1 Off On On Off Off Off Off
2 On On Off On On Off On
3 On On On On Off Off On
4 Off On On Off Off On On
5 On Off On On Off On On
6 On Off On On On On On

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7 On On On Off Off Off Off

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8 On On On On On On On

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Display decoder/driver

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the display decoder/driver
• explain the binary to decimal decoder

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• describe different methods of driving the seven segment display.
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Display decoder
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Display decoder is a device which converts one digital

format into another digital format. One of the most
commonly used devices for doing this is called Binary
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Coded Decimal (BCD) to Seven- Segment Display (SSD)

decoder.
It can be seen that to display any single digit number from
0 to 9 in binary or letters from A to F in hexadecimal, we
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would require 7 separate segment connections plus one

additional connection for the LED's "common" connection.
BCD numbers only range from 0 to 9, with the binary
Also as the segments are basically a standard light
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number patterns of 1010 through to 1111 (A to F) being

emitting diode, the driving circuit would need to produce
invalid inputs for this type of display and so are not used
up to 20mA of current to illuminate each individual
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as shown in TABLE 1.
segment. To display the number 8, all 7 segments would
need to be lit resulting a total current of nearly 140mA. TABLE 1
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Obviously, the use of so many connections and power Decimal Binary pattern
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consumption is impractical for some electronic or

microprocessor based circuits and so in order to reduce 8 4 2 1 BCD
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the number of signal lines required to drive just one single

display, display decoders such as the BCD to 7-segment 0 0 0 0 0 0
display decoder and driver IC's are used as shown in 1 0 0 0 1 1
Fig 1.
2 0 0 1 0 2
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
3 0 0 1 1 3
Binary-coded decimal (BCD) or packet decimal is a class
of binary encodings of decimal numbers where each 4 0 1 0 0 4
decimal digit is represented by a fixed number of bits, 5 0 1 0 1 5
usually four or eight. Special bit patterns are sometimes
6 0 1 1 0 6
used as a sign for other indications.
7 0 1 1 1 7

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210 241
 Driving a 7-segment display
8 1 0 0 0 8
7-segment display can be thought of as a single display,
9 1 0 0 1 9
it is still seven individual LEDs within a single package
10 1 0 1 0 Invalid and as such these LEDs need protection from over
11 1 0 1 1 Invalid current. LEDs produce light only when it is forward biased
with the amount of light emitted being proportional to the
12 1 1 0 0 Invalid forward current.
13 1 1 0 1 Invalid The block diagram of a basic LED seven segment display
14 1 1 1 0 Invalid system that can display a given input in numerical form is
shown Fig 3.
15 1 1 1 1 Invalid
BCD to Seven-segment display decoder
An example of the 4-bit BCD input ( 0100 ) representing
the number 4 is as shown in Fig 2.

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Concept of multiplexing: The decoder block converts

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the given input signal into an 8 line code corresponding
to the 'a' to 'g' segments and the decimal point which

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controls the segments to display the desired number. For
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example if the line corresponding to 'f 'and 'e' are activated

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then segments f and e of the display glows indicating a
"1". If the input quantity is an analogue signal then it must
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BCD to seven segment display decoder is a circuit used be converted into digital format using an ADC before
to convert the input BCD into a form suitable for the applying to the decoder. If the input signal is digital then
display. It has four input lines A, B, C and D and 7 output there is no need for the ADC and the decoder alone will
©

lines a, b, c, d, e, f and g as shown in Fig 1. Considering convert the particular input code into the 8 line code
common cathode type of arrangement, the truth table for compatible to the seven segment LED display. The
the decoder can be given as in TABLE 2. purpose of the driver stage is to provide the necessary
current drive in order to drive the LED seven segment
TABLE 2
displays. If the decoder stage is powerful enough to drive
B

Decimal Input lines Output lines Display the display, then the driver stage is not required. A typical
7 segment display driver stage consists of an array (8
digit A B C D a b c d e f g pattern
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nos) transistor or FET based switches. For example

consider the line 'a'. The "a" output of the decoder is
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
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connected to the input terminal (base/gate) of the

corresponding switching element inside the driver stage.
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 The same line is buffered by the switching element and
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is available as output line 'a' of the driver. This output is

2 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 connected to the corresponding 'a' element of the display.
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The driver can be arranged in sinking or sourcing mode.

3 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
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The following methods are practiced to drive the seven

4 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 segments.
1 Driving a seven segment display with resistor
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
2 Driving a seven segment display with transistor
6 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 3 Driving a seven segment display with integrated circuit
(IC)
7 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Driving a seven segment display with resistor
8 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Driving a seven segment using resistor is the most
common method. In this, generally we use the resistor as
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
the driving element. Generally, LED requires 20 milli
242 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210
Amps of current. Current more than this value may segment driver or decoder. The most frequently used
damage the LED. To limit this current a resistor is used decoder is 7448. This chip converts 4 bit binary coded
.This is called current limiting resistor. Circuit is as shown decimal to 8 bit seven segment data. This seven segment
Fig 4. decoder connected to the seven segments is shown
Fig 6.

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Segment pins of the seven segments are connected
using a resistor and a switch. The 8 switches are connected The below figure shows driving of a seven segment

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to the 8 current limiting resistors and they are connected display using BCD to seven segment decoder. Here we
to a to g segments of display. Let us see how this circuit have to give BCD data as input to display digits 0 to 9. For

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drives the digital display. example, to display the digit 7 the input to be applied is
0111. The decoder decodes the applied BCD input and

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To glow the segment 'a', close the switch 'a'. The current sends the appropriate output to the segments. The
passes through resistor and some drop occurs at current decoder outputs are connected to the seven segment

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limiting resistor. Thus, the sufficient current passes to the
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inputs through the resistors. These resistors are used to
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LED. Suppose to display digit 7 switches a, b, c are limit the current.
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closed. But the disadvantage here is, illuminating all the
LEDs at a time reduces the current.
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Driving a seven segment display with transistor

Another way of driving the seven segments is through
©

transistor. In this, transistor is used for amplifying the

input current. The collector of the transistor is connected
to the common pin of the seven segment, emitter is
connected to the ground and base is connected Vcc. The
transistor connected to the common pin amplifies the
B

current in the seven segments as shown in Fig 5.

Driving a seven segment display with integrated
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circuit
Another way of driving the seven segments is through
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integrated circuits. This is generally called as seven

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Multiplexing IC 7106/IC 7107

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• describe the concept of multiplexing
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• state the advantages of multiplexing

• list out the IC7106/IC7107 pin diagram.
Multiplexing
A Multiplexer is a device that allows one of several analog information that later transferred over network within a
or digital input signals which are to be selected and particular bandwidth and time.
transmits the input that is selected into a single medium.
Concept of multiplexing
Multiplexer is also known as data selector. Multiplexer is
abbreviated as MUX as show in Fig 1. MUX sends digital As shown in Fig 2 multiplexer takes 4 input lines and
or analog signals at higher speed on a single line in one diverts them to single output line. The signal from 4
shared device. It recovers the separate signals at the different devices is combined and carried by this single
receiving end. The multiplexer boosts or amplifies the line. At the receiving side, a demultiplexer takes this
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210 243
signal from a single line and breaks it into the original
signals and passes them to the 4 different receivers.

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Advantages of multiplexing
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1 It reduces number of wires

2 It reduces circuit complexity and cost
3 It simplifies logic design
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4 We can implement many combinational circuits using

MUX
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5 It does not need K-maps and simplification.

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ICL7106/ICL7107 Pin Number

The ICL7106 /ICL7107 are monolithic analog - to digital Sl. No. Description
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converters (ADCs). They have very high input impedances

1 V+ - Positive Supply
and required no external display drive circuitry. On-board
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active components include polarity and digits drivers, 2 D1 - 1's Digit - D Segment
segment decoders, voltage reference and a clock circuit.
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3 C1 - 1's Digit - C Segment

The ICL7106 will directly drive a no multiplexed liquid
4 B1 - 1's Digit - B Segment
crystal display (LCD), whereas the ICL7107 will directly
drive a common Anode Light Emitting Diode (LED) 5 A1 - 1's Digit - A Segment
display 6 F1 - 1's Digit - F Segment
PIN diagram of ICL 7106 / ICL 7107 7 G1 - 1's Digit - G Segment
Application 8 E1 - 1's Digit - E Segment
This device can be used in wide range of digital panel 9 D2 - 10's Digit - D Segment
meter application such as the measurement of pressure, 10 C2 - 10's Digit - C Segment
voltage, resistance, temperature, current, speed, material
thickness and conductance. 11 B2 - 10's Digit - B Segment

244 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210
 12 A2 - 10's Digit - A Segment 34 Cref+ - Reference Capacitor
13 F2 - 10's Digit - F Segment 35 REF LO - Reference Low
14 E2 - 10's Digit - E Segment 36 REF HI - Reference High
15 D3 - 100's Digit - D Segment 37 TEST - Test
16 B3 - 100's Digit - B Segment 38 OSC3 - Oscillator
17 F3 - 100's Digit - F Segment 39 OSC2 - Oscillator
18 E3 - 100's Digit - E Segment 40 OSC1 - Oscillator
19 AB4 - 1000's Digit
20 POL - Polarity Sign
21 BP/GND - Backplane Conn. for
LCD/Ground
22 G3 - 100's Digit - G Segment
23 A3 - 100's Digit - A Segment

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24 C3 - 100's Digit - C Segment

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25 G2 - 10's Digit - G Segment

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26 Vneg - Negative Supply
27 INT - Integrator

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28 BUFF - Buffer

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29 A-Z - Auto Zero
30 IN LO - Input Low

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31 IN HI - Input High
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32 COMMON - Input Common
33 Cref- - Reference Capacitor
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configurations
©

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• explain working of IC 7107/ IC 7106 based voltmeter
• list out common parameters.

Application circuits
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IC 7106 and IC 7107 are 3½ digit low power consuming

A/D converters. Can possible to design panel meter by
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using about 10 external components and display the

result.
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Typical test circuit of IC 7106 and IC 7107 are shown in

Fig 1 and 2.
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Working of circuit
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The measuring voltage is applied at pin 31 and 32

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through capacitor C5 and resistor R5. The resistor R5 and

capacitor C5 are used to set the internal oscillator (clock)
frequency at 48Hz, clock rate at which there will be three
readings per second.
The errors due to internal reference voltage can be by
using capacitor C1 connected at pin 33 and 34. It can help
to keep display in steady state. The resistor R2 and
capacitor C2 are used for integration of input measuring
voltage for sampling and prevent division of input voltage
and it helps to work circuit faster. It reduces the errors so
circuit works more reliable.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210 245
 Reference capacitor selection
Reference capacitor connected between 34 and 33.
Generally this capacitor is 0.1 micro farad is suitable in
most of the conditions. But, in some cases like when pin
no 32 (COMMON) and pin 35 (REF LOW) are not using
in some design cases. In that condition capacitor with
higher value like 1 micro farad works better for good
performance.
Auto zero settings
Pin 29 (A-Z) is refers the auto zero setting. Auto zero
setting is indicates the recovery overload speed and level
of noise reduction. The value of the auto-zero capacitor
has some influence on the noise of the system. For
200mV full scale where noise is very important, a 0.47mF
capacitor is recommended. On the 2V scale, a 0.047mF
capacitor increases the speed of recovery from overload.

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If there is no voltage at the input of the circuit, then the Reference voltage

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capacitor forces the device to display zero using R1 and The analog input required to generate full scale output
R4. The current through the displays can be controlled to

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(2000 counts) is: VlN = 2VREF. Thus, for the 200mV and 2V
provide sufficient current for brightness without any over scale, VREF should equal 100mV and 1V, respectively. So,
current using the resistor R6. IC 7107 is capable of driving

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we connect a suitable value of resistor R4 between pin
four LED displays in which first three are used to display number 36 and 35 and R1 with Vcc (Fig 1 and 2). For better

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numbers from 0 to 9 and the most significant LED adjust selecting a R4 as a preset potentiometer to get
segment is used only to display number 1 or "-" sign if the adjustment.
voltage is negative. The entire supply to the circuit is

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given through dual DC supply of +5V at pin 1, 0V at pin 21, Removing common mode voltages
R IM

and -5V at pin 26 of IC 7107. This IC has an N-Channel FET and generating 2.8 V.
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Oscillator frequency which is below supply of IC voltage that is 2.8 V. This
P
voltage can find at the COMMON pin 32 and can sink up
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The IC-7106 and IC-7107 require an oscillator clock to 25 mA. It is for battery operation and in cases where the
pulse to operate. So in pin configuration pin 38, pin 39, input signal floats with respect to the power supply. The
and pin 40 are used for connecting reference clock voltage at pin 32 can also be utilised as a reference. But
©

signal. it can generate internal heat in IC.

We can provide clock reference by So for removing this voltage can short between pin 32
1 can connect external clock frequency at pin 40. and 30 and possible to remove common mode voltages
for IC. By shorting pin 32 and 35 can possible to remove
B

2 can connect the crystal between 39 and 40. common mode voltages form reference system also.
3 can connect RC oscillator using R and C. Refer Fig 1 and Fig 2 at pin 32, 30 and 35 for connections.
O

RC oscillator is cost effective. This is shown in Fig 1

resistor R3 and C4 connected for generating clock signal.
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The frequency can be calculated by using formula

Fosc = 0.45 / (R3 + C4)
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Liquid Crystal Display

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

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• explain the working principle of LCD

• compare different LCD panel size
• list the LCD decoder/driver IC.

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) having low power consumption than the LED. It is typically
LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display, which is used to of the order of microwatts for the display in comparison
show status of an application, display values, debugging to some order of mill watts for LEDs. Low power
a program- etc., consumption requirement has made it compatible with
MOS integrated logic circuit. Its other advantages are its
Basics of LCD Displays low cost, and good contrast. The main drawbacks of
The liquid-crystal display has the distinct advantage of LCDs are additional requirement of light source, a limited

246 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210
temperature range of operation (between 0 and 60°C), on top and a glass with a polarizing film is also added on
low reliability, short operating life, poor visibility in low the bottom side. The entire area of the LCD has to be
ambient lighting, slow speed and the need for an AC covered by a common electrode and above it should be
drive. the liquid crystal substance. Next comes another piece of
glass with an electrode in the shape of the rectangle on
Principles of working of LCD
the bottom and, on top, another polarizing film. It must be
The main principle behind liquid crystal molecules is that noted that both of them are kept at right angles. When
when an electric current is applied to them, they tend to there is no current, the light passes through the front of
untwist. This causes a change in the light angle passing the LCD will be reflected by the mirror and bounced back.
through them. This causes a change in the angle of the As the electrode is connected to a temporary battery the
top polarizing filter with respect to it. So little light is current from it will cause the liquid crystals between the
allowed to pass through that particular area of LCD, thus common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like
that area becomes darker comparing to others For making a rectangle to untwist. Thus the light is blocked from
an LCD screen, a reflective mirror has to be setup in the passing through that particular rectangular area appears
back. An electrode plane made of indium-tin oxide is kept blank.

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B ©

Different LCD panel sizes TextLCD::LCD24x4 24x4 LCD panel (for KS0078
T

Alphanumeric LCD Display Sizes controller)

TextLCD::LCD16x2 16x2 LCD panel (default) TextLCD::LCD40x2 40x2 LCD panel

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TextLCD::LCD16x2B 16x2 LCD panel alternate TextLCD::LCD40x4 40x4 LCD panel (two controllers)
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addressing Graphic LCD Display

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TextLCD::LCD20x2 20x2 LCD panel Graphic LCD Display -122 x 32 Display

TextLCD::LCD20x4 20x4 LCD panel Graphic LCD Display -122x64 to 320x240
Note: There is now also support for Decoder / Driver IC used in LCD
TextLCD::LCD8x1 8x1 LCD panel A decoder / driver IC is necessary for the conversion of
TextLCD::LCD8x2 8x2 LCD panel BCD digits into a signal which is capable to energize
segments of LCD display unit. The BCD digits are in
TextLCD::LCD16x1 16x1 LCD panel nipple form, where as LCD display panel required a
TextLCD::LCD16x4 16x4 LCD panel seven bit signal for seven segment display. A number of
decoder /Driver ICs have been developed for this purpose
TextLCD::LCD24x2 24x2 LCD panel such as M7211AM, MM5483, MM145453 etc.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210 247
LCD digital panel display device
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the pin configurations of the 16 x 2 LCD display
• list the commonly used command words in 16 x 2 LCD displays.

LCD display are used to display the messages for more

interactive way to operate the system or displaying error 2 VDD Positive supply
messages etc. Interfacing LCD to microcontroller is very voltage pin (5V DC)
easy if you understand the working of LCD. In order to 3 VEE Contrast adjustment
understand the interfacing, first you have to know about
the 16×2 LCD module. 4 RS Register selection
16×2 Liquid Crystal Display which will display the 32 5 R/W Read or write
characters at a time in two rows (16 characters in one 6 E Enable
row). Each character in the display of size 5×7 pixel
matrix. Although this matrix differs for different 16×2 LCD 7 DB0 Data
modules this matrix will not be same for all the 16×2 LCD 8 DB1 Data

D
modules. There are 16 pins in the LCD module, the pin
configuration is given below. 9 DB2 Data

E
VEE pin is meant for adjusting the contrast of the LCD 10 DB3 Data

H
display and the contrast can be adjusted by varying the 11 DB4 Data
voltage at this pin. This is done by connecting one end of

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a POT to the VDD (5V), other end to the Ground and 12 DB5 Data
connecting the center terminal (wiper) of of the POT to 13 DB6 Data

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the VEE pin.
14 DB7 Data

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Sl. No. Name Function 15 LEDA Back light LED+
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16 LEDK Back light LED-

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1 VSS This pin must be
connected to the
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ground
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Scrolling display
©

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• explain the functions of dot matrix LED display
• describe the operation and application of scrolling display.
B

Introduction many other devices requiring a simple display device

• We normally use a simple static LED display screen of limited resolution.
O

to convey a message. Earlier, when we want to • The dot matrix display consists LED lights arranged in
display large and lengthier data, we used to change rows and columns of a matrix.
T

message for every few instances. Now scrolling

• A dot matrix controller converts instructions from a
displays are more preferred to static as shown in
processor into signals which turns ON or OFF in the
Fig 1.
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matrix so that the required display is produced by the

LED display.
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• Common sizes of dot matrix displays are as follows

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128 x 16 (Two lined)

128 x 32 (Four lined)
192 x 64 (Eight lined)
The 5x7 dot matrix LED display is shown in Fig 2. By
• Scrolling means a sliding text or image or video switching the selected lights ON or OFF any text or
across a monitor or display. It may be horizontally or graphics can be displayed.
vertically. Scrolling display
DOT matrix display By using a pre-programmed microcontroller, we can
• It is a display device used to display information on make dot matrix LED display in scrolling. We can also
machines, clocks, railway departure indicators and make LED display in scrolling. We can also make dot

248 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210
matrix LED to adoptable by using PC controller based • A scrolling message can be used to attract the attention
system. of viewers. For example, TV station has used it to
announce the breaking news and companies often
use scrolling message on their web site to highlight
breaking news, key products, or special promotions.
• Scrolling LED display can be implemented in various
methods. Two methods are widely in use,
- Using decade counters and
- Using shift registers.

D
Voltage and current measurement in DPM

E
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

H
• describe the measurement of AC voltage using DPM
• explain the measurement of current using DPM.

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Use a Digital Panel Meter (DPM) to measure AC

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voltage V out R shunt
= rearranging we can solve for the
Vin R series +R shunt
Digital Panel Meters (DPMs) are strictly DC meters due

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to the digital circuitry used. Often it is desired to utilize a required.
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DPM to measure AC voltages to take advantage of the

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Use Rseries = 10 Meg Ohms
improved accuracy and readability of a DPM. This
For 0-120 Volts, Rshunt = 7.2 K ohms (use 7.5 K ohm)
P
application note will describe the method to accurately
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display AC voltage values on a DPM. The full scale range We will also need to connect pin 3 to pin 4 (for proper
of this DPM is 200 mV. To use the DPM to measure AC decimal point display).
voltages, the AC voltage must be converted to DC by a
©

Note that the voltage value displayed on the meter can be

rectifier diode. The output from the rectifier diode will be
fine-tuned by adjusting the trimmer potentiometer on the
a "pulsed" DC voltage and may produce undesired
back of the DPM.
fluctuations in the reading on the DPM, so we will add a
small filter capacitor across the rectified output voltage. This application note has shown how a Digital Panel
B

The voltage rating of this capacitor and the rectifier diode Meter may be used to measure and display AC voltage
must be high enough to handle the voltage levels present values. The connection diagram is shown below.
in the circuit. To be safe, we will use a rectifier diode and
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Note that pins 8 & 10 are shorted together and connected

capacitor rated at 400V or higher. Since we are using a
to the Neutral connection of the AC voltage that is being
single rectifier diode to convert the AC into DC, we will
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measured. Rshunt will be connected across pins 7 & 8

have to choose our divider resistors appropriately to
and Rseries will have one end connected to pin 7 and the
compensate for the effects of the half wave rectifier
other end to the voltage that is being measured.
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operation. Since the AC power line voltage is rectified by

the series diode, the voltage applied to our DPM is the
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peak value of the 230V line voltage which is 230V

multiplied by 1.414
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Vout = Vin x (1.414) = 115 x (1.414) = 169 V (DC)

This is the actual DC voltage applied to our voltage
divider resistors, so we will use the voltage divider formula
to determine the required resistors to produce the correct
reading on the DPM.
To keep the calculated values within a range that is
readily obtainable, we will use 10 Meg ohms as the
maximum series resistor value. We can then calculate
the shunt resistor for our voltage divider network using
the voltage divider equation

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210 249
Measuring Current with a Digital Panel Meter (DPM) Amp reading. For instance, if 1 Amp is the full scale
reading desired, we will use the 0.1 ohm resistor and set
When current measurement is required, the current must
the decimal point jumper to show three digits to the right
be converted to a voltage if a digital value is to be
of the decimal point. We must also determine the correct
displayed. This application note will describe the method
power rating of the shunt resistor by using the ohms law
will accurately display DC current values on a DPM.
power formula P (Power)=E (Voltage) x I (Current).
There are several methods that can be used to convert
P = Vmax x Imax = (0.200) x (1.0) = 0.2 Watt
current to voltage such as Hall Effect devices and shunt
resistors. Since shunt resistors are the easiest to use and So we should use a ¼ watt 1% resistor to be safe.
provide the greatest amount of accuracy. The shunt
We will also need to connect pin 3 to pin 6 (for proper
resistor is placed in series with the applied current which
decimal point display).
causes a voltage drop to occur across the shunt. To
minimize the voltage drop in the circuit, the smallest Note that the current value displayed on the meter can be
resistance value possible should be chosen. This value fine-tuned by adjusting the trimmer potentiometer on the
depends on the maximum current value that will be back of the DPM.
encountered. For relatively small current values (below 1 This application note has shown how a Digital Panel
Amp) a 0.1 ohm shunt resistor should perform adequately. Meter may be used to measure and display DC current

D
This value will minimize any loading on the circuit but will values. The connection diagram is shown Fig 2.
still produce a reasonable reading on the DPM. If higher

E
current levels will be encountered, a 0.01 ohm or lower Fig 2
value should be used.

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The CX102A Digital Panel Meter from Circuit Specialists

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is ideal for this application, as it is designed to use in a
system that has the measured signal isolated from the

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power supply voltage. The application is for a 0-1 Amp
DC meter powered by an external 9 volt battery. This
application could also be powered by a "wall-wart" type of

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AC adapter if desired.
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Like all Digital Panel Meters, the full scale range of these Note that pins 8 & 10 are shorted together and connected
DPMs is 200 mv. To use the DPM to measure current, we to the Negative end of the shunt resistor. Rshunt will be
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will choose a shunt resistor to assure that not more than connected across pins 7 & 8 and will be connected in
200 mV is developed across it. We will also set the series with the load.
Decimal point jumpers accordingly to indicate the correct
©

Measurement of current using DPM

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• convert the digital voltmeter to measure the current
B

• calculate the shunt resistance required to measure the current.

Digital voltmeter using IC7107 has been discussed in this The formula for measuring the current is quite simple.
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module. It is a high performance, low power, 31/2 digit A/ Refer to the diagram below Fig 1.
D converters. Included are seven segment decoders,
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display drivers, a reference, and a clock. The ICL7106 is Fig 1

designed to interface with a liquid crystal display (LCD)
T

and includes a multiplexed backplane drive; the ICL7107

will directly drive an instrument size light emitting diode
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(LED) display.
The same PCB of digital voltmeter can be used to
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display the current too. Please note that the only difference
in the PCB would be to replace the 1Mohm used in the
DVM by a 10K and the 1.2 K resistance is removed.
Designing of Digital Ammeter is basically a process of
converting a voltmeter into a Ammeter.
We know that V=I x R. From this we can say that Voltage To measure the voltage, the voltmeter is connected in
is directly proportional to the current (V = I) flowing parallel and to measure current in a circuit it is connected
through resistance. In ammeter this resistance is call in series.
Shunt. Shunt resistance have very small value and it will By applying Ohms law
not affect the load voltage. Use low value for shunt
resistance. V=IxR

250 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210
Select the Shunt value or the R value to be 1ohm , then supply. If measurement of the current of the same supply
the formula above reduces to: is needed, ICL7107 Ammeter would have to sample
negative not positive voltage supply.
V=I
Brightness of the LED displays can be varied by adding
So, keeping the points above in mind, say that if R = 1
or removing 1N4148 small signal diodes that are
ohm or in orders of 1 milliohm, then measure the voltage
connected in series. Use two 1N4148 diodes for higher
it is as good as getting the current reading as V = I.
brightness.
Hence the selection of the shunt value is quite crucial .
Also, the use of 7805 5V voltage regulator is highly
0.01 Ohm resistor should be made out of 1.5 mm thick / recommended to prevent the damage of ICL7107 and
5 cm long copper wire. 0.1 Ohm and 1 Ohm resistors 7660 ICs.
should have 5W ratings.
Use 10K potentiometer to set the reference voltage
For highest accuracy it is recommended that the ICL7107 between PIN 35 and PIN 36 of the ICL7107 IC to 1V.
Ammeter module should be supplied with its own voltage

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B
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O
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O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.11.205 - 210 251
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.211 & 212
Electronics Mechanic - SMPS & Inverter, UPS

Stabilizers
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• discuss about the power conditioning required in electrical appliances
• describe about the voltage stabilizer and its types
• explain the working principle of voltage stabilizer
• explain about constant voltage transformer
• describe the working of servo voltage stabilizer.
Introduction: Electrical appliances and equipment Manual voltage stabilizer
require definite input voltage for their smooth operation.
For single phase equipment the magnitude of input The essential parts of a basic manual voltage stabilizer
voltage is 220 volt and frequency is 50Hz. Six percent are
variation in voltage and three percent variation in frequency 1 Autotransformer

D
is tolerable. Input voltage should be between 216 and 244
volt and frequency should be between 48.5 Hz and 51.5 2 Rotary switch

E
Hz. Variation beyond these limits are harmful for Auto-transformer is the main component of a voltage

H
equipment. In reality voltage as low as 170 volt or even stabilizer. An auto-transformer is a winding of copper
lower and as high as 280 or even more are observed. Too wire wound over magnetic core. There are several tapings.

S
high or too low input voltage or sudden and abrupt It is basically a transformer with single winding. The same
variation in input voltage or sudden switching off can winding acts as primary and also as secondary. A terminal

LI
damage equipment. Unwanted and harmful electrical is common to both primary and secondary. AC voltage is
noise, harmonics and surges are also sometimes may be applied between the common terminal and a tapping.

B
present in the normal electrical power. These are to be
E I
Then different voltages are available at the
R IM
filtered out for the safety of equipment and appliances. autotransformer tapings. These voltages change
U
Voltage stabilizer: A voltage stabilizer stabilises voltage. whenever there is a change in input voltage or input is
Mains AC voltage is the input to the voltage stabilizer and applied between different tapings. The output voltage is
P
E N

nearly constant voltage of 220 volt is the output from the taken between the common terminal and appropriate
voltage stabilizer. A voltage stabilizer senses the input tapping.
voltage and compares whether the input voltage is equal Output voltage is to be monitored manually. When output
©

to the desired voltage of 220 volt. If the input is different voltage is not equal to the desired voltage of 220 volt, then
from 220 volt, some action is initiated to adjust the by rotating the switch, output voltage is adjusted to the
voltage to 220 volt. Loads are connected to the output of desired value. There are two basic configurations: Without
the voltage stabilizer. Voltage stabilizer supplies nearly up-down switch and with up-down switch.
constant voltage even when the input voltage and load
B

varies. The capacity of a voltage stabilizer is expressed Neutral of mains AC is connected to the common terminal
in Volt Ampere (VA). of autotransformer. Other terminals of the autotransformer
O

are connected to the rotary switch points. Phase of mains

Voltage stabilizers can be classified as AC is connected to the pole of rotary switch. Output is
T

1 Manual voltage stabilizer taken from some point of the rotary switch. Configuration
with up-down switch has an additional one pole two way
2 Automatic voltage stabilizer switch and the output is taken from the pole of the up
T

3 Constant voltage transformer (CVT) down switch. Step up and step down voltages can be
selected by the up down switch and the value of voltage
O

4 Servo voltage stabilizer can be adjusted by rotating the rotary switch.

N

Fig 1 A voltmeter with a switch is connected to show the input

and output voltages. The output voltage can be changed
in discrete steps. Continuous adjustment of output voltage
is not possible and some delay is involved between the
instants the voltage changes till the instant of adjusting
the output voltage. This is why manual voltage stabilizers
are not capable of providing adequate protection against
abrupt variation in voltage and automatic voltage
stabilizers are replacing manual voltage stabilizers.
EM430411

252
 The essential parts of a basic automatic voltage stabilizer
are
1 Autotransformer
2 Relay switches
3 Relay driver circuit
4 Control circuit
5 Low voltage power supply
6 Accessories
Basic principle of operation of voltage stabilizer: The
voltage regulation is required for two distinct purposes;
over voltage and under voltage conditions. The process
of increasing voltage from under voltage condition is
called as boost operation, whereas reducing the voltage
from overvoltage condition is called as buck operations.

D
Boost operation: The principle of boost operation of a

E
voltage stabilizer is shown in Fig 5.

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Here, the supply voltage is given to a transformer, which

is normally a step-down transformer. This transformer is
©

connected in such a way that the secondary output is

added to the primary supply voltage.
In case of low voltage condition, the electronic circuit in
the stabilizer switches corresponding relay such that this
B

added supply (incoming supply + transformer secondary

output) is applied to the load.
Automatic voltage stabilizer: Automatic voltage
O

Buck operation: The principle of buck operation of a

stabilizer does not require manual intervention. Relay
voltage stabilizer is illustrated in Fig 6.
switches are used which change autotransformer
T

connections. Output voltage adjustment is automatic.

(Fig 4)
T
O
N

In buck operation, the secondary of step-down transformer

is connected in such a way that secondary output voltage
is deducted from incoming voltage.
Therefore, in case of incoming voltage rise, the electronic
circuit switches the relay that switches deducted supply

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.211 & 212 253
voltage (i.e., incoming voltage–transformer secondary Working of voltage stabilizer
voltage) to the load circuit.
The Fig 7 below shows the working model of a voltage
In case of normal voltage operating condition, electronic stabilizer that contains a step-down transformer (usually
circuit switches the load entirely to incoming supply provided with taps on secondary), rectifier, operational
without any transformer voltage. amplifier/microcontroller unit and set of relays.

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B
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R IM
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P
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If the input voltage is below 180 V, corresponding op-amp

©

In this, op-amps are tuned in such way that they could

sense various set voltages such as lower cut off voltage, switches lower cut off relay coil such that load is
boost condition voltage, normal operating voltage, higher disconnected from the supply.
cut off voltage and buck operating voltages. And if the supply is beyond 270 V, corresponding op-amp
A set of relays are connected in a manner that they trips energizes higher cut off relay coil and hence load is
B

the load circuit during higher and lower cut off voltages terminated from the supply.
and also they switch buck and boost voltages to the load All these values are approximate values; it may vary
O

circuit. depending on the application. By this way, a stabilizer

A step-down tap changing transformer has different operates under different voltage conditions.
T

secondary voltage tapping which are helpful for operating Constant Voltage Transformer (CVT)
operational amplifier for different voltages and also to
T

add-up and deduct voltages for boost and buck operations The parts of a constant voltage transformer are
respectively. 1 Transformer
O

A rectifier circuit converts AC supply into DC to power-up 2 Capacitor

3 Inductor
N

entire electronic control circuit as well as relay coils.

Let us assume that this is 1 KVA single phase stabilizer
that provides stabilization for voltage range of 200 to 245
with a boost-buck voltage of 20-35 V for input voltage of
180 to 270 V.
If the input supply is, say 195 V, then operational amplifier
energizes boost relay coil such that 195 + 25 = 220V is
supplied to the load. If the input supply is 260 V,
corresponding op-amp energizes buck relay coil so that
260-30 = 225 V is supplied to the load.

254 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.211 & 212
The capacitor is connected in parallel with the primary boost transformer is connected between input and output
winding and the inductor is connected in series with the of the stabilizer. One end of the primary of buck boost
primary winding of the transformer. Output is taken from transformer is permanently connected to a suitable tapping
the secondary. The working of a CVT is based on ferro of autotransformer. The other end is connected to an arm
resonance. Ferro resonance is an interaction between and brush mechanism attached to the shaft of the motor.
capacitor and iron core inductor and occurs when the The motor is a DC servo motor or an AC synchronous
capacitive reactance is equal to the inductive reactance. motor and is fitted on top of the autotransformer centre.
The voltage across capacitor becomes high and high The motor can rotate in both directions. As the motor
amount of current flows through the primary winding. The rotates the other end of primary of buck boost transformer
transformer core gets saturated. Further change in current continuously slides over autotransformer wires and makes
in primary does not result in change of magnetic flux in contact with different points on the autotransformer
transformer core and hence secondary voltage remains winding. The motor driver and the control circuit are solid
relatively constant. Thus, in spite of variation in the input state circuit with transistors and operational amplifier IC
voltage, the output of a constant voltage transformer 741. A step down transformer and rectifier unit produces
remains constant. CVT gives instantaneous adjustment low voltage DC supply for motor driver and control circuit.
of output voltage, provides isolation between input and A stable low DC voltage reference source is obtained and
output, suppresses spikes and noises and provides is used for set point. By adjusting the set point, the

D
instantaneous short circuit and overload protection. CVT desired value of output is set usually between 220 to 240
requires minimum maintenance as number of volt. The actual output voltage is continuously sensed

E
components is minimum. Occasionally the capacitor and is compared with the desired voltage. The comparator
becomes defective and needs replacement. is generally based on operational amplifier 741 IC. When

H
the actual output changes, the motor driver makes the
Servo voltage stabilizer: A servo voltage stabilizer motor in proper direction. The contact of sliding end of

S
continuously senses and monitors the voltage. Whenever primary of buck boost transformer with autotransformer
the output voltage differs from the desired voltage of 220

LI
changes and a voltage gets applied to the primary.
volt, it generates control signal to automatically adjust the Voltage in the secondary is induced and because of this
output to the desired value of 220 volt. A servo voltage voltage the actual output gets adjusted to the desired

B
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stabilizer uses a servo motor mechanism and continuously value.
R IM

adjusts the output voltage. Servo voltage stabilizers are

U
normally available with power rating more than 1KVA. Servo voltage stabilizer provides continuous adjustment
of output as input voltage varies and correction speed is
P
usually between 20 to 40 volt per second. It suppresses
E N

voltage surge, spikes and noises that may be present in

the input voltage. Features include over voltage and
©

under voltage protection, overload and short circuit

protection, auto and manual mode for adjusting output
etc. Common problem include oscillatory movement of
motor, defects in motor driver and control circuit, jamming
or loose contact of arm and brush mechanism attached
B

to the shaft of motor etc.

Fig 10
O

The essential parts of a servo voltage transformer are -

T

1 Auto transformer
2 Buck boost transformer
T

3 Motor
O

4 Motor driver
5 Control circuit
N

6 Power supply for control circuit.

7 Set point
8 Accessories
The auto transformer is toroidal in shape and is connected
between the phase and neutral of input voltage. The buck

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.211 & 212 255
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.213 - 216
Electronics Mechanic - SMPS & Inverter, UPS

Switch Mode Power Supply

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the need for SMPS
• describe the basic concept of SMPS
• compare between linear power supply and SMPS
• explain the working principles of different types of SMPS
• list out the advantages and disadvantages of SMPS
• state the applications and topologies of SMPS.

Switched-Mode Power Supply(SMPS) Basically, the AC supply from the outlet has a sinusoidal
wave shape, and it is rectified in order to produce a DC
The electronic power supply integrated with the switching
voltage. The noisy high voltage need to be converted to
regulator for converting the electrical power efficiently
a regulated low voltage so that it can be used by low

D
from one form to another form with desired characteristics
voltage electronic devices such as TV, DVD, Mobile, etc.
is called as switched mode power supply. This is working

E
on the principle of switching regulation. Basic concept of SMPS

H
It is used to obtain regulated DC output voltage from The basic concept of SMPS is the regulation by using a
unregulated AC or DC input voltage. switching regulator. SMPS uses a series switching

S
element that turns the current supply to a smoothing
capacitor on and off.

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The switching element is turned on is controlled by the
voltage on the capacitor. If it is higher than required, the

B
E I
series switching element is turned off, if it is lower than
R IM

required, it is turned on. In this way the voltage on the

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smoothing or reservoir capacitor is maintained at the
The SMPS system is highly reliable, efficient, noiseless required level.
P
E N

and compact because the switching is done at very high

rate in the order of several KHz to MHz.
Need for switch-mode power supplies
©

Many household electrical devices require a supply of

voltage which is both constant and well regulated, but the
voltage which comes from power outlets are noisy AC
voltages. The power from such outlet needs to be
B

managed by electronic circuits which are generally

referred to as power supplies, even though the power
comes from the outlets.
O
T

Comparison between linear power supply and SMPS

T

Linear power supply SMPS

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1) Transformer size and Heatsinks for high power linear regulators Smaller transformer
N

weight add size and weight.

2) Operating frequency 50 Hz or 60 Hz 15 KHz to1 MHz

3) Output voltage Limited voltage available. Voltage varies Any voltages available.
significantly with load. Voltage varies little with load.

4) Efficiency, heat, and If regulated: efficiency largely depends on Output is regulated using duty
power dissipation voltage difference between input and output; cycle control; the transistors are
output voltage is regulated by dissipating switched fully on or fully off,
excess power as heat resulting in a typical so very little resistive losses
efficiency of 30–40%. If unregulated, between input and the load.
256
 transformer iron and copper losses may be The only heat generated is in the
the only significant sources of inefficiency. non-ideal aspects of the
components and quiescent current
in the control circuitry.

5) Circuit complexity Usually a simpler circuit; unregulated may be Consists of a controller IC, one
simply a diode and capacitor. Regulated or several power transistors and
has a voltage-regulating circuit and a noise- diodes as well as a pulse
filtering capacitor. transformer, inductors, and filter
capacitors. Some design
complexities present which are not
found in linear regulator circuits.

6) Radio frequency Mild high-frequency interference may be EMI/RFI produced due to the
interference generated by AC rectifier diodes under heavy current being switched on
current loading. and off sharply. Therefore, EMI
filters and RF shielding are needed

D
to reduce the disruptive
interference.

E
H
7) Electronic noise at the It can cause audible mains hum in audio Noisier due to the switching
output terminals equipment, brightness ripples in analog frequency of the SMPS.

S
security cameras.

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8) Electronic noise at the Causes harmonic distortion to the input AC. Non power-factor-corrected
SMPSs input terminals cause harmonic distortion.

B
E I
9) Power factor Low for a regulated supply because current is Ranging from very low to medium
R IM
U
drawn from the mains at the peaks of the since a simple SMPS without
sinusoidal voltage. PFC draws current spikes at the
P
peaks of the AC.
E N

Working principles of SMPS This section coverts the rectified high voltage DC into AC
©

at a frequency of 20 KHz - 100 KHz. A current sense

Fig 3 shows the block diagram of SMPS with an AC input circuit is provided to sense overload current and to
and a regulated DC output. protect SMPS from overloading. Since the input voltage
is chopped into an AC waveform and placed into a
AC input section
magnetic element additional winding can be added to
B

Input filter provide for more than one output voltage.

The AC input from the main supply goes to the input filter Output section
O

to reduce EMI.
The output section consists of rectifier and filter circuits
T

Input filter is a protective circuit, which is used to suppress for output above the volts ordinary silicon diodes are
short pulses around the AC voltages. The circuit consists used. Since the A/C output of the transformer at 20 KHz
of inductor and high voltage capacitors. A MOV(Metal schottky diodes are used, because of its fast recovery
T

Oxide Vaistor) is connected across the AC supply to than silicon diodes to get lower voltages. For even lower
O

prevent any surge or spikes in the voltages and also PFC output voltages MOSFETs may be used as synchronous
circuit is used to correct the power factor. rectifiers. The filter circuit consists of an inductor and
N

Rectifier capacitor.

AC input is converted to DC voltage using a rectifier Control section

diodes. The rectifier consisting of a full wave bridge The controller consists of a feedback circuit PWM circuit
diode or module and large filter capacitors to obtain a and isolation mechanism (opto - coupler). A feedback
smoothed high DC voltage around 300 V DC. The circuit monitors the output ref voltage of 2.5V and
current is drawn from the mains supply. compares it with a reference voltage. Any change in 5V
Power section with respect to the load creates an error voltage. This
error voltage modifies the pulse width of the output
The power section consists of high frequency ferrite core pulses. The output pulses in turn drives the power
transformer and switching power transistors (MOSFETs) switching transistor. The output pulses are not directly
to switch D.C Voltage across the transformer winding. connected to the power switching transistor. For safety

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.213 - 216 257
 D
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O
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reasons, the output section is isolated by an opto-coupler current transformer. The output of current transformer is
and transformer. Over current is sensed through a rectified and used to shut down the power controller when

258 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.213 - 216
an excess current is drawn.
Fig 7
Different types of SMPS
Model 1 : SMPS

Fig 4

SMPS used in PC(ATX)

ATX SMPS (Fig 7)

D
below A : input EMI filter and bridge rectifier;

E
B : input filter capacitors

H
Between B and C : Primary side heat sink;

S
C : Pulse transformer
Model 2 : SMPS used in PC
Between C and D : Secondary side heat sink;

LI
Fig 5
D : Output filter coil;

B
E I
E : Output filter capacitors.
R IM
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The coil and large yellow capacitor below E are additional
input filtering components that are mounted directly on
P
the power input connector and are not part of the main
E N

circuit board.
©

Fig 8
B
O
T

Fig 6
T
O
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SMPS used in Laptop

Basic parts and their function

1 EMI/Transient filter : Suppress incoming and out
coming EMI/RFI and protects from voltage spikes.
2 Bridge rectifier : Rectifies the AC power stream to
DC.
3 APFC : Controls the current supplied to the PSU so
SMPS IN PC
that the current waveform is proportional to the mains
voltage waveform.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.213 - 216 259
Fig 9 Fig 12

SMPS in DVD player

Fig 10 SMPS in LED TV

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Fig 13

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SMPS in Home theature main board

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Fig 11
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SMPS in LCD monitor

Advantages & Disadvantages of SMPS

©

Advantages
1 Higher efficiency, smaller size, lighter weight.
2 Heat dissipation is very low.
B

3 Wide AC input voltage range. (Ex. 90V-270V)

4 High precision voltage regulation.
5 Low output noise ripple.
O

SMPS in Cell phone charger

6 Strong protection function. (Ex. Short circuit in output)
T

Disadvantages
4 Main switches: Chop the DC signal to very small 1 Complexity of the circuit.
energy packets, with high frequency.
T

2 Line fitter is necessary to avoid EMI.

5 Transformer : Isolates primary from secondary side 3 Non-PFC SMPS cause harmonic distortion.
O

and converts (steps down) the voltage.

4 Serving of SMPS is very difficult.
6 Output rectifiers & filters : Generate the DC outputs
N

Applications of SMPS
and filter them.
1 Personal computers
7 Protection circuits : Shut down the PSU when
something goes wrong. 2 Battery chargers
8 PWM controller : Adjusts the duty cycle of the main 3 Central power distribution
switches, in order to keep steady output voltage under 4 Vehicles (Electric bike vehicle & space vehicles)
all loads. 5 Consumer electronics
9 Isolator : Isolates the voltage feedback that comes 6 Lighting
from the DC outputs and heads to the PWM controller. 7 Space station
10 The part of the SMPS before the pulse transformer is Personal computers
called "primary" side and the part after it "secondary"
Personal computers have parts like Hard disk, Mother
side.
260 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.213 - 216
 mode power supply setup as a constant current source
where efficiency is important.
Space station
The electrical power system on the International Space
Station (ISS) uses multiple switch-mode power supplies
to convert between the voltage produced by the solar
array and battery system, and the voltages required by
the different modules. The eight solar panels generate
262 kW at 160 V DC, used to charge nickel-hydrogen
batteries that provide power when the solar array is in
shadow during earth eclipse. A system voltage of 160 V
DC is used for the main power distribution throughout the
station.
The space shuttle uses three fuel cells generating
30–36V DC. Some is converted into 400 Hz AC power
and 28V DC power using SMPS.
Topologies of Switch Mode Power Supply

D
There are different types of topologies for SMPS, among
those, a few are as follows

E
1 DC to DC converter

H
2 AC to DC converter
3 Fly back converter

S
4 Forward converter

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Common problems appearing from a faulty SPMS 1)
The power is not reaching the computer system

B
E I
Check the power from the source
R IM

Check the setting of the coltage in CPU

U
Check the front panel of motherboard.
P
Check the power supply connections to the motherboard.
E N

board, CPU, CD Rom, etc. In order to run these devices

switch mode power supply is used efficiently. Check the SMPS without connecting to the motherboard
Battery chargers (Mobile phone, Digital camera, 2) Computer getting started after second or third try-
©

Laptop computer) Check the power supply switch on the cabinet

Due to their high volumes, mobile phone chargers uses Consider replacing SM
effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology. 3) Display comes to monitor and becomes black?
Central power distribution Replace SMPS and try again
B

Where integration of capacitors for stabilization and The problem may arise from Motherboard
batteries as an energy storage or AC hum and other
4) The PC pen without display
interference needs to be avoided in the power distribution,
O

SMPS may be essential for efficient conversion of electric Check the VGA cable and monitor connections
DC energy. For AC applications where frequency and Discard the SMPs, it has been damaged hardly by
T

voltage can't be produced by the primary source an voltage fluctuation

SMPS may be essential. Check the display card modern
T

Vehicles 5) There is a whistling squealing motor like noise from

SMPS when PC starts
O

In automobile industry where ordinary trucks use nominal

24V DC but they need 12 V DC & SMPS. Cars use Chat SMPS fan
nominal 12V DC and may need to convert this to drive
N

Gemine SSIPS problem on replacing

equipment using SMPS. Space vehicles use a lightweight
switched-mode power supplies to convert voltages The PC freezes or reboots suddenly
produced by solar panels and fuel cells to the voltages Overheating problem of SMPS
required by equipment. All these solution need to be applied through protesters
Consumer electronics to prevent to further problems was the post useful to you?
Television receivers, DVD players, Home theatres, If yes then stay connected to our blog space for further
Cordless phone, uses a switch-mode power supply. informative updates.
When the A/C voltage reduced to as low as 90 V and as Trouble shooting of SMPs
high as 260V, but the image has no alterations.
Lighting
Powering of LED circuits is accomplished with switched-
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.213 - 216 261
 Problem Symptoms Diagnosis

Faulty primary side components Totally dead supply fuse blows instantly Test all components on line side of
rectifier diodes, filter capacitor(s), (vaporizes or explodes) even if switch mode high frequency transformers the
MOVs and other parts located transistor is removed unless a fusible short-circuit failures with a multi meter.
before the switch mode (chopper) resistor has blown to protect the fuse.
transistor(a) may short due to a
surge, lightning, or for no
apparent reason,
Shorted switch mode transistor Totally dead supply fuse blows instantly Measuring across CE or DS of switch
may take out additional parts such (vaporizes or explodes) unless fusible mode transistor yields near zero ohms
as fusable, flameproof resistors resistor has opened. even when it is removed from circuits.
in collector or emitter circuits (or
source or drain circuits for
MOSFETs)
Shorted rectifier diodes in In a very basic supply without over current Test with an ohmmeter a low reading

D
secondary circuits - these are high protection, the failure of one or more of in both directions indicates a bad
frequency, high efficiency diodes these diodes may then overload the supply

E
diodes. Sometimes these will test fine
under a fair amount of stress. and cause a catastrophic failure of the but fail under load or at operating

H
switch mode power transistor (see above) voltage (easiest to replace with known
and related components. Thus, these good diodes to verify diagnosis)

S
should be checked before reapplying power
in a supply that had a shorted switch mode Rectifiers either look like IN400X type

LI
transistor. on steroids cylinder about 1/4 inch x
1/2 inch (Example, HFR854) or
On short circuits protected supplies, the TO220 package (example C92M) with

B
E I
symptom may be a periodic, “tweet-tweet- dual diodes connected at the cathode
R IM

tweet” or “flub-flub-flub” as the supply for positive supplies or the anode for
U
attempts to restart and then shuts down. negative supplies (the package may
Any power or indicator lights may be blinking include a little diagram as well). These
P
E N

in this rate as well. may either be used with a center-

tapped transformer or simply parallel
for high current capacity. If in doubt,
©

remove from the circuit and rest with

the ohmmeter again. If its not the
output used for regulations feedback,
try the supply with the rectifier
B

removed.
Leakage may reduce the output of
the main output (and, as a
O

consequences, all the others as well)

T

Where a controller like a UC1842 is

used, a failure of the capacitor on its
Vcc pin may result in a aborted startup
T

or cycling behavior as it is starved for

O

juice each time if pulses the switch

mode power transistor.
N

In almost all cases, when in doubt,

parallel a known good capacitor of
similar capacitance and at least equal
voltage rating (except for these slew
rate limiting capacitors where
substitution is the only sure test)
Bad connection/cold solder joints Almost any kind of behavior is possible. Visually inspect the solder side of the
as with all other mass produced The unit may be erratic, intermittent or circuit board using a height light and
power systems (Including TVs totally dead. magnifying glass, if necessary. Gently
and monitors), cracked or prod or twist the circuit board with an

262 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.213 - 216
defective solder connections are insulating stick to see if the problem
very common especially around can be made to change. Note chat a
the pins of high power one time intermittent can blow many
components like transformers, component, so inspecting for
power resistors and transistors intermittents is a really good idea even
and connectors. if you believe that all had components
have been replaced.
Regulation problems outputs high Voltage has changed and adjustment pot, Most common parts are readily
or low if one exists, has no effect or its unable ot available from parts distributors like
set voltage to proper value. MCM Electronics, as well as general
electronics distributors like Digi Key
and Mouser, Rebuild kits are available
for many common supplies used in
VCRs monitors, and terminals.
Also while it is tempting to suspect
any ICs or hybrid controllers and

D
especially the high frequency
transformer since it is thought that

E
replacements are difficult and
expensive to obtain, these parts are

H
pretty robust and don’t make the top

S
10 list.
Bad start up circuit initial base The main filter capacitor may dry up or Measure voltage across main filter

LI
(gate) drive is often provided by a open and cause the output to be pulsing at capacitor(s). If the reading is low and
high value, high power resistor or 60 (10) or 120 (100) Hz causing all kinds of drops in a much lower value to 0
resistors from the rectified AC
B
E I
regulation problems. instantly upon pulling the plug, then
R IM
voltage. These can simply open one of these capacitors may be open
Excess depts under moderate load is an
U
for no good reason. or dried up, if you have an
indication of a dried up or open capacitor.
In extreme castes, a main filter capacitor oscilloscope, monitor for ripple (use
P
E N

with greatly reduced capacity or one that is an isolation transformer)

totally open may result in failure of the It is always a good idea to test the
switch mode transistor and a dead supply electrolytic capacitors whenever
©

that blows fuses or fusible resistors. repairing a SMPS that has blown its
switch mode transistor. Capacitors in
the low voltage section may fail
causing regulation problems.
B

Sometimes there are slew rate limiting

capacitors that feed from the primary
O

output to the regulator controller to

limits initial in rush and overshoot. A
T

failure of one of these may mess up

regulation at the very least. For
example, excess.
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.213 - 216 263
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.217
Electronics Mechanic - SMPS & Inverter, UPS

SMPS used in personal computers

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain SMPS and different types of SMPS used in PC
• explain different types of connectors used in personal computer SMPS
• discuss the need of ATX SMPS in PC
• explain the functions of SMPS used in PC
• explain the working of PWM IC
• differentiate between AT and ATX type SMPS.

SMPS used in PC as AT power connector. They were used in Pentium-I,

Pentium-MMX, Pentium-II and Pentium-III CPUs as
Switch Mode Power Supply of a PC is housed in a metal
shown in Fig 2.
box. It consists of an electronic circuit board, a fan, AC

D
power sockets, power supply interface connectors for
motherboard, hard disk drive and floppy disk drive. AC

E
power switch is connected as an optional item to the

H
power cable from the SMPS.

S
LI
B
E I
R IM

ATX SMPS
U
ATX stands for Advanced Technology extended. They
P
had 20pin Power connector, this is called as ATX power
E N

connector. They were used in Pentium-III, Pentium-IV

and AMD CPUs as shown in Fig 3.
©

Basic connectors in PC SMPS

B

20 + 4 Pin ATX / Motherboard connector

CPU 4 + 4 Pin connector
O

SATA power connector

Floppy 4 pin connector
T

Peripheral 4 pin molex connector

T

PCI-e 6 pin/PCI-e 8 pin connector.

O

Types of SMPS used in PC

There are 3 types of SMPS
N

BTX SMPS
1 AT SMPS
BTX stands for Balanced Technology extended. They
2 ATX SMPS
have 24pin Power connector, this is also called as ATX
3 BTX SMPS power connector. It has 15pin SATA power connectors.
These three types of SMPS have different connectors They are used in Dual core, core2duo, Quad core, i3, i5,
and each wire has different voltages. i7 and latest AMD CPUs.

AT SMPS
AT stands for Advanced Technology. These are all old
SMPSs. They had 12pin power connector, this is called

264
Fig 4
Connectors
20/24 Pin ATX / Mother board connector
This is the connector that goes to the motherboard to
provide it with power. The connector has 20 or 24 pins.
One of the pins belongs to the PS-ON wire (it is usually
green). This connector is the largest of all the connectors.
In older AT power supplies, this connector was split in
two: P8 and P9. A power supply with a 24-pin connector
can be used on a motherboard with a 20-pin connector.
In cases where the motherboard has a 24-pin connector,
some power supplies come with two connectors (one
with 20-pin and other with 4-pin) which can be used
together to form the 24-pin connector as shown in Fig 6
and 7.
Voltages of power connector
Fig 6

D
SMPS AT ATX BTX

E
Red +5V +5V +5V
Yellow +12V +12V +12V

H
Blue -12V -12V -12V

S
White -5V -5V -5V

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Black 0V 0V 0V
Orange +5V +3.3V +3.3V

B
E I
R IM

Green --- +5V +5V

U
Gray or Brown --- +5V +5V
P
Purple --- +5V +5V Fig 7
E N

Red : It is used to provide stated voltage.

©

Yellow : It is used for motor running

White &Blue : It is used for backward compatibility
Black : It is used for grounding purpose
B

Orange : It is used to provide stated voltage

Green : It is used for power supply ON in ATX
O

Gray or Brown : It is used for power Good(Self-test OK)

signal in ATX
T

Fig 8
Purple : It is used to provide +5V whenever the
PSU is powered. Even when the green
T

wire is not connected to ground.

O

(Stand by)
N

Connected attached (24 pins)

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.217 265
 Fig 10

24 Pin detachable connector (20+4)

Fig 11

D
Pin 11 Pin 20

E
H
Pin Name Color Description

S
1 +3.3V Orange +3.3 VDC
2 +3.3V Orange +3.3 VDC

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3 COM Black Ground

B
E I
4 +5V Red +5 VDC
R IM

Pin 1 Pin 10
U
5 COM Black Ground
20 Pin molex connector
6 +5V Red +5 VDC
P
E N

7 COM Black Ground

8 PWR_ON Gray Power Good
©

9 +5VSB Purple +5 VDC Standby

10 +12V1 Yellow +12 VDC
11 +12V1 Yellow +12 VDC
B

12 +3.3V Orange +3.3 VDC

13 +3.3V Orange +3.3 VDC
O

14 -12V Blue -12 VDC

T

15 COM Black Ground

16 PS_ON# Green Power Supply On
T

17 COM Black Ground

O

18 COM Black Ground

N

19 COM Black Ground

20 NC White -5 VDC (Optional -
Removed in ATX12V
v2.01)
21 +5V Red +5 VDC ATX P4 12V 4-pin power connector (also called the P4
power connector). A second connector that goes to the
22 +5V Red +5 VDC motherboard (in addition to the main 24-pin connector) to
23 +5V Red +5 VDC supply dedicated power for the processor. For high-end
motherboards and processors, more power is required,
24 COM Black Ground therefore EPS12V has an 8-pin connector.

266 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.217
 electrical wire color-coding, each black wire is a ground,
Fig 13
the red wire is +5V, and the yellow is +12V. In some
cases these are also used to provide additional power to
PCI cards such as fire wire 800 cards.

Fig 16

Connector attached (8 Pin)

Some motherboards have 4 pin 12V CPU socket and

some have 8 pin 12V socket. Therefore most of the
power supply comes with 8 pin (4+4) detachable connector

D
which can be split into two 4 pin connectors.

E
Fig 14

H
S
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B
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R IM
U
P
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Pin Name Color Description

©

8 Pin connector detachable

1 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC
2 COM Black Ground
3 COM Black Ground
B

4 +5VDC Red +5 VDC

Berg floppy drive 4 pin power connector (Fig 18)

O

The floppy drive 4 pin power supply connector is the

T

standard floppy drive power connector in computers

today.
T

The power connector itself is a Berg connector, sometimes

Pin Name Color Description
referred to as a Mini-Molex connector.
O

1 COM Black Ground

N

2 COM Black Ground

3 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC
4 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC

4-pin peripheral power connector (usually called

molex)
These are the other smaller connectors that go to the
various disk drives cooling fans and other smaller devices
of the computer. Most of them have four wires: two black,
one red, and one yellow. Unlike the standard mains

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.217 267
 Pin Name Color Description 9 +5VDC Red +5 VDC
10 COM Black Ground
1 +5VDC Red +5 VDC
11 COM Black Ground
2 COM Black Ground (Optional or
3 COM Black Ground other use)
4 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC 12 COM Black Ground

15 pin serial ATA power connector 13 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC

A 15 pin power supply connector which uses SATA 14 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC
power plug is one of the standard peripheral power 15 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC
connectors in computers. This power connector for all
SATA based hard drives and optical drives. This connector The wire numbers in serial power ATA(SATA) connector
supplies power at three different voltages such as +3.3V, are not 1:1. There are three pins for each voltage.
+5V and +12V. Modern power supply must have at least
4 of these, to power up drives at the SATA standard.

D
4 pin molex connector to SATA power converter

E
cables are also available.

H
Fig 19

S
LI
Molex 4 pin connector to SATA power converter
cable

B
E I
R IM
The PCI Express connector (PCI - e 6 pin/ PCI - e 8pin)
U
Most modern computer power supplies include 6-pin
connectors which are generally used for PCI express
P
E N

graphics cards, but a newly introduced 8-pin connector

should be seen on the latest model power supplies. Each
PCI express 6-pin connector can output a maximum of
©

75W.
6+2 pin for the purpose of backwards compatibility, some
connectors designed for this kind of pin configuration to
use with PCI express graphics card feature. It allows
B

either a 6-pin card or an 8-pin card to be connected by

using two separate connection modules wired into the
same sheath: one with 6 pins and another with 2 pins as
O

shown in Fig 24.

T

Fig 22
T
O

Pin Name Color Description

N

1 +3.3VDC Orange +3.3 VDC

2 +3.3VDC Orange +3.3 VDC
3 +3.3VDC Orange +3.3 VDC
4 COM Black Ground
5 COM Black Ground
6 COM Black Ground
7 +5VDC Red +5 VDC If your power supply doesn't have an 8-pin connector,
there are 6-8 adapters.
8 +5VDC Red +5 VDC

268 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.217
 as the error signal to power controller which increases
the ON period of switching pulses. When the load
decreases the output goes high. The error voltage is fed
to the controller which reduces the ON period of switching
pulses. Since there are many outputs in a PC SMPS i.e.
12V, -12V, -5 only the main 5 volts which supplies
maximum current is sensed and regulated. The
Pin Name Color Description transformer winding is designed taking care of this aspect.
A simplified diagram of a switching power supply is
1 COM Black Ground shown in Fig 25.

2 COM Black Ground Fig 25

3 COM Black Ground

4 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC
5 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC
6 +12VDC Yellow +12 VDC

D
E
Fig 24

H
Most widely used configuration in PC SMPS is half bridge

S
converter circuit as shown in Fig 26. Power transistors
Q1 and Q2 switch the DC voltage through the windings in

LI
a push pull manner.

Fig 26

B
E I
R IM
U
Need of SMPS in PC
On ATX and most of the other later form factors, the
P
E N

motherboard can turn the power supply on or off. This is

done through the PS-ON (power supply on) signal that
passes between the motherboard and the power supply.
©

If your PC powers off when windows is finished shutting

down, you have this feature.
Another indicator that your power supply supports PS-
ON is the use of Momentary On or Always On power
B

switches that are connected to the motherboard in place

of an exterior switch connected to the power supply.
When this signal line is pulled to a low voltage signal, the
O

+12V DC, +5V DC, +3.3V DC, -5V DC and -12V DC Use of the fan in PC SMPS
power lines are turned on. When it is pulled to a high- A 12V DC fan is used for removing the heat generated
T

voltage signal, or open-circuited, the DC output lines inside the power supply. The fan blows out air from the
should no longer have current. The +5V DC output is SMPS. The fan also helps in air circulation inside the
always on as long as the power supply is receiving AC cabinet. Proper working of fan is ensured by periodic
T

power. Because the ATL, NLX, LTX and other form factor cleaning. Whenever the fan is working intermittently the
O

motherboards have some power running to them at all fan should be cleaned for dust near the motor. A failed
times, you will always want to unplug the PC before fan can result in the failure of the SMPS because of
N

working on it. excess heat.

Function of SMPS in PC Difference between AT & ATX power supply
AC line input is rectified and converted to DC voltage. AT power supply does not have soft start option.
The DC voltage is switched at high frequency nearly 20 AT power supply does not generate 3.3V DC.
KHz. The switched voltage is fed to the high frequency
AT motherboard supply connectors come with 2x6 pin
step down transformer. The output of the transformer is
connection.
rectified and energy is stored in an inductor and
smoothened by a capacitor. The switching period (pulse ATX power supply has a soft start.
width) is controlled by the feed back given to the controller ATX power supply does not shut down completely. Always
section. Power switching transistors ON time is varied the ATX power supply gives 5 volt to the mother board.
according to the load. When the load increases the ATX power supply generates a 3.3V DC for the processor
output voltage tends to drop. This drop in voltage is fed core voltage.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.217 269
 D
E
H
S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

270 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.217
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.218 & 219
Electronics Mechanic - SMPS & Inverter, UPS

Inverter
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe the basic concept of inverter
• explain principle of operation of inverter
• explain the functional blocks of inverter
• state the installation procedure of inverter
• classify the types of inverter
• state the applications of inverter.
Definition: Converts DC to AC power by switching the Thus, the inverter circuit produces AC supply and the
DC input voltage (or current) in a pre-determined sequence battery supplies the required DC for the standby operation
so as to generate AC voltage (or current) output. to run the AC load.

D
Circuitry that performs the opposite function of rectifier,
converting DC to AC, is called an inverter.

E
The input voltage, output voltage, output frequency, and
overall power handling depends on the design of the

H
specific device or circuitry of inverter. The inverter does

S
not produce any power; it only converts the DC battery
power into AC power to load.

LI
Principle of operation: Inverter unit converts AC mains
supply into DC and stores DC power in the battery. when Function of an inverter: The Function block diagram of

B
E I
AC mains present (Mains mode) the input AC power is the inverter is shown in fig.3. The functioning of an
R IM

directly passes to output load through changeover relay. inverter may be understood in the following two situations.
U
When the absence of AC mains (inverter mode), DC
power stored in the battery is converted into AC by the
P
E N

use of electronic circuits, inverter transformer, etc. and is

supplied to the load as shown in fig.1.
O
B ©
T

a When the AC mains power supply is available.

Block diagram representation: The simplified block b When the AC mains power supply is not available.
T

diagram of the inverter is shown in fig.2. AC mains supply When the AC mains power supply is available - Main
is connected to the sensing section, which senses the mode
O

presence of AC input voltage and activates the battery

charging section through the solid-state relay. During the • When the AC mains supply is available, the AC mains
N

presence of AC mains, AC supply directly goes to the sensing circuit senses it and the supply goes to the
output socket and to the connected load. changeover relay, which provides,

In the absence of AC mains supply, the AC mains i Mains supply to the battery charging section and
sensing section activates the changeover type solid- ii AC mains supply directly to the output socket/load.
state relay in milli-seconds time and connects the battery
supply to the oscillator, driver and output chopper/ • Battery charging section converts AC mains into 12/
switching sections to produce the 50Hz sine wave. 24V DC voltage, then regulated and battery is charged
using it.
The oscillator generates trigger pulses and amplified by
the driver section, which controls the duty cycle of the • There are special circuits for sensing the battery
semiconductor switches. voltage and when the battery is fully charged the
charging is stopped.
271
• In some inverters there will be a trickel charging circuit Therefore the connected load in wattage is 369 W.
which keeps the battery constantly at full charge. Considering approximate power factor of 0.8, the
When the AC mains power supply is not available - connected load in VA is 369/0.8 = 461.25VA as the
inverter mode: Under the absence of the AC mains connected load capacity comes to 462 VA, the required
power supply, an oscillator circuit inside the inverter inverter capacity to be purchased is 500 VA.
produces a 50Hz trigger signal. Selection of location: The first thing is selection of
This trigger signal is amplified by the driver section and suitable location for placing the inverter. While choosing
applied to the chopper/switching section. the location the following points are to be considered for
better operation;
The semiconductor switching devices like SCR, TRIAC,
MOSFET, IGBT, etc. are connected to the primary winding • Make sure the inverter is not placed near any
of the inverter transformer and starts switching/chopping hazardous or flammable materials.
the battery DC supply at a rate of 50 Hz. This switching
action of the MOSFETs or transistors produces 50Hz • It must also not be exposed to moisture or water.
alternating signal at the primary of the inverter transformer. • The selected location must be away from direct sunlight
• Thus a 220V AC supply is available at the secondary and is a dry area.

D
of the inverter transformer. • It must be placed in an area near the main board of

E
• This secondary voltage is made available at the house.
output socket of the inverter by a changeover solid Mounting the inverter: An inverter can be mounted

H
state realy. horizontally either on a vertical surface or on or under a
horizontal surface as well. Inverter is always placed on

S
Changeover period: The time required for an inverter to
switch from AC mains power to battery power is known the insulation material like wood, foam or hard broad.

LI
as changeover period. This is in the range of 3-8 milli- Battery installation: There are two main families of
seconds. batteries used in inverters

B
E I
Annunciation and protection section: Inverter contains • Nickel - cadmium batteries
R IM

various circuits to automatically sense and tackle various

U
situations that may occur when the inverter is running or • Lead - acid batteries
in standby.
P
Most commonly liquid or pasted (SMF - Sealed
E N

This annunciation section monitor the abnormal situations Maintenance Free) Lead-acid batteries are using.
such as overload, over heat, low battery, over charge etc.
Before connecting the new battery to inverter, battery is
and indicates by means of LED display/indicators and
©

to be charged fully, otherwise its life and backup time will

buzzer alarm.
be reduced.
The overload protection circuit is used for the protection
While connecting the batteries the polarity of the battery
of inverter and trips the unit and low battery cut-off circuit
and the inverter terminals should exactly match i.e.
is used to cut-off the load from the inverter.
B

positive and negative to negative.

Installation of an inverter: Power rating and calculation:
During charging/discharging of batteries, oxygen and
Inverter power is rated in VA or KVA. Before purchasing
O

hydrogen gas produced due to chemical reactions in the

the inverter, power consumption of load/appliances that
batteries and hence a vent hole will be there in the top up
is to be connected with inverter is to be calculated as
T

cap.
follows;
For liquid type batteries, distilled or demineralised water
Power in VA (Volt ampere) = AC volts x Total load current.
T

is to be added periodically with the electrolyte for

Power in KVA (Volt ampere) = (AC volts x Total load maintaining the specific gravity of electrolyte between
O

current)/1000. 1.260-1.280 (Fully charged battery).

Power in watts = AC voltage x Total load current x P.F.
N

Inverter wiring: The input connector of the inverter is

where P.F = power factor (If not given assume approximate connected with the AC mains supply and the AC output
value of 0.8. which is standard for homes) of the inverter is connected to the electrical/electronics
appliances which is called inverter load. Always the
Also power in watts = power in VA x P.F.
connected load should be less than the VA capacity of the
Example: Connected loads: inverter.
3 Nos. of ceiling fans = 2 x 75 watts = 150 watts It is important to note that the neutral connection of the
3 Nos. of cfl light = 3 x 23 watts = 69 watts inverter output is directed connected with the neutral wire
of AC mains supply as shown in fig.4.
1 No. of television = 1 x150 watts = 150 watts
Total = 369 watts

272 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.218 & 219
 It is the most commonly used type of inverter. This
inverter has the low internal impedance.
Generally, it has a capacitor of high capacity connected
across the supply source that keeps constant input
voltage as shown in Fig.5.

Earthling: In an inverter installation proper earthling is

essential because,

D
It protects the user against electric shock

E
It protects the inverter incase of an electric short - circuit The switches of VSI are constructed using full controlled

H
devices like, transistors, thyristors, MOSFET, etc.
It completes the battery’s circuit in the cases of vehicles
like car, bike, etc. If bidirectional current (AC) is required, the freewheeling

S
diodes also called feedback diodes which are connected
Classification
across the switches.

LI
a Based on application:
Current sources inverter: A current source inverter
The inverters are classified in two types according to the (CSI) is the source of the current with the required

B
E I
applications, as properties: magnitude, frequency, and phase.
R IM
U
i Domestic inverters - The domestic inverter is mainly As a rule, it has an inductor connected in series with the
used for household electrical/electronics appliance. supply source that keeps the current constant as shown
P
E N

ii Industrial inverters - The industrial inverter system in fig.6.

is mainly used with existing plant battery and no need of
having separate battery bank. It is used in industries for
©

applications like AC/DC drives for controlling motors,

turbine & boiler control, DCS (Distributed control system),
and PLC ( Programmable logic control), etc.
b Based on connected load:
B

The inverters are classified in two types according to the

connected load, as
O

Single phase inverters - A single-phase inverter converts d Based on the input power
a DC input into a single - phase AC output. These type of
T

inverters mainly used in domestic purpose to run the According to the input power used for changing batteries,
loads like ceiling fans, CFL lights, television, etc. inverter is classified as:
T

Three phase inverters - A three-phase inverter converts i AC power inverter - In this case, AC mains supply is
converted into DC supply by using rectifier circuit and
O

a DC input into a three-phase AC output. The phase

angle difference between the three phases are 120° so changes the battery through a battery charger circuit.
N

as to generate a three-phase AC supply. Three phase ii Solar inverter - In this case, photovoltaic cell (PV cell)
inverters are used where the connected loads are high converts the solar energy into direct DC supply and
and three phase system loads. charges the battery through a battery charger circuit.
Based on the circuit arrangements: According to the Applications:
circuit arrangement, inverter is classified as
Domestic use:
i Voltage source inverters and
• To provide back-up power to the domestic appliances
ii Current source inverters when power fails.
Voltage source inverter: A voltage source inverter (VSI An inverter is used to control the speed of the compressor
or voltage stiff inverter) forms the voltage with required motor, so as to continuously regulate the temperature in
properties: magnitude, frequency, and phase. refrigerator and air-conditioner.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.218 & 219 273
Industrial use: • Modern electric power steering
• AC/DC drives for controlling motors • HEV main inverter
• Turbine & boiler control • Central body control
• Industrial motor driven equipment • Braking system
• DCS (Distributed Control System) • Seat control, and so on.
• PLC (Programmable Logic Control), etc. A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or
circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating
• Electric trains current (AC) and is also called static inverter.
Automotive electronics uses: Application of power In rotary type of inverter, the DC motor drives the AC
electronics in automotive applications plays a major generator (alternator) and supplies AC power to the
role in controlling automotive electronics. Automotive dynamic loads in industries.
electronics include,

Inverter and principle of operation

D
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

E
• explain the working of the Inverter circuit
• explain the working principle of Microcontroller based Inverter

H
• state common inverter problems and solutions.

S
Working of Inverter circuit through the centre tapped primary of the output
transformer. The MOSFETs Q1 & Q2 are switched

LI
The simple circuit diagram of DC or AC Inverter is shown
in Fig.1. alternatively by the trigger pulses obtained from the PWM
IC. The duty cycle of the MOSFET switching controls the

B
E I
It comprises of the following sections; AC output voltage. If the connected load of the inverter
R IM

• Battery charger section draws less current, PWM IC generates trigger pulses
U
with reduced duty cycle and thus output decreased. In
• Battery this manner, the output voltage of the inverter is sensed
P
E N

• PWM section and duty cycle of the switch PWMs are modified to
produce the steady and regulated output voltage. Then a
• Inverter switching/chopper capacitor helps filters the waveform to make a clean
©

• Section 50Hz AC sine wave.

• Sensing/Feedback section Sensing/feedback section: Portion of AC voltage is fed
to the sensing section, where it is rectified into DC. This
Battery charger section: The 230V, 50Hz, AC mains feedback voltage is sent to PWM IC as sensing volage
supply is applied to the step-down transformer where the
B

and compared with the reference voltage in order to

step-down transformer where the input AC high voltage control the duty cycle.
is reduced to 15V AC low voltage. The reduced AC
O

voltage is rectified and applied to the battery through Microcontroller based inverter: The major sections of
SCR TYN616 which controls and regulates the battery a modern inverter producing pure sine wave, designed
T

charging voltage to 12V DC. The trigger pulse to the SCR using the simple electronic devices to the complex
comes from the variable voltage regulator IC LM317 embedded microcontrollers is shown in Fig.2. It uses
which is working here as comparator and the firing angle pulse width modulation technique, different sensors,
T

can be varied by the 4.7K reference pre-set. actuators, LCD display for status, audible alarm, feather
touch switches, etc. for the reliable and user-friendly
O

Battery: A 12V liquid type or SMF lead-acid battery is failsafe operation.

connected to the output of charger section and battery
N

gets charged steadily. • Under mains mode, the solid-state changeover relay
passes the AC input voltage directly to the output and
PWM section: CA3524 is a 16 pin Pulse Width Modulator
allows charging of the battery.
(PWM) IC. It generates trigger pulses at pin 11 & 14 which
is applied to the gate terminals of semiconductor switch • Under inverter mode, the absence of AC mains voltage
MOSFET 1 & 2 respectively through a bias resistors. The is sensed by the solid-sate relay and microcontroller
trigger pulse generated by the PWM IC is based on the inverter section is actuated. The microcontroller, which
feedback voltage obtained from the sensing/feedback is a part of the inverter section, generates the trigger
section at Pin 1. pulse to the gate driver input to the MOSFET switching
Inverter switching/Chopping section: The bias DC devices.
voltage for MOSFETs are obtained from the battery

274 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.218 & 219
• The battery voltage is first chopped using high • Then the AC output from the transformer shaped to
frequency PWM and switching device, (generally 50Hz AC sine wave with the helps of capacitor and
3KHz to 20KHz) to produce an AC waveform. The iron filter circuits.
cored step-up transformer boosts the 12V chopped
waveform to 220V, 50Hz AC output waveform.

D
E
H
S
LI
B
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R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.218 & 219 275
Common inverter problems and solutions
The common faults which occur in the inverter, probable causes and their remedies are listed below

SI. Common problems Probable cause Solutions/remedy

No.

1 Inverter not turning ON Battery disconnected, If the terminals of the battery

terminals loose or rusty & are loose, check them for
corroded. corrosion. Clean the terminals
and terminate properly.

Weak battery If the battery has gone weak,

keep the battery under boost
charging for 8 hours and connect
with the inverter.

Discharged battery In case of fully discharged

D
battery or faulty battery replace
the battery with the same rating.

E
Defective power switch Check and replace the power

H
switch.

S
2 Battery is not Dead battery The battery must be replaced.

LI
getting charged Battery charger section Check the rectifier diodes, input
problem fuses and loose battery
connection and set right.

B
E I
R IM

3 Backup time is less Too much of power Remove the extra load
U
Consumption connected.
P
E N

Battery not properly Charge the battery and top

charged up the electrolyte with distilled
water. Remember that the water
©

level must be maintained

between the maximum and
minimum water limit.

4 Inverter working Either input is not Check the power cable and
B

always in inverter connected or fuse may change the fuse respectively.

mode be blown off.
O

Low or high input voltage The AC mains supply voltage

may be always low or high,
T

hence connect a stabilizer in the

input to give input voltage at the
T

prescribed limit.
Changeover relay problem Check and replace the relay.
O

5 Alarm beeping Inverter overload The possible cause could be

N

Continuously either overload on the inverter

or a stuck cooling fan. Check
and set right the cooling fan and
disconnect all the extra load in
case of overload.
Low battery Charge the battery.

6 Inverter cannot boot Too low battery voltage Recharge or replace the battery
or damaged

276 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.218 & 219
 The battery is not connected Connect the battery

7 No output Too low battery voltage or Recharge or replace the battery.

damaged Check whether the wire
connection is good.
Too high input voltage Adjust/reduce the input voltage
and switch ON the inverter or
Inverter works on mains use stabilizer at the AC input
mode but does not operate
8 on inverter mode Battery fuse is blown Check the fuse and polarity of
battery. Replace the fuse
Battery is discharged Recharge or replace the battery
with same rating.

9 Battery voltage is good but Problem with PWM IC Check the input/output voltage
no output voltage PWM IC and if it faulty replace it.

D
Fault in switching device Check the switching device and

E
replacing it if faulty.

H
10 Inverter output is high Fault in feed back loop Check the sensing circuit and
feedback transformer wiring and

S
adjust the feedback voltage pre-
set.

LI
B
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U
P
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O
B ©
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N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.218 & 219 277
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.220 - 222
Electronics Mechanic - SMPS & Inverter, UPS

DC-DC converter
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state chopper and types of chopper
• explain the principle of chopper operation and classifications
• compare step-down and step-up chopper
• list the application of chopper
• explain the working of buck converter, boost converter and buck-boost converter
• classify chopper circuit and its quadrant of operation
• list out the IC's used in buck converter, buck-boost converter, inverting converter.

Introduction to DC-to-DC converter Switching regulator uses an inductive voltage drop, where
the energy is stored and can be recovered. This results
A DC-to-DC converter (chopper) is an electronic circuit
a much higher efficiency and much less heat.

D
that converts one DC voltage level to another, which may
be higher or lower by storing the input energy temporarily Choppers

E
and then releasing that energy to the output at a different
A chopper is basically a dc to dc converter whose main
voltage. The storage may be either magnetic field

H
function is to create adjustable dc voltage from fixed dc
storage (Inductors) or electric field storage. (Capacitors)
voltage sources through the use of semiconductors.

S
Types of choppers

LI
There are two types of choppers - AC and DC.
AC Link Chopper (Fig 2)

B
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R IM

In an AC link chopper, DC is converted to AC with the help

U
of an inverter. After that, AC is stepped-up or stepped-
down by a transformer, which is then converted back to
P
DC by a diode rectifier. AC link chopper is costly, bulky
E N

and less efficient as the conversion is done in two stages.

DC-to-DC converter DC Chopper (Fig 3)
©

Linear regulator Switching regulator

(Chopper)
B

Efficiency less than 70% Efficiency greater than 70%

O

Regulators Buck converter(LM 2576)

A DC chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc
Boost converter (LM2621)
T

(7805,7812,7905,7912,etc. input voltage to a variable dc output voltage directly. A

Buck-boost converter(MC34068)
chopper can be used to step up or step down the fixed dc
output voltage. Choppers are used in many applications
T

A linear regulator uses a resistive voltage drop to regulate

in various electronic equipments. A chopper system has
the voltage, which losses power in the form of heat.
O

a high efficiency, fast response and a smooth control.

N

278
Principle of chopper operation Devices used in chopper
A chopper is a high speed on/off semiconductor switch. Low power application : GTO, IGBT, Power BJT,
Source to load connection and disconnection from load Power MOSFET etc.
to source happens in a rapid manner. In figure, a
High power application : Thyristor like SCR.
chopped load voltage can be obtained from a constant dc
supply of voltage, which has a magnitude Vs. Chopper is Classifications
represented by 'SW' inside a dotted square which can be Chopper may be classified depending upon the direction
turned ON or OFF as desired. (Fig 4) of O/P current and voltage. ie., step down (Buck converter)
Step-up (Boost converter).
1 On the basis of input and output voltage levels
Step-down chopper
Class A
Class B
Class C (Combination of A & B)

D
Class D

E
Class E

H
Step-up chopper
Output voltage and current waveforms (Fig 5)
Class B

S
2 On the basis of circuit operation

LI
First quadrant

B Two quadrant
E I
R IM

Four quadrant
U
3 On the basis of commutation method
P
E N

Voltage commutated
Current commutated
©

Load commutated
Impulse commutated
B

Comparison between step-up and step-down chopper

O

Sl.no Parameters Step down chopper Step up chopper

T

1 Range of output voltage 0 to V volts V to +0 volts

2 Position of chopper switch In series with load In parallel with load

T

3 Expression for output VL dc = D x V volts Vo = V/(1 - D ) volts

O

voltage
N

4 External inductance Not required Required for boosting the output

voltage

5 Use For motoring operation, For regenerative braking for

motor for motor load load.

6 Type of chopper Single quadrant Single quadrant

7 Quadrant of operation 1st quadrant 1st quadrant

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.220 - 222 279
Applications

1 Switched mode power supplies, including DC to DC

converters in computers
2 Speed controllers for DC motors
3 Class D Electronic amplifiers
4 Switched capacitor filters
5 Variable-frequency drives
Buck converters (Fig 9)
6 D.C. voltage boosting
7 Battery-operated electric cars
8 Battery-operated appliances
9 Battery chargers
10 Subway cars

D
11 Trolley buses

E
12 Battery-operated vehicles

H
13 Solar energy conversion & wind energy conversion
14 Air planes and spaceships

S
15 On-board regulated DC power supplies

LI
16 Commercial electronics & Electronic instruments.
The buck converter
Step down chopper
B
E I
R IM

Step down chopper as Buck converter is used to reduce The buck converter is used in SMPS circuits where the
U
the i/p voltage level at the output side. In buck converter, DC output voltage needs to be lower than the DC input
the o/p voltage is lower than the i/p voltage. (Fig 6) voltage.
P
E N

The switching transistor between the input and output of

the buck converter continually switches ON and OFF at
high frequency. To maintain a continuous output, the
©

circuit uses the energy stored in the inductor L, during the

ON periods of the switching transistor, to continue
supplying the load during the OFF periods. The circuit
operation also called a flywheel circuit.
B

The buck converter is a form of DC to DC converter that

can take an input directly from a DC source, such as a
Step up chopper or Boost converter
O

battery. The input could also be DC derived from the AC

Step up chopper or boost converter is used to increase mains (line) as shown in Fig 10 via a rectifier/reservoir
T

the input voltage level of its output side. In boost capacitor circuit. The AC input to the rectifier circuit could
converter the o/p voltage is higher than the i/p voltage. be AC at high voltage directly from the AC mains supply,
(Fig 7) or alternatively at a lower voltage via a step down
T

transformer. However the DC applied to the buck

converter is obtained; it is then converted to a high
O

frequency AC, using a switching or 'chopper' transistor,

N

driven by a (usually pulse width modulated) square wave.

Buck converter operation
As shown in Fig 10 the buck converter circuit consists of
the switching transistor, together with the flywheel circuit
(DI, L1 and C1). While the transistor is on, current is
Buck-Boost converter or step up step down converter flowing through the load via the inductor L1. The action
of any inductor opposes changes in current flow and also
With the help of Buck-Boost converter we can increase acts as a store of energy. In this case the switching
or decrease the input voltage level at its output side as per transistor output is prevented from increasing immediately
our requirement. This type of converter produces an o/ to its peak value as the inductor stores energy taken from
p voltage that is either lower or higher than the i/p voltage. the increasing output; this stored energy is later released
(Fig 8)
280 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.220 - 222
back into the circuit as a back e.m.f. as current from the Boost converter
switching transistor is rapidly switched OFF.
Fig 12 illustrates the basic circuit of a Boost converter.
Transistor switch ON period The switching transistor is a power MOSFET, both Bipolar
power transistors and MOSFETs are used in power
switching. The rest of the components are the same as
those used in the buck converter except that their positions
have been re-arranged.

D
In Fig 10 when the switching transistor is switched ON,

E
it is supplying the load with current. Initially current flow to
the load is restricted as energy is also being stored in L1,

H
Boost converter operation
therefore the current in the load and the charge on C1
builds up gradually during the ON period. Notice that Fig 13 illustrates the circuit action during the initial high

S
throughout the ON period, there will be a large positive period of the high frequency square wave applied to the
voltage on D1 cathode and so the diode will be reverse MOSFET gate at start up. During this time MOSFET

LI
biased. conducts, placing a short circuit from the right hand side
of L1 to the negative input supply terminal. Therefore, a
Transistor switch OFF period

B
E I
current flows between the positive and negative supply
R IM

When the transistor switches OFF as shown in Fig 11 the terminals through L1, which stores energy in its magnetic
U
energy stored in the magnetic field around L1 is released field. There is virtually no current flowing in the remainder
back into the circuit. The voltage across the inductor (the of the circuit as the combination of D1, C1 and the load
P
E N

back e.m.f.) is now in reverse polarity to the voltage represent a much higher impedance than the path directly
across L1 during the ON period, and sufficient stored through the heavily conducting MOSFET.
energy is available in the collapsing magnetic field to
©

keep current flowing for at least part of the time the

transistor switch is open.
The back e.m.f. from L1 now causes current to flow
around the circuit via the load and D1, which is now
B

forward biased. Once the inductor has returned a large

part of its stored energy to the circuit and the load voltage
begins to fall, the charge stored in C1 becomes the main
O

source of current, keeping current flowing through the

load until the next ON period begins.
T
T
O

Fig 14 shows the current path during the low period of the
N

switching square wave cycle. As the MOSFET is rapidly

turned OFF the sudden drop in current causes L1 to
produce a back e.m.f. in the opposite polarity to the
voltage across L1 during the on period, to keep current
flowing. This results in two voltages, the supply voltage
VIN and the back e.m.f.(VL) across L1 in series with each
other.
This higher voltage (VIN +VL), now that there is no current
path through the MOSFET, forward biases D1. The
resulting current through D1 charges up C1 to VIN +VL
minus the small forward voltage drop across D1, and also
supplies the load.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.220 - 222 281
 By combining these two regulator designs it is possible to
have a regulator circuit that can cope with a wide range
of input voltages both higher or lower than that needed by
the circuit. Both buck and boost converters use very
similar components.
In Fig 16 the common components of the buck and boost
circuits are combined. A control unit is added, which
senses the level of input voltage, then selects the
appropriate circuit action. (Note that in the examples in
this section the transistors are shown as MOSFETs,
commonly used in high frequency power converters, and
the diodes shown as Schottky types. These diodes have
a low forward junction voltage when conducting, and are
able to switch at high speeds).
Fig 15 shows the circuit action during MOSFET on
periods after the initial start up. Each time the MOSFET
conducts, the cathode of D1 is more positive than its

D
anode, due to the charge ON C1. D1 is therefore turned
OFF so the output of the circuit is isolated from the input,

E
however the load continues to be supplied with VIN +VL

H
from the charge ON C1. Although the charge C1 drains
away through the load during this period, C1 is recharged

S
each time the MOSFET switches OFF, so maintaining an
almost steady output voltage across the load.

LI
B
E I
R IM
U
Operation as a buck converter
P
The basic operation of the buck boost converter is
E N

illustrated in Fig 16 and 17.

Fig 17 shows the circuit operating as a buck converter. In
©

this mode Tr2 is turned off, and Tr1 is switched on and off
by a high frequency square wave from the control unit.
When the gate of Tr1 is high, current flows though L,
charging its magnetic field, charging C and supplying the
load. The schottky diode D1 is turned off due to the
B

positive voltage on its cathode.

Buck-boost converters
O

A Buck-Boost converter is a type of switched mode

power supply that combines the principles of the Buck
T

Converter and the Boost converter in a single circuit.

The Buck converter produces a DC output in a range
T

from 0V to just less than the input voltage. The boost

converter will produce an output voltage ranging from the
O

same voltage as the input, to a level much higher than the

input.
N

Buck-boost converters are used in Battery-powered

systems, where the input voltage can vary widely, starting
at full charge and gradually decreasing as the battery
charge is used up. At full charge, where the battery
Fig 18 shows the current flow during the buck operation
voltage may be higher than actually needed by the circuit
of the circuit when the control unit switches Tr1 off. The
being powered, a buck regulator would be ideal to keep
initial source of current is now the inductor L. Its magnetic
the supply voltage steady. However as the charge
field is collapsing, the back e.m.f. generated by the
diminishes the input voltage falls below the level required
collapsing field reverses the polarity of the voltage across
by the circuit, and either the battery must be discarded or
L, which turns on D1 and current flows through D2 and
re-charged; at this point the ideal alternative would be the
the load.
boost regulator.
282 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.220 - 222
As the current due to the discharge of L decreases, the recharges the capacitor to VS + VL ready for the next ON
charge accumulated in C during the on period of Tr1 now period of Tr2.
also adds to the current flowing through the load, keeping
VOUT reasonably constant during the OFF period. This
helps keep the ripple amplitude to a minimum and VOUT
close to the value of VS.

Buck converter (IC LM2576)

D
1 Features
i 3.3-V, 5-V, 12-V, 15-V, and adjustable output versions

E
Operation as a boost converter
ii Adjustable version output voltage range,1.23 V to 37

H
In boost converter mode, Tr1 is turned on continually and
V (57 V for HV version) ±4% maximum over line and
the high frequency square wave applied to Tr2 gate.
load conditions

S
During the ON periods when Tr2 is conducting, the input
current flows through the inductor L and via Tr2, directly iii Specified 3-A output current

LI
back to the supply negative terminal charging up the
iv Wide input voltage range: 40V upto 60 V for HV
version

B
E I
v Requires only 4 external components
R IM
U
vi 52-kHz fixed-Frequency internal oscillator
vii TTL-shutdown capability, Low-power standby mode
P
E N

viii High efficiency

ix Uses readily available standard inductors
©

x Thermal shutdown and current limit protection

2 Applications

magnetic field around L. Whilst this is happening D2 i Simple high-efficiency step-down (Buck) regulator
B

cannot conduct as its anode is being held at ground ii Efficient pre-regulator for linear regulators
potential by the heavily conducting Tr2. For the duration
iii On-card switching regulators
O

of the ON period, the load is being supplied entirely by the

charge on the capacitor C, built up on previous oscillator iv Positive-to-Negative converter (Buck-Boost)
T

cycles. The gradual discharge of C during the ON period

3 Description
(and its subsequent recharging) accounts for the amount
of high frequency ripple on the output voltage, which is at The LM2576 series of regulators are monolithic integrated
T

a potential of approximately VS + VL. circuits that provide all the active functions for a step-
O

down (buck) switching regulator, capable of driving 3-A

Transistor OFF period
load with excellent line and load regulation. These devices
N

At the start of the OFF period of Tr2, L is charged and C are available in fixed output voltages of 3.3 V, 5 V, 12 V,
is partially discharged. The inductor L now generates a 15 V, and an adjustable output version.
back e.m.f. and its value that depends on the rate of
Requiring a minimum number of external components,
change of current as Tr2 switches OFF and ON the
these regulators are simple to use include fault protection
amount of inductance the coil possesses; therefore the
and a fixed-frequency oscillator.
back e.m.f can be any voltage over a wide range,
depending on the design of the circuit. Notice particularly The LM2576 series offers a high-efficiency replacement
that the polarity of the voltage across L has now reversed, for popular three-terminal linear regulators. It substantially
and so adds to the input voltage VS giving an output reduces the size of the heat sink, and in some cases no
voltage that is atleast equal to or greater than the input heat sink is required.
voltage. D2 is now forward biased and so the circuit
A standard series of inductors optimized for use with the
current supplies the load current, and at the same time
LM2576 are available from several different
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.220 - 222 283
manufacturers. This feature greatly simplifies the design is included, featuring 50-μA (typical) standby current.
of switch-mode power supplies. The output switch includes cycle-by-cycle current limiting,
as well as thermal shutdown for full protection under fault
Other features include a ±4% tolerance on output voltage
conditions.
within specified input voltages and output load conditions,
and ±10% on the oscillator frequency. External shutdown Pin configuration and functions

Fig 21

D
E
Fig 22

H
S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N

PIN I/O DESCRIPTION

©

NO. NAME

1 Vin I Supply input pin to collector pin of high-side

B

transistor. Connect to power supply and input

bypass capacitors Cin. Path from Vin pin to high
frequency bypass Cin and GND must be as
O

short as possible.
2 OUTPUT O Emitter pin of the power transistor. This is a switching
T

node. Attached this pin to an inductor and the

cathode of the external diode.
T

3 GROUND — Ground pin. Path to Cin must be as short as

O

possible.
4 FEEDBACK I Feedback sense input pin. Connect to the midpoint of
N

feedback divider to set VOUT for ADJ version or

connect this pin directly to the output capacitor for a
fixed output version.
5 ON/OFF I Enable input to the voltage regulator. High = OFF and
low = ON. Connect to GND to enable
the voltage regulator. Do not leave this pin float.
— TAB — Connected to GND. Attached to heatsink for thermal
relief for TO-220 package or put a copper plane
connected to this pin as a thermal relief
for DDPAK package.

284 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.220 - 222
Functional block diagram

Fig 23

D
E
H
S
LI
3.3 V R2 = 1.7 k
B 15 V, R2 = 11.3 k
E I
R IM

5 V, R2 = 3.1 k For ADJ. Version

U
12 V, R2 = 8.84 k R1 = Open, R2 = 0Ω
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.220 - 222 285
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
Electronics Mechanic - SMPS & Inverter, UPS

Uninterruptible Power Supply

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the need of UPS
• differentiate inverter and UPS
• explain the block diagram of UPS.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that
allows a computer to keep running for at least a short time
when the primary power source is lost. It also provides
protection from power surges.

D
Need of UPS
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is used to protect

E
critical loads from mains supply problems, including

H
spikes, voltage drops, fluctuations and complete power
failures using a dedicated battery.

S
A surge protector (or surge suppressor or surge diverter) In UPS, the AC from the mains power is tranformed to
is an appliance or device designed to protect electrical DC. This DC is continuously charging the battery. The

LI
devices from voltage spikes. A surge protector attempts DC output from the battery is fed to inverter that converts
to limit the voltage supplied to an electric device by either it into AC output and supplies to the equipment.

B
E I
blocking or shorting to ground any unwanted voltages Rectifier
R IM

above a safe threshold.

U
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating
Difference between Inverter and UPS (TABLE 1) current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to
P
direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The
E N

The differences between inverter and UPS under certain

important parameters are given in TABLE 1 below. process is known as rectification.

Block diagram of UPS Battery

©

The simplified block diagram of UPS is shown in Fig 1. Battery is a device consisting of one or more
electrochemical cells with external connections provided,
to power electrical devices.
B

TABLE 1
Difference between Inverter and UPS
O

Sl. No. Parameters Inverter UPS

T

1. Back-up time In inverter, the back up time is In UPS, the back up time of
not rapid. So the computers may power supply is rapid. It will
T

break down or data loss. not make any computer crash

or loss of data.
O

2. Technical variation The power is consistently drawn The AC is changed into DC.
N

from battery. This DC helps to charge the

battery.

3. Time delay 500 ms 3 to 8 ms

4. Connection The inverter connected to main UPS directly connected to

power supply for providing different application such as
electricity to different applications computer, printers, etc.
such as fan, lights, etc.

5. Price Low High

286
Inverter As soon as there is a power failure, the relay actuator
activates the inverter switch. Every other action is similar
Inverter is an electronic circuit that converts low voltage
to the UPS, but because of the sensor and relay process,
DC into high voltage AC power. In solar-electric systems,
there is a delay while activating the switch.
an inverter may take the 12, 24, or 48 volts DC and
convert to 230 volts AC, conventional household power. Static transfer switch
The main power AC is supplied to the inverter, and it is Static transfer switches (STS) are such electrical devices
transformed into DC simultaneously, which keeps which are used for very fast switching between electrical
charging the battery continuously. There is a sensor and power sources. It is used in UPS immediately switch
relay structure that always monitors the ON or OFF main power supply, to its stored backup power.
status of the main supply.
They perform instantaneous switching operations and
thus supply immediate power to the load.

Types of UPS
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• list different types of UPS

D
• compare ON-line, OFF-line and line interactive types of UPS
• state specification of UPS, power factor, calculating battery back-up

E
• explain types of indications and protection.

H
Different types of UPS Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

S
(MOSFET) power transistors, Insulated Gate Bipolar
1 ON line UPS
Transistor (IGBT) devices, microprocessor ICs,

LI
2 OFF line UPS Operational amplifier ICs, adjustable voltage regulator
3 Line interactive UPS ICs, Oscillator and pulse width modulator ICs, GATE ICs,
timer etc. are some the important components found in

B
E I
ON line UPS on line UPS.
R IM
U
ON line UPS are also known as double conversion UPS On line UPS offer the best power protection against all
or True ON Line UPS. There are two stages in its types of disturbances. The output voltage of an On Line
P
E N

operation. In the first stage the mains AC is rectified to UPS is highly stabilized with typical value of tolerance of
DC. There is a DC bus. DC bus can get power from both 1 percent i.e. the output voltage is between 227 and 233
the DC battery and DC obtained by rectifying the mains volt and frequency is between 49.95 Hz and 50.05 Hz.
©

AC. In the second stage DC power available from DC bus The output waveform is purely sinusoidal. A typical
is converted to AC by the inverter and this AC is connected modern on line UPS is equipped with protections against
to the output. In normal operation output comes from short circuit, over-voltage and under-voltage etc, MCB
mains AC via rectifier and inverter. When mains AC fail, for input, output and battery, and has digital LCD display
output comes from DC battery via inverter. The with facility for displaying input and output voltage and
B

changeover is instantaneous. There is no power transfer frequency, battery status, output power delivered and
switch and hence no time delay. When mains AC is error codes and messages.
O

available normal operation continues and the rectifier

On line UPS models generally have capacity more than
recharges the battery. A bypass switch connects mains
5kVA. High capacity On Line UPS can be built for all
T

AC directly to the output in case there is some problem

possible requirements and battery backup time can be
with the UPS. (Fig 1)
increased to suit particular need by adding batteries.
T

Sophisticated on Line UPS are available with many

advanced features and are highly reliable but are costlier.
O

OFF line UPS

N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 287
An OFF line UPS is shown in Fig 2. It is also known as In a line interactive UPS mains AC is connected to the
stand by UPS or Backup UPS and supplies emergency output through a filter and voltage regulating unit. The
power when mains AC fail. The capacity of an off line voltage regulator usually is an auto transformer with
UPS is generally below 1kVA. A very common application number of tapping and stabilizes the mains input by
is with PC. In the event of sudden load shedding the off bucking or boosting as per requirement. A single unit
line UPS supplies emergency power to the PC so that called Inverter converter unit performs the functions of
work can be continued till normal power is restored or the battery charger and inverter. When mains AC is available
PC can be safely switched off. inverter converter unit charges the battery. When mains
AC fails it inverts DC to AC and supplies power to load.
In normal mode mains AC is directly connected to the
The transition is not instantaneous and time delay of few
output through a filter unit. The filter unit filters noise
milliseconds is involved. Compared to Off line UPS, line
present in the mains AC. When mains AC fails the
interactive UPS performs better as the mains AC is
inverter converts DC power of battery to AC and transfer
regulated. Line interactive UPS are generally available
switch connects this AC to the output. This changeover
with capacity between 750VA and 5KVA and are
happens very quickly but is not instantaneous and a time
commonly used for computer network with small group of
delay of few milliseconds is involved. This time delay
computers.
normally does not affect ordinary load. Again when mains
AC comes, the transfer switch connects mains AC to Comparison between OFF- line, ON- line and LINE-

D
output. Thus the transfer switch keeps on changing interactive UPS
connection of output to between mains AC and AC output

E
OFF- Line UPS
of inverter. When mains AC is available, the charger unit

H
recharges the battery. An offline UPS does not have OFF-line UPS passes the input AC to the output sockets
provision for stabilizing the mains AC. Under voltage and if the AC power is available. It always monitor the voltage

S
over voltage of mains AC activates the power transfer level in the mains, and if there is a voltage drop or mains
switch and connects AC obtained from inverter to the failure, it switches ON the inverter to give AC power to the

LI
output. Thus in case of off line UPS under voltage and device until the mains supply returns to normal. The
over voltage of mains AC has similar impact as absence switch over time from AC to inverter AC is less than five
milli seconds so that the functioning of the equipment is
of mains AC.
B
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not affected.
R IM

Line interactive UPS

U
ON- Line UPS
P
ON- Line UPS uses an inverter which always ON to give
E N

sine wave AC to the output socket. The incoming AC is

first converted into DC to charge the battery as wll as to
give power to the inverter. The inverter converts the DC
©

to AC continuously to power the load. If power fails, the

battery backup circuit switches ON and takes the load.
Online UPS is more efficient than the Offline UPS and
uses a "constant duty inverter". It also has a "static
B

bypass" system that transfers the load to the AC power

if the inverter system fails. The advantage of the online
O

Specification of UPS
T

Sl. No. Parameter Details

1. Type of UPS TRUE ONLINE

T

2. CAPACITY 2 KVA/5 kVA

O

3. Technology The UPS shall be based on IGBT, and

N

microprocessor controlled for providing

better sine wave output.
4. AC input voltage range 175V to 275 V AC, single phase
5. Input frequency 47-53 Hz, (Suitable for working with
generator supply)
6. UPS power factor 0.9 or better
7. AC output voltage 230V AC, Single phase
8. Output frequency 50 Hz
9. Waveform Sinusoidal

288 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
 10. Efficiency 90% (at rated output voltage and frequency)
11. Total harmonics distortion 2% maximum
12. Indications Standard visual indications for proper
function of UPS.
13. Protections Over & Under voltage cut-off, overload, and
short
14. Back up time 2kVA = 8 hour at 400 watt load, 5kVA = 8 hr
at 1000W load
15. Type of batteries Sealed maintenance free (SMF)
Lead Acid Battery
16. Remote monitoring SNMP based monitoring

UPS is that, it clean up the AC waveform by converting it flow. This level of "noise" is measured as a percentage of
into DC then reconverting this DC to fresh AC. ON- Line "total harmonic distortion of the current" (THDI). Classic

D
UPS regulate voltage within ± 2-3%. UPS rectifiers have a THDI level of around 25%-30%.

E
Line-interactive UPS There are several solutions to reduce the THDI in a
double-conversion UPS:

H
Line-interactive UPS system use automatic voltage
regulation (AVR) to correct abnormal voltages without Passive power-factor correction

S
switching to battery. The UPS detects when voltage
Classic solutions such as passive filters reduce THDI to
crosses a preset low or high threshold value and uses
5%-10% at full load. They are reliable, but big and only

LI
transformers to boost or lower the voltage by a set
work at full load.
amount to return it to the acceptable range. Line-
interactive UPS system typically regulate output within ± Active power-factor correction

B
E I
8-15% of the nominal voltage.
R IM

An alternative solution is an active filter. Through the use

U
Power factor of such a device, THDI can drop to 5% over the full power
range. The newest technology in double-conversion UPS
P
Power factor is a quantity which has important implications
E N

units is a rectifier that does not use classic rectifier

when sizing a UPS system and power distribution
components (thyristors and diodes) but uses high-
equipment. Power is a measure of the delivery rate of
frequency components instead. A double-conversion
energy and in DC (direct current). Electrical circuits is
©

UPS with an insulated-gate bipolar transistor rectifier and

expressed as the mathematical product of Volts and
inductor can have a THDI as small as 2%.
Amps (Power = Volts x Amps). However, in AC (alternating
current) power system, a complication is introduced; Uninteruptible power supply (UPS) systems are rated in
namely that some AC current (Amps) may flow into and kilowatts (kW) and others in kilo-volt-amperes (kVA).
B

back out of the load without delivering energy. This 1 kW and kVA simply mean 1,000 watts or 1,000 volt-
current, called reactive or harmonic current, gives rise to amperes - the "kilo" prefix being used for larger
an "apparent" power (Volt x Amps) which is larger than
O

numbers.
the actual power consumed. This difference between the
apparent power and the actual power gives rise to the For large UPS systems have been designed based on a
T

power factor. The power factor is equal to the ratio of the PF of 0.8, which means that a 100 kVA UPS will only
actual power to the apparent power. The apparent power support 80 kW of "real" power load. Most UPS systems
T

is expressed as the Volt-Amp or VA rating. Therefore, the has power factors of 0.95 - 0.98.
actual power in any AC system is the VA rating multiplied Neither the kW nor the kVA capacity of the UPS can be
O

by the power factor. exceeded, but because of the higher PF numbers, it is

usually the kW rating. There are some UPS systems on
N

"Watts = volts x amps x power factor". Unfortunately, the

PF is rarely stated for most equipment, but it is always a the market that are PF-corrected so that the kW and kVA
number of 1.0 or less. ratings are the same.
A double-conversion UPS gives voltage distortion problem Calculating UPS/Inverter battery backup
created by the UPS. The input of a double-conversion Before calculating the Battery Backup, let us know a few
UPS is essentially a big rectifier. The current drawn by the factors that vary battery backup.
UPS is non-sinusoidal. This can cause the voltage from
the AC mains also to become non-sinusoidal. The voltage For UPS with 875VA we can use a maximum load of
distortion can cause problems in all electrical equipment 640 watts.
connected to that power source, including the UPS itself. 677VA we can use a maximum load of 540 watts.
It will also cause more power to be lost in the wiring
supplying power to the UPS due to the spikes in current
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 289
The main thing is that what ever may be the UPS wattage % Capacity utilization is :
the battery backup will not vary. The battery backup will
Duration % Capacity utilization
only vary depending on the battery Ah and the Usage
Load. ½ hr (30 mins) 52%
To calculate UPS backup, We have a simple formula. 1 hrs 62%
UPS Backup = Battery AH x (Volts/Load) x (1/Powerfactor) 2 hrs 74%
Example : Let us calculate the backup for a system UPS 3 hrs 83%
Load is the usage power, suppose we are running a PC 4 hr 85%
then the load is around 300 watts.
Types of indications and protections
Power factor varies for device to device, the average
Front panel Indicators (Fig 4)
power factor is 1.4
On-Line
Voltage is the voltage of the battery.
The online LED illuminates when the UPS is supplying
For a single battery the voltate is 12v.
utility power to the connected equipment. If the LED is not
If the batteries are connected in a series Voltage = 12 x

D
lit, the UPS is either not turned ON, or is supplying battery
no. of batteries. power.

E
Battery AH is the battery ampere used for the ups,
system UPS battery AH is 7.

H
Then battery backup = 7 x (12/300) x (1/1.4)

S
= 7 x (0.04) x (0.7)

LI
= 0.19 hours
= 19 Minutes

B
E I
R IM

Battery rating calculation

U
The formula for battery rating calculation is as below :
P
Formula employed
E N

DC current x Duration in Hrs. AVR Trim

Capacity of Battery(AH) =
©

%age capacity utilization

This LED illuminates to indicate the UPS is compensating
Where, DC Current = for a high utility voltage. While the UPS can run in this
mode indefinitely without any negative impact on the
UPS, the circuit should be checked by a qualified
UPS(KVA) x 1000 x Load power factor(PF = 1)
B

electrician if the utility voltage is consistently high.

Inverter efficiency x End voltage
AVR boost
Hence , VAH = AH x Nominal Voltage
O

This LED illuminates to indicate the UPS is compensating

For example : for 3 KVA UPS , 1 hour Backup : for a low utility voltage. While the UPS can run in this
T

mode indefinitely without any negative impact on the

UPS, the circuit should be checked by a qualified
3 x 1000 x 1
DC current = = 17.0A
T

electrician if the utility voltage is consistently low.

0.93 x 10.5 x 18
17.0 x 1.0 ON battery
O

Battery "AH" = = 27.4AH

0.62 This LED illuminates to indicate the UPS is supplying
N

battery power to the connected equipment.

Hence, 18 nos of 12V/28AH batteries are required.
Overload
Total VAH = 18 x 12 x 28 = 6048 VAH
This LED illuminates to indicate the equipment plugged
The following assumptions have been made in the above into the UPS exceeds the total capacity of the UPS. Some
calculations:- of the equipment (the load) on the UPS should be
1 DC voltage – 216 for 3 KVA removed or turned off.

2 End cell voltage / battery of 10.5 V Replace battery

3 Load Power Factor = 1.0 This LED will illuminate when the battery in the UPS has
failed.
4 Inverter efficiency = 93%

290 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
Some standard UPS incorporates both audio and visual backup. As mentioned in the UPS with two LED's the
warnings for the user to understand that the power is blinking of the UPS is the same here too. For back up it
being consumed from the battery and not from the AC is blinking at the rate of thirty seconds per blink and for
mains. critical power it is blinking at the rate of almost one
second per blink.
Visual warning
Audio warning
There are UPS that have ONE LED, TWO LED's and
THREE LED's. Almost all UPS have an audio warning incorporated into
the circuit. The audio warning is a beep sound produced
1 For UPS with a single LED
by a piezo buzzer circuit. During critical back up power
The LED glows a green color, indicating the system is being consumed the beep is continuous with a frequency
working on the main power line. When the power fails, the that is equal to the blink rate. The audio warning gives an
LED turns either amber or a red with blinking at an interval indication to shut down UPS after saving data.
of thirty seconds indicating that the UPS is working with
Conditioning and Protection
back up power; power being supplied from the battery
that is in the UPS. After for a particular duration of time Sag
and if by then the power is not restored by switching on
A reduction of the AC voltage, at the power frequency,

D
a generator / alternator, the light turns a bright red along
that lasts from a half cycle to a few seconds.
with continuous blinking indicating that it has critical two

E
minutes left for the power of the battery to drain out and Spike
crash abruptly. This is a transient electrical impulse with a duration much

H
2 For UPS with Two LEDs less than 1/2 cycle.

S
If the UPS is having two lights then the green is a solo type Surge / Overvoltage
indicating mains and the other only one green light is

LI
A voltage that exceeds specified limits either for a short
visible. If the green LED is "ON" and the other LED is off time (seconds) or longer periods.
indicating main power line consumption. When the main

B
E I
power fails, the other LED either a red or amber turns ON These types of disturbances can occur several times per
R IM

indicating the power is OFF after last two minutes. This day throughout most of the country. When a UPS is in a
U
is accompanied by continuous blinking of the LED normal mode (not on battery power) these disruptions will
indicator. not generally cause the UPS to switch to battery mode.
P
E N

Some UPS manufacturers have adjustable threshold

3 For UPS that have Three LEDs settings that can activate the back up at various levels of
The green indicates UPS working from main lines, the interference. To avoid excessive switchovers, a
©

amber indicates the UPS working from battery back up conditioning and protection sub-system should be used
and the red LED indicates UPS working from critical in the normal mode.

Symbol
B

AC input level Power cord

O

Site wiring fault indicator

T

Battery charge level Battery

T

Battery service indicator

O

Load level Load devices

N

Communications

ON LED

ON button

STANDBY button

TEST/ALARM RESET button

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 291
Indicators on UPS Type 2 :
Type 1 : The front panel LED Display (Digital)

D
E
H
S
LI
B
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R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

292 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
UPS circuit description and working
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe working of UPS circuit
• explain controller circuit
• explain the working of ON- Line UPS using PIC micro controller, charging circuit, alarm circuit and
indicator circuit
• explain 3∅ UPS, types and specification of 3∅ UPS
• compare single phase and three phase UPS
• explain different methods of battery installation
• explain earthing and types of earthing
• describe three point/four point method of measurement of earth resistance
• discuss about the maintenance of batteries used in inverter
• list out the probable faults and rectification of UPS.

Uniterruptible power supply (UPS) : Circuit Digital control of an UPS

description and working (Fig 1)
Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS) are

D
The circuit drawn pertains to a regular industrial UPS necessary for all applications where electronic systems
(Uninterruptible Power Supply), which shows how the have to work also in case of power failure (i.e. computer

E
batteries take control during an in electrical supply centers, hospital equipment, communication equipment

H
variation beyond the normal limits of the voltage line, etc.). Many mainframe computers are fed by UPS
without disruption on the operation providing a steady systems.

S
regulated output (5V by LM7805) and an unregulated
UPS systems conventionally consist of a synchronous
supply. (12V).
generator, a fly-wheel for short-time energy storage and

LI
The input to the primary winding of the transformer (TR1) a battery powered motor or diesel engine.
is 240V. The secondary winding can be 15 volts if the
By progress in power electronics static power converters

B
E I
value is atleast 12 volts running 2 amp. The fuse(FS1)
can be realized, especially for mid-range output power
R IM

acts as a mini circuit for protection against short circuits,

(i.e. 5 - 50 kVA). In recent times there is increasing
U
or a defective battery cell. The presence of electricity will
demand for UPS systems with low-distortion output
cause the LED 1 to light. The circuit is designed to offer
P
voltages and sinusoidal input currents. Even at non-
E N

more flexible pattern wherein it can be customized by

linear loads producing output currents with high harmonic
using different regulators and batteries to produce
content, sinusoidal output voltage is required. Due to this,
regulated and unregulated voltages. Utilizing two 12 volt
even at unsymmetrical loads a static inverters can be
©

batteries in series and a positive input 7815 regulator,

better than rotary converters.
can control a 15V supply.
Static UPS system hardware
UPS are generally categorized as:
Static UPS systems consist of a rectifier with a single or
Standby - battery backup and surge protection
B

three-phase mains connection, a DC-link with a battery

Line interactive - variable - voltage transformer and for power storage and a single- or three-phase output
regulates the output AC voltage. converter. The bypass serves as an energy link in times
O

of system failure or overload situations. (Fig 2)

Online - Supplies all or at least a part of the output power.
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 293
 four-quadrant converter feeding the output transformer.
The stray filters the output voltage Inductance of the
specially-designed transformer and the output
capacitance.
The control scheme of the output inverter is shown in
Fig 4. The Controlled quantity is the output voltage.
An underlying current control loop is implemented for
protection of the power devices. The output value is
transformed to switching signals by pulse width modulation
(PWM).
PI-controllers for AC quantities normally have phase and
amplitude errors, which are not tolerable. On the other
hand, PI-controllers provide predictable behavior at all
operating modes. To reduce undesired effects feed-
Static UPS system hardware forward signals from the reference and output voltage
Static UPS systems consist of a rectifier with a single or are used. To eliminate the influence of the changing DC

D
three-phase mains connection, a DC-link with a battery link voltage on the gain of the current controller the
for power storage and a single- or three-phase Output current control output is multiplied with the reciprocal

E
converter. The bypass serves as an energy link in times value of the DC voltage.
of system failure or overload situations. (Fig 3)

H
The reference for the current controller is taken from the
Output Inverter voltage controller. A modified PI-controller was chosen;

S
special algorithms are implemented to cope with the
Since output loads are not symmetrical, every output saturation problem of the output transformer. The output

LI
inverter is made up of four power switches building a of the voltage controller is limited to the current capability
of the devices.

B
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R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

294 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
A sine generator running at a programmable frequency Output inverter and controlled rectifier both contain
and amplitude produces the reference for the output equivalent circuitry and signal processing pulse width
voltage. An additional voltage controller monitoring the modulator, current control, sine wave generation, DC-
RMS-value of the output voltage during an output cycle link measurement and adaptation. The whole UPS family
calculates the amplitude. consists of both one- and three-phase systems.
Integrating the total functions for a three-phase rectifier
Universal control structure
and inverter into one ASIC would be overloaded for
It was decided to use only digital controllers in order to single-phase applications.
achieve stability, easy parameter adjustment and
Therefore, it was decided to put the control of three-
additional monitoring features. Some of the controllers
phase inverter into one circuit. This can be used for the
have to be very fast to gain best response (current
three-phase output inverter, the three-phase rectifier and
control, output voltage control). For implementing these
also for both a one-phase rectifier and inverter.
algorithms fast signal processors and application specific
integrated circuits (ASICs) are available. Signal Fig. 5 shows the universal control block diagram of the
processors do not contain inverter specific peripheral ASIC. It contains seven PI-controllers in total. The pulse
circuitry like pulse width modulation, phase measurement width modulation generates the signals for six inverter
etc. For these functions, an ASIC was the solution with legs. This allows for three independent four-quadrant

D
the best price performance ratio. Signal processors are DC-inverters being used for a three-phase output inverter.
optimized for digital filtering and not for control algorithms. The current controllers operate in two modes: for the

E
Integrating the control algorithms into the ASIC the output inverter three current controllers are used to
calculation times could be minimized by developing a control the three phases independently. For the rectifier

H
processor structure perfectly adapted to the application. only two controllers are used; the third phase is calculated
at the output voltage level. The voltage controllers are

S
This ASIC containing both peripheral and signal
only used for output inverter operation. They can be
processing hardware is a very cost-effective solution for
bypassed at the rectifier mode.

LI
this UPS system. The disadvantage of having hardware
algorithms was acceptable due to the fixed specification Some additional circuitry was included. The measurement
of the UPS system and counterbalanced by an universal of the phase difference for the PLL-control of the line

B
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control structure performed by the ASIC with many frequency is supported by the ASIC using phase angle
R IM
U
switches and load able parameters. captures functions. To support the microcontroller to
determine the effective output voltage and current load
All inner current and voltage control loops are performed
P
the integrated squares of the measured values are
E N

with a sampling rate equivalent to the switching frequency

calculated during a period of the sine wave frequency.
of the power devices (10 or 20 kHz).
The repetition cycle of all calculations performed by the
©

The repetition cycle of all calculations performed by the

B
O
T
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 295
ASIC is the switching frequency of the inverter legs. This of three individually controlled single-phase transformers.
frequency normally amounts to 20 kHz. At the beginning Therefore, voltage distortions of one phase resulting
of the cycle the A/D-conversion is started. The ASIC from the load (for example short circuit) do not affect the
calculates the references and the A/D voltage controller. other phases. Fig. 8 demonstrates the inverter being
After at most 15 ìs the A/D-conversion is ready and the capable of clearing the short circuit by blowing the fuse
calculation of the controllers starts being performed in 10 without transferring to bypass operation. The maximum
ìs for all six PI-algorithms. New PWM-values are given to peak current available of the inverter during this operation
the modulator at the middle of the switching cycle. In the is 300% of RMS-rating. If the output voltage exceeds the
remaining second half of the cycle the ASIC performs the allowed voltage range for more than 4 ms the system
calculation of sum of squares of the measured values. automatically switches from inverter to bypass operation.
Measured performance results of the UPS system
The inverter controller ASIC is used at the control board
of a series of static UPS systems (APOSTAT). This
series consists of one phase units with sinusoidal input
currents (6.6 kVA and 10 kVA) and three-phase units (10
kVA and 20 kVA).

D
Due to the high sampling rate of the digital control
algorithms an excellent dynamic behavior of the UPS-

E
system is achieved. This is important in case of load-

H
steps (Fig. 6) and non-linear loads (Fig. 6). The output
inverter and the output filter circuit provide high peak The inverter is able to provide short time overloads (20%/

S
currents (crest factor 3). Harmonic distortions of the 100 ms, 1500%/5 sec, 120%/1min). If the load exceeds
output voltages range from 1% to 2% at linear loads and the current or time limit a current controller reduces

LI
to 5% at non-linear loads. output currents and voltages. Fig. 9 shows that the
Using a controlled step-up chopper the input currents of bypass will be activated to supply the output power.

B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T

the single-phase controlled rectifiers are pure sinusoidal.

This transforms nonlinear loads at the output side into
T

linear resistive loads at the line-side. (Fig 7)

O

The output transformer of the three phase units consists

N

Block diagram of ON- Line UPS using PIC micro

controller (Fig 11)
ON- Line uninterruptible power supply (UPS) offers AC
voltage regulation with the controllable battery charger.
The battery is Lead Acid Type battery. The charge control
technique used for battery is constant current charging
technique. The constant current is achieved by limiting
the duty cycle of charger (or step-down chopper). In
protection of battery over charge and battery under
discharge is available with relay trip through PIC 16F877A
microcontroller by monitoring voltages on continuous

296 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
 Fig 10
may also regulates the voltage. The turn on time of
MOSFET will be different as for constant current charging.
Hence, duty ratio will also be different. The inductor used
is toroidal type. The variable DC is fed to the battery
through the resistors of 12 kW and 3 kW. The voltage
sample Vx is taken between 12 kW and 3 kW resistor.
Also, other voltage sample Vy is taken across the battery.
The voltage samples Vx and Vy are given to the PIC
microcontroller for comparing purpose for constant current
charging of battery. When the voltage sample Vy is less
than 14 V, the load relay will be turns off, and when the

EM430620
Pictorial diagram of microcontroller UPS voltage sample Vy is more than 12 V, the load relay will
be turns on. Also, when voltage sample Vy is more than
basis. The backup of battery takes place the load without 14 V it will increases the duty cycle of step down chopper
spikes or delay when the mains power gets fails or and when voltage sample Vy is less than 14 V it will
interrupted. Based upon the constant current charging decreases the duty cycle of step down chopper. The
technique, a digital charger is designed and is control output from pin 17 of port C is given to pin 3 of the level

D
through PIC 16F877A microcontroller software. The shifter CD4504. At pin 1 of CD4504 the supply of +5 V is
inverter is simple square wave inverter. fed. Also, the capacitors of 100 uf / 16 V and 0.1 uf are

E
Circuit description of PIC micro controller (Fig 11) connected for high and low frequency input noise
suppression. The level shifter shifts voltages from +5 V

H
The AC voltages are applied to Rectifier through the step to +12 V (low to high). The output from level shifter
down transformer and power supply. An uncontrolled CD4504 is fed to pin 10 of MOSFET driver IR2110. The

S
rectifier converts AC voltages into DC voltages. The fixed output from pin 7 through the current limiting resistor of
DC is fed to the step-down chopper. The PWM control

LI
100W is given to the gate terminal of MOSFET.
technique keeps switching frequency constant and also
regulates duty cycle to ensure the MOSFET to turn on. In There are four different conditions:

B
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constant current charging method current is set at a fixed 1 Mains available and Battery fully charged at that
R IM

rate. Constant current is achieved by switching of the time

U
chopper. The step-down chopper produces a lower
average output voltage than the input voltage. The battery i Charger to battery relay will be OFF and battery to
P
load relay will be ON.
E N

is connected to the variable DC through the relay. Relay

gives the trip on the conditions of overcharging and under ii Also, Vl to be regulated equal to Vb so that battery will
discharging. The relays will work as static switches. The not discharge.
©

switching of inverter is controlled through PIC

microcontroller. The battery feeds the inverter. The AC 2 Mains available and battery not fully charged
output from inverter will fed to load. i Charger to battery relay will be ON and battery to load
230 AC voltages are applied to the step down transformer relay will be ON.
B

of 0-18 V/ 8 A. The output of 18 V ac is converted into 12 ii Charging to be regulated so as to keep Ib < 1 A

V dc through rectifier. Rectifier with filter capacitor converts
3 Mains fail and battery not fully charged but not
AC into 12 V DC. The capacitors of 2200 mF/ 50 V are
O

discharged
used to control the heavy current which may damage the
MOSFET switch. The switching frequency of MOSFET i Charger to battery relay will be OFF and battery to
T

switch is 8 kHz. The turn on time and turn off time of load relay will be ON.
MOSFET controlled through the isolated driver which
T
O
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 297
4 Mains fail and battery discharged
i Charger to battery relay will be OFF and battery to
load relay will be OFF.
Circuit description for inverter (Fig 12)
The push-pull configuration of inverter is used for
designing of inverter for ON-Line UPS. For switching
operation MOSFET Switches IRFP150 are used. For
that MOSFET switches MOSFET driver IR2110 is used.
The output from pin 33 and 34 as PWM waveforms are
fed to pin 5 and pin 7 of the level shifter CD4504. The level
shifter shifts voltages from +5 V to +12 V (low to high). connected to adjust pin of IC LM 317 the voltage at the
The 12 V output from level shifter CD4504 is fed to pin 10 output of LM 317 increases. When battery is fully charged
and pin 12 of MOSFET driver IR2110. The power supply charger circuit reduces the charging current and this
for MOSFET driver IR2110 is connected at pin 6 which is mode is called trickle charging mode.
as shown in Fig 12. When one switch is ON at that time
other switch is OFF, therefore dead band circuit is not Alarm circuit (Fig 14)

D
required for push-pull arrangement of inverter. For
MOSFET diver IR2110, isolated power supply is not

E
required because sources of both the MOSFET switches

H
are grounded. The resistor connected at gate of MOSFET
is used for current limiting. The capacitors connected

S
across the MOSFET switches are used for snubbing.
Battery charger circuit (Fig 13)

LI
Battery charger circuit using IC LM 317 provides the
correct charging voltage for the battery. A battery must be

B
E I
charged with 1/10 its AH value. This charging circuit is
R IM
U
designed based on this fact. The charging current for the
battery is controlled by Q1, R1, R4 and R5. Potentiometer A simple mains power failure alarm/detector circuit that
produces an alarm whenever the mains supply fails. Lot
P
R5 can be used to set the charging current. As the battery
E N

gets charged the current through R1 increases .This of such circuits are available, but the peculiarity of this
changes the conduction of Q1.Since collector of Q1 is circuit is that it requires no back up power source like a
battery to power the alarm when the mains is absent.
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

298 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
When there is mains supply the transistor Q1(BC558) will voltage by a factor of 3. U1 is an LM339 quad comparator
be OFF and the capacitor C1 will be charged. When the that compares the various voltages from the two dividers.
mains supply fails the transistor Q1 becomes ON and the The comparator sections have open collector outputs
capacitor C1 discharges through the Q1 to drive the which function as switches to operate the LEDs. D7
buzzer to produce an alarm. The capacitor C2 is the filter protects against reverse battery connection.
capacitor for the bridge. Diode D2 prevents the discharge
The LEDs are biased to operate at about 4mA which is
of the C2 when mains fails. If D2 is not there, the alarms
quite bright. This current can be adjusted by varying the
will remain silent for a time capacitor C2 to fully discharge
series resistors (R9 through R13).. For energy
after the power failure.
conservation, connect the battery via a pushbutton switch.
Indicator circuit (Battery level indicator) (Fig 15)
Single phase UPS
This battery level indicator offers five LEDs that light up
A single phase installation consists of a single sine wave
progressively as the voltage increases: These five LEDs
input and is typically a single phase of a larger 3 phase
show the approximate charge of the battery in percentage;
supply. A typical example of this would be a local 3 pin
each LED represents approximately a 25% charge on the
socket which uses 230/240 VAC (Single phase) to supply
battery.
power. Most small power hardware including rack
i Red : Power connected (0%) mounted servers, telecoms, network switches, computer

D
systems or any device running from a standard 3 pin plug,
ii Yellow : Greater than 10.5V (25%)
operate from a single phase supply.

E
iii Green 1: Greater than 11.5V (50%)
All single phase UPS up to 3kVA will typically be installed

H
iv Green 2: Greater than 12.5V (75%) to a standard plug. Sizes above 3kVA would be installed
to a single phase distribution board.

S
v Green 3: Greater than 13.5V (100%)
Three Phase Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

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Introduction
3 phase UPS

B
E I
A 3 phase installation uses the full 3 phases which is
R IM

generated from the grid. A 3 phase electrical supply

U
comprises of three individual sine waves, and can be
P
installed as either a 3 wires or 3 wire & neutral
E N

configuration. A three phase source would typically come

from a local transformer, with the standard three phase
voltage being 400/415 VAC.
©

Three phase uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) operate

in conjunction with existing electrical systems to provide
power conditioning, back-up protection, and distribution
for electronic equipment loads that use three-phase
B

power. A three phase UPS also prevents power

disturbances such as outages, sags, surges, spikes, and
O

noise from affecting the performance and life of the

Operation of the battery level indicator electronic device and data. Selecting three phase
T

uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) requires an analysis

D1 is the voltage reference zener. A string of divider of technology types, product specifications, and features.
resistors (R2-R6) set the various fixed voltage levels. R7
T

and R8 form a voltage divider to that reduces the battery 3 phase UPS systems are usually used on larger
installations such as data centers, medical equipment /
O

Fig 16 theatres and large industrial applications. All 3 phase

UPS need installation to a 3 phase distribution board,
N

which is usually achieved via a bypass switch facility.

Types of three phase uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS)
There are three basic types of three phase uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS):
1 On-line or double-conversion
2 Line-interactive
3 Off-line or standby

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 299
1 On-line or double-conversion input voltage range is the precise identification of the
electrical system is critical in the proper selection and
With on-line units, the load is supplied from a continuously-
application of a three phase UPS.
operating power converter that receives its input from a
DC supply. This DC supply consists of a battery and a Performance specifications
large battery charger, which are connected in parallel.
Performance specifications for three phase uninterruptible
2 Line- interactive power supplies (UPS) include runtime half load, runtime
at full load, and switchover time. Runtimes refer to the
With line-interactive devices, the inverter works in parallel
length of time the three phase UPS will run at half load,
with conditioned-input AC power to supply power to the
full load, and the amount of time for switchover.
load (boosting or bucking), and only handles the full load
power when the AC input power fails. Note that ON-line or double-conversion devices
3 OFF- line or standby do not have a switchover time.
With an off-line unit, the power is usually derived directly Output specifications
from the power line, until power fails. After power failure,
a battery-powered inverter turns on to continue supplying Output specifications for three phase uninterruptible
power. power supplies (UPS) include output voltage in battery

D
mode, number of backed-up outlets, and outlet options.
Capacity specifications Outlet options include additional electrical outlets, RJ

E
Capacity specifications of three phase uninterruptible type connectors, and coaxial cable connectors. Mounting
power supplies (UPS) are the volt-amp rating, watt rating, options for uninterruptible power supply (UPS), three-

H
and input voltage range. Three phase uninterruptible phase include tower type, rack or tray, strip type or plug
strip, and mounts on or in device protected. In addition

S
power supplies (UPS) are rated in volt-amperes (VA) or
kilo-VA (kVA). to battery backup systems, rotary or battery-free three

LI
phase uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) are available
Note that the VA rating is not the same as the that use the energy stored in a rotating member as
power drain (in watts) of the equipment. backup energy.

B
E I
R IM

The watt rating is specified only if VA rating is unknown; Electrical wiring of UPS
U
the watt Rating is less than or equal to VA rating. The Single phase UPS system wiring diagram
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

300 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
Three phase UPS 2 Lead-acid batteries
3 Vented cells (lead-antimony): They are equipped with
ports to
i Release to the atmosphere the oxygen and
hydrogen produced during the different chemical
reactions
ii Top up the electrolyte by adding distilled or
demineralized water
4 Recombination cells (lead, pure lead, lead-tin
batteries): The gas recombination rate is at least 95%
and they therefore do not require water to be added
Pictorial diagram of Three phase UPS during service life
1
Recombination batteries are also often called
Fig 19 "sealed" batteries.

D
Types of batteries used in UPS

E
1 Sealed lead-acid batteries, used 95% of the time
because they are easy to maintain and do not require

H
a special room

S
2 Vented lead-acid batteries

LI
3 Vented nickel-cadmium batteries
The above three types of batteries may be proposed,

B depending on economic factors and the operating

E I
R IM
requirements of the installation, with all the available
U
service-life durations.
Capacity levels and backup times may be adapted to suit
P
E N

the user's needs.

Installation methods
2
©

Depending on the UPS range, the battery capacity and

Installation of batteries backup time, the battery is:
Fig 20
1 Sealed type and housed in the UPS cabinet
2 Sealed type and housed in one to three cabinets
B

3 Vented or sealed type and rack-mounted. In this case

the installation method may be
O

On shelves (Fig 21)

1 This installation method is possible for sealed batteries
T

or maintenance-free vented batteries which do not

require topping up of their electrolyte.
T
O
N

A battery is made up of interconnected cells which may

be vented or of the recombination type.
There are two main types of batteries:
1 Nickel-cadmium batteries
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 301
Tier mounting (Fig 22)
1 This installation method is suitable for all types of
batteries and for vented batteries in particular, as level
checking and filling are made easy.

The floor material should be non-flammable and strong

enough to support the heavy load. The UPS has (4)
leveling feet that should be used when finalising the

D
installation. The diameter of a single leveling foot is 1 inch
(25.4 mm).

E
In cabinets (Fig 23)
Cabinet installation

H
This installation method is suitable for sealed batteries.
The required distance for UPS units next to each other is
It is easy to implement and offers maximum safety.

S
ten millimeters. The same applies to the optional battery
cabinets that should be installed next to the UPS cabinet.

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The UPS family has several alternative battery cabinets
and configurations depending on the selected back-up

B
E I
time and quality of batteries.
R IM
U
P
E N
B ©

Maintenance bypass switch (Fig 26)

Installation of UPS
The maintenance bypass switch (MBS) shall be mounted
The equipment must be installed in upright position. The
O

in back of the UPS battery compartment.

equipment requires space to front and back to enable
cooling airflow, service and maintenance. All cooling air Fix the switch MBS to the wall (din rail) or to the back of
T

enters at front and exits at unit rear. The required min. the UPS as shown below.
clearance from unit rear to an obstruction is 150 mm.
T

Ventilation space around the equipment

O

It is required to arrange ventilation of the UPS room.

Sufficient amount of air cooling is needed to keep the
N

max. room temperature rise at desired level:

1 Temperature rise of max. +5°C requires the airflow of
600 cubic meter per 1 kW of losses.
2 Temperature rise of max. +10°C requires the airflow
of 300 cubic meter per 1 kW of losses.
An ambient temperature of 15 to 25 Celsius degrees is
recommended to achieve a long life of the UPS and
batteries. The cooling air entering the UPS must not
exceed +40°C. Avoid high ambient temperature, moisture
and humidity.

302 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
 7 The input, bypass, battery and output terminal
connections are OK.
8 Appropriate input and bypass fuses and disconnectors
are installed.
9 Appropriate backfeed warning sign for disconnectors
are installed.
10 Appropriate cables sizes are used.
11 The external control connections inside the UPS are
OK.
12 There are no tools, foreign objects or dust inside the
UPS from the installation.
13 Covers are in place.
14 Optional MBS is placed to UPS position as default.
Starting up the UPS

D
1 Turn the battery and input circuit breakers to ON
position.

E
2 UPS will enter a stand-by mode and starts to charge

H
batteries with a cooling fan operational. Output is
Relay outputs without the voltage in the stand-by mode.

S
Relay outputs can be used for remote alarm indications. 3 Push any key of the control panel to enable the

LI
Each relay has four standard pre-programmed settings functions of the LCD screen
for alarms: 4 Select 'TURN UPS ON' from the LCD menu (see:
Display functions)

B
E I
One of the standard relay settings is "custom" that can be
R IM

customised by the user. The procedure to select 5 Press and hold button for 2 sec. There shall be no
U
customised alarms: sound during the hold.
1 Push any key of the control panel to enable the The UPS shall check its internal functions, synchronise
P
E N

functions on the LCD screen. to bypass and start to supply the load. The green LED is
blinking if there occurs an active notice. In normal operation
2 First select "SETTINGS", then "USER SETTINGS" the green LED is constantly lit if no new active notice such
©

and finally "RELAY CONFIG" from the LCD menu. as 'unsyncronised' or similar notices present.
3 Select the relay what is needed to be configured The output voltage shall be verified from the output
(ALARM-1 is fixed relay output X57). measurements screen of the LCD. If there is voltage in
4 Select "empty" to clear old settings. the output then UPS is supplying the load.
B

5 Select "custom" and activate needed alarms with the Battery start-up
button on the right. UPS will start on battery if mains is not available.
O

6 After the selection press "OK" button Shutdown

T

7 Finally test that UPS alarms correctly The procedure to shutdown from LCD is following:
Checking of UPS 1 Push any key of the control panel to enable the
T

functions of the LCD screen.

Check the mechanical and electrical installation of the
2 Select 'TURN UPS OFF' from the LCD menu (see:
O

UPS before start-up.

Display Functions).
1 Read the attached safety manual before work on the
N

3 Press and hold button for 5 sec. There shall be an

unit.
indication sound during the hold.
2 The unit is fixed according to mechanical installation 4 UPS shall do a shutdown routine.
3 The ambient conditions are within specification. 5 Turn the battery and input circuit breakers to OFF
4 The cooling air will flow freely. position to finalise the shutdown procedure.

5 The UPS is grounded properly. Earthing in electrical network

The main reason for doing earthing in electrical network
6 The input and bypass voltages match the UPS nominal
is for the safety. When all metallic parts in electrical
voltage.
equipments are grounded then if the insulation inside the
equipments fails there are no dangerous voltages present
in the equipment case.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 303
If the live wire touches the grounded case then the circuit 2 Pipe type earthing
is effectively shorted and fuse will immediately blow.
For pipe type earthing normal practice is to use GI pipe
When the fuse is blown then the dangerous voltages are
of 75 mm diameter, 10 feet long welded with 75 mm
away.
diameter GI flange having 6 numbers of holes for the
Purpose of earthing connection of earth wires and inserted in ground by auger
method.
1 Safety for human life/Building/Equipment
These types of earth pit are generally filled with alternate
To save human life from danger of electrical shock or
layer of charcoal and salt or earth reactivation compound.
death by blowing a fuse. It provides an alternative path
for the fault current to flow so that it will not give danger Method for construction of Earthing pit
to the user.
Excavation on earth for a normal earth pit size is 1.5M x
To protect buildings, machinery and appliances under 1.5M x 3.0 M.
fault conditions.
Use 500 mm x 500 mm x 10 mm GI plate or bigger size
To ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach for more contact of earth and reduce earth resistance.
a dangerous potential.
Make a mixture of wood coal powder salt and sand all in

D
To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short equal part.
circuit currents.
Wood coal powder use as good conductor of electricity,

E
To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive anti corrosive, rust proves for GI Plate for long life.
electronic equipments i.e. to maintain the voltage at any

H
The purpose of coal and salt is to keep wet the soil
part of an electrical system at a known value so as to
permanently.

S
prevent over current or excessive voltage on the
appliances or equipment. The salt percolates and coal absorbs water keeping the

LI
soil wet.
2 Over voltage protection
Care should always be taken by watering the earth pits in
Lightning, line surges or unintentional contact with higher

B
E I
summer so that the pit soil will be wet.
voltage lines can cause dangerously high voltages to the
R IM

electrical distribution system. Earthing provides an Coal is made of carbon which is good conductor minimizing
U
alternative path around the electrical system to minimize the earth resistant.
damages in the System.
P
E N

Salt used as electrolyte to form conductivity between GI

3 Voltage stabilization plate coal and earth with humidity.
There are many sources of electricity. Every transformer Sand has used to form porosity to cycle water and
©

can be considered as a separate source. If there were not humidity around the mixture.
a common reference point for all these voltage sources Put GI Plate (EARTH PLATE) of size 500 mm x 500 mm
it would be extremely difficult to calculate their relationships x 10 mm in the middle of mixture.
to each other.
B

Use double GI strip size 30 mm x 10 mm to connect GI

The earth is the most important conductive surface, and plate to system earthing.
so it was adopted in the very beginnings of electrical
It will be better to use GI pipe of size 2.5 diameter with a
O

distribution systems as a nearly universal standard for all

electric systems. flange on the top of GI pipe to cover GI strip from EARTH
PLATE to top flange.
T

Conventional methods of earthing

Cover top of GI pipe with a T joint to avoid jamming of pipe
1 Plate type earthing with dust and mud and also use water time to time
T

Generally for plate type earthing normal Practice is to use through this pipe to bottom of earth plate.
O

Cast iron plate of size 600 mm x 600 mm x12 mm. (or) Maintain less than one Ohm resistance from EARTH PIT
conductor to a distance of 15 Meters around the EARTH
N

Galvanized iron plate of size 600 mm x600 mm x6 mm.

PIT with another conductor dip on the Earth at least 500
(or)
mm deep.
Copper plate of size 600 mm x 600 mm x 3.15 mm
Check voltage between earth pit conductors to neutral of
Plate burred at the depth of 8 feet in the vertical position mains supply 220V AC 50 Hz it should be less than
and GI strip of size 50 mmx6 mm bolted with the plate is 2.0 volts.
brought up to the ground level.
Battery level
These types of earth pit are generally filled with alternate
Maintenance of battery in inverters
layer of charcoal and salt upto 4 feet from the bottom of
the pit. Batteries are expensive items to replace. They should be
serviced regularly as recommended by the manufacturer.

304 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
If maintained properly, they can be used for longer The needle must be in the green area (voltage reading
periods. The following aspects are to be checked to between 1.75 to 1.80 volts). There should not be any
maintain the battery in good condition. sudden drop of the needle within 5 to 10 seconds. If the
needle drops suddenly battery should be recharged.
Check and top up electrolyte level every week. Electrolyte
should be 10 mm to 15 mm above the plates.
If the voltage of each cell is less than specified, then the
battery should be recharged.
While charging do not overcharge the battery.
Keep the battery terminals always tight and clean.
To prevent formation of corrosion on the terminals smear
petroleum jelly on it.
Hydrometer
Hydrometer is a device used to check the specific gravity
of the battery as shown in fig 30.

D
Check the specific gravity of the battery with a hydrometer.

E
If the specific gravity falls below 1.180 then add a few
drops of Sulphuric acid.

H
S
LI
Voltage check of battery

B
E I
With the help of a voltmeter the voltage of each cell is
R IM

tested as shown in Fig 32. This will commonly vary from

U
2.0V to 2.15V and 2.3 volts per cell for fully charged
condition. The difference of voltage between the cells in
P
E N

one battery should not exceed 0.1 volt. If the difference

is more than 0.1 volt then the battery should be recharged.
B ©

Specific gravity readings and the state of charge of the

O

battery are as follows.

T

Sl. No. Specific State of charge

gravity of the battery
T

1. 1.260 - 1.280 Fully charged

O

2. 1.230 - 1.260 3/4 charged

N

3. 1.200 - 1.230 1/2 charged

4. 1.170 - 1.200 1/4 charged
5. 1.140 - 1.170 About run down
Overload protection circuit using 555 timer
6. 1.110 - 1.140 Discharged
Overload protection circuits are required in inverters to
High rate discharge tester make sure that the loads connected to them do not
The two legs of the cell tester are alternatively pressed exceed the maximum power ratings. This project
against each of the battery terminals for a period of 5 to describes a simple overload protection circuit based on
10 seconds as shown in Fig 31 below. a 555 timer IC is given in Fig 33. The current drawn by a
load is sensed through a 5W 1 Ohm resistor. The voltage

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 305
drop across this resistor is proportional to the current Overload current threshold can be varied through the
drawn and hence can be used to sense any short circuit potentiometer VR1. The mains AC supply to the load is
or excess load current. An optocoupler is used to isolate connected through the N/C (normally closed) connection
the mains AC part from the rest of the circuit. of relay RL1. When an overload is detected, the relay is
energized to disconnect the load from the mains supply.
The bypass capacitor C1 avoids any false trigger of the
circuit because of fluctuations in the mains supply.

D
Trouble shooting / Fault finding methods

E
H
Problem Probable cause Solution/Remedy

S
No LED display on the front panel Low battery Charge the UPS at least 8 hours

LI
Battery fault Replace the battery with the same
type of battery.

B
E I
The UPS is not turned on Press the power switch again to turn
R IM

on the UPS
U
Alarm continuously sounds when The UPS is overloaded. Remove some loads first. Before
P
the mains is normal. reconnecting equipment, please verify that
E N

the load matches the UPS capability

specified in the specs.
©

UPS fault Send/Return the unit to service center

Alarm sounds every 2 seconds Battery defective Replace the battery with the same
when the mains is normal. type of battery.
B

Charging circuit is damaged. Send/Return the unit to service center.

When power fails, backup time is The UPS is overload Remove some critical load
shortened. Battery voltage is too low. Charge the UPS at least 8 hours
O

Battery defective. Replace the battery with the same

T

type of battery.
The mains is normal but green Power cord is loose Reconnect the power cord properly.
T

LED is flashing
O
N

306 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
 Trouble shooting chart

Sl.No Fault Possible reason Trouble shooting

1. UPS works on 220 VAC mains, 1. Battery fuse is blown 1. Check the fuse and polarity of
but does not operate on battery. 2. Battery is discharged battery. If the fuse is blown,
replace it, if it is loose, tighten.
2. Recharge the battery

2. When UPS is switched on, 1. Mains input fuse may be blown 1. Change mains fuse
charger does not turn on. 2. Charger input fuse may blown 2. Check the battery polarity and
conditions, correct it if wrong
replace the fuse.
3. Check the supply from mains.
If OK then check relay wiring,
check relay coil.

D
E
3. 220VAC mains supply NOT 1. Input AC mains is very high 1. Check the supply of mains
available. 2. Capacity of i/p cable is low 2. Change cable

H
3. Loose connection of i/p wiring 3. Tight the connection of wiring
coming from distribution board.

S
4. DC voltage is OK, but UPS Inverter fuse is blown Replace fuse

LI
shows DC under voltage and trips.

5. When the UPS is switched ON

B 1. Capacity of mains input 1. Use cable with proper rating
E I
R IM
with out load, DC under voltage cable is low
U
indicator turns ON and inverter 2. Loose connection of input side 2. Tight the connections of input
turns/trips OFF. cable
P
E N

6. When the UPS is switched on Surge in the load When the output voltage is
with load, overload indicator 230V, add loads one by one.
©

turn ON.
7. Where there is no AC mains Battery is discharged state Recharge the battery use cable
supply, and the UPS is operating with proper current capacity with
on battery, DC under voltage the battery.
indicator turns ON.
B

8. DC fuse blows OFF 1. Skin effect due to long use 1. Change DC fuse
O

2. Overload or short circuit 2. Reduce the overload. If power

transistors are short of leaky
T

replace them.
T

9. UPS does not switch ON 1. Supply is stopped due to 1. Check correct dry soldering
blown fuse or some break in loose connection and replace
O

cable. the fuse.

N

2. No DC supply in the control 2. Check control card wiring

card due to dry soldering loose
connection or de soldering

10. UPS trips when full load is Overload cut setting is wrong Adjust the overload cut setting
connected. check the power consumption of
the load. When 220v o/p is
available, slowly increase the
load.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229 307
 11. UPS output is high 1. Some connection is broken in 1. Check feedback transformer
the feed back loop wiring and adjust feed back
voltage preset.
2. Control card is not functioning 2. Check /Replace control card
properly.
3. Over voltage sensing is faulty 3. Check overload sensing circuit

12. When the mains or inverter Output fuse is blown. Check/Replace output fuse/fuse
section turn on, UPS does holder.
NOT work.
13. Mains switch trips frequently This could happen when the UPS Check/set output frequency.
is operating on generator
14. Low battery indication glows This could be due to the DC Check/Replace capacitors.
capacitor is not getting properly
charged

D
15. UPS does not switch on in Mains earthing is not proper Check battery, MOSFET, oscillator

E
battery mode section, driver section, output
section. Check and correct the

H
earthing properly
16. Battery wire getting burned This happens if the relay points Check/Replace relays.

S
are joined together.

LI
17. Change over time high, computer Check oscillator circuit Check/Replace ICS and other
connected to the UPS reboots components of oscillator section

B
E I
during change over.
R IM

18. Low backup time Main filter capacitor Check battery

U
19. MOSFETs getting burned Battery short High current from battery
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

308 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.12.223 - 229
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230A - 230E
Electronics Mechanic - Solar Power (Renewable Energy System)

Semiconductor properties and types

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the semiconductor properties
• define a photo voltaic (PV) cell and state it’s application
• explain the IV curve of Solar PV cell and factors affecting its performance
• state various types of Solar cells and their properties.

(P-type and N-type semiconductors, PN junction) • All semiconductor devices has one or more P-N
junctions
Classification of metals based on electrical
• The combined behaviour of junction(s) will decide the
conductivity:
characteristics of the device.
• Conductors – copper, aluminum etc

D
• Hence understanding its characteristics is very
• Insulators – wood, paper etc important.

E
• Semiconductors – silicon (Si) & Germanium (Ge) • P-N junction has two bias conditions

H
Intrinsic semiconductors: • Forward bias – when P end is connected to positive
• Pure form of semiconductors terminal of power supply & N end negative

S
• Tetravalent atoms – each surrounded by four other • Reverse bias – when P end is negative & N positive

LI
atoms establishing covalent bonds • Forward bias will reduce the depletion layer and allow
• Have two types of current carriers namely electrons the current flow through the junction

B
E I
and holes • Reverse bias will enhance the depletion layer and
R IM

block the current flow

U
• Electron – hole pairs are thermally liberated carriers
Extrinsic semiconductor:
P
E N

• Results while impurity (trivalent or pentavalent) atoms

are added to the pure tetravalent atoms
©

• The method of adding impurity to the semiconductor

is called DOPING.
• P type semiconductor results by adding trivalent
impurity (Al, In, B etc) to the pure silicon.
B

• P type has holes the majority carriers and electrons

the minority carriers. Diode
O

• N type semiconductor results by adding pentavalent • A semiconductor diode has one PN junction
impurity (As, P etc) to the pure silicon.
T

• It has two electrodes namely anode and cathode

• N type has electrons the majority carriers and holes
• A diode behaves similar to the behaviours of a PN
the minority carriers.
T

Junction in forward & reverse bias conditions

P N junction (Fig 1)
O

V-I Characteristics:
• Forward bias
N

• the anode is positive with respect to the cathode

• Reduces the potential barrier
• The junction offers negligible forward resistance to
the flow of current (Rf = Zero)
• Diode works like a closed switch
• Reverse bias
• the cathode is positive with respect to the anode
• Formed by fusing/growing together one P-type and
• Enhances the depletion layer
one N-type semiconductor.
309
 Main materials used to develop solar cells (Silicon,
Cadmium tellurides, etc.)
A photovoltaic (PV) cell is an energy harvesting technology
that converts solar energy into useful electricity through
a process called the photovoltaic effect. There are several
different types of PV cells which all use semiconductors
to interact with incoming photons from the Sun in order to
generate an electric current.
A photovoltaic cell is comprised of many layers of
materials, each with a specific purpose. The most
important layer of a photovoltaic cell is the specially
• The junction offers very high reverse resistance, treated semiconductor layer. It is comprised of two distinct
layers (p-type and n-type), and is what actually converts
(Rr = “) blocking the flow of current the Sun’s energy into useful electricity through a process
• The diode works like an opened switch. called the photovoltaic effect.
• Types : signal diode, Rectifier diode, Regulator diode, Working

D
Light Emitting Diode and photo sensitive diode

E
Conversion of solar radiation to electricity.

H
Photovoltaic Cell / Solar Cell (Fig 4)

S
LI
B
E I
R IM
On either side of the semiconductor is a layer of conducting
U
material which “collects” the electricity produced. Note
that the backside or shaded side of the cell can afford to
P
be completely covered in the conductor, whereas the
E N

front or illuminated side must use the conductors sparingly

to avoid blocking too much of the Sun’s radiation from
©

reaching the semiconductor. The final layer which is

applied only to the illuminated side of the cell is the anti-
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an electrical device that reflection coating. Since all semiconductors are naturally
converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the reflective, reflection loss can be significant. The solution
photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that is to use one or several layers of an anti-reflection coating
B

its electrical characteristics e.g. current, voltage, or (similar to those used for eyeglasses and cameras) to
resistance vary when light is incident upon it) which, when reduce the amount of solar radiation that is reflected off
exposed to light, can generate and support an electric the surface of the cell.
O

current without being attached to any external voltage

Photovoltaic cell can be manufactured in a variety of
source. This method converts the sun’s energy into
T

ways and from many different materials. The most

electricity.
common material for commercial solar cell construction
A single solar PV cell will have an output of approximately is Silicon (Si), but others include Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
T

0.5 V and current of few mA which depends on various Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium
O

factors such as type & quality of the cell, Solar irradiation, Selenide (CIGS). Solar cells can be constructed from
incident angle of solar irradiation, shadow, Spectrum of brittle crystalline structures (Si, GaAs) or as flexible thin-
N

incident radiation etc. They are grouped to get higher film cells (Si, CdTe, CIGS). Crystalline solar cells can be
outputs. further classified into two categories—monocrystalline
and polycrystalline.
Applications of solar cells:
As the names suggest, monocrystalline PV cells are
The electricity generated by the photoelectric effect can
comprised of a uniform or single crystal lattice, whereas
be either used directly or can be stored in batteries or can
polycrystalline cells contain different or varied crystal
directly fed into an electric utility’s grid system. The
structures. Solar cells can also be classified by their
energy stored in the battery (in the form of chemical
number of layers or “p-n junctions”. Most commercial PV
energy) can be used to operate any electrical device. If
cells are only single-junction, but multi-junction PV cells
the device operates on DC, then it can be directly
have also been developed which provide higher
connected to the output load. If the device operates on
efficiencies at a greater cost.
AC, then an inverter is required to convert DC into AC.

310 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230A - 230E
Accordingly, Crystalline Silicon (Si), Amorphous Silicon,
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe), Copper Indium Selenide
(CIS), Copper Indium Gallium Selenide(CIGS) are the
main materials used to develop Solar Cells.
Light sensitive properties of PN junction.
P-N junction diode in the reverse-biased configuration is
sensitive to light from a range between 400nm to 1000nm,
which includes VISIBLE light. Therefore, it can be used
as a photodiode. It can also be used as a solar cell. P-N
junction forward bias condition is used in all LED lighting
applications. The voltage across the P-N junction biased
is used to create Temperature Sensors, and Reference
voltages.
I-V curve
PV panels can be wired or connected together in either
series or parallel combination, or both to increase the

D
voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array
panels are connected together in a series combination.

E
Then the voltage increase and if connected together in
parallel then the current increases.

H
The electrical power in walts, generated by these different

S
photovoltaic. Combinations will still be the product of the
voltage times the current, (P= V x I). However the solar

LI
panels are connected together, the upper right hand.
Corner will always be the Maximum Power Point (MPP)
of the array.

B
E I
R IM

Comparison of a cell, panel and array (Fig 8)

U
The solar cell I-V characteristics curves shows the current
P
E N

& voltage (I-V) characteristic of a particular photovoltaic

(PV) cell, module or array. If gives a detailed description
of its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency.
©

Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more

importantly Pmax ) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in
determining the device’s output performance and solar
efficiency.
Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant tight
B

directly into electricity. With increasing demand for a

clean energy source and the sun’s potential as a free
O

energy source, has made solar energy conversion as

part of a mixture of renewable energy source increasingly Selection of Solar PV panel
T

important. We should understand various features about a solar PV

The above graph shows the current voltage (IV) panel to be considered while buying it. Here we have a
T

characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell operating under short look into it.
normal conditions. The power delivered by a single solar
Types of Solar panel (Fig 9)
O

cell or panel is the product of its output current and

voltage (IV) If the multiplication is done, point to point for
N

all voltage from short- circuit to open circuit conditions,

the power curve above is obtained for a given radiation
level.
With the solar cell open circuited, that is not connected to
any load, the current will be at its minimum (o) and the
voltage across the cell and its maximum, known as the
solar cell open circuit voltage or VOC. At the other
extreme when the solar cell is short circuited that is the
positive and negative leads connected together, the
voltage across the cell is at its minimum (Zero) but the
current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum,
known as the solar cell short circuit current or Isc.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230A - 230E 311
Points to remember for selection of a solar PV panel • Test Certificate
1 Type • Manufacturer’s test certificate
2 Size • Quality Standard
3 Specification Backside of the Solar Panel (Fig 11)
4 Test certificate In a designer approved Single Line Diagram (SLD) the
above points are already considered and made available
5 Quality standard
in SLD and part list. The technician can verify as far as
Type possible the panels issued for installation or drawn from
• Monocrystalline store shall have these information correct.

• Poly/Multi crystalline
• Thin film
Size
• Peak power output (WP)

D
• Specification

E
• For selected WPlook for

H
• VM: Maximum voltage at WP
• IM: Maximum current at WP

S
• Maximum system voltage

LI
• Standard Testing Condition (STC) Standard test conditions (STC) of a PV module.
Every manufacturer tests their modules under something

B
Typical Specifications of a solar panel (Label on
E I
backside of a panel) (Fig 10) called Standard Test Conditions (STC).
R IM
U
STC is a set of rules to follow at manufacturing industry.
These rules allow consumers and solar designers to
P
compare panels.
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

312 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230A - 230E
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
Electronics Mechanic - Solar Power (Renewable Energy System)

Energy sources
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define energy
• list out the types of energy
• discuss about conventional energy and its types
• state renewable energy and its types
• differentiate conventional and non conventional sources of energy.
Energy Coal deposits are mainly found in Orissa, Bihar, Bengal
and Madhya Pradesh.
Energy is one of the most important components of
economic infrastructure. Petroleum or oil and natural gases
Main sources of energy Oil is considered as the most important source of energy

D
in India and the world. It is widely used in automobiles,
The source of energy is following two types.
trains, planes and ships etc.

E
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, mostly

H
alkanes and cycloalkanes. It occurs below the earth crust
entrapped under rocky strata. In its crude form, the

S
viscous black liquid is known as petroleum and a gas in
contact with petroleum layer which flows naturally from

LI
oil wells is termed as natural gases. The composition of
natural gas is a mixture of mainly methane, (95.0%),

B
E I
small amounts of ethane, propane and butane (3.6%)
R IM

and traces of CO2 (0.48%) and N2 (1.92%).

U
Conventional sources of energy A liquid mixture of propane and butane can be obtained
P
The conventional sources of energy is also called Non from natural gas or refinery gases at room temperature
E N

renewable energy source. These sources of energy are under a pressure of 3-5 atmospheres. This is stored and
in limited quantity. distributed in 40-100 liter capacity steel cylinders.
©

The conventional energy sources are classified in two Natural gas has been the most important source of
types like Commercial and non-commercial. energy since last two decades. It can be produced in two
ways:
Commercial conventional energy
(i) With petroleum products as associated gas.
B

Coal, petroleum and electricity, these are called

commercial energy because they have a price and (ii) Free gas obtained from gas fields in Assam, Gujarat
consumer has to pay the price to purchase them. and Andhra Pradesh.
O

Coal Electricity
T

Coal is a major conventional energy sources. It was Electricity is the common and popular source of energy.
formed from the remains of the trees and ferns grew in It is used in commercial and domestic purposes. It is
swamps around 500 millions year ago. The bacterial and used for lighting, cooking, air conditioning and working of
T

chemical decomposition of such plant debris (which electrical appliances like T.V., fridge and washing
machine.
O

remained buried under water or clay) produced an

intermediate product known as peat which is mainly Fuel woods
N

cellulose (C6H10O5)n.
The rural peoples require fuel wood or fire Wood for their
day to day cooking which are obtained from natural
forests and plantations. Due to rapid deforestation, the
availability of fire wood or fuel wood becomes difficult.
This problem can be avoided by massive afforestation
(plantation) on degraded forest land, culturable waste
Coal deposits in India are 148790 million tonnes. Total land, barren land grazing land etc.
lignite reserves found at Neyveli are 3300 million tonnes. Hydropower
In 1950-51, annual production of coal was 32 million
tonnes. In 2005-06, annual production of coal was 343 Energy obtainable from water flow or water falling from a
million tonnes. higher potential to lower potential, is known is hydro-

313
power. It is a conventional and renewable form of energy Fig 5
which can be transmitted to long distance through cables
and wires.
Nuclear energy
A small amount of radioactive substance (U235) can produce
a lot of energy through the process of nuclear fission. For
example, one ton of uranium can provide energy which is
much higher than three million tons of coal or 12 million
barrels of oil. In order to obtain nuclear energy, nuclear
reactors are required. There are around 300 nuclear
reactors all over the world. India has only four nuclear
power stations (reactors).
Non- conventional Energy or Renewable Energy
Tidal Energy
Renewable energy is energy that is generated from
natural processes that are continuously replenished. This Fig 6

D
includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water,
and various forms of biomass. This energy cannot be

E
exhausted and is constantly renewed.

H
Renewable energy source types
1 Solar power

S
Fig 3

LI
B
E I
R IM
U
Geothermal
P
E N

Fig 7
©

Solar Power
B

2 Wind power
Fig 4
O
T

Hydroelectricity/micro hydro
T

6 Biomass and bio-fuels

O

Fig 8
N

Wind Power

3 Tidal Energy

4 Geothermal
BIOMASS
5 Hydroelectricity/micro hydro

314 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
 Difference between conventional energy and non conventional energy

S.No Conventional energy Non conventional energy

1. Conventional energy, such as Non-conventional sources of energy (solar energy,

thermal powers (from coal, petroleum, tidal energy, geo-thermal energy, wind energy etc)
and natural gas), hydel power (from high are not used frequently and in large scale
velocity of running water) are tapped and (commercially).
used abundantly at present.
2. Their uses are practiced for a long time. Their uses are comparatively more recent.
3. Except hydel power, the sources of But the sources of non-conventional energy
thermal power i.e. other conventional are flow-resources. There is no anxiety for their
energies are non renewable in nature. exhaustion.
4. Except hydel power, the generation of But the generation of non-conventional energy
other conventional energy produces air does not produce air pollution.

D
pollution.
5. Except hydel power, the other But comparatively, the non-conventional energy

E
conventional energy is costly. is much cheaper.

H
Solar cells (photovoltaic cell)

S
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

LI
• define solar cells
• describe working of photovoltaic's cell

B
E I
• explain photovoltaic cell basics
R IM

• list the types of solar cells

U
• differentiate monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels.
Solar cells or photovoltaic cell Because the separated electrical charges are redundant
P
E N

carriers, having so called, infinite life and a PN junction

Photovoltaic: Photovoltaic (PV) materials and devices
voltage is constant, the junction, on which the light falls
convert sunlight into electrical energy, and PV cells are
acts as a stable electric cell.
©

commonly known as solar cells.

Photovoltaic cells
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, or solar cells, take advantage of
the photoelectric effect to produce electricity. PV cells
B

are the building blocks of all PV systems because they

are the devices that convert sunlight to electricity.
O

PV cells come in many sizes and shapes, from smaller

than a postage stamp to several inches across.
T

Crystalline silicon cells

Crystalline silicon PV cells are the most common
T

photovoltaic cells in use today. They are also the earliest

O

successful PV devices. Therefore, crystalline silicon

solar cells provide a good example of typical PV cell
N

functionality. 1 Semiconductor n
Working principle of photovoltaic cell or solar cell 2 p-n junction
Photovoltaic cell consists of high-purity silicon. On the 3 Semiconductor p
silicon, a PN (positive-negative) junction was formed as 4 Metallic connection
a potential barrier. Photons falling on the PN junction 5 Anti-glare material
cause the rise of pairs of opposite electrical charge
carriers (electron - hole), which as a result of the presence Cell coating
of PN junction are separated into two different directions. Silicon is a shiny grey material that can act as a mirror by
Electrons go to the semiconductor N and holes go to the reflecting more than 30% of the light that impinges on it.
semiconductor P. The voltage will arise on the junction. To improve the conversion efficiency of a solar cell, the
amount of light reflected must be minimized. Two
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234 315
techniques are commonly used to reduce reflection. Absorption
The first technique is to coat the top surface with a thin The absorption coefficient of a material indicates how far
layer of: silicon monoxide (SiO). A single layer reduces light with a specific wavelength (or energy) can penetrate
surface reflection to about 10%, and a second layer can the material before being absorbed. A small absorption
lower the reflection to less than 4%. coefficient means that light is not readily absorbed by the
material.
The second technique is to texture the top surface.
Chemical etching creates a pattern of cones and pyramids, The absorption coefficient of a solar cell depends on two
which captures light rays that might otherwise be deflected factors:
away from the cell. Reflected light is redirected into the
1 The material of the cell and the
cell, where it has another chance to be absorbed.
2 Wavelength or energy of the light being absorbed
Solar cell materials
Solar cell material has an abrupt edge in its absorption
Silicon (Si) - including single - crystalline Si,
coefficient because light with energy below the material's
multicrystalline Si, and amorphous Si
bandgap cannot free an electron.
Polycrystalline thin films - including copper indium
Manufacturing complexity
diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and thin-film

D
silicon The most important parts of a solar cell are the
semiconductor layers because this is where electrons

E
Single-Crystalline thin films - including high-efficiency
are freed and electric current is created.
material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs).

H
Several semiconductor materials can be used to make
Photovoltaic cell basics
the layers in solar cells, and each material has its benefits

S
Crystalline silicon cells are the most common type, and drawbacks. The cost and complexity of manufacturing
photovoltaic (PV), or solar cells, can be made of many varies across materials and device structures based on

LI
semiconductor materials. Each material has unique many factors, including deposition in a vacuum
strengths and characteristics that influence its suitability environment, amount and type of material used, number

B
E I
for specific applications. For example, PV cell materials of steps.
R IM

may differ based on the crystallinity, bandgap, absorption,

1 Semiconductor n
U
and manufacturing complexity.
2 p-n junction
Crystallinity
P
E N

3 Semiconductor p
The crystallinity of a material indicates how perfectly
ordered the atoms are in the crystal structure. Silicon, as 4 Metallic connection
©

well as other solar cell semiconductor materials, comes

5 Anti-glare material
in various forms, including:
Cell coating
1 Single-crystalline,
2 Multicrystalline, Silicon is a shiny grey material that can act as a mirror by
B

reflecting more than 30% of the light that impinges on it.

3 Polycrystalline, and To improve the conversion efficiency of a solar cell, the
4 Amorphous amount of light reflected must be minimized. Two
O

In a single-crystal material, the atoms that make up the techniques are commonly used to reduce reflection.
framework of the crystal are repeated in a very regular, The first technique is to coat the top surface with a thin
T

orderly manner from layer to layer. In contrast, in a layer of: silicon monoxide (SiO). A single layer reduces
material composed of numerous smaller crystals, the surface reflection to about 10%, and a second layer can
T

orderly arrangement is disrupted moving from one crystal lower the reflection to less than 4%.
to another.
O

The second technique is to texture the top surface.

Bandgap Chemical etching creates a pattern of cones and pyramids,
N

The bandgap of a semiconductor material is the minimum which captures light rays that might otherwise be deflected
energy needed to move an electron from its bound state away from the cell. Reflected light is redirected into the
within an atom to a free state. cell, where it has another chance to be absorbed.
This free state is where the electron can be involved in Solar cell materials
conduction. Silicon (Si) - including single - crystalline Si,
The lower energy level of a semiconductor is called the multicrystalline Si, and amorphous Si
valence band. The higher energy level where an electron Polycrystalline thin films - including copper indium
is free to roam is called the conduction band. diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and thin-film
The bandgap (often symbolized by Eg) is the energy silicon
difference between the conduction and valence bands.

316 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
Single-Crystalline thin films - including high-efficiency semiconductor layers because this is where electrons
material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs). are freed and electric current is created.
Photovoltaic cell basics Several semiconductor materials can be used to make
the layers in solar cells, and each material has its benefits
Crystalline silicon cells are the most common type,
and drawbacks. The cost and complexity of manufacturing
photovoltaic (PV), or solar cells, can be made of many
varies across materials and device structures based on
semiconductor materials. Each material has unique
many factors, including deposition in a vacuum
strengths and characteristics that influence its suitability
environment, amount and type of material used, number
for specific applications. For example, PV cell materials
of steps involved, and the need to move cells into different
may differ based on the crystallinity, bandgap, absorption,
deposition chambers
and manufacturing complexity.
Types of solar cells
Crystallinity
There are four types solar cells
The crystallinity of a material indicates how perfectly
ordered the atoms are in the crystal structure. Silicon, as 1. Monocrystalline silicon solar cell
well as other solar cell semiconductor materials, comes
2. Polycrystalline (or multi-crystalline) solar cell
in various forms, including:

D
3. Amorphous/thin film solar cell
1 Single-crystalline,
4. Hybrid silicon solar cell

E
2 Multicrystalline,
Monocrystalline silicon solar cell
3 Polycrystalline, and

H
Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of silicon ingots,
4 Amorphous
which are cylindrical in shape. To optimize performance

S
In a single-crystal material, the atoms that make up the and lower costs of a single monocrystalline solar cell, four

LI
framework of the crystal are repeated in a very regular, sides are cut out of the cylindrical ingots to make silicon
orderly manner from layer to layer. In contrast, in a wafers, which give monocrystalline solar panels their
material composed of numerous smaller crystals, the characteristic look.

B
E I
orderly arrangement is disrupted moving from one crystal
R IM

Polycrystalline silicon solar cells

to another.
U
Solar panels based on polycrystalline silicon, which also
Bandgap
is known as polysilicon (p-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon
P
E N

The bandgap of a semiconductor material is the minimum (mc-Si), unlike monocrystalline-based solar panels,
energy needed to move an electron from its bound state polycrystalline solar panels do not require the Czochralski
within an atom to a free state. process. Raw silicon is melted and poured into a square
©

mold, which is cooled and cut into perfectly square

This free state is where the electron can be involved in
wafers.
conduction.
Thin-Film solar cells (TFSC)
The lower energy level of a semiconductor is called the
B

valence band. The higher energy level where an electron Depositing one or several thin layers of photovoltaic
is free to roam is called the conduction band. material onto a substrate is the basic gist of how thin-film
solar cells are manufactured. They are also known as
The bandgap (often symbolized by Eg) is the energy
O

thin-film photovoltaic cells (TFPV). The different types of

difference between the conduction and valence bands.
thin-film solar cells can be categorized by which
T

Absorption photovoltaic material is deposited onto the substrate:

The absorption coefficient of a material indicates how far 1. Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
T

light with a specific wavelength (or energy) can penetrate

2. Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
the material before being absorbed. A small absorption
O

coefficient means that light is not readily absorbed by the 3. Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS)
material.
N

4. Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC)

The absorption coefficient of a solar cell depends on two
Depending on the technology, thin-film module prototypes
factors:
have reached efficiencies between 7-13% and production
1 The material of the cell and the modules operate at about 9%. Future module efficiencies
are expected to climb close to the about 10-16%.
2 Wavelength or energy of the light being absorbed
Hybrid silicon solar cell
Solar cell material has an abrupt edge in its absorption
coefficient because light with energy below the material's Hybrid solar panels are made from a mix of amorphous
bandgap cannot free an electron. and monocrystalline cells to generate maximum efficiency.
There are a variety of types of hybrid cells and they are
Manufacturing complexity
still very much at the research and development stage.
The most important parts of a solar cell are the
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234 317
 Difference between monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels

Sl.No. Monocrystalline solar panels Polycrystalline solar panels

1. Shape Square with missing corners square shaped

2. Colour Black Blue / metal shard

3. Efficiency high low

4. Sensitive high low

5. Cost high Low

6. Panel type

D
E
H
S
7. Cell arrangement One direction Made up of several bits

LI
8. Angle Correct angle All angle

B
E I
R IM

Photovoltaic systems materials

U
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
P
• discuss about the photovoltaic system
E N

• explain the photovoltaic module or panel

• describe the working of solar panel and photovoltaic array
©

• differentiate solar cell and module array.

Photovoltaic system rays impinges on a PV/solar cell, it may be reflected,
absorbed, or passes right through. But only the absorbed
Photovoltaic (PV), or solar electric system, is made up of
light generates electricity.
several photovoltaic solar cells.
B

An individual PV cell is usually small, typically producing

about 1 or 2 watts of power. To boost the power output
O

number of PV cells are connected together to form larger

units called modules. Modules, in turn, can be connected
T

to form even larger units called arrays, which can be

interconnected to produce more power, and so on. In this
way, PV systems can be built to meet almost any electric
T

power need, small or large

O

Photovoltaic cells or solar cell

N

Photovoltaic (PV) cells, or solar cells, take advantage of

the photoelectric effect to produce electricity. PV cells
are the building blocks of all PV systems because they
are the devices that convert sunlight to electricity.
Photovoltaic Module or solar panel
PV cells come in many sizes and shapes, from smaller
than a postage stamp to several inches across. A solar module is an individual solar panel - consisting of
multiple solar cells, wiring, a frame, and glass. PV or solar
Photovoltaic cell or solar cell working
modules are manufactured in standard sizes such as
A PV / Solar cell is a semiconductor device that can 36-cell, 60-cell and 72-cell modules. The term solar
convert solar energy into DC electricity through the panel is sometimes used interchangeably with solar
"Photovoltaic Effect" (conversion of solar light energy module
into electrical rays energy) as shown in Fig 1. When light
318 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
Photovoltaic or solar panel working indicates the voltage of the Panel (Module), whereas the
number of parallel cells indicates the current. If many
Solar panels work through photovoltaic process - where
cells are connected in series, shading of individual cells
radiation energy (photo) is absorbed and generates
can lead to the destruction of the shaded cell or of the
electricity (voltaic).
lamination material, so the Panel (Module) may blister
Radiation energy is absorbed by semi conductor cells - and burst. To avoid such an operational condition, Bypass
normally silicon - and transformed from photo energy Diodes are connected anti-parallel to the solar cells as in
(light) into voltaic (electrical current). Fig.3 As a consequence, larger voltage differences cannot
The sun's radiation hits a silicon atom; a photon of light arise in the reverse-current direction of the solar cells. In
energy is absorbed and released electrons to create an practice, it is sufficient to connect one bypass diode for
electric current. every 15-20 cells. Bypass diodes also allow current to
flow through the PV module when it is partially shaded,
The electric current then goes to an inverter unit, which even if at a reduced voltage and power. Bypass diodes do
converts the current from DC (direct current) to AC not cause any losses, because under normal operation,
(alternating current). current does not flow through them.
The system is then connected to the mains power or
electricity grid.

D
Photovoltaic array

E
Photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating
unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels,

H
as shown in Fig 2.

S
LI
Battery
Battery can be defined as direct current (DC) electrical

B
E I
energy storage. Even PV system that is connected to a
R IM

grid can often benefit from a battery backup system

U
where outages are a concern.
P
E N

Inverter
The DC-AC inverter converts direct current (DC) power
into alternating current (AC) for use in appliances,
©

Photovoltaic array working

electronics and other devices.
The Sun generates photons that stream down to earth as
visible light. Solar cells convert the energy of light directly Charge controller
into electricity. Assemblies of solar cells are used to A charge controller regulates, charges, and maintains
make solar modules (or panels). One or more solar
B

battery voltage.
panels are typically put together on a rack that faces the
sun called an array. Some racks have motors that keep Electrical load
O

them pointed directly at the sun as it moves across the Electrical load includes the appliances and other device
sky. The DPU-NEDO racks are fixed and do not move to that use of energy generated by the PV system. Electrical
T

track the sun. load can be either DC or AC; it is possible to have both
Many racks of solar panels are typically lined up into long kinds of electrical load on the same PV system.
T

columns and those columns form a large scale Wiring

Photovoltaic Array, "Solar Array," or Grid. The array
O

generates direct current (DC) electrical power. The DC The wiring includes the wires also known as conductors
power (480 volts) must be converted to Alternating Current that connect the system components to complete circuit.
N

(AC) by inverters in order for the power to be fed into Surge protector
transformers that setup the power to Electrical Grid after
passing through a Vista power switch. A surge protector is device that safeguards against
electrical shock from short circuit and damaging power
By pass diode fluctuations.
PV / Solar cells are wired in series and in parallel to form
a PV / Solar Panel (Module). The number of series cells

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234 319
 Difference between solar cell, module & array

Sl.No Solar cell Solar module Solar array

2 The basic element A number of individual PV Modules are wired in

of a PV system is series cells are interconnected parallel is called a
photovoltaic (PV) cell, together in a sealed, PV Array

D
also called solar cell. weatherproof package
called a Panel (Module)

E
Solar electric system

H
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

S
• define solar power

LI
• describe the block diagram of solar electric system
• explain briefly about the components of solar electric system
• discuss about types of solar electric system

B
E I
• discuss about sizing of solar electric system
R IM

• list out the advantages and disadvantages of solar electric system.

U
Solar power
P
E N

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity,

either directly using photovoltaic's (PV), or indirectly
using concentrated solar power.
©

Solar power working principles

Solar heating principles
Solar heating systems perform the following three basic
B

functions.
Collection: Radiant energy from the Sun is captured and
O

converted to solar thermal energy using solar collectors.

Storage: The solar thermal energy is stored using thermal
T

mass, water tanks, or rock bins.

Distribution: Distribution of the heat can be done with
T

both active solar energy and passive solar energy

O

methods. Example: Solar space heating, solar water Components of Solar Electric System
heating, and solar pool heating systems.
Photovoltaic module
N

Solar electricity principles

Photovoltaic module consists of solar cells which convert
Solar electric systems use solar cells to convert the Sun's light into electricity. When light photons are absorbed by
radiant energy into electricity. This is done using a the atomic electrons in the semiconductor material from
principle known as the photovoltaic effect. which the solar cells are made. Each photon absorbed
Solar energy block diagram causes an electron to be freed from its atom and drift
through the semiconductor material in an electric field
Solar panels convert sunlight into DC electricity, which is created by p-n junction formed just below the surface of
stored via a charge controller into batteries; DC loads can the solar cell. The free electrons and the resultant positive
be run directly off these batteries. Cables from the changes are collected by metallic contacts applied to the
batteries go to an inverter, which changes the DC to AC front and back surfaces of the solar cells thereby setting
to run the conventional household loads.

320 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
up an electron current which is made to flow through an Types of solar electric system:
electrical circuit to deliver power just like a storage
Solar electric system can be classified into two major
battery. The current produced by a solar cell is proportional
types.
to its surface area and the light intensity, whereas the
voltage is limited by the forward potential drop across the 1 Off-grid systems
p-n junction. 2 Grid-tied systems
In order to get higher voltages and currents, the cells are Off - grid systems
arranged in series and parallel strings and packed into
modules for mechanical protection. The support structure Off- grid system also called stand-alone systems. Although
for PV modules should be corrosion resistant (galvanized they are most common in remote locations without utility
or stainless steel or aluminum) and electrolytically grid service, off-grid solar-electric systems can work
compatible with materials used in the module frame, anywhere. These systems operate independently from
fasteners, nuts, and bolts. The design of the support the grid to provide household's electricity. That means no
structure should allow for proper orientation of the module electric bills and no blackouts-at least none caused by
and tilt. grid failures. They are generally designed and sized to
supply DC and/or AC electrical load. People choose to
Charge controller live off-grid for different reasons, including the prohibitive

D
As PV cell costs continue to fall, the battery in a stand- cost of bringing utility lines to remote home sites, the
alone PV system becomes an increasingly large part of appeal of an independent lifestyle, or the general reliability

E
the system cost. Battery's life now has the greatest a solar-electric system provide. Those who choose to live

H
impact on the economic viability of solar electric system. off-grid often need to make adjustments to when and how
The controller must manage a rapid, yet safe, recharge they use electricity, so they can live within the limitations

S
under a very diverse range of system conditions. The of the systems design.
charge controller in small stand-alone systems is the The simplest type is the direct-coupled system, where

LI
primary driver of system reliability and battery life. An the DC output of a PV module is directly connected to a
advanced controller will affect the system performance DC load. The critical part of designing a well performing
more than any other component, and an improved

B
E I
direct-coupled system is the matching of impedance of
controller will on the long run reduce the system's cost as
R IM

the electrical load to the maximum power output of the PV

U
the battery won't need to be replaced often. module. It can be used to operate pumping machine
Battery where water is pumped in the day to reservoir for used in
P
E N

the night. The drawbacks in this type of off-grid are:

The most commonly used battery in solar electric systems
is a lead-acid battery of the type used in automobiles,
sized to operate for desired hours or days. Automotive
©

batteries are often used because they are relatively

inexpensive and readily available. Ideally, solar electric
systems should use deep cycle lead-acid batteries that
have thicker plates and more electrolyte reserves than
B

automotive batteries and allow for deep discharge without

seriously reducing the life of the battery or causing
damage. In a well designed solar electric system, such
O

1 It can only be used in the day to supply load as there

batteries can last for more than ten years. is no battery for storing energy.
T

Inverter 2 It cannot be used with AC load.

An inverter is a basic component of any independent Direct-coupled system
T

power system that produces AC power. Inverters convert

DC power from PV module or stored in batteries into AC Another type of off-grid system is the type that incorporate
O

power to run conventional appliances. Another application inverter unit for conversion of DC voltage to AC at
of inverter is in the case of uninterruptible power supply appropriate voltage level. The only drawback of this
N

where the inverter with the aid of 12V DC battery is able system is the lack of storage unit, so it will not supply load
to generate up to 220V AC that can be used to power at night. The block diagram is shown in Fig 3.
most house and office appliances depending of their
power rating. While one needs to buy PV module and
battery, a hobbyist who likes putting things together may
personally love to build an inverter for his solar electric
project by himself. Of course I do for personal uses. Why
the waste of time and resources when there are cheap
and neatly packaged inverters in the market.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234 321
System with inverter with engine generator back-up. In the case of long cloudy
days and utility outage, there is likely to be blackout.
The problem of no electricity generation in the night is
eliminated with the inclusion of storage unit (batteries) as Fig 6
backup energy in the night. The block diagrams of this
type is shown in Fig 4.

Fig 7

D
E
H
S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
Sizing solar electric system
P
E N

Before sizing various components of solar electric system,

Off grid systems can also be sized to provide electricity need to find out what average energy usage is.. Dividing
during cloudy periods when the sun doesn't shine. Sizing this by the number of days of the month gives you an
a system to cover a worst-case, like several clouds days
©

average daily energy usage.

can result in a very large expensive system that rarely get
used to its capacity. To reduce cost, it is sized moderately, It is also important to estimate various losses associated
but includes a back-up engine generator to get through with installation. Some of these include losses due to
occasional sunless stretches. The generator produces orientation of PV module, shade, dust, temperature effect,
B

AC electricity that a battery charger (either stand-alone or name plate mismatch, cable loss, semiconductor loss (in
incorporated into the system) converts to DC energy, inverter), running power of charge controller etc.
which is stored in batteries. Below is the block diagram of
O

Sizing of PV module
this type of stand-alone system with generator back-up.
The capacity of modules is given in watt-peak. This
T

allows for calculation of electricity generated under

different levels of sunshine. To standardize the capacity
T

of solar PV modules, the capacities are given at an

illumination at exactly 1000 watts per square meter. One
O

watt-peak generate one watt of electricity under the

standard test conditions of 1000 watts per square meter
N

and temperature of 25ºC.

Again, one needs to know the amount of sun that is
available. Meteorological tables show the solar insulation
(usually in KWh/m2/day). This is different from day to day
and shows a seasonal variation over the year. It is safe
to design the system based on the average daily insulation
in the month with lowest insulation. The easiest way to
know the average daily insulation of area is to search the
Grid-tied system can also be connected in a way that
internet: someone must have published something on
utility supply will be charging battery in the period of low
that.
light intensity. It has the same features as off-grid system

322 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
Having done that, you can now slot in all the information inverter efficiency. The formula above can be modified to
into the formula below to get the required PV module size
Battery size (AH) =
in watt-peak (Wp)
Daily energy consumption
Daily energy consumption
battery voltage x discharge capacity x inverter efficiency
Insolation x efficiency
Advantages of solar electric system
Sizing of battery bank
1 Renewable energy source
Batteries are rated in ampere-hour (AH) and the sizing
depends on the household energy consumption. 2 Reduces electricity bills
Due to low voltage disconnect, one does not use the 3 Diverse application
complete battery capacity. Only certain percentage 4 Low maintenance cost
(discharge capacity) of the battery would be used. A
deep-cycle battery can be discharged up to 80% (actual 5 Technology development
value depends critically on the low voltage setting) of its Disadvantages of solar electric system
capacity. Now battery is sized with the formula below.
1 Initial installation cost is very high.
Daily energy consumption

D
Battery size(AH) = 2 Affected due to weather condition.
battery voltage x discharge capacity

E
3 Battery storage is expensive.
If the system is being designed to power ac load and

H
inverter is needed, one has to put into consideration the 4 Uses a lot of space.

S
SPV system and solar charge controller

LI
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe SPV system

B
E I
• list the types of SPV system
R IM

• differentiate SPV system and conventional power

U
• define charger control
• list types of solar charger control
P
E N

• explain working of solar charger control

• state the application of solar charger control.
©

SPV system 2 Hybrid system

Solar photo Voltaic means generation of voltage from 3 Grid-connected system
sunlight. Photovoltaic cells are also called solar cells and
these cells converts light energy in to electric energy. Stand alone system
B

Though the Photovoltaic cells can produce electric energy The entire power is generated by an SPV array and
in the presence of light but cannot store it. As soon as the stored in a battery to be provided in response to demand.
source of light is removed, they stop generating electric
O

energy. It is a known fact that full sunlight is not available

T

throughout the day. It is therefore essential that there

should be some device which can store the energy
produced by SPV cells so that it may be utilised whenever
T

required. The storage batteries are mainly used for this

purpose. These batteries convert the electric energy
O

generated by the SPV cells into chemical energy and

deliver back for the use of converting the chemical
N

energy back to electric energy. Thus the SPV Power

Source is a non-conventional energy source, comprised
of a SPV Modules, which convert Solar Energy (Sun light)
directly into DC electricity to charge the battery, through
a charge controller. The Charge Controller is used to
control the charging process Hybrid system

There are three types of SPV system In addition to an SPV array, other means such as AC
mains, wind and diesel generators are also used to
1 Stand alone system supply power.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234 323
 level. More charge controllers utilized a mechanical relay
to open or shut the circuit, halting or beginning power
heading off to the electric storage devices.
Generally solar power systems utilize 12V of batteries.
Solar panels can convey much more voltage than is
obliged to charge the battery. The charge voltage could
be kept at a best level while the time needed to completely
charge the electric storage devices is lessened. This
permits the solar systems to work optimally constant. By
running higher voltage in the wires from the solar panels
to the charge controller, power dissipation in the wires is
diminished fundamentally.
Grid-Connected system The solar charge controllers can also control the reverse
In such system the output of SPV planes is connected to power flow. The charge controllers can distinguish when
the grid and there is no storage battery; metering is used no power is originating from the solar panels and open the
to keep account of imported and exported power by the circuit separating the solar panels from the battery devices

D
user. and halting the reverse current flow.

E
H
S
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Solar charge controller

B
E I
A solar charge controller is fundamentally a voltage or
R IM

current controller to charge the battery and electric cells

U
from overcharging. It limits the rate at which the voltage/
current is charged or discharged from batteries. It is also
P
E N

charge regulator or battery regulator.

Types of solar charger controller This unit performs 4 major functions
©

There are three different types of solar charge controllers, 1 Charges the battery.
1 Simple 1 or 2 stage controls 2 Gives an indication when battery is fully charged.
2 PWM (pulse width modulated) 3 Monitors the battery voltage and when it is minimum,
B

3 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) cuts off the supply to the load switch to remove the
load connection.
Simple 1 or 2 stage controls: It has shunt transistors to
4 In case of overload, the load switch is in OFF condition
O

control the voltage in one or two steps. This controller

basically just shorts the solar panel when a certain ensuring the load is cut off from the battery supply.
T

voltage is arrived at. A solar panel is a collection of solar cells. The solar panel
PWM (Pulse Width Modulated): This is the traditional converts the solar energy into electrical energy. The solar
panel uses Ohmic material for interconnections as well
T

type charge controller, for instance anthrax, Blue Sky and

so on. These are essentially the industry standard now. as the external terminals. So the electrons created in the
O

N-type material passes through the electrode to the wire

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT): The MPPT connected to the battery. Through the battery, the
N

solar charge controller is the sparkling star of today's electrons reach the P-type material. Here the electrons
solar systems. These controllers truly identify the best combine with the holes. When the solar panel is connected
working voltage and amperage of the solar panel exhibit to the battery, it behaves like other battery, and both the
and match that with the electric cell bank. The outcome systems are in series just like two batteries connected
is extra 10-30% more power out of your sun oriented serially. The solar panel has totally consisted of four
cluster versus a PWM controller. It is usually worth the process steps overload, under charge, low battery and
speculation for any solar electric systems over 200 watts. deep discharge condition. The output from the solar
Working of solar charge controller panel is connected to the switch and from there the output
is fed to the battery and setting from there it goes to the
The most essential charge controller basically controls load switch and finally at the output load. This system
the device voltage and opens the circuit, halting the consists of 4 different parts-over voltage indication and
charging, when the battery voltage ascents to a certain

324 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
 TABLE 1

Difference between SPV and conventional power

Sl.No. Item Power plant configuration

Solar PV Conventional power

1 Operation Decentralised Centralised

2 Dependency on external Very low Completely
fuel source
3 Design Load specific Capacity -specific
4 Suitability Lower capacity Higher capacity
5 Gestation period Short Long
6 Transmission losses Low High

D
7 O&M costs Low High

E
8 Capital cost High Low

H
9 Running cost Low High
10 Environmental pollution None Add gaseous and particulate

S
toxins which causes pollution and

LI
ecological imbalance

detection, over charge detection, over charge indication, 5 LCD display-load and work mode status is displayed.

B
E I
low battery indication and detection. In case of the over
6 Set button-Adjust parameters, cycle through settings,
R IM

charge, the power from the solar panel is bypassed

U
or turn load ON/OFF.
through a diode to the MOSFET switch. In case of low
charge, the supply to MOSFET switch is cut OFF to make 7 RJ45 port for MT-5 Tracer (optional accessory)-
P
E N

it in OFF condition and thus switch OFF the power supply connects remotely to temperature sensor in order to
to the load. acquire ambient temperature.
LED indicators in MPPT solar charger controller
©

Applications
The process of generating electricity from sunlight is
having more popularity than other alternative sources
B

and the photovoltaic panels are absolutely pollution free

and they don't require high maintenance. The following
are some examples where solar energy is being utilized.
O

1 Street lights use photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight

T

into DC electric charge. This system uses solar charge

controller to store DC in the batteries and uses in
many areas.
T

Solar energy is the cleanest and most available renewable

2 Home systems use PV module for house-hold
energy source. The Modern technology can harness this
O

applications/appliances.
energy for a variety of uses, including producing electricity,
providing light and heating water for domestic, commercial 3 Hybrid solar system uses for multiple energy sources
N

or industrial application. for providing full time backup supply to other sources.
MPPT Solar charger controller parts and working
1 Charging LED indicator.
2 Battery status LED indicator.
3 Local temperature sensor-acquires ambient
temperature to perform temperature compensation
for charging and discharging.
4 Setting LED Indicators-work mode, timers, and battery
selection.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234 325
 Fig 7

D
E
H
Safety precaution in solar electric system

S
LI
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state general safety precautions in solar electric system
• safety while working on solar panel

B
E I
• safety on solar installation.
R IM
U
General safety precautions 2 Connect modules with the same rated output current
The safety basics only in series. If modules are connected in series, the
P
E N

total voltage is equal to the sum of the individual

Solar system is fully automatic and comes with built-in module voltages.
safety features. Do not attempt to work on, alter, or repair
3 Connect modules or series combinations of modules
©

the system; doing so could expose you to dangerous

electrical currents and void manufacturer warranties. with the same voltage in parallel. If modules are
Do not attempt to service any portion of the system. Only connected in parallel, the total current is equal to the
a trained and certified professional should service the sum of individual module or series combination
system. currents.
B

It’s not necessary to go on the roof for panel cleaning or 4 Bypass diodes are pre-assembled in each module.
inspection. If choose to go on roof, take all safety Do not remove these diodes.
O

precautions and do not touch or disturb the panels or 5 Keep children well away from the system while
wiring. It is important to remember that only an authorized transporting and installing mechanical and electrical
T

person should repair or touch system components. components.

Always, remind anyone going on roof that they should not 6 Completely cover all modules with an opaque material
T

disturb the panels or wiring. during installation to prevent electricity from being
generated.
O

Do not step on the panels or allow objects to fall on the

panels. 7 Do not wear metallic rings, watchbands, ear, nose, or
N

Do not disassemble or remove any part of the system. lip rings or other metallic devices while installing or
This will void manufacturer warranties. troubleshooting photovoltaic systems.
Small children and pets should be kept away from the 8 Use appropriate safety equipment (insulated tools,
inverter. insulating gloves, etc) approved for use on electrical
installations.
Safety precautions for installing a solar photovoltaic
system 9 Observe the instructions and safety precautions for all
other components used in the system, including wiring
1 Solar modules produce electrical energy when and cables, connectors, DC-breakers, mounting
exposed to sunlight. DC voltages may exceed 30V on hardware, inverters, etc.
a single exposed module.

326 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
10 Use only equipment, connectors, wiring and mounting Do not install a PV system in any location within 0.3 miles
hardware suitable for use in a photovoltaic system. of an ocean or salty water. Vapours and mist could
interfere with photovoltaic equipment and cause damage
11 Always use the same type of module within a particular
or electrical shock.
photovoltaic system.
Also do not install photovoltaic equipment in locations
12 Under normal operating conditions, PV modules will that are corrosive area.
produce currents and voltages that are different than
those listed in the data sheet. Data sheet values are Make sure that the roof where mounting solar panels is
applicable at standard test data. strong enough to support the weight.

13 Short-circuit current and open-circuit voltages should This next PV safety rule could save life. Make sure entire
be multiplied by a factor of 1.25 when determining PV system is properly and safely earth grounded to
component voltage ratings, conductor ampacity, fuse prevent electrical shock and injury.
sizes and size of controls connected to the module or Never work when it’s raining, immediately after rain or in
system output. An additional multiplying factor of 125 wet or slippery conditions or with wet tools.
percent (80 percent de-rating) may be applicable.
Never install a PV system near flammable gases or could
Safety while working on solar panel cause a fire or explosion.

D
1 Never work on a PV system alone. Cover photovoltaic solar panels with an opaque material
during wiring to stop or prevent electricity production.

E
2 Know the system before start to work on it.
3 Study electrical diagrams of the system. Make sure the area underneath your solar panels is

H
clean, clear and free of foreign objects.
4 Discuss the test objectives and techniques with

S
partner. Another solar safety rule is do not wear metallic jewellery
when working on PV system, or it could cause electric

LI
5 Keep test equipment in top operating condition. shock. Also never touch any electrical contacts or wiring
6 Check test equipment before go to the system site. without proper protection and safety gear.

B
E I
7 Wear appropriate clothing. When working on roof tops. Always insure that extreme
R IM

safety precaution (including harnesses, lifelines and safety

U
8 Wear only approved electrical safety hat. nets) are taken to prevent slipping, falling and causing
9 Wear eye protection, particularly if working on batteries. injury or death.
P
E N

Remove any jewellery. Inspect all power tools to ensure that they are working
10 Wear dry leather gloves to reduce the probability of safely prior to starting the installation of PV system. Also,
use insulated tools when working on a photovoltaic
©

getting shocked.
system.
11 Measure the conductivity from exposed metal frames
and junction boxes to ground. Another solar safety rule you should always follow is
never work in conditions of snow or high wind or when
12 Measure voltage from all conductors (on the PV these conditions are expected due to increased chance
B

output circuit) to ground. of slipping or losing your balance.

13 Measure the operating voltage and current. Work Always get a second person to securely hold ladders as
O

with one hand whenever possible. climb and use rubber latex mats to prevent the ladder
Solar safety from slipping.
T

Follow these solar power safety rules to minimize the Wear all necessary protective safety clothing including
risk work clothes that fit well and allow to move easily and
T

The first safety rule to keep in mind when working with freely, non-slip shoes, insulating gloves and a helmet.
O

photovoltaic panels or other PV components is, always When installing a PV system, use scaffolds (not ladders)
stop working in bad weather. PV panels can be blown at height 6 foot and higher. Be very careful of falling
N

around by the wind or a storm which can result in falling objects and do not ever throw objects up or down when
or damage to the PV system. installing a PV system.
Do not apply pressure on PV photovoltaic panels by Always protect wires or cables with flexible metal conduit
sitting or stepping on them or they might break and cause when wiring through walls, for wires exposed to sunlight,
bodily injury, electrical shock or damage to the solar rain or anywhere outdoors. Failure to follow this
panels. Also never drop anything on the PV panels. photovoltaic solar safety rule can result in electrical
shock or short circuit
Through the entire process of photovoltaic solar
installation, make sure don’t get the home’s sheathing Use waterproof fitting or duct seal to prevent water from
wet or roof may leak thereafter. This is usually an issue entering the conduit and damaging photovoltaic system.
with roofs that are just being built, but it can happen to Always connect a grounding wire from the mounting
older roofs too. hardware to the earth to prevent shock.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234 327
Maintenance and troubleshooting of solar electric system
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the maintenance of solar electric system
• maintenance of solar charge control
• troubleshooting of solar electric system
• troubleshooting of solar charge control.
Maintenance of solar panel 4 Wipe the solar panels with the wiper while the panels
are still wet. At times, the wiper is attached at the back
Solar panel maintenance is important because insufficient
of the brush. It is important that you don't allow the
care for solar panels can reduce the amount of energy.
soap to dry on the solar panels since this will block the
Since a solar panel system needs to absorb energy from
amount of sunlight that they can absorb and make
the sun the most vital component of solar panel care is to
them inefficient as shown in Fig 3.
keep the panels clean. Usually maintain a solar panel
using the same equipment that uses to wash residential Fig 2
and automobile windows, as long as provide regular care
and don't allow dirt and other environmental elements

D
from settling on the panels for too long.
Solar panel cleaning

E
1 Solar panels cleaning kit should contain a liquid soap,

H
a wiper, a small brush and in some cases another
brush with a longer handle. In many ways, these items

S
are similar to clean the car, so if you cannot purchase
a cleaning kit that is specifically designed for cleaning

LI
solar panels then you can substitute it with your car
cleaning equipment instead.

B
E I
2 Mix the soap with water in a bucket. The amount that
R IM

Fig 3
U
needs to be mixed should be mentioned on the bottle
of liquid soap as shown in Fig 1.
P
E N

Fig 1
B ©

Maintenance of solar charge controller

O

1 Check that controller is mounted in a clean, dry, and

ventilated area.
T

2 Check wiring going into the charge controller and

make sure there is no wire damage or wear.
T

3 Tighten all terminals and inspect any loose, broken, or

O

burnt up connections.
3 Dip the brush into the soap and water mixture and
N

4 Make sure readings in the LCD and LED are consistent.

gently rub it over the solar panels; solar panels divided
Take necessary corrective action.
into smaller arrangements with a small handheld
brush. However, for larger arrangements it can be 5 Check to make sure none of the terminals has any
difficult to reach the panels in the middle so need to corrosion, insulation damage, high temperature, or
use the brush with the longer handle as shown in any burnt/discoloration marks.
Fig 2.

328 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
Troubleshooting of solar electric system

Problem Possible causes Solution/Remedy

The light does not turn on at all. The batteries are discharged Charge the batteries
The batteries are bad. Replace the batteries
The LED fixture is bad Replace the LED fixture
A fuse is blown Replace the fuse
Controller is bad. Check the controller
The light does not stay on for the The run time is incorrectly set. Contact authorised service personnel
expected period of time. for assistance
The light turns on at dusk but does The run time exceeds the maximum Contact authorised service personnel
not turn on again at dawn (split run time for your model and location.for assistance
run time)

D
Low battery voltage caused by Allow for two to three days of
inclement weather. consecutive sunny weather to charge

E
the battery pack.

H
Low battery voltage caused by Clear tree branches and other
shading of the PV panel. obstructions from the vicinity of the

S
PV panel.

LI
The batteries are bad. Replace the batteries
The red LED on the controller Low battery voltage caused by Allow for two to three days of

B
E I
remains illuminated inclement weather consecutive sunny weather to charge
R IM

The light does not operate every day. the battery pack.
U
Low battery voltage caused by Clear tree branches and other
shading of the PV panel. obstructions from the vicinity of the
P
E N

PV panel.
The batteries are bad. Replace the batteries
©

The fuse blows repeatedly. There is a short circuit in the Check all system wiring for a short
wiring circuit.
The battery voltage is One (or both, if there are two) Check the controller(s)
less than 9.0 volts controller is bad.
B

The batteries are bad. Replace the batteries

O
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234 329
Troubleshooting of solar charge control:

Sl.No Trouble symptom/Fault Remedy

1. Charge indicator

OFF during day light Ensure that the PV wires are correctly and tightly secured
inside the charge controller PV terminals. Use a multi-meter to
make sure the poles are correctly connected to the charge
controller.

2. Flashing green light Use a multi-meter to check the battery voltage and make sure
it is within specification for the charge controller. NEVER
disconnect battery without disconnecting the solar panels first.

3. Battery Indicator

Solid orange light Disconnect loads, if any, and let the PV modules charge the

D
battery bank. Use a multi-meter to frequently check on any
change in battery voltage to see if condition improves. This should

E
ensure a fast charge. Otherwise, monitor the system and check to
see if system improves.

H
4. Solid Red The controller will have cutoff the output of the battery to ensure

S
that it charges. Make sure there are no excessive loads and give

LI
the system appropriate time and sunlight to charge. Monitor
readings with a multi-meter to see if they system improves

B
E I
5. Flashing Red light Overload: Use a multi-meter to check load drawn and limit loads if
R IM

possible. If no progress, disconnect all loads and gradually

U
reconnect loads to see if the condition improves.
P
E N

Short-circuit: Upon experiencing its first short circuit, the

controller will cut off for 10 seconds, and then resume normal
operation. Upon the second short-circuit, the controller will not
©

automatically reboot and the user must press the orange button to
resume controller working.
B
O
T
T
O
N

330 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.13.230F - 234
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.235
Electronics Mechanic - Cell phones

Mobile communication
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state mobile communication
• state mobile phone function
• explain the generation of cellphones
• explain the concept of cell site, hand off and frequency reuse.

Mobile communication
Mobile communication is wireless form of communication
in which voice and data information is emitted, transmitted
and received via microwaves. This type of communication
allows individuals to converse with one another and /or

D
transmit and receive data while moving from place to
place. Example - cellular and digital cordless telephones,

E
pagers, telephone answering devices, air-to-ground

H
telecommunications and satellite-based communications.
A cellular phone is a portable telephone that does not use

S
a wired connection. It connects to a wireless carrier 2 Poor battery life

LI
network using radio waves.
3 Large phone size
Mobile phone
4 No security

B
E I
The mobile phone or cell phone is a portable electronic
R IM

device used for mobile communication through wireless 5 Limited capacity

U
network using radio waves. In addition to the standard 6 Poor handoff reliability
voice function of a telephone, current mobile phones can
P
2G technology mobile phones
E N

support many additional services such as SMS for text

messaging, email, packet switching for access to the 1 2G technology refers to the 2nd generation which is
Internet, and MMS for sending and receiving photos and based on GSM as shown in Fig 2.
©

video. Most current mobile phones connect to a cellular

2 It was launched in Finland in the year 1991 and used
network of base stations (cell sites), which is in turn
digital signals.
interconnected to the public switched telephone network
(PSTN) Mobile Communications. 3 It's data speed was upto 64 kbps.
B

Generation of cellphones Features

When wireless generation started, it was analog 1 It enables services such as text messages, picture
O

communication. That generation is 1G. They used various messages and MMS (multi media message service).
analog modulation for data transfer. Now when the
2 It provides better quality and capacity.
T

communication migrated from analog to digital, the

foundation of latest communication were lead. Hence Drawbacks
came 2G.
T

1 2G requires strong digital signals for mobile phones

1G technology mobile phones work. If there is no network coverage in any specific
O

area, signals will weak.

1 1G refers to the first generation of wireless telephone
N

technology in mobile telecommunications which was 2 These systems are unable to handle complex data
introduced in 1980s and completed in early 1990s. such as videos.
2 It's speed was upto 2.4kbps, allowed the voice calls 2.5G technology
within the country. 1 2.5G is a technology between the second (2G) and
3 It used analog signal and Advance Mobile Phone third (3G) generation of mobile telephony shown in
System (AMPS) was first launched in USA in 1G Fig 3.
mobile systems shown in Fig 1. 2 It is sometimes described as 2G Cellular Technology
Drawbacks combined with GPRS.
1 Poor voice quality

331
 D
E
Features includes

H
1 Phone calls

S
2 Send/Receive E-mail messages

LI
3 Web browsing
4 Speed : 64-144 kbps

B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N

5 TV streaming / mobile TV/ Phone calls

©

6 Large capacities and broadband capabilities

7 11 sec - 1.5 min. time to download a 3 min Mp3 song.
Drawbacks
B

1 Expensive fees for 3G licenses services

2 It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
O

3 High bandwidth requirement

5 Camera phones 4 Expensive 3G phones.
T

3G Technology 5 Large cell phones

T

1 3G technology refer to third generation which was 4G technology

introduced in the year of 2000s.
O

1 4G technology refer to fourth generation which was

2 Data transmission speed is 144kbps- 2Mbps. started from late 2000s.
N

3 Typically called smart phones as shown in Fig 4 and 2 Capable of providing 100Mbps - 1Gbps speed.
features increased its bandwidth and data transfer 3 One of the basic term used to describe 4G is MAGIC.
rates to accommodate web-based applications and 4G mobile phones are shown in Fig 5.
audio and video files.
Magic
Features include
1 Mobile multimedia
1 Providing faster communication
2 Anytime anywhere (Universal)
2 Send/Receive large email messages
3 Global mobility support
3 High speed web / more security
4 Integrated wireless solution
4 Video conferencing / 3D gaming

332 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.235
 10 Provide any kind of service at any time at anywhere as
per user requirements.
Features include
1 More security
2 High speed
3 High capacity
4 Low cost per-bit
Drawbacks
1 Battery usage is more.
2 Need complicated hardware.
3 Expensive equipment required to implement next
generation network.
5 Customized personal services. Concept of cell

D
6 Also known as mobile broadband everywhere. 1 Cell refers to the geographical area under one base

E
7 The next generations of wireless technology that station with a single transmitter and receiver.
promises higher data rates and expanded multimedia

H
• The size of a cell depends upon the density (number)
services. of users in a given area.

S
8 Capable to provide speed of 100Mbps-1Gbps. • For a heavily populated city area, many small cells are

LI
9 High quality of services(QOS) and High security.

Comparison of 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G

B
E I
R IM

Comparison of all generation of mobile technologies (1G-5G)

U
Generation 1G 2G 2.5G 3G 3.5G 4G 5G
P
E N

Start 1970 -1980 1990 -2000 2001 - 2004 2004 - 2005 2006 - 2010 2011- Now 2024 Now
Data
©

Bandwidth 2 kbps 64 kbps 144 kbps 2 Mbps More than 1 Gbps More than 1
2 Mbps Gbps
Technology Analog Digital GPRS, CDMA 2000 EDGE, WiMAX
cellular cellular CDMA (1×RT, Wi-Fi LTE Wi-Fi WWWW
B

EVDO)
UMTS,
EDGE
O

Service Voice Digital voice, SMS, Integrated Integrated Dynamic Dynamic

T

SMS, MMS high High information information

Higher Quality Quality access, access,
capacity Audio, Audio, wearable wearable
T

packet Video & Video & Devices devices

O

size Data Data with all

Data capabilities
N

Multiplexing FDMA TDMA, TDMA, TDMA, TDMA, TDMA, TDMA,

CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA
Switching Circuit Circuit, Packet Packet All Packet All packet All Packet
packet
Core Network PSTN PSTN PSTN Packet N/W Internet Internet Internet
Handoff Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal & Horizontal &
Vertical Vertical

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.235 333
 used to ensure service.
• In less populated rural areas, fewer cells are used.
• A group of cells are called a cluster. Each cell in a
cluster will be having different frequencies to avoid
interference.
• The cell will be in hexagonal shape in a honeycomb
pattern.
The geographical area or cellular service is divided into
small hexagonal region called cells. It is the basic unit of
a cellular system. These cells collectively provide
coverage over larger geographical areas.
Hexagonal cell shape as shown in Fig 8 is perfect over
square or triangular cell shapes in cellular architecture
because it cover an entire area without overlapping i.e.
they can cover the entire geographical region without any

D
gaps. If cell is in circular shape, there may be overlapping
of areas or some geographical area may not be covered

E
• The figure 8 shows a geographic cellular coverage
as shown in Fig 6. area with 3 clusters. There are seven cells in each

H
Frequency reuse and cell splitting is the process of cluster, each cells having a different frequencies
dividing a larger congested cell into smaller cells. Each (denoted by the letters A, B C, D, E, F, and G)

S
cell has its own base station. • Cells with the same letter uses the same set of

LI
When the traffic in an area increases, larger cells are split channel frequencies.
into smaller cells so that frequency can be reused. By • Here the same set of frequencies are used 3 times,
splitting the cell, the capacity of the system will be

B
E I
which increases the number of usable channels by
increased because availability of additional number of
R IM

threefold.
channels per unit service area is also increased.
U
Structure of cells for frequency reuse
Cell site
P
Concept of handoff
E N

• A handoff refers to the process of transferring an

active call or data session from one cell in a cellular
©

network to another.
• Handoff is often initiated either by crossing a cell
boundary or by deterioration in quality of signal in
current channel.
B

• For instance, if a subscriber moves out of the coverage

area from a particular cell while entering to another, a
O

handoff takes place between the two cells as shown

in Fig 9. The cell that served the call prior to the
T

The cell site is used to refer to the physical location of the handoff is relieved of its duties, which are then
radio equipment that provides coverage within the cell. transferred to the second cell.
T

A list of hardware located at a cell site include power

source interface equipment, radio frequency transmitter,
O

receiver and antenna system as shown in Fig 7.

Frequency reuse concept
N

• Since the frequencies available for mobile

communication are limited compared to the user
demand of these systems, the concept of frequency
reuse is employed.
• Frequency reuse is the process in which the same set
of frequencies (channel) can be allocated to more • A handoff may also be triggered when the number of
than one cell, provided the cells are separated by subscribers using a particular cell has already reached
sufficient distance (to avoid mutual interference). the cells maximum limit (capacity). Such a handoff is
possible because the reach of the cell sites serving
these cells can sometimes overlap.

334 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.235
Cellular network
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the cellular system infrastructure

D
• state GSM network
• describe CDMA network

E
• compare GSM & CDMA

H
• explain GPRS network.

Cellular system infrastructure

S
performs hand off, and monitors the call for billing
1 Cellular system infrastructure was developed to information.

LI
increase the capacity for mobile radio telephone Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
service.
1 Earlier cellular telephone systems in European

B
E I
2 A basic cellular system consists of 3 layers as shown countries were working at different frequencies, they
R IM
U
in Fig 1. were incompatible with other systems.
i Mobile unit - It is the mobile which is in the hands 2 To improve the inter operatability among various cellular
P
E N

of users. communication systems the European

telecommunication Standardization Institute (ETSI)
ii Base Station Controller (BSC) - The mobile unit
has formulated a global standard called GSM.
©

is normally connected to the base station. The

base stations are considered as cells. The base 3 It is world's first cellular system to specify digital
station includes an antenna, a controller and a modulation and level architecture and service, and it is
number of transceivers for communicating on the most popular 2G technology.
channel assigned to that cell.
B

GSM Services
iii Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) -
1 GSM services are classified into three groups
Each BSC is connected to an MTSO, with one
O

MTSO serving with multiple base stations. MTSO i Teleservices - Tele services includes the voice
is also connected to PSTN (Public Switched
T

communication via mobile phones.

Telephone Network) or the conventional landline.
The MTSO assigns voice channels to each call, ii Data services - Data services include various data
T

services for information transfer between GSM

and other networks like PSTN, ISDN etc. Data
O

services also include short message service (SMS).

N

iii Supplementary services - Supplementary

services such as call forwarding, call barring etc
are also offered with GSM.
GSM architecture
GSM architecture components
1 GSM architecture has three major interconnected
subsystems that interact among one another and with
subscribers through specified network interfaces as
shown in Fig 2.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.235 335
 2 CDMA operates by coding to discriminate between
users.
There are two types of CDMA
1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) CDMA
Here a narrowband input from a user is coded (spread)
by a unique broadband code (Pseudorandom Noise)
and then transmitted. All the receivers get this coded
broadband signal. But only the receiver who knows
this unique broadband code can recover the user
data.
2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
CDMA - Here each user narrowband signal varies
among discrete frequencies based on a code. Only
i Base Station Subsystem (BSS) - BSS is also the receiver who knows this code for frequency
known as radio subsystem as it provides and variation can recover the data. Frequency hopping
manages radio-frequency transmission paths technique is used by the military since it gives very

D
between mobile unit and the mobile switching high data security.
center (MSC). Mobile Unit is also considered as a

E
part of BSS. Block diagram of CDMA system

H
ii Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) - NSS Fig 3 shows the block diagram of a CDMA system. It
manages the switching function of the system and consists of

S
allows MSC to communicate with other telephone 1 A/D converter - It converts analog voice signal to
network like PSTN (Public Switched Telephone digital signal.

LI
Network), ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network) and PDN (Public Data Network). 2 Vocoder- Digitalized voice is vocoded. Here the
digital voice is variably compressed to make more

B
E I
iii Operational Support Subsystem (OSS) - The efficient use of the air link and system resources.
R IM

OSS supports operation and maintenance, of the

U
system and allows engineers to monitor, diagnose, 3 Encoder and Interleaver - The purpose of encoder
and troubleshoot every aspect of the GSM network. is to build redundancy into the signal. Interleaving is
P
E N

a method of reducing the effects of burst errors and

Advantages of GSM over earlier Analog systems recovering bits when burst errors occur.
1 Capacity increases. 4 Spreader - the encoded signals are spread
©

2 Reduced RF transmission power, thus longer battery (channelized) using spreader. The spreader converts
life. the narrowband signal into a wideband signal using
3 International roaming capability. spreading code such as walsh code or pseudo- noise
codes.
4 Better security
B

5 Encryption capability for information security and 5 Code generator - The code generator generates the
spreading code. Orthogonal (Walsh) codes are used
O

on the forward link (base station to mobile station) to

channelize the users. A Pseudorandom Noise (PN)
T

code is used on the reverse link (mobile station to

base station).
T

6 D/A converter - It converts digitally coded signal to

analog RF signal for transmission.
O

7 Antenna - It transmits the RF signal which can be

received by uses with mobile handsets.
N

privacy. 8 Only the users who knows the pseudorandom noise

code (or the frequency variation code in FHSS CDMA)
6 Compatibility with ISDN, leading to wider range of can recover the original data.
services.
Advantages of CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
1 Capacity increases 4 to 5 times that of GSM systems.
1 CDMA is a digital cellular technology based on spread
spectrum technique, where the entire bandwidth of 2 Improved call quality.
frequencies is available to each user at the same 3 Simplified system planning through the use of same
time. frequency in every sector of every cell.

336 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.235
4 Enhanced privacy. Advantages of GPRS
5 Improved coverage characteristics, allowing the Speed - GPRS can achieve speed up to 171.2 kilobits per
possibility of fewer cell sites. second (KBPS) using all eight timeslots at the same time.
This is thrice as fast as older data transmission systems.
6 Extra bandwidth can be made available on demand.
Immediacy - GPRS facilitates instant connections
General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)
whereby information can be sent or received immediately
1 GPRS is a non voice value added service that allows as the need arises, subject to radio coverage. No dial up
data information to be sent and received across a modem connection is necessary.
mobile telephone network.
New and better applications - GPRS facilitates several
2 It uses existing GSM networks to transmit and receive new applications that have not previously been available
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet on GSM network due to the limitations in speeds and
Protocol) based data to and from mobile devices. lengths. GPRS fully enable the internet applications
3 GPRS involves overlaying a packet based air interface normally used on desktop computers (from web browsing
on the existing GSM network. Thus network to chat) over the mobile networks.
architecture of GPRS is similar to that of GSM.

D
4 GPRS facilitates instant connection whereby
information can be sent or received immediately as

E
the need arises, subject to radio coverage. No dial-up
modem connection is necessary.

H
S
Difference between CDMA & GSM

LI
CDMA GSM

B
E I
Stands for Code Division Multiple Access. Global system for mobile communication.
R IM
U
Storage Type Internal memory. SIM (subscriber identity module) card.
Network There is one physical channel and Every cell has a corresponding network tower,
P
E N

a special code for every device in the which serves the mobile phones in that cellular
coverage network. Using this code, area.
the signal of the device is multiplexed,
©

and the same physical channel is

used to send the signal.
B

International Less Accessible. Most Accessible.

roaming
Frequency band Single (850 MHZ). Multiple (850/900/1800/1900 MHZ).
O

Network service Handset specific. SIM specific. User has option to select handset
T

of this choice.
Dominance Dominant standard in the U.S. Dominant standard worldwide except the U.S.
T

Secrecy More Less

O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.235 337
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.236
Electronics Mechanic - Cell phones

Block diagram and features of cell phones

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the block diagram of cell phone
• state the feature and application of cell phone
• list the features of smartphone
• state the uses of cell phone.
Block diagram of the cell phone Tx/Rx Switch
Now-a-days cell phone become more popular for SMS/ As there is only one antenna used for both transmit and
MMS and internet applications due to GPRS feature. receive at different times, Tx/Rx Switch is used to connect
After the introduction of Smartphone many applications both Tx path and Rx path with antenna. Tx/Rx Switch is
such as face book, Orkut, Twitter, Various games comes controlled automatically by DSP (digital signal processor)

D
built-in the phone. Now mobile phone has slowly taken based on GSM. For FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing)
the place of laptop for many of the applications. systems diplexer is used in place of switch which acts as

E
filter to separate various frequency bands.
Fig 1 shows the block diagram of a cell phone with

H
respect to GSM standard. Baseband Part
RF Part This part is used to convert voice/data to be carried over

S
GSM air interface to baseband signal. This is the core
As shown in the figure 1, every mobile phone will have RF
part which changes for various air interface standards

LI
part which consists of RF frequency up converter and RF
viz. CDMA, Wimax, LT E, and more. For speech/audio,
frequency down converter. There are two approaches
codec is used to compress and decompress the signal to
employed in GSM Mobile phone receiver, i.e. heterodyne

B
E I
match the rate to the frame it has to fit in. CODEC
or homodyne. The basic component used for frequency
R IM

converts speech at 8 KHz sampling rate to kbps rate for

U
conversion is RF mixer.
full rate speech traffic channel.
Antenna
P
ADC and DAC
E N

Antenna is the metallic object which converts electro-

ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) and DAC (digital to
magnetic signal to electric signal and vice versa.
analog converter) is used to convert analog speech
Commonly used antennas in the mobile phone are helix
©

signal to digital signal and vice versa in the mobile

type, planar inverted F type, and whip or patch type. Micro
handset. At transmit path, ADC converted digital signal
strip based patch type of antennas are popular among
is given to speech coder. AGC (Automatic Gain Control)
mobile phones due to its size, easy integration on the
and AFC (Automatic Frequency Control) is used in the
PCB and multi frequency band of operation and supports
receiver path to control gain and frequency. AGC helps
B

various GSM bands and also various technologies such

maintain working of DAC satisfactorily, as it keeps signal
as CDMA, LTE, WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
within the dynamic range of DAC. AFC keeps frequency
Microwave Access) and also WLAN, Bluetooth and so
O

error within limit to achieve better receiver performance.

on.
T
T
O
N

338
Application layer transistor) screen, OLED (organic light emitting diode),
TFD (thin film diode), touch screen of capacitive and
It also runs on CPU. Various applications run in GSM
resistive type.
mobile phone. It includes audio, video and image/
graphics applications. It supports various audio formats Keypad
such as MP3, MP4, WAV, RM, JPEG image formats are
Earlier days keypad was simple matrix type keypad
usually available. It supports video formats e.g. MPEG-
which contains numeric digits (0 to 9), alphabets (a to z),
1 to MPEG-5.
special characters and specific function keys. These has
Operating system been designed for various applications such as accepting
call, rejecting call, cursor movement (left, right, up, down)
Various operating systems are supported in mobile phone
dialing number, typing name/sms/mms and so on.
such as Symbian, java, android, RT-Linux, Palm. It runs
Now-a days keypad has been removed from the phone
on CPU of different manufacturers. For time critical
design and it has become part of mobile phone software.
application RTOS (real -time operating system) is used.
It loops on the display screen itself which can be operated
Battery by user using touch of a finger tip.
It is the major source of power to make/to keep mobile Features
phone functional. There are various types of batteries

D
1 Accessories - Manufacturers offer a number of
made of Nickel Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel Metal Hydride
accessories that can make phones even more
(NiMH), based on lithium, Li-ion and so on. Battery

E
convenient to use, such as hands-free options
comes usually with 3.6 or 3.7 voltage and 600 mAH or
(headsets, ear buds, bluetooth hands free devices),

H
960 mAH ratings. Li-ion is long lasting and lighter, but
extra batteries, and portable charging adapters.
more expensive.

S
2 Bluetooth - This wireless communications technology
Connectivity (WLAN, Bluetooth, USB, GPS)
links compatible for mobile phone datas to transfer.

LI
To make data transfer fast enough between mobile
3 Caller ID - A feature that displays the name or number
phone and other computing devices (laptop, desktop,
of the calling party on the phone's display when an
tablet) or between mobile and mobile various technologies

B
E I
incoming call is received.
are evolved which include WLAN, Bluetooth, USB, GPS
R IM

(global positioning system) is used for location assistance 4 Digital Camera - Allows to take digital photos and
U
and will enable google map to work efficiently. transmit the images wirelessly.
P
E N

Bluetooth and wi-fi uses 2.4 GHz frequency band. This 5 Display - Prices increase along with display sizes.
band is the most favourite and it is license free band. However, a larger display is a virtual requirement for
wireless internet users. Wireless web use should
Microphone
©

consider a smartphone of larger and color screen for

Microphone or mic converts sound signal variations to viewing images or web-surfing then.
electrical signal to couple on the PCB for further
6 GPS - Some selected phones offer GPS, or global
processing. Usually in mobile phone mics having different
positioning and navigation functions. This feature can
types such as condenser, dynamic, carbon or ribbon.
B

be especially useful to those who often travel.

Speaker
7 International Support - Travelers may want to
O

It converts electrical signal to sound signal (pressure investigate a world phone, compatible with the
vibrations) for human being to hear. This is often coupled respective frequencies (GSM or CDMA) most
T

with audio amplifier to get required amplification of audio commonly used in Europe, Asia, and North America.
signal. It also tied with volume control circuit to change Users want international access to make sure to
the amplitude of the audio signal. research which networks are used in areas they will
T

be travelling, as GSM and CDMA are not compatible.

Camera
O

The mobile phone camera feature is available for one to 8 Multimedia - To download digital ringtones to
click pictures at various occasions. It is the major download and play MP3s, and stream video.
N

specifications in increasing cost of mobile phone. There 9 Organizer Applications - Even basic cell phones
are various mega pixel cameras for mobile phones are often have organizer applications, such as calendaring.
available such as 12 mega pixel, 14 mega pixel and even
10 SIM Card - Number of SIM slots are available with
41 mega pixel available in smart phones. This has
new generation cell phone.
become evident because of advancement in sensor
technology. 11 Smartphone (Palm or Pocket PC) - Devices, with
computing, Internet, and networking features, are
Display
often referred to as smart phones.
Displays are used to viewing the various information.
12 Speakerphone - Persons such as drivers who want
There are various display devices used in mobile phone
to keep their hands free can buy phones with built-in
such as LCD (liquid crystal display), TFT (Thin-film
speakerphone capability.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.236 339
13 Text Messaging - Text messaging allows short text 16 Digital camera
messages to be received and displayed on the phone.
17 Video recording
14 Video Recording
18 GPS
15 Voice Dialing - This feature lets users speak a name
19 Microsoft Office (MS) compatible applications (Native
to dial a number.
with Pocket PC operating systems; Palm operating
16 Voice Mail - A feature that supports audio messages systems may require third-party software)
from callers. Users can leave spoken messages for
Main uses of cell phones
one another and listen to the messages by executing
the appropriate command. This is often a standard The most popular uses and applications of mobile phones
feature that comes with a mobile phone service. are:
17 Weight - Mobile phone manufactures consistently 1 Voice calling - Talking on the telephone.
streamline their products; however, some phones are 2 Voice mail - Callers can leave a message if your
heavier and more awkward than others. phone is busy or turned off.
18 Wi-Fi - Wireless fidelity is technology for providing a 3 E-mail - Send and receive e-mails with other e-mail
local area network that allows compatible devices to addresses.

D
access data on the network or other networks such as
the internet. 4 Messaging - Send and receive text, picture and instant

E
(chat) messages with other mobile phone users and
19 Infrared (IR) PORT - A wireless data communications e-mail addresses.

H
connection between 2 devices that uses an Infrared
signal. The 2 devices must have line- of - sight 5 Mobile content - Get news, weather, sports, financial

S
position. and other information.

LI
Smart phone 6 Gaming - Play games that are downloaded to your
handset or played online on the Internet.
A cell phone having advanced computing ability through

B
E I
the use of an application software is called a smart 7 Personalize your phone - to your own style by adding
R IM

phone. It contains the following additional stages. custom ringtones, ring back tones, face-plates,
U
themes, background images, icons, voice greetings
1 Digital camera module
and screen-savers.
P
E N

2 Internal and external memory cards

8 Play music - using an audio (MP3) player to play
3 Radio tuner downloaded tracks or listen to radio.
©

4 CPU and Computer OS software 9 Take photos or videos - with a built-in camera. Then
send the image files to others.
5 Appointment calendar (Outlook synchronization for
faculty and staff through ActiveSync) 10 Download and view images - with a photo (JPEG)
viewer or video (MPEG) player.
6 Address book
B

11 Organize personal information - using a calendar,

7 MP3 player
clock, alarm, address book, task manager or memo
8 Web browser pad.
O

9 E-mail access, in addition to text messaging 12 Shop - Make retail purchases from Web-based stores
T

(e-commerce).
10 Mini-keyboards or onscreen keyboards
13 Bank - Manage your money using an e-wallet.
11 Voice dialing
T

14 Location-based services - Maps & directions. Retail

12 Bluetooth
O

store directory. Track persons, cars, pets, etc.

13 Character recognition (allowing for handwritten input)
15 Business Uses for Mobile Phones
N

14 Synchronization of information with desktop or laptop

16 For the Mobile Professional
computers
17 Mobile Business Applications
15 Voice recording
18 Small Business

340 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.236
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.237
Electronics Mechanic - Cell phones
Data transfer among phone, internal and external
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• differentiate between internal and phone memory
• describe SD card memory
• explain the data transfer between phone memory and S.D card memory
• explain how to interface the cell phone/smart to the PC and transfer data.

Internal Storage SD card for improving performance. Data transferring to/

from cell phone.
There are three types of memory capacities in our smart
phones these days: Internal, Phone and External. The 1 Phone to SD card
first two are often confused for each other while the third 2 Phone to PC
is still understood as SD card storage.
i Using data cable

D
Internal memory used for installing the applications (the
operating system) and data. Applications are installed in ii Using card reader

E
this storage and the personal data such as text messages, iii Using wi-fi syncing
contact lists, email settings and the likes are stored on

H
this. This is considered to be quite sensitive information iv Using bluetooth
and this is not accessible to user. Whenever the phone

S
v Using e-mail
is reset to factory settings, all this storage gets erased.
vi Using cloud storage

LI
This memory is reserved for the operating system and
personal data. It will never show up whenever phone is Application (App) transfer
connected to computer.

B
E I
Apps are transferable from phone memory to SD and
R IM

Phone Storage vice versa for improving performance and using memory
U
This is the storage that is available to user. This is the efficiently. This is possible in Android base phones
storage that user get from the phone itself. Games and mostly. This option is available at settings and application
P
E N

applications are installed in this one and it is the default manager. In application manager, consisting a tab for
memory for storing pictures, movies, songs and so on. moving data. We can also delete the application by
User can access it when the phone is connected to uninstalling the app.
©

computer. Data transfer between phone and SD memory

When use most of internal storage, user will get a The data or file in phone or SD card can inter-transferable
notification for low storage, asking to delete some files, in the cell phone. This can be achieved by simply
even when user have most of phone storage empty. This selecting and copying the data and pasting folder view
B

message will be triggered by a system file which stores options are need to get by installing apps. The new folder
its data on Internal Storage. If user attempt to download can create by simply selecting options.
more apps, they will be housed on phone storage. So
O

user can store apps on phone storage as well. It can also Data transfer between phone and PC (Using data
cable)
T

disable apps which prompt low storage message due to

lack of storage space to refresh their app data. There are so many methods and techniques for
transferring data. In those, using data cable is the easiest
T

External Storage
method.
It is the external storage capacity of phone. It depends on
O

the compatibility of the memory card slot and to what In this, data cable is connected between PC and phone.
extent is it supported. In simpler terms, it is the storage Most of the cases PC will detect the phone as a memory
N

which can be removed easily by user (memory card) and devices. In some cases need to download the supporting
can be used for storing pictures, music, videos and many file from internet. It need to permit the PC to access
more. It may or may not be able to install applications on phone for accessing data. This can be automatically
it. This is because some manufacturers allow for it while asks when the phone is connected to PC.
some don't. To an extent, even user's cloud storage can The data can copy or clang from phone to PC and vice
be categorized as external storage. versa, as like memory card (Pen drive).
Data transferring Data transfer using card reader
The data in the cell phone is possible to transfer from The phone data can also be transferred by using card
phone to SD memory or PC and vice versa. Even we can reader. For this we need to ensure the data of phone is
transfers the same application (Apps) stored in phone to available in SD card memory. For this transfer data from

341
phone to SD card by copy and paste. Need to switch OFF Data transferring using e-mail
the phone before removing SD card. SD card can also
This is a technique used for transferring data. This
be removed by unmounting the external memory in
method mostly used for long distance data transfer. In
phone setting at memory section. The data in the
this simply mailing the required data file to self address
memory is transferable by using card reader as pen drive
or some one address and this can be downloaded by
in PC.
opening email from PC or phone. But this method
Data transfer using wi-fi requires internet connection. It is having limitations of file
size due to email support. This can overcome by cloud
If the PC can support wi-fi (in built), phone can transfer
storage method.
data simply by enabling wi-fi network. For this, some
software for PC and apps like "SHARE IT" for phone must Data transferring using cloud storage
be available in internet. For connecting wi-fi to the PC,
This method is similar to e-mail method. But, here
external wi-fi cards are available in the market. This is
instead of email account, using cloud storage account.
faster than bluetooth method.
For this, so many third party cloud store operators are
In this method, there is no need of any physical connection available in internet. They are offering large amount of
between PC and phone. It is suitable for large files like data space for file storage. For data transfer, need to
video, audio, etc. install cloud storage software in PC and App in phone.

D
We can simply transfer data by upload method and
Data transfer using bluetooth
downloading. This method also required internet

E
It is also similar to the wi-fi method. But for this method connection.

H
there is no special software or apps are needed to install.
Most of the phones and PCs are supporting bluetooth. In

S
some cases PC needs bluetooth connecting device for
enabling. It is slower than wi-fi method. But it is cost

LI
effective. It is suitable for small size of files like photos,
text, etc.

B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

342 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.237
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.238
Electronics Mechanic - Cell phones

Setting-up flashing files

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define flashing of a cell phone and effects of cellphone after flashing
• define flashing files
• explain the availability of flashing files.

Flashing Availability of flashing files

Inside the cell phone handset, software is used to run and When one buys UFS package, with the UFS box set of
control its different functions. Software makes the mobile flashing cables and flashing software CDs are also
handset to function in a good and proper manner. provided. The number of flashing cables and software
received with the UFS package depends on the make/
During the normal day to day operation, this software could
brand of the UFS package and also on how latest is the
become corrupt and the phone will start to function in some

D
package being purchased.
unpredictable manner.

E
For example, sometimes back one used to get 38 to 55
Phone could completely stop working or will start to show
flashing cables with the UFS package, but currently
some errors.

H
around 60 flashing cables are provided with the latest
In this type of situation Universal Flash Storage (UFS) UFS-3 package.

S
device can be used to reload the mobile phone with the
One also gets around 25 CD with the latest UFS-3
correct software, so that the phone will once again start

LI
package. These CDs contain driver for UFS package,
working properly.
flashing software and flashing files for different make/
This process of loading the mobile phone with correct model of mobile handsets.

B
E I
software using the UFS device is called “Flashing”.
R IM

Current UFS-3 device can be used to flash/repair more

U
This process is also known as “Software Repairing” of than 400 models of Nokia, Samsung, Sony Ericsson, LG,
the mobile phones. Sharp, Motorola etc., make of handsets.
P
E N

During the flashing process the UFS device sends some Flashing files required to flash/repair these mobile
files to the cell phone. These files replace the corrupted/ handsets are provided on the CDs provided with the UFS
damaged file on the mobile phone and the phone will package. Many of these flashing files are provided in
©

return to its proper state. This process is similar to the compressed ZIP format on the CD.
way operating system is reinstalled on a computer system
Compressed files are files with file names ending with
when it becomes corrupt.
ZIP, LZH, ARJ, or ARC, depending on how they were
Flashing files created. One need to decompress/extract these files
B

Files sent by the UFS device to the mobile phone are before using them, this decompression process is
called flashing files. These files contain the software commonly known as “Unzipping the file”.
O

required for proper operation of the mobile phone. Different Before using the ZIP files on the CD, you need to extract
functions provided by the mobile phone depend on these them to some folder on the hard disk drive. For this you
T

software. These files could also contain ringtones, need WinZip or WinRar program installed on your
wallpapers and various operating commands. computer.
T

When the flashing is done, the UFS device first removes Extracting these files on the hard disk drive will consume
existing data and files from the mobile phone and then a lot of hard disk space, so you will require a computer
O

the new data and files are written. with large hard disk drive for mobile flashing purpose. If
you have limited hard disk space then you can extract
N

Flashing files supported by some mobile are:

files of only those mobile handsets which you require
1 Nokia - MCU, PM, PMM, WUG, SLD, FBI, EEP, PP, frequently. Other files can be extracted as and when the
MLF, RPL. need arises.
2 Samsung - MCU, AXF, OGM, MEL, S3, TFS, CLA, Flashing files of some of the mobile sets needs to be
SRE. installed before using them. When looking at the folder
3 Ericsson - MCU, MOD, GDF, PDA, LANG. on flashing CD, if you see application files, instead of ZIP
files then that file needs to be installed.
4 Sony Ericsson - MCU, CUST/FS, GDF.
Process to extract or install these files are explained later
5 Motorola-Acer - FLX, MCU, LP. in this book.

343
One can also copy all the CDs received with the UFS unzip them as and when required. This will be helpful if
device to some folder on the hard disk drive, and install/ you misplace the CDs or CDs become corrupt due to any
reason (scratch etc.).

Various locks of cell phone

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the need of cell phone locks
• explain different types of lock and unlock functions
• describe lock and unlock functions in your cell phone.
Cell phone locks 1 Countries (your phone will work in one country, but not
another)
Following are some of the locks which can be used in
cell phone. The various lock of the mobile handset is 2 Network/ Service providers (e.g. T-Mobile, Movistar,
used for safety purpose. Vodafone etc)
1 Keypad Lock 3 SIM types (i.e. only specific SIM cards can be used
2 Phone Lock with the phone).

D
3 Security Lock Unlocking technology

E
4 SIM Lock A handset can be unlocked by entering a special code, or

H
in some cases, over-the-air by the carrier.
Keypad Lock
Typically, a locked phone will display a message if a

S
As the name suggests, this lock will locks the handset’s restricted SIM is used, requesting the unlock code.
keypad, one will not be able to use the keypad for any type

LI
of number or text entry. For example, in some mobile phone, “Insert correct SIM
card” will appear on the phone’s display if the wrong SIM
Even when the keypad lock is active one can answer

B is used. Once a valid unlocking code is entered, the phone

E I
incoming call by pressing the keypad keys. will display “Network unlocked”. In some cases, the phone
R IM
U
Different handsets use different method to enter into will simply display a message explaining that it is locked.
keypad lock mode and to remove the lock. When the The code required to remove all SIM locks from a phone
P
phone is in keypad lock mode, pressing of any key on the
E N

is called the master code or network code key.

keypad will display a message on the screen, explaining
the process to unlock the keypad. The unlock code is verified by the phone itself, and is
©

either stored in a database or calculated using an obscure

Phone Lock mathematical formula by the provider.
In this mode the handset cannot be used to make/receive In some other mobiles embed a random number in the
any call, even though the keypad stays active during this handset’s firmware that is only retained by the network on
lock. whose behalf the lock was applied. Such phones can
B

In this mode, when the handset is switched on, it asks for often still be unlocked, but need to be connected to special
an unlocking code known as PIN or Personal Identity test equipment that will rewrite that part of its firmware
O

Number”. If this PIN is entered only it will work. where the lock status is kept.
Security lock Most phones have security measures built in its software
T

that prevent users from entering the unlock code too

Security lock is used to lock all the functions of the mobile many times, usually four. After that the phone becomes
handset. When the security lock is on, the phone asks for
T

“hard-locked” and special unlocking equipment has to be

the PIN code when it is switched on. used in order to unlock it.
O

Some handset may ask for the PIN number even when The main reason to unlock a phone is to be able to use it
the SIM card of the phone is changed.
N

with a different SIM card. For example, when travelling

This facility is not provided on all handsets. abroad it is usually cheaper to temporarily use a foreign
network, for example with a prepaid subscription. Contrary
SIM Lock
to some beliefs, an unlocked phone can’t access extra
When one buys a mobile handset from mobile service cell phone towers or give free phone service. All it can do
provider under some scheme, the provider may lock the is accept other SIMs.
handset with the SIM card in the phone.
Unlocking via computer
This prevents the user from using the handset with SIM
One of the most popular way of phones are unlocked is
card from some other service provider.
using the USB, RS-232 or LPT port of a computer using
Currently, phones can be locked to accept only SIM cards software usually written specifically for the model of
from one or more of the following: phone being unlocked. In some cases, special “unlocking

344 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.238
clips” or “unlocking boxes” are used which re-program the will ask it while booting it every time or when you lock the
software that controls the phone, removing the SIM lock. keypad and want to unlock the keypad.
However, such clips are usually very expensive.
The default security codes of major brands of cell phones
Unlocking via Mail are as follows:
Some companies have begun to offer a “mail-in” service, Samsung : 0000 / 00 00 00 / 00 00 00 00
such as travelinsider.com. These services allow the user
Nokia : 12345
to send their phone in and have it sent back in an unlocked
condition. All other brands of cell phones : 0000 / 1234
Regulations on unlocking Chinese brands : 1122 / 0000 / 1234 / 4321
Unlocking a phone without the permission or unlocking So it is advisable to change the security code for safety.
code from the provider is usually in breach of the agreement So if you change the security code, you should never
with the provider, though most countries do not make forget it. If you forget and put the wrong security code, the
specific laws prohibiting the removal of SIM locks. handset will not accept it. So if you forget it and are unable
to put the right code, your phone will be considered as
Security lock
locked. You will have to get it unlocked by special software.

D
A security code is for the safety and security of your mobile
phone. If you activate it in the security settings, the phone

E
H
S
LI
B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
O
B ©
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.238 345
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.239
Electronics Mechanic - Cell phones

Internet on cell phone and IMEI number

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define internet and working of internet
• define to access the internet
• explain some applications of internet from cell phone
• define the IMEI NO and its importance
• list the precaution to maintain the cell phone.

Internet times. But in order to do so, your device needs to be able

to connect to the Internet to send and receive data.
The Internet is a decentralised, international network of
networks. If you're somewhere that offers Wi-Fi (like your house),
staying connected is as simple as logging on to the server.
Devices such as computers, mobile phones can connect

D
However, if you want to stay connected on the go, you're
each other and form a network. The networks are
going to need a data plan to give you access to your

E
connected to each other through electronic, wireless and
provider's data network.
optical networking technologies.

H
Navigation
Multiple interconnected networks form the Internet.
GPS is a wonderful way to get around town. However,

S
Working of Internet
those map apps definitely use data. In order to find your

LI
The Internet works based on protocols which handle destination, note your current location, and give you turn-
chunks of data, known as "packets". by-turn directions, your GPS app needs to be connected
to the Internet.

B
Various types of hardware, such as an ethernet network
E I
R IM
card or a modem, convert our device's binary packet data Uploads
U
into network signals and then back into packet data.
In order to upload and post a picture or video to social
Internet Protocols(IP) are used to direct packets to a media, you need to first be able to access it, which
P
E N

specific computer or server. requires an Internet connection. While you can draft
Transmission Control Protocols (TCP) are used to direct posts offline on some channels (like Facebook), your
device needs to be connected to the Internet through Wi-
©

packets to specific applications on a computer using a

port number. Fi or your cellular data network in order to actually
publish.
Accessing the Internet
Downloads
We access the Internet because our router connects our
B

device to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). This is the process of receiving data over the internet. It
is the opposite of uploaders.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs), such as Verizon, AT&T
IMEI number
O

and Comcast, give us access to the Internet through a

range of technologies. IMEI is short for International Mobile Equipment Identity
T

A single device is assigned an address when it connects and is a unique number given to every single mobile
to the Internet: an Internet Protocol (IP) address. This phone, typically found behind the battery. The IMEI is only
used for identifying the device and has no permanent or
T

address distinguishes our device in the network from all

other devices. semi-permanent relation to the subscriber. Instead, the
O

subscriber is identified by transmission of an IMEI number,

However, our national ISP can only connect us directly to which is stored on a SIM card that can be transferred to
N

servers located in our country. If we want to connect to any handset. However, many network and security
servers located in a different country, then we need that features are enabled by knowing the current device being
country's ISP to connect us to those servers. used by a subscriber
Protocols translate the text of our message into electronic IMEI numbers of cellular phones connected to a GSM
signals, transmit it through the network and translate it network are stored in a database (EIR - Equipment
back into text once it reaches another device. Identity Register) containing all valid mobile phone
Data plan equipment.

Phones today have lots of features through the accessing When a phone is reported stolen or is not type approved,
of internet. You can check email, get directions, and even the number is marked invalid.
chat over video. Ultimately, you can stay connected at all

346
The number consists of four groups that look similar to e Contextual intelligence(also known as practical
this: intelligence) - The phones will use sensors to get data
about your physical surroundings and conditions, use
AA-BBBBBB-CCCCCC-D
saved information about you along with the contextual
AA - BBBBBB - CCCCCC - D intelligence technology to make decisions for you
TAC Serial # Checksum even before you thought of the question.

The Type Allocation Code (TAC) is the initial eight-digit f Depth-sensing cameras-It provides 3D printing and
portion of the 15-digit IMEI code used to uniquely identify 3D scanning facility as shown in Fig.1.
wireless devices. The first two digits represent the country
code. The second group of numbers identifies the Fig 1
manufacturer. The third set is the serial number and the
last single digit is an additional number (usually 0).
For example 99-000033-792410-8:
• 99 is country
• 000033 is manufacturer

D
• 792410 is the serial number

E
• 8 is the checksum value

H
How to check IMEI Number for your mobile: g Multi-screen capabilities or screen casting - To connect
*06#

S
and share the screen of the smartphone with the
tablet, television or projector with no limitations

LI
Mobile phone maintenance imposed by different platforms or OS, and irrespective
Mobile phone is delicate device and needs care for its of make or form as shown in Fig.2.

B
proper functioning. Here are the common measures to
E I
R IM
keep the mobile phone in good condition. Fig 2
U
• Do not keep mobile phone in wet area or use it with wet
hands. Moisture can cause non-repairable internal
P
E N

corrosion of parts.
• Do not drop the phone or damage the connection
©

points.
• Do not over stress the phone. It may damage the
display.
• Do not keep the phone near heat generating devices.
B

High temperature in a car can damage its electronics.

• Do not over charge the battery. Charge the battery
O

only its charge status goes below 50 percent.

• Prevent cloning.
T

Current technology of cell phones

T

Cell phone has the following special features; h Infrared support - Turn the smartphone into universal
to operate the electronic and electrical gadget using
a The fingerprint or iris scanners.
O

remote control as shown in fig.3. When this remote

b New facial recognition technology which scans the control goes missing, we can give phone call and find
N

contours the person face and head. out the remote/Cell phone.
c Unbreakable and foldable phones - The display i Dual recording - Existing smartphones come with
screens are flexible and hence it is foldable. front and rear cameras but only one of them works at
a time. Future smartphones may have better camera
d Improved power backup - using nano batteries,
support to allow simultaneous recording using both
hydrogen fuel cells and solar power the power backup
cameras.
time to the cell phones can be improved. The future
phones battery can also be charged improved. The j Besides the above features, there are numerous user
future phones battery can also be charged faster by friendly apps with encrypted security & hardware are
wi-fi with the help of wireless signals and no need of developed to use the smartphone to function like &
conventional power source/power bank. special device for a dedicated purpose also.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.239 347
 Fig 4

Fig 5

Advanced features in cell phones

D
Current technology cell phones has the following special
features:

E
a The fingerprint or iris scanning.

H
b New facial recognition technology which scans the
contours the persons face and head.

S
c Unbreakable and foldable phones - The display

LI
screens are flexible and hence it is foldable.
d Improved power backup - using nano batteries, i Infrared support - Turn the smartphone into universal

B
E I
hydrogen fuel cell phones can be improved. The up remote contralto operate all the electronic and electrical
R IM

time to the cell phones can be improved. The future

U
gadgets using remote control as shown in fig.6. When
phones battery can also be charged faster by wi-fi with this remote control goes missing, we can give a phone
the help of wireless signals and no need of conventional
P
call and find out the remote/cell phone.
E N

power source/power bank.

j Dual recording - Existing smartphones come with
e Contextual intelligence (also known as practical front and rear cameras support to allow simultaneous
©

intelligence) - The phones will use sensors to get data recording using both cameras.
saved information about you along with the contextual
intelligence technology to make decisions for you Besides the above technical features, there are numerous
even before you thought of the question. user friendly apps with encrypted security and hardware
are developed to use the smart phone accordingly to
B

f IoT Technology - The smart phone can be used as function like a special device for a dedicated purpose
control device for IoT (internet of things) platforms also.
like, to enable remote health monitoring and
O

emergency notification systems, industrial controls, Fig 6

house hold appliances/gadgets/security monitoring
T

and controlling, etc.

g Depth - sensing cameras - It provides 3D printing and
T

3D scanning facility as shown in fig.4.

O

h Multi-screen capabilities or screen casting - To connect

and share the screen of the smartphone with the
N

tablet, television or projector with no limitations

imposed by different platforms or OS, and irrespective
of make or form as shown in fig.5.

ANNEXTURE

Mobile Phone Related Abbreviations AC = Authentication Center;

In this article we expand common, and not so common, ACRE = Authorisation and Call Routing Equipment;
Mobile and Mobile Telephony abbreviations.

348 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.239
A - GPS (also: AGPS) = Assisted - Global Positioning LAI = Local Area Identity;
System;
LTE = Long Term Evolution;
AMOLED = Active Matrix Organic Light Emitting Diode;
MAG = Mobile Access Gateway;
AMPS = Analogue (Also: Advanced) Mobile Phone
MAP = Mobile Application Part;
System;
ME = Mobile Equipment;
ANS = Advanced Network Services;
MEID = Mobile Equipment Identifier;
App(s) = Application(s);
MCC = Mobile Country Code;
BS = Base Station;
MIM = Mobile Instant Messaging;
BSC = Base Station Controller;
MIN = Mobile Identification Number;
BSS = Base Station System;
MMS = Multimedia Message Service;
CAMEL = Customised Applications (for) Mobile-network
Enhanced Logic (GSM / ETSI); MNC = Mobile Network Code;
CDMA = Code Division Multiple Access; MNO = Mobile Network Operator;

D
(C)EIR = (Central) Equipment Identity Register; Blocked MNP = Mobile Number Portability;

E
and Blocking and IMEI And Phone Identity. MP3 = MPEG-1 Audio Layer-3 (Moving / Motion Picture
CMAS - Commercial Mobile Alert Service; Expert Group 3);

H
CSIM = CDMA Subscriber Identity Module; MP4 = MPEG-4 Part - 4 (Moving / Motion Picture Expert

S
Group 4);
D-AMPS = Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service;

LI
MPEG = Moving (Also: Motion) Picture Experts Group;
EDGE = Enhanced Data (for) GSM Evolution;
MS = Mobile Station;
EE = Everything Everywhere (Merger between T-Mobile

B
E I
and Orange); MSC = Mobile Switching Centre(s);
R IM
U
EGSM = Extended Global System (for) Mobile; MSE = Mobile Station Equipment;
EIR = Equipment Identity Register; MSIN = Mobile Station Identification Number;
P
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EMS = Enhanced Message Service; MT = Mobile Terminated;

ESN = Electronic Serial Number; MTSO = Mobile Telephone Switching Office;
©

ETSI = European Telecommunications Standards MVNA = Mobile Virtual Network Aggregators;

Institute;
MVNE = Mobile Virtual Network Enabler;
EUIMID = Expanded User Identity Module Identifier;
MVNO = Mobile Virtual Network Operator;
B

FAC = Final Assembly Code; IMEI And Phone Identity

N-AMPS = Narrowband - Advanced Mobile Phone
GMSC = Gateway Mobile Switching Center; Service;
O

GPS = Global Positioning System; NUC = Network Unlocking Code;

T

GPRS = General Packet Radio Services; OMA = Open Mobile Alliance;

GPU = Graphics Processing Unit; PAC = Port Authorisation Code;
T

GSM = Global System (for) Mobile Communication; PAYG = Pay As You Go;
O

GSMA = Global System (for) Mobile Association; PAYM =Pay Monthly;

GSMS = GPRS Short Message Service; PDA = Personal Digital Assistant; Also: Portable Digital
N

Assistant;
GTP = GPRS Tunneling Protocol;
PIM = Personal Information Manager;
ICCID = Integrated Circuit Card Identifier;
PIN = Personal Identification Number;
IMEI = International Mobile Equipment Identity;
PLMN = Public Land Mobile Network;
IMEISV = International Mobile Equipment Identity
Software Version; PSTN = Public Switched Telephone Network;
IMSI = International Mobile Subscriber Identity; GSM = Global System for Mobile Communication;
IMT2000 = International Mobile Telecommunications PUK = Pin Unlock Key;
2000;

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.239 349
RAM = Random Access Memory; SM-TL = Small (Also: Short) Message - Transfer Layer;
RIM = Research In Motion (The company behind SNS = Social Network Service (Also: Social Network
Blackberry); Server)
ROM = Read Only Memory; TAC = Type Approval Code; or Type Allocation Code;
IMEI And Phone Identity
R-UIM = Removable - User Identity Module;
TMSI = Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity;
SAP = SIM Access Profile;
UI = User Interface;
S - GPS (Also: SGPS) = Simultaneous - Global Positioning
System; UIMID = User Identity Module Identifier;
SIC = System Identification Code; UMA = Unlicensed Mobile Access;
SIM = Subscriber Identity Module; SIM Card Facts UMTS = Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(ETSI);
SMS = Small Message Service; Also: Short Message
Service; USIM = Universal Subscriber Identity Module;
SMSC = Small Message Service Center; Also: Short USB = Universal Serial Bus;

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Message Service Center;
VLR = Visitor Location Register;

E
SMC-CS = Small (Also: Short) Message Control - Circuit
VoIP = Voice over Internet Protocol;
Switched;

H
WAP = Wireless Application Protocol;
SMC-GP = Small (Also: Short) Message Control - GPRS
Protocol; Wi-Fi = Wireless Fidelity;

S
SMSMM = Small (Also: Short) Message Service Mobility 2G = 2nd Generation;

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Management; 3G = 3rd Generation;
SMS - MO = Small (Also: Short) Message Service -

B 3G-MSC / VLR = 3rd Generation Mobile Switching Centre

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Mobile Originated;
R IM
Visitor Location Register;
U
SMS - MT = Small (Also: Short) Message Service - 3GPP = 3rd Generation Partnership Project;
Mobile Terminated;
P
3G-SGSN = 3rd Generation Serving GPRS Support Node;
E N

SM-RL = Small (Also: short) Message - Relay Layer;

4G = Fourth (4th) Generation;
©

Formatting and the need for formatting of cell phones

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain meaning of formatting of cell phone and the need for formatting
• define virus
B

• explain the signs of a phone infected by virus

• protect the cell phone from virus
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• list the various steps to be followed to keep the handset secure from different malwares.

Formatting of mobile phone Virus

T

Formatting a cell phone means erasing or deleting all the A mobile virus is nothing but a small software code written
stored data and information like contacts, images, by some one to corrupt or damage the information stored
T

multimedia files, etc from the phone memory. Data in the mobile system.
O

stored in the memory card is not deleted, it will remain

The signs that the phone is infected by virus are:
safe during formatting.
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1 Slow Functioning : The entire handset will become

In formatting the cell phone the operating system like
very slow. If you open the menu, it will load after 2-5
iOS, Symbian, Windows or Android are not at all to be
seconds. Also all the software's and apps will take
reinstalled unlike in computers. The OS is not affected
double the time to open. In short, the handset will
and it remains intact.
stuck!
The procedure where we have to reinstall the OS is called
2 Frequent Freezing : The device will freeze very
flashing in cell phone repair jargon. Which is very much
frequently. It will get stuck all of a sudden and hang.
different from formatting. So let us go ahead with formatting
Sometimes the handset will not even switch OFF. It
a phone and not get confused with flashing.
has to restarted or remove the battery and insert
In general the process of formatting is usually done when again.
there is any problem due to infection by a virus.

350 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.239
3 Switching Off Automatically : Many times, the phone, your handset will most likely get infected. Also
device will switch off automatically without informing. do not put any other MMC card into your device,
This will happen for more than 3-5 times a day! because if the other MMC has virus, it will spread into
your device as well.
4 Restarting: Sometimes instead of switching off
automatically, it will restart frequently.
5 Not Booting Properly : Sometimes, the virus can
corrupt the OS very badly, so that the cell phone will
not boot properly i.e. it will display a blank screen or it
will get stuck at the logo when switched on. It will not
proceed further.
6 Failure of some apps : Some of the applications will
not function properly.
Protect a mobile phone from virus
A virus can infect your mobile phone the same way that
it infects computer. It will do the same damage like what

D
a computer virus can do! It becomes very difficult to
operate when it gets infected with any malware, spyware,

E
trojan or any other virus whether it is an android, Apple

H
iphone, Blackberry or any other smartphone or a tablet. 3 Bluetooth / Wi-Fi / Hotspot: While transferring files
It is important to clean the infected phone from all to and from one phone to the other via bluetooth, WI-

S
badware before it spreads. Protecting cell phone from Fi or hotspot, when accept files from other phones,
virus is shown in Fig 1. ensure that the user antivirus scans the incoming files

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before opening them.
It is easy to keep your handset safe and secure from

B
E I
different malwares, if you follow these simple steps:
R IM
U
1 Install antivirus program and keep it updated:
Always keep the bluetooth switched-off unless
P
required. Or it is preferable to keep the handset to
E N

hidden mode unless it needs to be visible.

2 Keep your bluetooth switched-off: Always keep
©

the bluetooth switched-off. If by fluke, the phone has

kept on, do not accept any files from unknown sources.
Still if the user have got any file by mistake NEVER
OPEN SUCH FILE AS IT IS MOST LIKELY A VIRUS.
Just delete the file.
B

3 Don't visit untrusted websites: While surfing the

internet, only visit the most trusted and reputed
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Before knowing how to protect one should know the

sources from which viruses can come and also take websites. Also if you have visited any unknown website,
it's ok until you find it to be a suspicious one.
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precautions so that it does not infect the gadget again.

The best precaution against viruses is to install a reputed 4 Don't download from untrusted sources: Surfing
and updated antivirus program. If not, then one may end unknown websites is not as risky as downloading
T

up getting the phone infected very soon. content from them. Be careful of downloading any file
O

The sources from which viruses can come in to the especially if you find the website to be a suspicious
device are: (Fig 2) one. If you have downloaded anything, please do not
N

open that file and just delete it.

1 Internet surfing: This is the most common source,
especially if the user is visiting unknown and untrusted 5 Be careful of the memory card: The MMC have to
sites. The phone may most likely to get infected, if the be used carefully. So do not put your MMC in another
user visit untrusted websites. handset or anybody's MMC into your handset. It might
get infected easily and spread very fast.
2 MMC card: If you insert your memory card into a virus
infected gadget and then insert it back into your

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.239 351
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242
Electronics Mechanic - Cell phones

Cell Phones - Interfacing

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• interfacing smartphone to computer
• dismantle and assembling of cellphone
• healthiness of power.

Performing interfacing a cell phone/smartphone to a c Remote Control. Certain applications or software

computer allow for remote control of the phone from the
computer. This can be useful for accessing the phone's
Interfacing a cell phone or smartphone to a computer
screen, making calls, or sending messages remotely.
allows for various functionalities such transferring files,
syncing data, and even controlling the device remotely Dismantling a Cell Phone and Identifying the Power
To perform this interfacing, we need to consider the Section:

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following steps:
Dismantling a cell phone requires caution and expertise

E
Connection Methods: There are multiple methods to avoid damaging the components: Here are the general
available to establish a connection between a cell phone steps to dismantle a cell phone and identify the power

H
and a computer. section.
a USB Cable The most common method is using a USB 1 Gather Tools: Prepare the necessary tools such as

S
cable that connects the phone's USB port to the precision screwdrivers, prying tools, and an antistatic

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computer's USB port. This creates a direct physical mat or wristband to protect against static electricity.
connection between the two devices.
2 Power Off: Make sure the phone is turned off and

B
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b Bluetooth Some phones support Bluetooth remove any external power sources, such as the
R IM

connectivity, allowing wireless communication with a battery or charger.

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computer that also has bluetooth capabilities.
3 Remove Back Cover: If applicable, remove the back
c Wi-Fi or LAN Certain smartphones enable connection cover of the phone by following the manufacturer's
P
E N

via Wi-Fi or local area network (LAN) This involves instructions or using prying tools to gently release any
connecting both devices to the same network and clips or screws.
using appropriate software to establish
©

4 Disassemble the Phone: Carefully remove the

communication.
screws to ensure proper holding the phone's casing
2 Software Requirements: Depending on the phone's together Take note of the location and size of the
operating system, specific software or drivers may be screws to ensure proper reassembly.
necessary to facilitate the connection These software
B

5 Separate Components: Once the casing is opened,

components ensure compatibility and enable
you will have access to the internal components.
communication between the phone and the computer.
Identify and separate the different modules such as
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3 Phone Settings Before interfacing, certain settings on the motherboard, display camera, and battery.
the phone need to be configured. This typically involves
6 Locate Power Section: The power section of a cell
T

enabling USB debugging or granting permission for

phone typically consists of the battery power
the computer to access the device's data The exact
management (PC) components may be the
T

steps vary depending on the phone's operating system

motherboard is usually a distinct component, while
(eg Android, iOS)
the other components may be integrated into the
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4 Interfacing Functions Once the connection is motherboard.

established, venous functions can be performed
N

7 Visual Inspection: Examine the power section for

a File Transfer. The most basic functionality is any signs of damage, such as burnt components.
transferring files between the phone and the computer corrosion or loose connections Pay attention to the
This allows for sharing documents, photos, videos PMIC and charging circuit, as these are critical for
and other types of data. power management and charging functionality.
b Data Synchronization software enables the transfer Testing the Healthiness of the Power Section:
of contacts, calendars, emails, and other data between
To test the healthiness of the power section, you can
the phone and the computer. This ensures that both
perform the following steps:
devices have the most up- to-date information

352
1 Visual Inspection Inspect the power section for any there is no audible ringer tone, the fault may lie in the
visible signs of damage, such as burnt or swollen ringer section.
components, loose connections, or corrosion. These
2 Gather tools and equipment
issues can indicate potential problems with the power
section. To diagnose and rectify faults in the ringer section, you
may need the following tools:
2 Battery Test if the battery is removable, test its voltage
using a multimeter, Compare the measured voltage a Precision screwdrivers: To open the phones casing
with the manufacturer's specifications to determine if and access the internal components.
the battery is functioning within the expected range. b Multimeter: To measure voltage, continuity, and check
Additionally, check if the battery holds a charge and for short circuits.
provides sufficient power to the phone.
c Soldering iron and solder: For making repairs or
3 Power Management IC (PMIC) Test The PMIC is reflowing solder joints if necessary.
responsible for regulating the power flow within the
phone. To test its functionality, you would typically d Replacement components: In case any components
require specialized equipment and technical expertise. in the ringer section need to be replaced.
it is recommended to consult a professional or contact 3 Disassemble the Phone

D
the manufacturer for further assistance in testing the
PMIC Follow the manufacturer's instructions or guidelines to

E
disassemble the phone carefully. This usually Involves
4 Charging Circuit Test Check the charging circuit for removing the back cover, battery, and any screws holding

H
any faults or malfunctions. This involves measuring the casing together.
the voltage output from the charging port using a
4 Locate the ringer section

S
multimeter while the phone is connected to a power
source. Ensure that the charging voltage matches the The ringer section is generally located near the top or

LI
expected values for the specific phone model bottom of the phone's circuit board. It consists of
5 Voltage Regulator Test: Voltage regulators are components such as the ringer speaker ringer IC

B
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responsible for providing stable and regulated voltages (integrated circuit), capacitors, resistors, and associated
R IM

to various components within the phone. If you suspect wiring.

U
an issue with a particular voltage rail, you can test the 5 Visual Inspection
corresponding voltage regulator using a multimeter or
P
E N

specialized testing equipment to verify its output Perform a thorough visual inspection of the ringer section
voltage. Look for any signs of physical damage, loose connections,
or burnt components Pay attention to the ringer speaker,
6 Functional Testing After examining the power section,
©

as it is prone to damage or malfunction.

reassemble the phone and power it on Monitor its
behavior during the boot-up process and observe if it 6 Check Connections
powers up normally, charges properly, and maintains Ensure that all connections between the ringer speaker,
stable operation. Test different functions that rely on ringer IC, and associated components are core and
B

the power section, such as making calls using data properly soldered Use a multimeter to check for continuity
connectivity, and running power-intensive applications, between the connections and confirm that there are no
to assess overall healthiness, open or short circuits.
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It's important to note that dismantling a cell phone and 7 Test the Ringer Speaker
T

performing tests on its power section requires technical

expertise and proper equipment. If you're not experienced Use a multimeter set to the resistance (ohms) mode to
or comfortable with these procedures, it's recommended measure the resistance across the terminals of the ringer
T

to seek assistance from a qualified technician or contact speaker Compare the measured value with the
manufacturer's specifications. A significantly higher or
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the manufacturer for professional support.

lower resistance reading may indicate a faulty ringer
Finding and rectifying faults in a basic cell phone system- speaker that needs replacement.
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ringer section and check the performance. Replace

carious faulty parts like mic, speaker, data etc., 8 Check Ringer

A basic cell phone system consists of carious components IC If the ringer IC is a separate component, inspect it
and circuits that work together to provide functionality, visually for any physical damage or signs of overheating
including the ringer section responsible for producing If there are multiple pins, check for continuity between the
sound alerts and ringing tones. To find and rectify in the pins using a multimeter to ensure proper functioning.
ringer section, you can follow these steps: 9 Repair or Replace Faulty Components
1 Identify the Fault If any faulty components are identified during the
a No Sound If the phone is not producing any sound or inspection and testing, repair or replace them as necessary
This may involve soldering or desoldering components

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242 353
and using suitable replacements Ensure that all
connections are secure and soldered property. Pricks by sharp Appropriate storage of
objects equipment
10 Reassemble the Phone
Once the necessary repairs or replacements have been Proper disposal of sharp
made, reassemble the phone by following the reverse objects
steps of disassembly. Ensure that all screws are tightened
correctly and all connectors are securely attached. Use of appropriate tools and
equipment
11 Performance Testing
Power on the phone and test the ringer section by making Environmental Proper disposal of electronic
a call or setting an alert. Verify if the sound produced by pollution waste
the ringer is clear, loud, and of the expected quality.
Adjust the volume settings if necessary. Trailing electrical Make sure electrical equipment
cables is unplugged while
Note It's important to exercise caution and, if
unsure, seek assistance from a qualified not in use

D
technician or the manufacturer's support team
Safe storage of cables
when dealing with complex repairs or if you're

E
not experienced with handling electronic
Falls Keep all tools, bis etc. in the
components

H
right place
Potential Hazards Associated with Mobile Phone
Having looked at potential hazards and how to protect

S
Repair
ourselves during mobile phone repair, let us now consider

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Your physical well being is important not only to yourself, the parts of a mobile phone.
but also to others. Therefore, as you embark on mobile
A mobile phone has several parts or components. It is
phone repair, you should be aware of all the potential

B
E I
important for you to know the parts and understand their
hazards and how to prevent them.
R IM

functions so that you can easily diagnose and solve

U
What is a hazard? problems. How many parts of a mobile phone do you
know?
A hazard is anything that has the potential to cause harm
P
E N

to yourself or those around you. Before you learn the Take a minute to think about it and then complete the
different types of hazards, let's start by defining some of following activity.
the terms associated with hazards. Write down the
©

A conventional mobile phone is made up of many parts.

meaning of the terms in the following activity.
Table 2 below explains the functions of the main parts.
Let us now look at the various types of hazards that you
Table 2: Parts of a mobile phone and their functions
could encounter when repairing or maintaining a mobile
phone?
B

Parts of a mobile cell Functions

There are quite a number of potential hazards that one phone
can encounter when servicing or repairing a mobile
O

phone. These are listed in Table 1 together with the Keypad Used for inputting or
preventive actions that you could take to avoid them. entering data into the
T

Table 1 Perential mods during mobile phone repair phone. Its connected
and their prevention directly to the CPU
T

Hazard Preventive actions

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Ear piece Converts the electric

signal to a sound
Burns Use of well insulated tools
N

signal
Use of gloves
Mouth piece Transmits sound from
Keeping the soldering iron in one phone to another
the night place
Battery Source of power supply
Unplugging equipment when
to a mobile phone
not in use

Power switch Switches the phone

on and off

354 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242
 To successfully disassemble a phone, you need to
Power IC It takes power from the battery
understand the various internal sections of a mobile
and supplies to all other parts of
phone and how they are connected to the CPU. Let us
a mobile phone
look at that next.
Oscillator It creates frequency during
Internal Parts of a Mobile Phone
outgoing calls
Table 3 below outlines the main sections and how they
Screen or Displays data It is connected to the
are connected.
display CPU to receive following signals
LCD Data Signal, LCD Reset Signal Table 3 Internal parts of a mobile phone
LCD WR Signal LCD RD Signal,
Internal Section Connections
LCD FLM Signal LCD HSYN Signal
SIM card section SIM Card
Flash IC Stores the software and other
Interface section is directly
programs installed in the mobile
connected with the CPU in
phone
most mobile cell phones. If
Charging IC Takes the current hon the charger there is no power supply in
and charges the battery a mobile phone then the

D
SIM section is connected
CPU Controls all sections of a mobile
with the CPU through the

E
phone
Power IC.
Antenna Receives and transmit radio

H
Memory card section In most phones the micro
frequencies and helps the phone
SD card holder is connected

S
to connect to the cellular network
through a 8-pin socket. The
memory card section is

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Fig 5 below shows a printed circuit board (PCB) of a
found inside the CPU
mobile phone showing the different internal parts. As you
can see from this diagram the PCB is divided into two Ear Speaker Section In modern mobile cell

B
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parts, the network section and the power section. The phones which have a
R IM

network section controls the incoming and outgoing separate ear speaker, the
U
phone calls, while the power section controls the memory speaker is directly
and power related functions of the phone. connected to the CPU. It
P
E N

receives sound via signals

We hope you now know the different parts of a mobile directly from the CPU of
phone and their functions. Make sure that you learn them from the audio section
©

well and are be able to locate them easily before you inbuilt within the CPU. In
move on to the next section. Let us now look at the tools some mobile phones, these
that you need to repair mobile phones. sound signals are received
Disassembling and assembling a mobile cell phone: via coil / resistance. Some
B

mobile phones have audio

What is to disassemble? IC in the audio section, while
To disassemble is to take something apart or to break it others have audio amplifier.
O

down into pieces Speaker/Ringer The ringer, buzzer or

Section speaker in most mobile
T

What is to assemble?
phones are connected to
To assemble is to fit together all the separate pieces in the audio amplifier IC to
order to form one whole.
T

obtain loud sound. The

Disassembling a Mobile Phone The following are the amplifier IC amplifies the
O

steps that you should take when disassembling a mobile sound or audio signal
phone: received from the CPU of
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the audio section.

1 Switch off the phone
Key Backlight Section LED Lights are connected
2 Remove the battery cover
according to the parallel
3 Remove the battery. SIM card memory card (if any) circuit in the key backlight
4 Remove all the screws from the phone section Anode ends of all
5 Lift back the cover with the help of a flat screwdriver the LEDS are connected to
each other and all the
6 Remove the strips (buzzer strip, display, camera,
cathode ends to each other
volume and speaker button strips)
3 to 3.3V supplied for the
7 Remove the antennae wire from the outside functioning of these key
8 Remove the motherboard and vibrator. LED Lights

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242 355
 Assembling a Mobile Phone
LCD Backlight LCD Backlight in mobile cell The following are the steps that you should take when
Section phones is made according assembling a mobile phone:
to the series circuit. A Boost
Voltage Generator section 1 Fix the vibrator strips of speaker and volume button
is built for the supply of high 2 Fix the motherboard
voltage (10 to 18V) for the
3 Connect the antenna with wire
functioning of the LCD LED
Boost coil, Boost Von Driver 4 Place the camera and connect it
IC Rectifier Diode are
5 Place the buzzer
present in this section
6 Put the camera cover
Vibrator Motor Positive power supply is
Section given to this section directly 7 Make sure that the LCD is working before you place
from the positive end of the the screen
battery Negative power
8 Put battery and battery cover So far you have learnt
supply a given through a
about the hazards of mobile phone repair, the parts of
NPN transistor or from the

D
a mobile phone, the tools to use and how to assemble
ground of any circuit
and disassemble a mobile phone. Now let us look at

E
Network section Antenna, External Antenna how to diagnose and repair a mobile phone.
Socket, RX Band Pass

H
Filter, RF Crystal, FEM, Diagnosing and Repairing Mobile Phone Faults
PFO, TX Band Pass Filter, The correct diagnosis of mobile cell phone faults is the

S
RF IC CPU are connected key to successful and cost effective repair of the phone.

LI
in the Network Section Let us start by looking at the skills that you need to have
Battery Charging Charger and system to be able to diagnose and repair a mobile phone.
Section interface connector is made

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Skills Needed to Diagnose and Repair a Mobile Phone
together in most modem
R IM

Before you can diagnose and repair a phone, there are

U
mobile cell phones some skills that you need to learn.
Regulator section is made
These skills are:
P
separately for the battery
E N

charging section in some • Soldering

mobile phones the battery
• Desoldering
©

charging section is made

inside the Power IC • Testing using a multimeter .
FM Radio Section FM Radio Driver C FM • Jumper setting
Antenna, Signal and Supply
Components are made in Testing a phone using a multimeter
B

the FM Radio Section We hope you still remember that a multimeter is a device
Bluetooth section Bluetooth Antenna, that is used to measure the voltage, current and resistance
O

Bluetooth RF Signal Titer. of various components of a mobile phone. Figure 29

Bluetooth Driver IC Supply below shows the various parts of a multimeter.
T

and Signal Components are a Measuring resistance

found in this section. The
To measure resistance follow these steps
T

Bluetooth section functions

like the Network Section 1 Plug your red and black probes into the appropriate
O

The RF CLK signal is given sockets on your multimeter.

to the Bluetooth driver IC
N

during signal processing 2 Choose the appropriate resistance measurement

setting on your millimeter’s
Hands free The hands free sack, hands
(Earphone) Section free MIC speaker signal 3 Hold the probes against the resistor.
component and hands free 4 Check the resistor value on the display.
audio amplifier are present
in this section Hands free b Measuring voltage
symbol is displayed after Testing for proper supply voltage is usually the first step
connecting the Hands free when troubleshooting a circuit.
jack
To measure voltage you should follow these steps
1 Select V (ac) or V (dc), as desired.

356 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242
2 Plug the black test probe into the COM input jack Plug The Fig 31. Below shows jumper settings in of the
the red test probe into the V input jack. jumpers may look like on your motherboard. In this
3 If the DMM has a manual range only, select the example, the jumper is the white block covering two of the
highest range so as not to overload the input. three gold pins. Also, next to the pins is a silkscreen
description of what the pins do, in this case when pins 1-
4 Touch the circuit with the tips of the probes. 2 are jumped the computer is operating normal, when 2-
5 Read the number in the display window and take note 3 are jumped it is set into configuration mode, and when
of the unit of measurement. open the computer will be in recovery mode.
c Measuring Current What is a fault?
1 Turn off power to the circuit. A fault is a defect (a failure in a circuit) or an electronic
2 Cut or unsolder the circuit, creating a place where the device
meter probes can be inserted. What causes faults or failures in mobile phones?
3 Select A (ac) or A (dc) as desired. Failures can be caused by any of the following:
4 Plug the black test probe into the COM input jack. Plug
• excess temperature,
the red test probe into the amp or milliamp input jack,

D
depending on the expected value of the reading • excess current or voltage,
5 Connect the probe tips to the circuit across the break • lonizing radiation, mechanical shock,

E
so that all current will flow through the DMM (a series
• stress or impact.
connection)

H
6 Turn the circuit power back on. • contamination,

S
Jumper setting • mechanical stress,

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Jumpering means to temporarily complete a circuit or to • short circuits,
bypass a break in a circuit by making a connection from • imperfect connections
one point to another. A good conductor wire is used to

B
E I
make a jumper which by-passes the components and • poor insulation or wiring caused by grounding
R IM
U
passes on a signal or supply line for further uses. When There are three types of mobile phone faults
wire is used as a jumper, it must have some special
i Hardware faults occur due to hardware malfunctioning
P
specifications as required. These jumper wires can mainly
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be of two types ie insulated and non-insulated. In the ii Software faults occur due to problems with software
mobile phone insulated wires are used for jumpers The
length of a jumper depends on the two points connected iii Settings faults occur due to wrong/invalid settings
©

in between. Let us discuss each type of faults and how they can be
Why do Jumpering: repaired.

While repairing mobile phones, we find that certain faulty Hardware Faults
B

components are very difficult to get from the market. To There are many hardware faults that can occur in a
repair such mobile phones the only immediate option is mobile phone, but in this section we shall discuss the
the use of jumpers. By use of jumpers we will bypass the following
O

faulty components specifically

a Battery charging faults/problems
T

How to Jumper:
b Mobile phone battery problem (faults)
1 Disassemble mobile phone and place it on a PCB
c Network not working problem
T

holder
2 Using a multimeter, check track and find the fault or d Overheating problem
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the missing track that need jumper e Sound faults

N

3 Apply liquid soldering flux to the points where you d Ear piece, ringer and microphone problem
need to solder jumper wire.
e Display problems
4 Cut jumper wire to desired length and remove its
lamination using blade cutter 5. Hold one end of the f Lighting or LED problems
jumper wire and solder it to one point of the faulty g Touchscreen problems
circuit track. Use a good quality tweezers to hold the
wire and good quality of soldering iron and solder wire h Keypad problems
to solder i SIM faults
6 Now hold the other end of the jumper wire and solder j WiFi problem and internet connectivity problems
to the other point of the track
7 Using a multimeter check the jumper
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242 357
a Battery Charging Faults/Problems 5 If the problem is still not solved then check the Mobile
Phone PBA current consumption.
Battery charging faults manifest in a number of ways
6 Check for any short circuit.
• The battery is not charge at all,
7 If there is serious problem at the board level then it is
• There is a sign of battery charging but the battery does
better to replace the whole Logic Board of the Mobile
not get charged.
Cell Phone.
• When the charger is inserted, it shows Not Charging
c Network Not Working Problem
• When the charger is connected it shows 'Bad
The common issues related to this problem include the
Connecting Charging
following
• When the charger is inserted the mobile phone gets
• There is no network in the mobile phone .
hot
• There is less or weak network signal
Solutions to Battery charging faults
• Sometimes there is a signal and sometimes there is
1 Change the charger and check. The voltage must be
no network signal.
between 5 and 7 Volts
Solutions to Network fault

D
2 Clean, resold or change the charger Connector
1 Manually search for the network. if the 'no network

E
3 If the phone shows "FALSE CHARGING" then use a
problem persists, then there is a problem with the
3.6 Volt Zenor Diode and do direct charging as shown
Antenna Switch. Repair or replace it.

H
in Figure 32
2 If the network resumes after manual search but the
4 If the problem is not solved then change the battery

S
home network cannot be selected, then there is a
and check again
problem with the PFO Repair or change the PFO

LI
5 Check the voltage of the battery connector using a
3 If the Network gets disconnected during phone calls
Multimeter. The voltage should be between 15 and 37
then you should repair or change the Network IC

B
E I
Volts
R IM

4 Clean the antenna tips and point,

6 If there is no voltage in the connector check the track
U
of the charging section Refer to the diagram of the 5 If the network problem persists, heat or change the
particular model of the mobile phone 26MHz Crystal Oscillator 6. If the problem is still not
P
E N

solved then heat or change the Antenna Switch. You

7 if the problem still persists, check the fuse, call and
can also jumper if the Antenna Switch is not available.
regulator one by one and change the faulty part.
©

7 Heat, Change or Jumper the PFO if the problem still

8 if the problem is still not solved then heat or change
persists. 8 Heat, re ball or change the Network IC.
the charging IC
9 Heat, re ball or change the Power IC
9 Finally heat, re ball or change the Power IC
10 Heat, re ball or change the CPU
B

b Mobile Phone Battery problem

d Network Signal and Call Drop Problem
A mobile cell phone can have any of the following battery
problems: If a mobile phone is having network problems and dropping
O

calls, then you should use the following steps to solve it:
Low Battery
T

1 Check the SIM Card Insert the SIM card in other

Battery Drains Fast
mobile phone and see if the network problem or the
Battery Backup Low 'call drop' problem is still there.
T

Battery Not charging 2 Alternatively, try to insert another SIM card inside the
O

mobile phone that has the network problem.

Solutions to Battery faults
N

3 If the problem is caused by the SIM card, then you

1 Check the battery connector and charger plug to see
should change or replace
if there is any problem
4 If the problem is still not resolved then upgrade the
2 Check if there is any dust or corrosion in the connector
operating system to the latest version. You can also
or any broken pin Clean the points using IPA or
rewrite the IMEI Number of the mobile cell phone
cleaning swabs.
3 Check the Interface Connector to see if there is any 5 If the problem is not solved then you may have to
dust. If there is dust clean or replace the interface change the mobile phone.
connector.
4 If the battery problem is not solved then upgrade the
software or operating system to latest version

358 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242
e Mobile Phone Overheating The following are the types of problems associated with
the ringer
A mobile phone may overheat either inside or on the
body. To solve this problem you should proceed as • Ringer not working
follows
• Low sound from the Ringer
1 Check if the mobile phone overheats when a particular
• Sound coming from Ringer but with interruption
application is running or if the overheating happens all
the time. • Sound not clear
2 Upgrade the mobile phone software operating system How to Solve Ringer Foults
to the latest version. This may solve the overheating
1 Check the ringer settings in the mobile phone Check
problem.
Ringer volume and lent mode. Adjust or change the
3 Smartphone's overheat if too many applications are volume and /or mode if required.
running at the same time. Close all the applications
and try to run 1 application at a time 2 if the problem is not solved then open the mobile
phone and clean the ringer point and ringer connector
4 If overheating persists, then there is some internal
hardware problem Change the PCB or Logic Board to 3 if the problem is not solved then check the ringer by
keeping the multimeter in buzzer mode The value

D
solve the heating problem.
must be between 8-10 Ohm if the value is not
f Sound Faults

E
between 8-10 Ohm then change the Ringer
We shall consider the following types of sound faults
4 If the problem is not solved then check the track of

H
• Earpiece or ear speaker problem ringer section. Do jumper wherever required) 5. If the
problem is not solved then check the Ringer IC Heat

S
• Mobile phone speaker problem
or change the IC
• Ringer problem

LI
6 If the problem is not solved then heat, reball or change
• Vibration problem
the UEM/Logic IC
• Microphone problem
B
E I
7 If the problem is still not solved then heat, reball or
R IM

i Earpiece or Ear Speaker Problem change the CPU

U
The Earpiece or speaker is the electronic component or
Vibration Problem
part that helps us to listen to sound during a phone call.
P
E N

It is controlled by Audio IC or Power IC (UEM). See Figure The vibrator is an electronic device that generates
27 for a picture of an ear speaker. vibrations, it is contioled by the Logic C or Power IC
©

The common problems associated with the ear speaker The common types of faults associated with the vibrator
are are
• No sound during phone call • Vibrator not working
• Low sound during phone call • Vibration has an interruption
B

• Sound has interruptions. • Vibration Hangs

How to Solve Earpiece or Speaker Fault
How to solve Mobile Vibrator faults
O

1 Check the speaker volume during a phone call

1 Check the vibrator settings in the mobile phone.
T

2 if speaker volume is fine, then check the earpiece by Check if the Vibrator ON of OFF
keeping the multimeter in buzzer mode. The value
must be between 25-35 Ohm if the value is not 2 If the problem is not solved then open the mobile cell
T

between 25-35 Ohm then change the earpiece phone and clean the vibrator tips and connector
O

3 If the problem is not solved then check the Circuit 3 If the problem is not solved the check the vibrator with
Track of the earpiece section. Do jumper wherever the multimeter in Buzzer Mode The value must be
N

required between 8-16 ohm. If the value is not between 8-16

ohm then change the Vibrator or Motor
4 if the problem persists heat, reball of change the
UEM/Audio IC 4 If the problem is not solved then check the track of the
5 If the problem is still not solved then heat, reball or vibrator section Do jumper wherever required.
change the CPU 5 If the problem is not solved then heat, reball or change
Ringer Problem the UEM/Logic IC /Power IC
A Ringer is any type of electronic component that rings or 6 If the problem is still not solved then heat, reball or
plays a loud sound it is also called the IHF Speaker, change the CPU.
buzzer, melody, etc. Figure 28 shows a picture of a
ringer.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242 359
J Microphone Problem 5 Resold or change the display IC
The Microphone is an electronic component that helps to 6 Heat, reball or change the CPU
transmit sound during
h Mobile Light or LED Problem and Solution
phone call. A microphone is controlled by Audio IC or
The LED is the electronic component that generates light
Power IC (UEM)
in the mobile phone. There are 2 types of connections in
The common types of problems associated with the the light section of a mobile phone
microphone are:
• Series Connection.
• Low sound during phone call
• Parallel Connection.
• Sound has interruption
The common symptoms of LED problems are
• Change in sound
• No Light
How to Solve Microphone Fault
• Light only in the Keypad or display
1 Check the Microphone settings
• Some lights not working
2 If all the settings are normal, then check and clean the
How to Solve a LED problem.

D
Microphone tips and connector
1 Check the light settings

E
3 If the problem is not solved then check the Microphone
with the multimeter in Buzzer Mode. The value must 2 If the settings are normal then resold all the LED

H
be between 600-1800 Ohm. If the value is not in 3 If the problem is not solved then change the display
between that range, then change the Microphone or the screen Next check all the LEDS with the

S
Note that only one side will give a value. multimeter on Buzzer mode if the

LI
4 If the problem is not solved then check the track of the 4 Next check all the LEDs with the multimeter on buzzer
Microphone section. Do Jumper wherever required. mode. If the LED is good then it will glow if the LED is

B
E I
5 If the problem is not solved then heat or change the faulty then it will not glow
R IM

Microphone IC 5 Change the LED or jumper if required

U
6 If the problem is not solved then heat, reball, or 6 If the problem is not solved then check the Track of the
change the UEM/Audio IC /Power IC
P
light section of the PCB and jumper if required.
E N

7 if the problem is still not solved then heat, reball or 7 Next check the Boosting Coil and change if required
change the CPU.
©

8 If the problem is not solved then heat or change the

Display Not Working Light IC
This is the part that displays information in a mobile 9 If the problem is still not solved then heat, reball or
phone. It is controlled by the CPU in some cell phones change the Power IC
there is an interface IC called the display IC situated
B

between the display and the CPU Phone Touch Screen (PDA) fault
The following are the common types of problems A Touch Screen (PDA) is an electronic component that
O

associated with the display allows you to input data or control your mobile phone by
touching the screen It normally has 4 Points namely
• Display is blank.
T

(+)
• Display not working properly.
(-)
T

• Only half the display works

(RX)
O

• White display.
(TX)
Display is upside down
N

The touch screen is normally controlled by the CPU in

Display is broken. some mobile phones there is an Interface IC called PDA
When the mobile phone is switched ON, the Logo appears IC or Screen Touch IC
and then the display disappears The following are the faults associated with the Touch
How to Solve Display Faults in a Mobile Cell Phone Screen
1 Clean the display tips and display connector. • Touch Screen not working
2 Resold the display connector- • Only half the Touch Screen works
3 Change the display • When one key is pressed another key works.
4 Check the display Track

360 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242
1 Check the settings if the mobile phone has both a 5 If still no change, heat, reball or change the CPU.
keypad and a touch screen
Mobile Phone SIM faults
2 Clean and resold the PDA Tips and PDA connector
A Subscriber Identify Module (SIM) card is an integrated
3 Change the PDA. circuit that securely. stores information about the number
of the cell phone line, password, and information related
4 Check the Track of the PDA section and Jumper if
to your local network service. It has a unique serial
required
number.
5 Heat or change the PDA IC
The following are the common problems associated with
6 Heat, reball or change the CPU the SIM card:
Keypad Problems • SIM is inserted but still there is a message saying
The keypad enables you to enter data, such as, phone "Insert SIM”
numbers and names in your mobile phone • The mobile phone goes OFFUNE when the SIM card
The main types of problems associated with the keypad is inserted
are • The SIM works for sometime and then stops working

D
• Some keys not working • There is a message that says "Invalid SIM”

E
• Keys need more pressure to work How to Solve SIM Card Fault
• When a key is pressed it works continuously 1 Check settings and see if the mobile phone is in Fight

H
Mode, if it is in "Flight Mode" then change it to Normal
• When one key is pressed, some other key works
mode.

S
• When one key is pressed, some other key works
2 Clean the SIM Card Tips and SIM Connector

LI
simultaneously
How to Solve a Keypad Faults 3 If the problem is not solved then change the SIM card
and check

B
E I
1 Check the facial of the keypad. Figure 38 below
R IM

4 If the problem still persists then change the SIM

U
2 Clean the keypad and keypad points shown fig below connector
3 Using the multimeter in buzzer mode and check the 5 If you still do not find a solution to the problem, check
P
E N

row and column of the keypad if there is a beeping the Track of the SIM section
sound then the keypad is working
6 If the problem is still not solved then heat or change
©

4 If there is no improvement, heat or change the Keypad the SIM IC

C or the interface IC
7 Finally, if there is no change, heat, reball or change
the Power IC.
B
O
T
T
O
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.240 - 242 361
Electronics & Hardware Sector Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247
Electronics Mechanic - LED Lights

Introduction of LED lights

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define LED and the advantages of LED lights over other lighting systems
• state the difference between LED lights and traditional lights
• explain the parts and working of LED lights
• describe the different colour generation in LED lights.

Introduction forward biased, the electrons in N region are crossing the

junction and recombine with the holes in P region. In
The LED is used as a light source in our day to day
energy band diagram electrons are in conduction band
applications. LED is the short form of "Light Emitting
whereas holes are in valance band as shown in Fig 2. At
Diode". LEDs are basically electronic devices, made with
the time of electron hole recombination electrons are
semiconducting material, which that emits light when it is

D
moving from higher energy band (conduction band) to
connected in forward bias mode. LED's properties are
lower energy band (valance band). So dissipate some
similar to general purpose diodes consisting of two leads

E
amount of energy. This emitted energy will be in the form
called as anode and cathode. LED lights are energy
of light.

H
efficient and having long life making them ideal
replacements for traditional power halogen and standard

S
incandescent lights. LED lights can save up to 90% of
household lighting costs. Fig 1 shows LED symbol and

LI
lead identification.

B
E I
R IM
U
P
E N
©

Parts of LED
The Fig 3(A) shows basic parts of LED and Fig 3(B)
B

shows a power LED with heat sink.

Difference between traditional lights and LED lights When a LED connected to supply, current flows to
O

LED lighting differs from incandescent lamp and compact semiconductor chip through anode lead(1) and a
whisker (4). The other side of the semiconductor is
T

fluorescent lamp in several ways. When designed well,

LED lighting can be more efficient, durable, versatile and attached to the top of the anvil (7) and cathode (2). The
long lasting. Incandescent lamp produces light by use of colour of LED light depends on the material used for
T

a filament. When current passing through a bulb, bulb will making LED chip (5). There are no loose or moving parts
dissipate the power in the form of heat, thus producing within the solid epoxy enclosure.
O

light. CFLs (compact fluorescent Lamps) are producing

light by exciting the mercury vapour held inside the lamp
N

with electricity. LEDs produce light through a "cold

process" when current flowing through the semiconducting
material (usually gallium, arsenic and phosphorus),
electrons are able to recombine with holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons (i.e. light).
This effect is called "electroluminescence".
LED working
Basically LED is a semiconductor device which is made
with P N junction. LED is used to convert current into light
when it is in forward biased condition. When LED is

362
The LED package will protect the LED chip from the 9 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) - blue
outside environment. The dissipated heat can be
10 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) - ultraviolet.
transferred by using a heat sink. The epoxy resin
enclosure lens (3) has the following three functions. White light from LED
1 It is designed to allow more light from the Unlike incandescent lamps, LEDs are not inherently
semiconductor. white light sources. LEDs emit highly efficient coloured
light for the applications such as traffic lights and exit
2 It focuses the light (viewing angle).
signs. General light source needs white light. In LED
3 It protects the semiconducting material from the other white light can be achieved in three ways:
elements.
1 Phosphor conversion : In which a phosphor is used
Colours of LEDs on or near the LED is used to convert the coloured
light to white light as shown in Fig 4.
LEDs are used to generate a monochromatic colour of
particular wave length. The generated colour of LED is 2 RGB systems: In which light from multiple
depends upon the material used to make the LED chip. monochromatic LEDs (e.g., red, green, and blue) are
Unlike normal signal diodes, Light Emitting Diodes are mixed, resulting in white light as shown in Fig 4.
made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as

D
3 A hybrid method : In which uses both phosphor-
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP),
converted (PC) and monochromatic LEDs.
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide

E
(SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together Phosphor white light is more efficient than RGB white.

H
at different ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of In the phosphor conversion method white light can be
colour. produced by a single LED combining with a short

S
The semiconductor material used will determine the wavelength LED such as blue or UV, and a yellow
wavelength of the photon light emission and the resulting phosphor coating. The blue or UV photons generated in

LI
colour of the emitted light as shown in TABLE 1. the LED either travels through the phosphor layer without
alteration, or they are converted into yellow photons in the
1 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - infra-red

B
E I
phosphor layer. The combinations of the blue and yellow
R IM

2 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) - red to infra- photons combine to generate white light.
U
red, orange
3 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) -
P
E N

high-brightness red, orange-red, orange, and yellow

4 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) - red, yellow and green
©

5 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) - green

6 Gallium Nitride (GaN) - green, emerald green
7 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) - near ultraviolet,
B

bluish-green and blue.

8 Silicon Carbide (SiC) - blue as a substrate
O
T

TABLE 1
Typical LED characteristics
T

Sl.No. Semiconductor material Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA

O

1. GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

N

2. GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

3. GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v
4. GaAsPN 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v
5. AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v
6. SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v
7. GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247 363
 VI characteristics of LED
VI characteristics curve of a LED is shown in Fig 5.
To emit light in a LED needs a current flow through it, as
it is a current dependent device with their light output
intensity being directly proportional to the forward current
flowing through the LED.
As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition
across a power supply it should be a current limiter (using
a series resistor) to protect it from excessive current flow,
it will destroy instantly because of too much current will
pass through and burn it out. Generally 5mA is the
maximum forward current for a simple LED and 30 mA
for a high bright light output LED.
From the TABLE 1 the characteristics of each LED has
its own forward voltage drop across the PN junction and

D
this parameter which is determined by the semiconductor
material used for a forward current of 20mA.

E
LED efficiency, comparision with CFL and incandescent lamps

H
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• compare LED lights and traditional lighting system

S
• state the characteristics for the LED lighting system

LI
• list the advantages of LED lighting system
• state the limitations of LED lighting system.

B
E I
LED efficiency, comparison with CFL and florescent lamps are popular due to more efficient , high
R IM

Incandescent lamps illumination, more life span, less power consumption

U
than incandescent lamps.
Many types of lighting systems are available such as
incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps and LED lamps. Now a day's LED lights are more popular and emerging
P
E N

Incandescent lamps are traditional and available from technology in lighting systems. TABLE 1 gives the
long back. These are bulky in size, more power consuming comparison between these three lighting systems by
than others and having less life span. The compact various aspects.
©

TABLE 1
Comparison chart
LED lights vs Incandescent light bulbs vs. CFLs
B

Sl. No. Particulars LED light Incandescent Compact Fluorescent

O

lamp Lamp(CFL)
T

I. Energy efficiency & Energy costs

T
O

1. Life span (Average) 50,000 hours 1,200 hours 8,000 hours

N

2. Watts of electricity used 6 - 8 watts LEDs use 60 watts 13 - 15 watts

(equivalent to 60 watt bulb) less power (watts) per
per unit of light gener-
ated(lumens). LEDs
help to reduce green
house gas emissions
from power plants and
lower electric bills.
3. Kilo-watts of electricity used (Equi- 329 KWh/yr. 3285 KWh/yr. 767 KWh/yr.
valent to 30 Incandescent bulbs per
year)

364 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247
Sl. No. Particulars LED light Incandescent Compact Fluorescent
lamp Lamp(CFL)

II. Environmental impact

1. Contains the TOXIC Mercury No No Yes - Mercury

(equivalent to 60 watt bulb) is very toxic to
health and
the environment.

2. RoHS complaint Yes Yes No - Contains 1 mg

- 5 mg of mercury
and is major risk to
the environment.

D
Carbon-di-oxide emissions
(30 bulbs per year)

E
Lower energy consumption 451 pounds/year 4500 pounds/year 1051 pounds/year

H
3. decreases: CO2
emissions, Sulphur oxide and

S
high-level nuclear waste.

LI
B
E I
R IM
Sl. No. Particulars LED light Incandescent Compact Fluorescent
U
lamp Lamp(CFL)
P
E N

III. Important facts

©

1. Sensitivity to low None Some Yes - may not work

temperatures under negative 10
degrees fahrenheit
B

or over 120
degrees fahrenheit.
O

2. Sensitive to humidity No Some Yes

T

3. Turns on instantly Yes Yes No - takes time to

warm up
T
O

4. Durability Very durable Not very durable Not very durable -

glass or filament glass can break
N

can break easily. easily.

5. Heat emitted 3.4 btu's / hour 85 btu's / hour 30 btu's / hour

6. Failure modes Not typical Some Yes - may catch on

fire, smoke, or
emit an odor.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247 365
 Sl. No. Particulars LED light Incandescent Compact Fluorescent
lamp Lamp(CFL)

IV. Light output

1. Lumens Watts Watts Watts

2. 450 4-5 40 9 - 13

3. 800 6-8 60 13 - 15

4. 1100 9 - 13 75 18 - 25

D
5. 1600 16 - 20 100 23 - 30

E
6. 2600 25 - 28 150 30 - 55

H
TABLE 2

S
Characteristics of LED lights
1 Colour quality Types of bulbs Expected lifetime

LI
2 Light output
Incandescent Bulbs Between 750 and 2,000 hrs.

B
E I
3 Less power consumption
Compact Fluorescent Between 6,000 and 10,000hrs.
R IM
U
4 High efficiency Lamp (CFL)
5 Long lifetime LED Lights Between 20,000 and 50,000 hrs.
P
E N

6 Smallest in size
7 High resistance to switching cycles
TABLE 3
©

8 Immediate light at switching on

Aspect Incandes- CFL LED
9 Wide operating temperature range cent
10 High impact and vibration resistance
Approximate
B

11 No UV or IR radiation cost per bulb Rs. 20/- Rs.100/- Rs 250/-

12 High colour saturation level without filtering
O

13 Mercury-free Average lifespan 1,200 hrs 8,000 hrs 25,000 hrs

Watts used 60 W 15 W 10 W
T

Lifespan of LED Lighting

No. of bulbs 20 3 1
All the lighting sources having different expected lifespan needed for
T

under various laboratory test conditions. Manufacturers 25,000 hrs

will provide these information on their product packages of use
O

on hours basis. In TABLE 2 shows the expected lifespan Total purchase Rs.1200/- Rs.300/- Rs. 250/-
of various lights.
N

price of bulbs
The life of LED is about 10 to 25 times higher than (25,000 Hrs.)
incandescent lamp and 2 to 5 times than CFL's. So, LED Total cost of Rs.4500/- Rs.1125/- Rs. 750/-
bulbs are good for long time considerations. TABLE 3 electricity used
shows some calculation regarding operational cost of (25,000 hours at
various lighting systems. Rs.3 per kWh)
Total operational
cost over Rs. 5700/- Rs.1425/- Rs. 1000/-
(25,000 Hrs.)

366 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247
Advantages of LED Lighting: created using LED lighting, allowing for an element of
creativity within domestic and commercial purposes.
LEDs are having a number of advantages when compared
to traditional lighting systems. Instant lighting
Durability of LED lights One of the drawback of traditional lighting is they does
not light up immediately. With LED lighting, there is no
Incandescent bulbs and fluorescent lamps will break
such delay. When switched on, they reach full brightness
easily when shaken or dropped. The incandescent bulb
up to 100 times faster than other alternatives. This
has a filament that is likely to break in such a situation.
feature ensures that they are well suited to use in vehicles.
The LED lights are made in robust design. They are
suffering considerably less degradation over time. A Less wiring required
typical LED light would be expected to lose only 2 per cent
LED lights operate with low voltage and current. So the
of its total efficiency after a period of 10,000 hours.
size (Gauge) of wire used for house wiring will be less.
The useful lifespan of LED lighting products is defined So the cost of wire bundle will be lesser in all aspects.
differently than that of other light sources, such as
Health benefits
incandescent or CFL. This is because LEDs typically do
not "burn out" or fail. Instead, they experience lumen Fluorescent lamp can be replaced by the LED lights due

D
depreciation, where the amount of light produced to flickering effect. Such an effect can be annoying, it can
decreases and light colour appearance can shift over also have more serious health implications. Migraine

E
time. sufferers and epileptics may find that the use of LED
tubes more comfortable.

H
LED lighting efficiency
Lower maintenance costs
Incandescent bulb and fluorescent lamp dissipate more

S
amount of energy, so that heat produced, because they LED lights never needed to be replaced and maintenance
distribute light in many directions. By comparison, LED costs tend to be extremely low. It is rare for an individual

LI
lights operate at low temperature and produce more LED to fail, if such a situation occurs, it does not mean
focused form of light. A typical incandescent lamp operates that the entire lamp will fail.

B
E I
at an efficiency level of around 9 percent. LED light can Directional light source
R IM

achieve efficiency levels which is closer to 40 per cent.

U
The LED lights can be manufactured in smaller sizes and LEDs are "directional" light sources, which means they
can be placed in spaces that would not be suitable for emit light in a specific direction, unlike incandescent and
P
E N

other forms of lighting. compact fluorescent bulbs, (which emit light and heat in
all directions). For this reason, LED lighting is able to use
Light output light and energy more efficiently in many applications.
©

Modern LED lights have the appropriate light output and However, sophisticated engineering is needed to produce
colour characteristics to exceed the performance levels an LED light bulb that emit light in all directions like an
of incandescent bulbs. LED lighting can also be used in incandescent lamp.
connection with standard household dimmer switches,
A general purpose LED may not distribute light in all
or with more flexible control systems, allowing colour
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directions if used in a table lamp.

settings to be manipulated quickly.
Heat dissipation by LED
Disposing of LED Lights
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The LED lighting systems are not radiate heat as much

Unlike fluorescent bulbs, LED lights does not release
as an incandescent lamp or halogen bulb. This is usually
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mercury into the air. Some studies have shown that, they
done with the help of a heat sink, which is a passive
include a number of other toxic materials. When dealing
device that absorbs the heat produced and dissipates it
with a broken LED light, it is advisable to make use of
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into the surrounding environment. This keeps LEDs from

gloves and to be aware of the toxic nature of the materials
over heating and burning out. Thermal management is
that have been used in the manufacture of the lights.
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one of the most important factor for the successful

However, LED lights can be disposed at landfill sites.
performance of an LED product. Because the higher the
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Range of uses operating temperature of a LED more quickly the light will
degrade, and the shorter the useful lifespan will be.
LED Lights do not release out an Ultra Violet (UV) rays,
which means that they can safely be used in situations Limitations of LED bulbs
where precious items need to be exhibited. An example 1 The initial cost of LED bulbs are more. The price per
of this might be in the case of lighting the paintings or lumen is very high than other types.
other artifacts. The lack of UV rays means that insects
are not attracted to these light sources. This is particularly 2 LED bulbs need a definite voltage and constant current
useful for the food industry and also for external for good results.
installations. It is also possible to create lighting in a wide 3 LED drivers are more costlier.
range of colours, without the need of different coloured
4 LED bulb colours are changing due to age and ambient
bulbs or filters. As a result, interesting effects can be
temperature.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247 367
5 Two different white LEDs are not having same colour LED. Which causes deterioration of the LED chip
characteristics. itself. Otherwise overheating the LED package,
eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-
6 LED performance mostly depends on the correct
sink is required to maintain long life.
engineering to manage the heat generated by the

Types of LED lights

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• list out the type of LED lights
• explain the classification of low power LEDs
• explain the classification of high power LEDs
• list out the specification of LED lights.

Introduction have both LEDs the same colour and this can be useful
in AC applications as it can conduct on both cycles of the
LED lights are mostly used for white colours in domestic
mains and eliminates the need for a rectifier.
and industrial applications. But in some other applications

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we need different colour LED lights in - red, orange, The data sheet of the bi-colour LED provides the terminal
green, blue, etc. connection for the colours

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Some LED lights are available in single colour, dual

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colurs and multi-colour types. These multicolour lights
consist of 2 or more colour LEDs in a board. By operating

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external switches or by remote we can select the colour
of LED lights . By selecting 2 or more colours we can

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generate various combinations of colours. Fig 1 shows
the symbols of different type of LEDs

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3-Pin LED
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The three-pin LED is usually a pair of LEDs of different

colours sharing a common anode or common cathode.
Either LED can be turned on independently or blended to
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create a combination.
A bi-colour, 3-pin, common-cathode LED is shown in
Fig 3
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4-Pin LED
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2-Pin LED
The 4-pin LED package is most commonly seen on RGB
The most common type of LED is the 2-pin, 5 mm, round (Red-green-blue) LEDs. Common cathode and common
lens type. Generally these are a single LED. Polarity is anode versions are available. It produces the red, green
indicated by the long lead (+/anode) or the flat on one side and blue colours across the visible spectrum, common
of the base (-/cathode). cathode type. The RED LED in a 4 pin package is shown
The two-pin package can contain a single or two back- in Fig.4
back LEDs. 6-Pin
Be aware that bi-colour LEDs are also sold in this RGB with individual pinouts allows common anode,
package. Some are dual-colour so that reversing the common cathode configuration as well as series
current through them changes the colour. Others may connection of the LEDs is shown in Fig 5

368 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247
When the number of Pins reaches six all sorts of strange
variations are possible to bring out each LED anode and
cathode on individual pins. This allows a single part to be
used to common anode, common cathode and series
LED configurations.
A slightly modified 6-pin, RB-GB, LED, has two separate
3-pin LEDs in one package as shown in Fig.6
LF5WAEMBGMDW, 6-pin, RB-GB LED has two 3-pin
LEDs in one package. Both have a blue LED. Note the
pin length orientation clue.

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Classification of LED lights I. Low power LEDs or miniature LEDs

A. According to the power level These LEDs are more familiar as indicators in mobile
phones, in television sets and in different types of digital
LED lights are classified in to two categories. Those are
devices. They are usually available in standard size &
I. Low power LEDs or miniature LEDs shape from 2 mm to 10 mm in hole and surface mount
packages. There is no need of separate heat sink. So it
II. High power LEDs
is compatible to different circuit boards.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247 369
Different companies are manufacturing these LEDs in B. According to the shape LED lights are divided in
5V and 12V ranges. Generally current rating about 1 mA to 3 categories.
to 20 mA. They are available in a "ready to fit" mode.
1 Spherical lights,
Common package shapes include round, with a domed
2 Tapered lights
or flat top, rectangular with a flat top, and triangular or
square with a flat top as shown in Fig 2. 3 Cup-shaped lights
C. LED tube lights
LED tube lights are designed to physically fit in fixtures
instead of fluorescent tubes. Some LED tube are suitable
for existing fixtures if appropriate ballast is used. An LED
tube light generally uses many individual Surface-Mounted
LEDs which are directional and require proper orientation
to emit light in all directions around the tube. Most LED
tube lights can be used in place of T8, T10, or T12 tube
designations, T8 is D26mm, T10 is D30mm, in lengths of
590 mm (23 inch), 1,200 mm (47 inch) and 1,500 mm

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(59 inch).

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D. LED strip lights
An LED Strip Light also known as an LED tape or ribbon

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There are three main categories
light. LED strip light is a flexible circuit made by surface
1 Low-current

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mounted light-emitting diodes (SMD LEDs) on a flexible
type PCB layers. These strips are usually comes with an
Typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4

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adhesive agent in back. Previously, strip lights had been
mW consumption)
used solely in accent lighting, backlighting, task lighting,
2 Standard and decorative lighting applications. Now a days due to

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the increased luminous efficacy and longer life-spans
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20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90

LED strip lights are used in applications such as high
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mW) at around:
brightness task lighting, fluorescent and halogen lighting
i 1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange, yellow, and traditional
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replacements, indirect lighting applications, Ultra Violet
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green inspection during manufacturing processes, costume

ii 3.0 to 3.4 V for pure green and blue design, etc.
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iii 2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white E. SMD LEDs

3 Ultra-high-output
II. High power LEDs
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These LEDs are the result of advanced semiconductor

technology. As the name indicates, these LEDs are
known by its high output. High-power LEDs (HP-LEDs) or
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high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents SMD is short form of "Surface Mount Device", describes
from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared
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LED packages that can be mounted on a surface or a

with the other LEDs. LED power density up to 300 W/cm2 PCB by soldering method as shown in Fig 5. SMDs come
has been achieved. They are capable of producing light in all shapes and sizes, and are typically described with
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output with higher luminous intensity. The HP-LEDs a four digit number. 3528 SMDs and 5050 SMDs are
must be mounted on a heat sink for heat dissipation. If the
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presently some of the most commonly used SMDs. The

heat from a HP-LED is not removed, the device will fail in four digit numbers refer to the length and width dimensions
seconds.
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of the SMD, in this case, 3.5 x 2.8 mm and 5.0 x 5.0 mm,
High power LED's come in different shapes & sizes. A respectively.
common example of high power LED in daily use is "LED F. COB (chip on board) LED modules
strips" that are used for walls & room interiors.
These are LED lighting system have multiple LED chips
Different types of LED lights are shown in Fig 3. mounted on a single PCB, encapsulated in a phosphor
LED lights are made of arrays of SMD modules. Such epoxy mix. These modules can reach many hundreds
lights are made with standard shapes and fittings like watts, delivering over 10000 lumens. They can often be
Edison screw base, MR16 shape with a bi-pin base, or used in high-bay or exterior lighting.
a GU5.3 (bi-pin cap) or GU10 (bayonet fitting) etc. are as LED light can be described in a number of ways
shown in Fig 4.(Refer page 167) They are compatible
with the supply sockets. They included driver circuitry. 1 LED bulb shape

370 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247
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2 LED bulb diameter

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3 LED bulb length
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4 LED bulb base type

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LED light bulb shape
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It's shapes describe the general physical characteristics

of the LED light. LED light bulbs vary in shape from tube
shaped bulbs to funnel or pear shaped light bulbs. These
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LED light bulb shapes each have a code. For example: T

designates a 'tube', PAR signifies a 'parabolic aluminium
reflector' and MR is used for ‘multifaceted reflector’.
LED bulb diameter
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The diameter of a light bulb is measured in two ways, in

millimetres and in 1/8th of an inch. The diameter for light Size of LED on strip
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bulb shape is measured at the point of maximum size. The light output (lumen output) and light patterns are
Examples are: T12 is 12 eights of an inch or 12/8 = 1.5 depending on the size of LEDs on strips. Integral LED
T

inches in diameter, PAR20 is 20 eighths of an inch in strips are available with two sizes
diameter or 2.5 inches, MR16 is 16 eighths = 16/8 = two
1 35:28 - this indicating LED size as 3.5mm x 2.8mm
T

inches in diameter.
LED. These are suitable for domestic applications like
LED light bulb length
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cabinet decoration, stairs , windows , photos, celing

LED light bulb length is the overall length measured, coves etc.
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typically in electrical connection, from base to the tip of 2 50:50 - this is indicating LED size as 5.0mm x 5.0mm
the bulb. Or in the case of Tube from end to end. This can LED. These are bright LED strips and the size will be
be in metric or in inches or feet as shown in Fig 5. about 40% bigger than 35:28 LEDs. These producing
Bulb base types high light output. These can use for both commercial
and domestic applications such as outdoor lighting,
LED light bulb base types are typically measured by type ambient lighting for commercial areas, wall washers
and diameter in millimetres. For example a typical Edison etc.
medium screw-in base like E27 is 27 millimetres in
diameter. LED bi-pin bases, like a fluorescent tube Number of LEDs per meter
replacement or a bi-pin MR16, are measured between The number of LEDs per metre affects the brightness
the centres of each pin. (lumens) and light pattern of a strip. Integral LED strips
are available in three variations:
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.14.243 - 247 371
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1 30 LEDs/m - generally using domestic decorations LED cut marks are normally 3 LEDs apart. The distance
like kitchen kick plates, etc. between cut marks will depend on the number of LEDs
2 60 LEDs/m - task lighting, under kitchen cabinets, bar per metre.
tops, steps/staircase edging, doorway frames. Thermal management of high-power LEDs
3 120 LEDs/m - high ceiling coves, exterior edge lighting, High power light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can use 350
path ways, signage. milliwatts or more in a single LED. Most of the electricity
in an LED becomes heat rather than light (about 70%

372 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247
heat and 30% light). If the dissipated heat is not i Surface finishing of a heat sinks effecting the heat
removed, the LEDs operates at high temperatures will dissipation. A painted surface having more heat
causes to lowers their efficiency, and reliability. So it is emission than unpainted and unfinished one.
necessary to keep the temperature with in safe limit and
ii Mounting methods also effect the cooling system.
remove excess heat form the light for improving its
Heat-sink mountings with screws or springs are
lifespan and accuracy.
often better than regular clips, thermal conductive
The excess temperature of LED light can be eliminated glue or sticky tape.
by
LED lamp specifications
1 Using heat adhesive with boards and heat sinks.
It is important to know the specifications of LED lights for
2 Heat sinks : The thermal conductive type materials its selection . LED lights having so many specifications
(eg. aluminium) are using with LEDs which are in those more important specifications are as given
dissipating heat by conduction methods. The shape below.
and size of heat sink also effects the speed of heat
1 Power rating
dissipation.
2 Equivalent incandescent lamp rating

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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247 373
3 Operating voltage and frequency 7 Operating life time
4 The light colour emitted 8 Fitting type and whether the lamp is dimmable
5 Its colour rendering index (CRI) 9 In the case of directional lamps, the luminous intensity
and beam angle may also need to known.
6 Luminous flux

LED stacks - Connections, Driver circuits

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe the LED panel materials
• explain the stacking of LED
• explain the working of LED driver circuits.

The main materials of LED panel light structure are 6 Drive power
as follows
There are two kinds of power modes: first, directly using
1 Aluminum frame cross-flow power (this mode has high efficiency and PF

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AL6063, aluminum extrusion mold is used due to low value is up to 0.95, so it is cost-effective);second, constant
initial investment cost, good surface appearance, good pressure with cross-flow mode (this mode is stable, but

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heat dissipation. with low efficiency and high cost).

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2 Diffuser plate LEDs in series
Installation of diffusion plate is used to invisible the We can connect LED's together in series to increase the

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screen dot. Diffuser plate generally uses acrylic diffuser light level. If LED's are connected in series all have the

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plate or PC 2.0 materials. Acrylic diffuser plate is low same forward current flow as shown in Fig 1.
cost, higher light transmission than PC 2.0 and is poor in
anti-aging. The price of PC 2.0 is slightly higher, but it is

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good at anti-aging. Acrylic diffuser plate light transmission
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rate is 92% and that of PC 2.0 is 88%. We can choose

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the materials of diffuser plate according to different
requirement and usually use the acrylic materials.
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3 Light guide plate

To emit the uniform light, light guide plate plays an
©

important roll in blocking the screen dot. The side LED

light changes the angle of light ray by light refraction of
screen dot. Light guide plate is the heart of the LED panel
light and its screen dot design is very important. If the
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screen dot design is not good, the overall lighting effect Although, the series voltage drop across them needs to
will be bad like 1. Bright in the middle and dark in both be considered when calculating the required value of the
sides. 2. Bright in the bright side and dark in the middle. current limiting resistor, Rs. If we assume that each LED
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4 Rear cover has a voltage drop of 1.2V across its when it is illuminated
then the voltage drop across three will be 3x1.2v
T

Sealing lamp body usually uses aluminum. It plays a role =3.6 volts. Consider that the supply voltage is 5 volt with
of dissipating heat and protecting the light. a forward current of about 10mA. The value of series
T

5 LED lighting source resistance Rs. will be calculated as:

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3528 is the usual light source. Besides, there are 5630 VLED = 3 x 1.2 volts = 3 x 1.2 V = 3.6 V
and 5050. The luminous efficiency of 5630 and 5050 is RS = VS - VLED = 5 - 3.6 = 1.4 volts
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not high and the design of their screen dot is difficult but
their cost is lower. The lighting effect of 3528 is high and 1.4v
the screen dot is in acceptable range. RS = = 140 W
10mA

374 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247
Stacking of LEDs 1 Driving a single LED
Stacking means grouping of LEDs. LEDs may be For driving (operating) a single 3 resistors. In the given
connected in series, parallel or series - parallel Fig 3, only two groups of 3 LEDs each are shown, but
combinations. It is necessary in each stacking that a LED there are 24 such groups. IC 555 is used to limit the,
is operated at its rated DC voltage and the current passed circuit current at 10mA.
through a LED does not exceed to its rated value. The
2 Driving a stack of 72 LEDs
voltage rating of LEDs ranges from 1.6V to 4.2V and the
current rating ranges from 2mA to 20mA. For driving a stack of 72 LEDs, IC 555 may be used. 72
LEDs are divided into 24 groups of 3 LEDs connected in
1 Parallel stacking
series and all the 24 groups are connected in parallel
In this stack, all the LED are connected in parallel to a across an IC 555 and 12 volts DC source. A current
single source of supply with a current limiting resistor for limiting and voltage dropping resistor of 82 ohms is used
each LED. Decorative lighting strip may contain any in each group of 3 resistors. In the given figure, only two
number of LEDs that are connected in parallel with a groups of 3 LEDs each are shown, but there are 24 such
current limiting resistor for each LED. groups. IC 555 is used to limit the, circuit current at 10mA.
2 Series-parallel stacking 3 Other driving circuits

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LED light panels generally contain a parallel group of A number of LEDs stack driving circuits have been
some series groups. Each series group usually contains developed which employ different ICs. A current limiting

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3 to 4 LEDs. These panels may be of built-in type or resistor is necessarily connected in series of a single LED

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mounted type. or a series group of 3-4 LEDs.
3 Series stacking Driver circuit

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In this stack, LEDs are connected in series, but usually

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more than 3-4 LEDs are not connected in series. Of
course, some series groups of 3-4 LEDs may be
connected in parallel. The reason behind it is different

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voltage distribution and current limiting of LEDs.
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Driving of LED stacks
Here, driving means to apply DC supply to a stack (group)
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of LEDs. In general, a current limiting resistor is used with

each LED.
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247 375
LED drivers and its types
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the need for a LED driver
• list out the types of LED drivers
• explain the factors to be considered to choose a LED driver
• describe the working of LED driver circuit.

Need for a LED Driver Choosing an LED Driver

LED light sources require specialized devices called LED There are two main types of external LED drivers,
drivers to operate. LED drivers (also known as LED constant-current and constant-voltage, as well as a third
power supplies) are similar to ballasts for fluorescent type of driver called an AC LED driver. Each type of driver
lamps or transformers for low voltage bulbs: they provide is designed to operate LEDs with a different set of
LEDs with the electricity they require to function and electrical requirements. When replacing a driver, the old
perform at their best. driver's input/output requirements must be matched as
LEDs require drivers for two purposes: closely as possible.

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1. LEDs are designed to run on low voltage (12-24V), Constant-Current drivers
direct current electricity. However, most places supply Constant-current drivers power LEDs that require a fixed

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higher voltage (120-270V), alternating current output current and a range of output voltages. There will
electricity. An LED driver rectifies higher voltage, be only one output current specified, labeled in amps or

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alternating current to low voltage, direct current. milliamps (350mA, 700mA or 1A), along with a range of

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2. LED drivers also protect LEDs from voltage or current voltages that will vary depending on the load (wattage) of
fluctuations. A change in voltage could cause a change the LED.

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in the current being supplied to the LEDs. LED light Constant-Voltage Drivers
output is proportional to its current supply, and LEDs
are rated to operate within a certain current range Constant-voltage drivers power LEDs that require a fixed

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(measured in amps). Therefore, too much or too little output voltage with a maximum output current. In these
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LEDs, the current is already regulated, either by simple

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current can cause light output to vary or degrade
faster due to higher temperatures within the LED. resistors or an internal constant-current driver, within the
LED module. These LEDs require one stable voltage,
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In brief, LED drivers convert higher voltage, alternating usually 10 V, 12V DC or 24V DC.
current to low voltage, direct current. They also keep the
voltage and current flowing through an LED circuit at its AC LED Drivers
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rated level. LEDs have such a small electrical load that regular
Internal vs. External drivers (Fig 1) transformers do not register that they're wired to a bulb at
all. AC LED drivers are typically used with bulbs that
For the aforementioned reasons, every LED light source already contain an internal driver that converts the current
requires a driver. However, some LEDs, particularly
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from AC to DC, so an AC LED driver's job is to register the

those designed for household use, contain internal drivers low wattage of LEDs and step down the voltage to meet
rather than separate, external drivers. Household bulbs the bulb's voltage requirements, usually 12 or 24 volts.
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usually include an internal driver because it makes AC LED drivers are typically used to power 12-24V AC
replacing old incandescent or CFL bulbs easier. The input LED MR16 bulbs.
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figure 1 shows the external and internal drivers.

Factors to be considered to choose a LED driver
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Max Wattage
According to the NEC (National Electrical Code), LED
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drivers should be paired with LEDs that use 20% less

than their maximum rated wattage (with the exception of
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AC LED drivers). Drivers should not be paired with an

LED that is at or exceeds the driver's maximum wattage
to avoid overstressing the driver components. For
example, if you have a driver that can operate a maximum
of 96 watts, it should only operate LEDs that use 77 watts
at most (96 x 0.8 = 76.8).

376 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247
Dimming more efficient the driver is. A good power factor is 0.9 or
above.
Dimming functions are desirable to optimize illumination
as ambient light levels may change due to artificial or Ingress Protection (IP) Rating
natural variations in the lighting variations both indoors
IP ratings tell users the environmental protection that a
and outdoors.
driver's outer casing provides. The first number specifies
Both constant-current and constant-voltage LEDs and protection against solid objects, and the second number
drivers can be made with a dimming capability. Dimmable specifies protection against water elements. For example,
external drivers often require an external dimmer, or according to the chart below, a driver with an IP67 rating
other dimming control devices to work. Since technologies is protected against dust and temporary immersion in
are improving rapidly, it's best to test specific LED/ water.
dimmable driver combinations for acceptable dimming
Physical size and shape
performance.
Consider the physical dimensions of the driver. Make
Power Factor
sure it will fit in the area you will place it.
Power factor describes how efficiently an LED driver
uses electricity. The closer to 1 the power factor is, the

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Design a emergency light using LEDs

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

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• state the brief idea about the emergency light
• explain the working of the emergency light with charging circuit.

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A simple LED emergency light circuit that can be In the presence of electricity, the relay contact connects

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implemented for home lighting during power failures is the NO (Normally Open) terminal to battery. Thus battery
given in the figure below. This LED lighting circuit design charges during this time. A red LED is used in the circuit

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is intended to light automatically during main power as the charging indicator which glows when the emergency
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failures. This circuit is a simple and low cost emergency light battery is charging.
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light. The main part of this LED light schematic is a relay,
When AC mains supply failure occurs, relay connects the
which automatically connects DC voltage to the battery
NC (Normally Closed) terminal to the battery. If the
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when main power is present and connect LEDs to the

switch S1 is closed, the LED arrays are connected to NC
battery in the absence of mains AC power supply.
terminal, thus they glow by using the charge stored in the
Working of Emergency light charger circuit battery.
©

The step down transformer and the diode bridge rectifier Whenever the emergency light is not used or not required
steps down and convert the high AC(in the range 230V) to light, the switch S1 may be released, so that the LEDs
voltage to low (12V) DC voltage. The diode D5 prevents will not glow.
the battery charge from flowing back, it acts as a free
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To increase the brightness or light few more LEDs may

wheeling diode too.
be connected in series and parallel.( series and parallel
combination)
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.15.243 - 247 377
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248-255
Electronics Mechanic - LCD & LED TV

Television transmitter and receiver

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the television broadcasting system
• explain the television broadcast channel
• state the three television systems used across/around the world.

Television broadcasting (Phase Alternate Line) which is based on 625 lines 7 MHz
channel width with a line frequency of 50Hz. In "America"
The meaning of the word television "Tele" means at a
a system known as "NTSC" (National Television Systems
distance, "vision" means to see the scene or a picture is
Committee) is followed which is based on 525 lines,
focused through a TV camera which converts the scene
6MHz channel width operating on line frequency of 60 Hz.
or picture into images to electrical signal. The camera's
"France" and some "European" countries follows a system
output signal is modulated and transmitted as

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called "SECAM" (Sequential a memory) based on 625
electromagnetic waves along with respective sound as in
lines with 9 MHz band width.
Fig 1.

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A television based on one particular system cannot be

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used in other countries following a different system. For
example a television used in America cannot be used in

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India. The present day Televisions have provision to
select one of the three systems so that the same TV could

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be used with different system in different countries.
Television broadcast channels

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The band of frequencies used for video and audio signal
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transmission is called a television channel.
TV signals are radiated at frequencies above 40 MHz.
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The VHF and UHF frequency bands that have been

assigned for the use of the TV stations are as follows.
Television channel
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The term broadcast means to send out in all directions.

The transmitting antenna radiates electromagnetic waves TABLE 1
which can be picked up by the receiving antenna. The TV
Band I 41 MHz to 68 MHz channel 1 to 4
transmitter has two functions visual and sound
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transmission. Both picture signal and the sound signal Band II 88 MHz to 108 MHz used for FM
are emitted from the common radiating antenna. Radio broadcast
The receiving antenna intercepts both the picture and the
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S-Band 104 MHz to 174 MHz

sound carrier signals. The signals are amplified and then
Band III 174 MHz to 230 MHz Channel 5 - 12
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detected to recover the original modulation. Then the

known as VHF band
detected video signal is amplified enough to drive the
picture tube. Hyper Band 230 MHz to 470 MHz and 2 to 20
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known as UHF
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Band IV 470 to 582 MHz channel 21 to 36

Band V 606 to 870 MHz channel 37 to 69
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Only band I and III are used for TV transmission in India.

Each band is divided in to a number of channels. According
to the standards adopted in India each channel width is
7 MHz.
TV transmitters are provided in different places to cater
the needs of the local population. Depending upon the
area to be covered either a low-power transmitter (LPT)
There are three major television systems which are or high power transmitter (HPT) is installed. A high power
followed in different parts of the world. India and many of transmitter can service an area of around 120Km and a
the "European" countries follows a system of "PAL" low power transmitter around 20Km radius only.

378
Scanning bandwidth composite video signal
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define scanning
• explain different types of scanning
• explain USB transmission and band width of TV signal.
Scanning fast reversal produces the retrace or fiy back. The start
of horizontal trace is at the left edge of raster. The finish
Scanning is the process of reading the scene rapidly both
is at the right edge and then the fly back produces retrace
in the horizontal and vertical directions simultaneously to
back to the left edge.
provide sufficient number of complete pictures or frames
per second to give the illusion of continuous uniform The heavy lines indicate useful scanning time and dashed
motion. Instead of 24 frames as is the practice in lines correspond to the retrace time.
commercial motion pictures, the frame repetition rate is
Vertical scanning
25 per second in most television systems.
Horizontal scanning

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Fig 1 shows the trace and retrace of several horizontal
lines. The linear rise of current in the horizontal line

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deflection coils as shown in Fig 2 deflects the beam
across the screen with a continuous, uniform motion for

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the trace from left to right.

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The saw tooth current in the vertical deflection coils as

shown in Fig 3 moves the electron beam from top to
bottom.
As shown in Fig 3 the trace part of the saw tooth wave for
vertical scanning deflects the beam to the bottom of
raster. Then the rapid vertical retrace returns the beam to
At the peak of its rise the saw tooth wave-reverses the top.
direction and decreases rapidly to its initial value. This

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 379
During vertical retrace, horizontal scanning continues
and several lines get scanned during this period. Because
of motion in the scene being televised, the information at
the top of the picture tube screen normally changes by
the time the beam returns to the top to recommence the
whole process. This information is picked up during the
next scanning cycle and the whole process is repeated
25 times per second to cause an illusion of continuity".
It must be noted that both during horizontal and vertical
retrace intervals the scanning beams at the camera tube
and picture tube are blanked and no picture information
is either picked up or reproduced. These short retrace
intervals are utilized for transmitting distinct narrow pulses
to keep sweep oscillators of the picture tube deflection
circuits of the receiver in synchronization with those of the
camera at the transmitter. This ensures exact
correspondence in scanning at the two ends and results

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in distortion less reproduction of picture details.

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Interlaced scanning
Although the rate of 24 pictures per second in motion from cut-off for blanking, to zero grid cathode voltage for

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pictures and that of scanning 25 frames per second in peak white. The peak to peak value of the video signal
television pictures is enough to cause an illusion of required to drive the picture tube vary depending on its

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continuity, they are not rapid enough to allow the brightness size. The video signal with range of video frequencies
from 25Hz to over 4 MHz has to be uniformly amplified by

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of one picture or frame to blend smoothly into the next
through the time when the screen is blanked between the video amplifier. So a wide band amplifier is used with
successive frames. This results in definite flicker of light a high amplification factor.

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that is very annoying to the observer when the screen The three basic requirements of a video amplifier are
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becomes alternately bright and dark.

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1 The entire band of video frequencies should be
This problem is solved in motion picture by showing each uniformly amplified.
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picture twice so that 48 views of the scene are shown per
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second although there are still the same 24 picture 2 As the amplitude of the video signal determines the
frames per second. As a result of the increased blanking contrast of the picture, the peak-to-peak value of the
video signal is to be sufficient enough to produce a
©

rate: flicker is eliminated.

range from bright to dark picture elements on the
In television pictures an effective rate of 50 vertical scans
screen. If the peak-to-peak value is low then the
per second is utilized to reduce flicker, by making every
picture on the screen will be very dim.
alternate line to get scanned instead of every successive
line. Then when the beam reaches the bottom of picture 3 Composite video signal with negative polarity is to be
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frame at the end of the first scan, it quickly returns to the applied at the cathode of the picture tube. Hence the
top to scan those lines that were missed in the first video amplifier should produce such signal from the
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scanning. Thus the total number of lines are divided into output of video detector. The Fig 5 shows such type of
two groups called as "Odd" field and "Even" field. Each composite video signal.
T

field is scanned alternately. This method of scanning is VSB or Vestigial side-band transmission
known as ‘Interlaced scanning.
Vestigial sideband transmission system is employed in
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In the 625 line TV system each frame or picture is divided

telecasting. Since, the bandwidth of a Television channel
into sets of 312.5 lines and each set is scanned alternately
width is 7 MHz and if double sideband transmission is
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to cover the entire picture area. To achieve this the

employed then the total telecasting bandwidth will be
horizontal sweep oscillator is made to work at a frequency
equal to 14 MHz. Hence, it will be necessary to keep a
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of 15625 Hz (312.5 x 50 = 15625), to scan the same

minimum difference of 14 MHz between two telecasting
number of lines per frame (15625/25 = 625 lines), but the
stations and thus the number of total telecasting stations
vertical sweep circuit is run at a frequency of 50 Hz.
in the V.H.F and U.H.F. Bands will be reduced. Therefore,
Note that since the beam is now deflected from top to V.S.B. transmission system is suitable for telecasting.
bottom in half the time and the horizontal oscillator is still The width of a T.V. channel is kept 7 MHz for the reason
operating at 15625 Hz. The first field ends in a half line that sound signal is also transmitted along with the video
and the second field commences at middle of the line on signal. Secondly, a small portion of lower and full upper
top of the screen. The complete geometry of the standard sidebands is also included in the telecast, see Fig 6.
interlaced scanning pattern is shown in Fig 4.
The system of transmitting video and audio carriers
The function of video amplifier is to provide sufficient gain together by employing a single unit is known as inter
to the video signal such that it can drive the picture tube carrier system. Here, the video carrier frequency is kept
380 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
 For example the video carrier frequency and sound
carrier frequency of TV channel - 4 under VHF band-I is
given below:
Frequency band allocated - 61 MHz to 68 MHz.
Video carrier frequency is 62.25 MHz (61 + 1.25 MHz
= 62.25 MHz)
Sound carrier frequency is 67.75 MHz (68 - 0.25 MHz
= 67.75 MHz)
Inter carrier frequency is 67.75 - 62.25 MHz = 5.5 MHz

1.25 MHz higher than the channel's lower frequency.

Similarly, the sound carrier frequency is kept 0.25 MHz

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lower than the channel's higher frequency. In this way,
the sound carrier frequency rests 5.5 MHz higher than the

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video carrier frequency. The sound signal is modulated

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in F.M. mode, therefore, the sound carrier frequency has
a sideband of ±100 KHz only.

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Principles of colour TV system

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Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
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• list the primary colours used in colour TV system

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• define additive and subtractive mixing
• describe the production of luminance and chrominance signals
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• explain QAM signals.

Primary colours and their mixing ii Saturation represents the purity of a colour. A fully
©

'saturated' colour will have no white colour mixed in it.

There are three primary colours RED, BLUE and GREEN
(RGB) which are used in colour Television system. These iii Luminance or brightness is the amount of light intensity.
three primary colours are capable to produce all the seven
d) Chrominance
rainbow colours - VIOLET, INDIGO, BLUE, GREEN,
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YELLOW, ORANGE and RED (VIBGYOR). The term used to describe the information about hue and
saturation of a colour. Different colours represent waves
a) Additive Mixing
of different frequencies in the visible spectrum. These are
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Red + Green = Yellow electromagnetic waves of frequencies ranging from 4×1014

Hz to 8 ×1014 Hz (red to violet) corresponding to 780 ×
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Red + Blue = Magenta

10-9m to 380 ×10-9 m wavelengths. Each colour will have
Blue +Green = Cyan a frequency (i.e., hue) and amplitude (i.e., luminance).
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b) Subtractive Mixing Colour TV Camera

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Yellow = White - Blue For televising a scene in colour, the light originating from
Magenta = White - Green a scene is first separated into three primary colours with
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the help of special filters. Each filter allows only one colour
Cyan = White - Red to pass through. Then, the three primary colours (RGB)
So, by additive and subtractive mixing of colours, many are converted into three video signals by three camera
other colours are produced. tubes, see Fig 1. The three video signals called R, G and
B signals are then 'encoded' (combined in specific
c) Colour specification proportions) to produce following two main signals.
A colour can be specified by three characteristics known i Luminance signal (Y-signal)
as HUE (TINT), SATURATION and LUMINANCE.
It is also known as y signal. It is obtained by mixing red,
i Hue represents the actual colour as seen by the eye. green and blue colours in the following ratio:
The seven colours of rainbow have different
wavelengths and they produce different hue. Y=30% Red + 59% Green + 11% Blue

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 381
The above percentage is chosen with a view to the colour Matrix
sensitivity of human eye. Luminance signal is modulated
to the video carrier frequency to provide compatibility by The circuit in which, the video signals are mixed in a given
reproducing a black and white picture on a monochrome proportion and modulated with a sub-carrier frequency for

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TV receiver. In colour TV this signal helps in decoding the telecasting, is called matrix unit.
three primary colours at the colour picture tube.

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A special type of amplifier stage is used which produces
ii Chrominance signal (C-signal) Quadrature Amplitude Modulated (QAM) signal. The

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chrominance signal is obtained by employing amplitude
It contains all the colour information regarding 'hue' and modulation. The two colour difference signals (R-Y and

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'saturation' of a colour. This information is then produced B-Y) are modulated with a sub carrier frequency (4.43
in the form of V(R-y) and U(B-y) signals, for LCD and LED MHz) in amplitude modulation mode so that they have a

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TV Receivers. phase difference of 90°, i.e., they are in 'quadrature'.
For this purpose. The Y signal is inverted into (-Y) by an At any instance, the amplitude and phase of the

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inverter stage and then added to R and B signals in the chrominance signal depends on the relative amplitudes
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following manner: and phases of the colour-difference-signals. The amplitude

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R + (-Y) = R - Y (V-signal) of chrominance signal represents the 'saturation; and its
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phase represents the 'hue' in the modulated signal. Since,
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B + (-Y) = B - Y (U-signal) R-Y and B-Y signals are mutually at right angles, therefore,
the modulated signal is called 'quadrature amplitude
G-Y signal is not required because the
modulated' signal.
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G-information is already contained in the

Y-signal. The two colour-difference signals
(R-Y and B-Y) are modulated with a subcarrier
frequency of 4.43 MHz (Fig 2)
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Difference between CTV with LCD/LED TV and CRT screen

LCD & LED CRT

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Slim Factor Slim Bulky

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Viewable screen Full or very close to its size Usually 0.9 inches or less than
actual size
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Screen Flatness True Flat Fake Flat (unless aperture grille)

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Radiation Little or none More Radiation

Weight Light Heavy
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Power Requirements Low Power requirement 250% or more power compared

to LCD/LED TV
Glare No Glare Reduced Glare
Image Sharpness Sharp Slightly less sharp images
Automatic Resize Perfect Imperfect
Burn-In None Suffers from burn-in problem
Refresh Rate No refresh rate (60hz fixed) Needs refresh rate (minimum 72hz)
Warmness Little CRT cathode gets warm after sometime

382 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
 Dead / Stuck Pixel No such problem May have dead / stuck pixel
Response Rate No issue with response rate Slow
Price Cheap Expensive
Native Resolution None Has a native resolution
Max Colours 32 bit 8-Bit max, 16.7 million colours.
Viewing Angle Wide viewing angle Narrow viewing angle
Video Ideal for any video viewing Not ideal for videos, unless HD
including HD
Blackness True Black Between Dark Grey to Grey

Block diagram of colour Television

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state various stages of a colour TV receiver

D
• describe the broad functions of the individual stages
• state the names of important components in the stages.

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The block diagram of a CTV receiver is shown at the end There are two types of tuning mechanisms available in

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of this lesson. As a reference will help in understanding television which are as follows.
the concepts of CTV. It stages and flow of signals easy

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1 Mechanical tuner (Turret type or wafer type)
for the beginners. It uses PAL standard.
2 Electronic tuner.

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The basic functions of each stage/blocks are as
follows. Turret type tuners are used mainly in B/W TVs where a
channel is selected by rotating the selector switch and

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Antenna
then adjusting the clarity by rotating the fine tuning ring .
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Antenna receives the electromagnetic waves and converts In electronic tuners there are 8 to 12 switches called as
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them into corresponding RF signals which is fed to the program selectors. Each selector switch has a separate
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television set. band selector and tuning facility, individual selectors can
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be tuned to different channels, and subsequently any pre

Yagi antenna is commonly used in VHF/UHF range for its
tuned program can be seen in the TV just by pressing the
simple construction and low air resistance. (Now-a-days
required selector switch.
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cable TV and DTH set-top box is used)

The brightness control varies the brightness level of the
Tuner
picture and contrast control helps to get the desired gray
The main functions of the tuner are tone and variations on the picture.
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1 to select the desired channel signal and rejects others. VIF stage
2 to convert the RF signal into intermediate frequency Pre-Amplifier
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(IF) by mixing it with local oscillator frequency.

It amplifies the IF signal obtained from the tuner. IC 203
3 to provide gain to the weak input signal picked up by (SL 1430) is used in this stage.
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the antenna.
This stage of amplification is necessary because the gain
4 to isolate the local oscillator from the feeder circuit to of receiver is reduced by the use of SAW filter.
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prevent undesired radiation through the antenna.

VIF Amplifier
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5 to match the antenna with input circuits of the receiver,

This stage has the blocks of video IF amplifier, video
and to prevent the appearance of ghost image.
detector, Automatic gain control (AGC) and Automatic
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6 to reject the image frequency which also causes the

frequency tuning (AFT) circuit. This stage has been
ghost image along with the picture.
constructed around IC201 (TDA4420).
The main blocks of the tuner are RF amplifier, oscillator
Sound section
and mixer stage.
IC 202(TDA1701) performs the function of complete
Television receiver controls
sound section accommodating sound IF amplifier (SIF),
Most televisions especially B/W TV have the basic controls FM detector, Audio driver and audio output.
like brightness, contrast, channel selector and fine tuning,
Luminance and delay line (Y delay)
volume control and ON OFF switch. In colour televisions
in addition to the above there will be a control for colour. From buffer amplifier, Y-signal passes through a delay
line to Y-amplifier stage. The delay line delays the Y-
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 383
signal by approximately 60 micro seconds time. U and V signal demodulators
The delay line is a very thin metallic coil with very high The function of U and V demodulators is to detect U (B-
value of inductance and distributed capacitance, so that Y) and V (R-Y) modulating signals from the U and V
the speed of the signal through the delay line is greatly chroma signals.
reduced.
Each demodulator has two input signals
If this delay is not introduced, luminance signal will reach
1 Chroma signal, which is to be demodulated and
to the picture tube earlier than chrominance signal.
2 A constant amplitude output from the sub-carrier
The two main reasons required for delay in Y-signal
oscillator.
are as follows
After modulation U (B-Y) and V (R-Y) modulating colour
1 Chrominance signal has to pass through relatively
difference signals are fed to the matrix from where
complex circuit of the decoder and for this reason it is
separated R, G and B colour video signals are available.
functionally delayed as compared to Y-signal.
Y-signal (luminance) is also fed to the matrix.
2 The bandwidth of Y-signal is more than that of
Video output
Chrominance signal. The narrower bandwidth signals
take longer time to travel a particular distance. The colour video signals R, G and B are fed to respective

D
cathodes of the picture tube after one stage of
The main luminance (Y) amplifier
amplification. Video output circuits for each colour signal

E
After the delay line the Y-signal is fed to the main are identical. Transistors 92 PU393 is used for all the
Y-amplifier. The circuit used is also called emitter follower three video output circuits.

H
which acts as buffer amplifier to prevent any mutual
Horizontal section

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interference between contrast control and black level
clamp circuits. This section includes sync separator, AFC .horizontal

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oscillator driver and output stage. This stage has been
The output signal voltage from Y amplifier is fed to the
constructed around IC 601 (TDA1940F)
matrix where it is added with colour difference signals to

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produce original red, green and blue colour signals. Horizontal driver stage
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The horizontal and vertical blanking pulses derived from The signal obtained from horizontal oscillator is very
U
horizontal and vertical output stages are also fed to weak; in this stage voltage amplification is provided and
Y-amplifier stage. sent to the horizontal output stage through the horizontal
P
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driver transformer. Transistor T714 (BF393) is used in

These pulses ensure that the Y-signal fed to the matrix is
this circuit as horizontal driver.
held at black level during retrace periods. The average
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value of luminance signal fed to the matrix unit determines Horizontal output stage
the mean brightness of the picture appearing on the
This stage consists of a transistor T716 (BU 508) and
screen.
Extra high tension transformer (E HT) / line output
The contrast control is used for adjusting the amplitude transformer (LOT).
B

of the luminance signal obtained from the amplifier. Power amplification is provided to the horizontal scanning
Chrominance signal signal by this stage. The 15625Hz signal is sent to the
horizontal deflection yoke (HDC) and EHT/ horizontal
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IC8707TDA3561 is used in this section (PAL decoder)

output transformer.
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Composite colour video signal obtained from video IF

Other functions of horizontal output stage
section is given to this amplifier. It isolates the video IF
section from the other sections, composite video signal Vertical section
T

output is taken from the emitter circuit which contains. IC401 (TDA1870) is used in vertical section. This section
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1 The luminance or Y-signal consists of vertical trigger cum vertical oscillator or saw
tooth generator, vertical driver and output.
2 The colour sub-carrier carrying red and blue chroma
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signals. Vertical output

3 The horizontal and vertical sync pulses and It provides the sufficient power amplification to the vertical
deflection signal and then it is sent to the vertical deflection
4 The colour burst signal.
yoke (VDC). Vertical blanking signal is also achieved
Here the division of the luminance and chroma separation from this stage and is fed to the video output section.
takes place. From here composite colour video signal is
coupled to chroma band-pass amplifiers through chroma
filter, sync separator and the luminance delay line.

384 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 385
Principles and working of LCD
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the construction of LCD display
• describe the working principle of LCD display
• list the advantages and disadvantages of LCD displays.

Introduction When the right angle appears at the first layer piece
places a second piece of glass with the polarized film.
LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display used to show
The first filter will be naturally polarized as the lights
status of an application, display values, debugging a
strikes it at the starting sleek. Thus the light passes
program, etc.
through each layer and is guided on to the next with the
LCD TV is a television display technology based on LCD. help of molecules. The molecules tend to change the
By the development of LCD, conventional TVs are plane of vibration of the light in order to match their angle.
changed by the LCD TV. LCD TV consumes much less When the light reaches the far end of the liquid crystal
power and utilize less space. They work on the principle substance, it vibrates at the same angle as the final layer
of blocking light rather than emitting, etc. of molecules vibrates. The light is only allowed to enter

D
Construction and working of LCD into the device only if the second layer of the polarized
glass matches with the final layer of the molecule.

E
Construction of LCD is rather simple, there are certain
facts that should be noted while making it. Working principle

H
1 The basic structure of an LCD should be controlled by LCD displays consists of two sheets of polarized glass
changing the applied electric current. plates separated by a thin layer of liquid crystal molecule

S
as shown in Fig 2. The type of liquid crystal used in LCD
2 The light that is used on the LCD can be polarized. panels have very specific properties. That serves as

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3 Liquid crystals should be able to control both transmit effective 'shutters' to open and close to block or permit
and change the polarized light. light through in response to an electric current. The

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current through the liquid crystal is controlled by a voltage
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4 There are transparent substances that can conduct applied between the glass plates via transparent
U
electricity. electrodes that form a grid with rows on one side of the
The constructional details of LCD is shown in Fig 1. Two panel and columns on the other. As the electric current
P
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polarized glass filter pieces are required to construct the passes through these liquid crystals, they untwist to
LCD. The glass which does not have a polarized film on change the angle of the molecules depending on the
the surface. It must be rubbed with a special polymer applied voltage. This untwisting effect will change the
©

which creates microscopic grooves in the surface of the polarization of the light passing through the LCD panel.
polarized glass filter and the grooves must be in the same As the polarization changes with respect to the applied
direction of the polarized film. Then added a coating of voltage across the glass plates, more or less light is able
nematic liquid crystals to one of the polarized filters of the to pass through the particular area of the polarized filter
on the face of the LCD.
B

polarized glass. The microscopic channel will cause the

first layer of molecules to align with the filter's orientation.
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386 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
 2 LCDs are of low cost.
3 Provides excellent contrast.
4 LCD screen is very compact and light weight.
5 Very little emission of electromagnetic radiation.
Disadvantages of an LCD's
1 Limited viewing angle
2 Require additional light sources
3 Range of temperature is limited for operation
4 Low reliability
5 Speed is very low
How LCD TV backlights work (Fig 3) 6 LCD's need an AC drive
There are too many different types of LCD TV backlight. 7 Some times black level will be unacceptable bright.

D
This hasn't always been the case, though. Initially, the
only option was a cold-cathode-fluorescent-lamp system, Applications of Liquid Crystal Display

E
which essentially comprises of fluorescent tubes behind Liquid crystal technology has major applications in the
an LCD panel, providing the light that makes the picture field of science and engineering as well on electronic

H
visible. devices.

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1 Liquid crystal thermometer

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2 Sometimes black level will be unacceptable bright
with direct sunlight LCD shows a poor display.

B 3 Optical imaging
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4 The liquid crystal display technique is also applicable

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in visualization of the radio frequency waves in the
waveguide
P
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5 Used in the medical applications

6 Used as TV monitor.
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Advantages of an LCD's
1 LCD's consumes less amount of power compared to
CRT due to the emission of less amount of heat.
B

Types of LCD panels

O

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• explain the types of LCD panels
T

• explain twisted nematic display

• explain IPS display technology
• compare the advantages and disadvantages of IPS screen over the TN display.
T

LCD display
O

beams passing through it. Two polarizing filters, parallel

LCD displays are mainly two types planes of glass with their polarizing lines oriented at right
N

angles with respect to each other, are positioned on

1 Twisted Nematic display (TN display) either side of the liquid crystal. When light enters the
2 In-plane switching or IPS screen technology display, it is polarized by the input filter. In the absence of
an electric field, all the incoming light is transmitted. This
Twisted Nematic display (TN display) is because the light polarization is rotated 90 degrees by
A twisted nematic (TN) display is a common type of the nematic liquid crystal, and the light therefore passes
liquid-crystal display (LCD) that consists of a substance easily through the output filter, which is oriented to match
called a nematic liquid crystal that is confined between the 90-degree shift.
two plates of polarized glass as shown in Fig 1. With the application of a voltage, an electric field is
The TN display takes advantage of the ability of the produced in the nematic liquid crystal . Under these
nematic substance to rotate the polarization of light conditions the polarization effect is reduced. If the voltage

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 387
is large enough, the polarization effect disappears extreme angles, and poor colour quality. By contrast, IPS
altogether, and the light is blocked by the output polarizing displays provide wider viewing angles and higher quality
filter. colour reproduction by altering pixels to be parallel, rather
than perpendicular as shown in Fig 1,2. In an IPS screen,
the liquid crystals run parallel with the panels when
energized. In a TN display, the crystals turn perpendicular
to the top of the panel. High-performance tablets and
smart phones deploy IPS display technology used to
watch movies, video chat and store photos. The improved
angle and colour technology features provide an overall
better experience.
Other IPS versions include the following
technologies:
1 Super TFT (IPS) for a wide viewing angle.
2 Super-IPS (S-IPS) for colour shift free and an
improvement on pixel refresh timing.

D
3 Advanced Super-IPS (AS-IPS) for high transmittance.

E
4 Enhanced IPS (E-IPS) for an enhanced diagonal

H
viewing angle and reductions in response time.
5 Horizontal IPS (H-IPS) for an improved contrast ratio

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and an Advanced True White polarizing film that
creates a more natural colour of white.

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Most TN displays have a characteristic black-on-gray or 6 Professional IPS (P-IPS) for truer colour depth.
black-on-silver appearance, and are suitable for use in
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Advantages of IPS screen technology over TN
alphanumeric readouts such as those found in
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1 IPS screen technology is the wide viewing angle.

U
wristwatches, cell phone displays, and some calculator
displays. 2 This also results in better colour reproduction.
P
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Disadvantages 3 It becomes very popular in displays for television,

1 In this particularly poor viewing angle and computers, and laptops, in consumer electronic
devices, particularly smartphones and tablets.
©

2 Low-quality colour reproduction, as well as

4 Under bright outdoor lights or direct sunlight, an IPS
3 Poor off-axis image quality and moving picture quality. screen is more viewable or readable.
4 The application of LCD would be limited to small- Disadvantages of IPS as compared to TN
display devices, suitable for use in alphanumeric
B

readouts such as calculator displays, digital 1 More power consumption. A typical IPS screen
wristwatches, and earlier models of mobile phones. requires 15 percent more power than TN.
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In-plane switching or IPS screen technology 2 Faster battery drainage.

3 Producing IPS screen displays is more expensive
T

IPS, also known as In-Plane Switching, is a type of

monitor display and screen technology. More specifically, than producing a TN LCD because of the involved
an IPS panel is a type of TFT LCD (or "active matrix" engineering complexity. Thus, this screen technology
T

LCD). The light modulating properties from unlit liquid is commonly featured in high-end devices.
crystals are used for providing a flat panel or electronic
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4 The refresh rate of IPS is also slower than TN. This

visual display. TFT, which stands for Thin Film Transistor, disadvantage makes a conventional IPS screen
N

is an LCD display used for enhanced colour, as well as unsuitable for watching high definition movies or
contrast and black levels. playing fast-paced video games due to ghosting
The active matrix IPS TFT LCD was developed by Hitachi effects.
in 1996 as a solution to the display limitations of TN TFT
LCDs (Twisted Nematic). The TN display is known for its
flawed viewing angles, such as inverting colours at

388 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
Block diagram of LCD TV
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the block diagram of LCD TV
• illustrate block diagram of LCD television
• state the features of LCD television.

Block diagram of LCD TV (Fig 1)

D
E
H
S
LCD TV block diagram explanation 6 Digital signal processor

LI
1 RF Tuner The signal that comes from the PCI section is processed
by the DSP section. The sound signal converted into

B
E I
RF tuner receives the analog signal and converting into
analog signal (DAC) and fed to audio amplifier stage and
R IM

VIF & SIF. This signal is demodulated to get video signal.

U
digital video signal processed and feeding to video encoder
This CVBS(Composite Video Baseband Signal) is
section.
processed, and decoded video signal is given to a LCD
P
E N

display panel. The sound signal is demodulated, amplified, 7 Image signal processing
and sent to drive the speaker.
The signal that comes from the PCI interface section is
2 Digital broadcast processed (Amplification error correction, colour signal
©

separation) and sent to LCD screen and colour processor.

Digital tuner receives the digital signal and demodulate it.
The MPEG decoder and composite video encoder- 8 Colour processor
decodes the MPEG compressed data and also encodes
The signal from the image signal processor is processed
video into NTSC/PAL/SECAM signal as an output.
B

(Horizontal timing colour correction) and fed to LCD

3 HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) screen.
O

HDMI video signal is processed by video decoder video 9 LCD screen

processor and LVDs (Low Voltage Differential Signal).
LCD display receive both the signals from LCD data/
T

This signal goto drive the display panel. HDMI audio

timing control and colour processor. According to both
signal is sent to processor, audio decoder, preamplifier
the signals the LCD screen produce the picture or image.
and finally goes to the loud speaker.
T

10 Colour balance in LCD screen

All input signals whether it is coming from antenna, audio
O

video, video graphics, HDMI and USB are fed to In a TV displays, colour is achieved by a continuous flow
corresponding processing circuit. Processed converts of light waves at pixel, and also by an amount of light
N

all the signals into digital signal and fed to PCI ( Pheripheral passed by a mosaic filter (Red, Green, Blue). Colour
Component Interconnect) interface. balance is extremely difficult in LCD monitor, because
colour trial must remain constant for any change in light.
4 PCI interface (Data and control logic)
This is difficult for black, because all colour wavelength
With the help of CPU all the signals from previous section is different, so some light passes and produce other
(audio/video signals) are processed, and sent to output colour rather than black. One way to block light of all
section which is controlled by a front panel control and wavelength by maintaining a liquid crystal cell gap at a
also by a remote control. particular distance to the wavelength of light going from
same location. The practical way is only by a multiple gap
5 Front panel controls
technology. The thickness of the red, green and blue
The controls in the TV front panel are used to adjust/ mosaic filters are arranged in the cell gap is 6.4 μm, 5.8
control the overall performance of the TV. μm and 4.8 μm respectively.
E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 389
11 Power section 12 LCD
Power section including the AC to DC conversion to The LCD screen brightness is not enough to view with
create the main power for the entire unit. Most of the bare eyes. So some backlight is needed to light the
functional block in the LCD TV requires a particular image, which is done by Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp
voltage and current especially for the main processor, (CCFL) in LCD TV.
DDR memory, the tuner and video/audio signal chains.

Working principle of LED TV

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe LED TV technology
• explain the type of LED lighting technology
• explain the difference between LED and LCD TV.
The LED has become a pivotal illumination technology
with a wide variety of applications. The rapid advancement
of semiconductor technology together with new concepts
in packaging design has led to a significant increase in

D
LED brightness, so that the use of light emitting diodes in

E
backlighting applications has gained increasing
importance. Due to their increased efficiency, LEDs are

H
being used in many new application areas ranging from
larger display panels to television screens.

S
LED TV technology

LI
LED, which stands for "Light Emitting Diodes", differs
from general LCD TVs in that LCDs use fluorescent lights

B
E I
as backlight while LED TVs use those light emitting
R IM

diodes.
U
P
E N
O
B ©

edge-lit LED backlighting. Also known as local-dimming

technology, full-array technology employs arrays or banks
T

of LEDs that cover the entire back surfaces of LED TV

screens.
T

An LED TV illuminates its LCD panel with light-emitting

diodes as shown in Fig 1. LEDs consist of small In contrast, edge-lit technology employs LEDs only around
O

semiconductors, which glow during exposure to electric the edges of LED TV screens. Unlike an edge-lit LED TV,
current. Specifically, this current flow between LED an LED TV with full-array technology can selectively dim
N

anodes and LED cathodes as shown in Fig 2. specific groups of LEDs, allowing for superior contrast
ratio and superior overall picture quality.
The fluorescent lamps function in LED TV by using
mercury vapour to create ultraviolet rays, which in turn Energy consumption
cause the phosphor coating of the lamps to glow. As with any TV, an LED TV needs energy in order for its
LEDs have several advantages over fluorescent lamps, components to function. Specifically, an LED TV needs
including requiring less energy and being able to produce electric current for stimulating the liquid crystals in its
brighter on-screen colours. LCD panel and for activating its LED backlighting.

Types of LED lighting technology In comparison to standard LCD TVs, LED TVs consume
less energy. An LED TV will typically consume between
There are two primary forms of LED lighting technology 20 and 30 percent less energy than an LCD TV with the
that LED TVs can utilize full-array LED backlighting and same screen size.
390 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
Difference between LCD and LED greater energy efficiency and can provide a clearer,
better picture than the general LCD TVs.
1 LCD stands for "Liquid Crystal Display" and technically,
both LED and LCD TVs are liquid crystal displays. 5 LED TVs provide a better picture for two basic reasons,
The basic technology is the same in that both television first, LED TVs work with a colour wheel or distinct
types have two layers of polarized glass through RGB-coloured lights (red, green, blue) to produce
which the liquid crystals both block and pass light. So more realistic and sharper colours, second, light
really, LED TVs are a subset of LCD TVs. emitting diodes can be dimmed. The dimming
capability on the back lighting in an LED TV allows the
2 LED, which stands for "Light Emitting Diodes", differs
picture to display with a truer black by darkening the
from general LCD TVs in that LCDs use fluorescent
lights and blocking more light from passing through
lights as backlight while LEDs use those light emitting
the panel. This capability is not present on edge-lit
diodes.
LED TVs. However, edge-lit LED TVs can display a
3 The fluorescent lights in an LCD TV are always behind truer white than the fluorescent LED TVs.
the screen. On an LED TV, the light emitting diodes
6 All the LCD TVs are thin-screen, each has particular
can be placed either behind the screen or around its
viewing angle and anti-glare issues. The backlit TVs
edges.
provide better, cleaner viewing angle than the edge-

D
4 The difference in lights and in lighting placement has lit LED TV. However, the backlit LED TV will usually
generally meant that LED TVs can be thinner than have better viewing angle than the standard LCD TV.

E
LCDs. It has also meant that LED TVs run with

H
Block diagram of LED TV

S
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the block diagram of LED TV

LI
• describe the back light in an LED TV
• explain the driver circuit used in an LED TV.

B
E I
Introduction
R IM
U
The functional block diagram of LED TV is similar to that
of a LCD TV. The only difference is in its display screen
P
E N

technology.
LED Driver and back light in LED TV
©

There are large arrays of LEDs located behind the LCD

panel in a typical LCD TV LED backlighting system as
shown in Fig 1. In this array are a large number of parallel
channels of LEDs connected in series depending on the
size of the TV and the type of backlighting, for example
B

edge backlighting (less LEDs but more in series) or direct

backlighting (more LEDs in parallel).The LED voltage
O

(VLED) is provided by the White LED Backlight Driver

Board to each LED channel and is regulated to a level
T

needed by the highest voltage required to maximize the

light output of each LED string. DC step-up boost converter, a DC/DC step-down
converter or more commonly an AC/DC converter. In the
T

Depending upon the power supply requirements

determined by the number of LEDs in the string or case where supply voltage is lower than the required
O

grouping of parallel LED strings, the up-stream power VLED, a step-up boost converter will be used.
source for the LED backlight driver board may be a DC/
N

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 391
 D
E
H
Introduction of OLED TV

S
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define OLED TV

LI
• working of OLED TV
• types of OLED TV

B
E I
• OLED advantages and disadvantages
R IM

• application, of OLEDs
U
OLED TV
P
E N

An OLED TV is a television display technology based on

the characteristics of organic light-emitting diodes (OLED).
An organic light-emitting diode (OLED) is a light-emitting
©

diode (LED) in which an emissive electroluminescent

layer as a film of organic compound is sandwiched
between two conductors, which emits light in response to
an electric current. A typical OLED is composed of an
B

emissive layer, a conductive layer, a substrate, and anode

and cathode terminals. The layers have conductivity
levels ranging from insulators to conductors, so OLEDs A voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode
O

are considered as organic semiconductors. OLED TV is is positive with respect to the cathode. This causes a
a different technology than LED TV. current of electrons to flow through the device from
T

cathode to anode. Thus, the cathode gives electrons to

The OLED displays do not require backlighting. They can the emissive layer and the anode with draws electrons
be thinner and weigh less than other display technologies
T

from the conductive layer; in other words, the anode

like LCD. OLED displays also have a wide viewing angle gives electron holes to the conductive layer.
O

- up to 160 degrees even in bright light and use only two

to ten volts to operate. An OLED display works without a Soon, the emissive layer becomes negatively charged,
while the conductive layer becomes rich in positively
N

backlight; thus, it can display deep black levels.

charged holes. Electrostatic forces bring the electrons
Working of OLED TV and the holes towards each other and they recombine.
The first most basic OLEDs consisted of a single organic This happens closer to the emissive layer, because in
layer, light-emitting polymer device synthesised by organic semiconductors holes are more mobile than
Burroughs et al from USA , involved a single layer of electrons. The recombination causes a drop in the energy
poly(p-phenylene vinylene). Multilayer OLEDs can have levels of electrons, accompanied by an emission of
more than two layers to improve device efficiency. As well radiation whose frequency is in the visible region. That is
as conductive properties, layers may be chosen to aid why this layer is called emissive.
charge injection at electrodes by providing a more gradual Indium tin oxide is commonly used as the anode material.
electronic profile, or block a charge from reaching the It is transparent to visible light and has a high work
opposite electrode and being wasted. function which promotes injection of holes into the polymer
392 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
Fig 2 OLED advantages
1 Flexible
2 Very thin
3 Colour capability
4 Power consumption
5 Bright images
6 Wide viewing angle
7 Fast response time
OLED disadvantages
1 Moisture sensitive
layer. Metals such as aluminum and calcium are often 2 Limited life
used for the cathode as they have low work functions 3 Lifespan: The lifespan of the OLED displays is a

D
which promote injection of electrons into the polymer major problem. Currently they are around half that of
layer. an LCD, being around 15 000 hours.

E
OLED types 4 UV sensitivity: OLED displays can be damaged by

H
OLEDs can be categorized into passive-matrix and active- prolonged exposure to UV light. To avoid this UV
matrix displays. blocking filter is often installed over the main display,

S
but this increases the cost.
AMOLED

LI
Applications
Active-matrix OLEDs (AMOLED) require a thin-film
transistor backplane to switch each individual pixel ON or OLEDs are being used in many applications from

B
E I
OFF, but allow for higher resolution and larger display television set screens, and computer monitors, along
R IM

sizes. with other small, portable system screens such as mobile

U
smart phones to watches, advertising, information, and
PMOLED indication. OLEDs are also used in large-area light-
P
emitting elements for general illumination.
E N

PMOLED stands for Passive-Matrix OLED, which relates

to the way to control (or drive) the display. A PMOLED Currently OLEDs emit less light than their in-organic
display uses a simple control scheme in which to control counterparts, but their flexibility means that they can be
©

each row (or line) in the display sequentially (one at a used in a much greater number of applications.
time). PMOLED do not contain a storage capacitor and
so the pixels in each line are actually off most of the time.
To compensate for this you need to use more voltage to
make them brighter.
B

Concept of 3D TV
O

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• define 3D TV technology
T

• concept of 3D TV
• different 3D TV standards.
T

Definition of 3D TV technology The central principle behind 3D TV is exactly the same -

O

two different images are displayed and then shown to the

3D TV is a television display technology that enables a
left eye and right eye. The footage shown to the eyes is
N

"three dimensional effect", so that viewers perceive that

recorded from two slightly different perspectives, either
an image has depth as well as height and width, similar
from two different cameras, or a camera with two lenses.
to objects in the real world.
This footage is then interlaced into one image and
The principles of 3D TV and how it works
broadcast to 3D-ready TVs which are then able to polarise
The viewer perceives depth because the right eye and (separate) the original 3D broadcast back into separate
the left eye are in different locations and each eye images. They appear on the screen as not clear images
captures even so slightly different image. The brain - but when viewed through 3D glasses, the separate
processes the two different images into a single image images are directed to either the right eye or left eye,
enabling us to focus and perceive the world around us creating the impression of depth.
with a sense of depth.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 393
Different 3D TV standards a sense of depth. The way of achieving this though is very
different. These glasses work by allowing each eye to
Anaglyphic 3D
see differently polarised light. For example, light polarised
Many people associate 3D with a pair of cardboard red/ in one direction will be seen by the left eye and light
cyan (a kind of greenish colour) tinted glasses and polarised in the other by the right.
legendary
Alternate frame sequencing
movies like "jaws 3D". This format is called anaglyphic
The frame sequential format is already the accepted
3D and till quite recently this was the most popular way to
standard for 3D blu-ray. This format requires a pair of
create 3D content.
active shutter glasses to deliver its 3D content.
Anaglyphic 3D is created by filming in two different
In this format the footage is recorded by two cameras (or
coloured layers. Usually red and cyan, these images are
a single dual lensed camera) and is then placed next to
filmed slightly offset from the actual image focused on.
each other on a strip of film, following this it is displayed
The viewer when wearing the filtered glasses sees a
frame-by-frame in an alternating order. The active shutter
differently coloured image in each eye. However, the
glasses are synchronised with the television through an
viewers brain is tricked into thinking the coloured layers
infra-red signal and rapidly blink on and off to play to back
are as one, thus creating an added sense of depth and
images alternatively to the viewers eyes at a rate of 50

D
creating the 3D image.
frames per second.
This form of 3D viewing is now largely obsolete. Common

E
The majority of new 3D TVs come with one or two pairs
problems with the format included poor image quality,
of active shutter glasses. These glasses are typically

H
blurring and even motion sickness in extreme cases.
designed to be brand specific although Panasonic and
Polarisation 3D Samsung are interchangeable. These glasses are

S
The polarisation format will be instantly familiar to anyone primarily designed for watching 3D blu-ray content. These
glasses are also quite a lot more expensive and require

LI
who has been to see a 3D movie at the cinema of lately.
These grey tinted, plastic glasses are much more a power source to drive the LCD shutters, usually via a
substantial. USB port on the television. Some viewers have

B
E I
complained of warm eyes after prolonged use from these
R IM

The general principles are the same as for the anaglyphic early models.
U
3D format as two slightly different images are seen by
each eye, assembled by the brain into one image creating
P
E N

Comparison of CRT and LCD/LED TV

©

Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

• list out the differences between CRT, LED and LCD TV.

Comparison between CRT with LCD and LED TV

B

LCD & LED CRT

O

Slim Factor Slim Bulky

Viewable screen Full or very close to its size Usually 0.9 inches or less than
T

actual size
Screen Flatness True Flat Fake Flat (unless aperture grille)
T

Radiation Little or none More Radiation

O

Weight Light Heavy

Power Requirements Low Power requirement 250% or more power
N

Glare No Glare Reduced Glare

Image Sharpness Sharp Slightly less sharp images
Automatic Resize Perfect Imperfect
Burn-In None Suffers from burn-in problem
Refresh Rate No refresh rate (60Hz fixed) Needs refresh rate (minimum 72 Hz)
Warmness Little Cathode gun gets warm after some time
Dead / Stuck Pixel No such problem May have dead / stuck pixel
Response Rate No issue with response rate Slow
Price Cheap Expensive

394 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
 Native Resolution None Has a native resolution
Max Colours 32 bit 8-Bit max, 16.7 million colours.
Viewing Angle Wide viewing angle Narrow viewing angle
Video Ideal for any video viewing Not ideal for videos, unless HD
including HD
Blackness True Black Between Dark Grey to Grey

Types of cables used in LCD/LED TV

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• differentiate types of input/output sockets provided on the LCD/LED TV
• explain the different types of cables used in LED and LCD TV.

Types of cables used in LCD/LED TV 2 A.V. input/output (RCA cables)

D
The modern television technology has paved the way for
using the TV as a versatile display device for various

E
audio visual equipments as well as computer.

H
The following types of connectors are provided on the
side/rear or on the front panel of the latest television sets.

S
1 R.F. socket

LI
2 A.V. input/output
3 HDMI socket

B
E I
4 USB socket
R IM
U
5 DVI cable
P
6 Optical input/output
E N

7 VGA input
8 3.5 mm stereo jack
©

1 R.F. socket For audio and video signals RCA cables are used to
connect the VCR, CD/DVD players, set-top box, video
It is used to connect the antenna signal to the TV. An camera, etc to TV sets. These RCA cables are available
aerial fly lead as shown in Fig 1a is used to connect from as 2RCA to 2RCA as well as 3RCA to 3RCA cable pairs
B

a TV aerial socket on the wall to an aerial input socket on to connect stereo audio red for right channel, white for left
a TV or set-top box. It will have a male aerial plug at both channel and yellow for video signal. Separate set of AV
ends. Co-axial aerial extension lead has both male and input and output sockets are provided to play or record
O

female plug at each end. (Fig 1b). They are also used to signals.
connect set-top box and recorders to TV sets.
T

3 HDMI socket (High Definition Multimedia Interface)

This socket is a common digital interface for audio and
T

video signals from DVD /Blue ray/ Home theatre system,

set-top box, etc. HDMI is a digital interface for audio and
O

video that provides a single cable solution for consumer

electronics equipments like TVs, home theatre, blue-ray/
N

DVD, set-top box, etc. This replace long running analog

interfaces like VGA, S-Video and RGB.
4 USB socket (Universal Serial Bus)
USB 2.0 terminal for connecting USB flash drive/mass
storage devices MP3 music/songs and movies playing
directly on LCD/LED TV set. Stored programs can be
selected by the remote control of the TV set.

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 395
 Fig 6a
AV input/output

Fig 6b

D
E
H
S
LI
B
E I
5 DVI cable (Digital Visual Interface cable)
R IM

This is also known as Digital Versatile Interface cable. It

U
is used to connect video signals to the display devices of
P
desktop computers and LCD/LED monitors. It is similar
E N

to VGA connectors with upto 24 pins and supports for

analog as well as digital video. DVI can stream upto 1320
x 1200 HD video or with dual link DVI connectors can
©

8 3.5 mm stereo jack

support upto 2500 x 1600 pixels.
This socket is provided to connect stereo head phone for
TV program sound/audio. It can be used for recording
the audio signal thro external equipment or play the
sound/audio using public address amplifier system.
B
O
T
T
O

6 Optical input/output
N

This cable is also known as SPDIF connector. This is

used to connect the home theatre/DVD player/Blue ray
disc player into LCD/LED TV for playback. It is also used
to play the audio/music from LCD/LED TV through the
home theatre system.
7 VGA input(15 pin D-type)
This terminal is used to connect computer output using
VGA cable for functioning the LCD/LED TV as video
monitor. Even the laptop output can be displayed on the
wide LCD/LED screen of the TV set.

396 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
Remote control
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define remote control
• describe different types of remote controls
• list out parts of a remote control
• explain the block diagram of IR transmitter and IR receiver
• explain the working principle of a IR remote control.

Introduction Infra Red remote control is wireless device used to

operate audio, video and other electronic equipment
Remote control is an electronic device, used to control
within a room using light signals in the infrared (IR) range.
the functions of another device wirelessly from a short
Infrared light requires line of sight to its destination. Low-
distance.
end remotes use only one transmitter at the end of the
A remote control (RC) is a small, usually hand-held, unit and have to be aimed directly pointing to the receiving
electronic device for controlling another device, such as sensor on the other equipment. High-quality remotes
a television, radio or audio/video recording device, gaming have three or four powerful IR transmitters set at different
console, set-top box etc. Remote controls commonly angles to shower the room with signals.

D
operate via infrared(IR) signals but sometimes by radio
Radio Frequency Remote control (RF)

E
frequency signals also. The remote control may control
a variety of functions such as volume, channel, track Radio frequency remote control also is a wireless device

H
number and other functions. Modern remote control used to operate audio, video and other electronic
devices often have more controlling functions, which equipment using Radio Frequency (RF) transmission.

S
may have only a few primary essential controls. Unlike the common infrared (IR) remotes, RF remotes do
not have to be aimed at the equipment.

LI
A remote control may also be called a clicker, flipper,
tuner, changer or converter. Bluetooth remote control

B
E I
A subset of RF remotes, these rely on the Bluetooth
Fig 1
R IM
protocol to communicate. Most commonly used for video
U
IR LEDs
game controllers and some newer set-top boxes
Parts of a IR remote control
P
E N

The internal parts of IR type remote control is shown in

Fig 1. The basic parts involved in sending IR signal
©

include
1 Buttons/Keypads
Integrated circuit 2 Integrated circuit
Button contacts Backs of Buttons Capacitors
3 Button contacts
B

4 IRLED
O

5 Battery
IR code Transmitter
T

The block diagram of the remote control transmitter is

shown in Fig 2.
T
O

Types of Remotes
N

There are three basic types of remote controls in common

usage:
1 Infrared (IR) Remote
The transmitter section consist of power supply, an
2 RF Remote oscillator and an output stage including IR LEDS in the
3 Bluetooth Remote transmitter section. Oscillator IC 555 is wired as an
astable multivibrator with a centre frequency of about 36
Infrared Remote (IR) KHZ. The transmitter is powered from 2 nos of 'AA' or
IR remote control works on a pretty simple principle of 'AAA' size battery.
"Photo electric effect".

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 397
Signaling from remote The receiver section comprises of power supply, an
infrared detector module, time delay circuit with noise
The modern infra-red remote control system works on
filter, bi-stable flip flop.
multi channel system. Each channel gives a digital
control signal for each independent work like ON, OFF, This signal is received via our receiver circuit's
volume, channel selection etc. A sample output wave phototransistor. The high pass amplifier allows us to
form is shown in Fig 3. preserve only the high frequency components of our
received signal. The band pass filter is tuned to our
modulation frequency, thus removing more noise at
higher and lower frequencies. The signal at this point is
a high frequency AC signal. The rectifier and low pass
filter convert the signal from AC to DC, and the comparator
allows us to adjust the sensitivity threshold so that we do
not detect spurious noise signals. Finally, the flip-flop
toggles the output on and off with each subsequent press
of the transmission button.
Infrared is a part of electromagnetic spectrum and these

D
IR waves moves in the form of pulse train. When any one
of the button/key on the remote is pressed, this circuit

E
translate the action into a beam of IR waves which moves
to the receiver circuit. It sends out different codes for

H
different way commands. The sensor in the TV receives
Channel Six-bit code Decoded
this signal and the microchip reads, amplifies and controls

S
number function
the functions like volume up/down or changing channels,
etc. If any obstruction/blocking between the remote

LI
1 000 000 Switch A on
control and TV receiver, the command is not working
2 000 001 Switch A off because the IR waves always travels in a straight line

B
E I
only.
3 000 010 Switch B on
R IM
U
General faults in remote controls
4 000 011 Switch B off
Since the remote control is a small hand held device,
P
- --------------- ---------------
E N

sometimes it slips from our hand and falls down resulting

- --------------- --------------- in malfunctioning. The most probable troubles with the
61 111 100 Volume increase remote control operation is that the batteries are dead or
©

it has not been programmed properly. It is often easy to

62 111 101 Volume decrease fix the problems with the remote control.
63 111 110 Brilliance increase i) Problems with remote control
64 111 111 Brilliance decrease 1 Dead batteries or batteries inserted wrongly.
B

2 Corroded battery contacts.

It is basic 6 bit multi channel output, the first bit is of 1 mS
O

duration provides frame synchronization signal to the 3 Broken or intermittent contacts on the circuit board.
decoder the subsequent 6 bits provides logic code
4 Dry soldered/broken ceramic resonator/transistor.
T

depending on the duration of pulse. If the pulse duration

is less than 0.25 mS then it is taken as logic 0 and if it is 5 Dirt, spills, oily build-up inside the contacts.
more than
T

6 Worn or corroded pods on circuit board.

0.25 mS it is taken as logic 1. With this type of six bit
7 Worn conductive material on rubber button.
O

coding it is possible to generate 64 independent functions

as shown below. 8 Cracked circuit board.
N

IR code Receiver 9 Bad IR LED.

The block diagram of the IR receiver is shown in Fig 4. 10 Bad IC.
11 Dead memory capacitor.
ii) Problems with the other device/equipment
1 Increased range of remote path.
2 Wrong positioning of device.
3 Dust covered on the receiver sensor.
4 Program mode done wrongly.

398 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
Set-top box particular channel, feeding frequency, symbol rate and
other useful data, generating test patterns. All the
A set- top Box is a consumer electronics device connected
functions available in the set-top box are displayed on the
between a television and a content provider such as
TV screen using On Screen Display (OSD). It is Graphical
Direct Broadcast Satellite operator, Cable operator or
User Interface (GUI) for ease of operation. Remote
Terrestrial operator. This device converts and provides
control and front panel switches are the main input
digital audio and video sources after decoding the
console for set-top box.
incoming digital signals. It then separates audio and
video data streams for presenting them to respective
displays. The function of set-top box is to provide more
TV channels on the same limited number of frequencies.
The block diagram of set-top box is shown in Fig 5.

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The basic features of set-top box are to receive,

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demodulate, demultiplex, and decode the incoming
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digital signal and convert it into analog format. Input

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digital stream to STB may be from satellite, cable or
terrestrial medium. It can also descramble the received
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signal and thus provide the conditional access to the

STB. Conditional Access is key feature for pay TV
system. Input digital signal contains audio, video and
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high speed and low speed data contents, which is

Input to the set-top box is RF signal and its range and type
reproduced by the set-top box. In future the STB will have
of Modulation depends upon its application. If set-top
features like Internet on cable, interactive TV, VOD
box is used for satellite application then Input frequency
(Video On Demand), music on demand etc.
range is 950 to 2150 MHz and modulation technique
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Working of set-top box used is QPSK. For Set Top Box for cable application the
input frequency range is 110 to 862 MHz and type of
The set-top box accepts the entire down converted band
modulation is QAM. While frequency range for set-top
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and separates out the individual transponder frequency.

box for terrestrial is 47 to 860 MHz and type of modulation
Then signals are first converted to fixed IF and then
use for it is COFDM.
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QPSK demodulated. After the QPSK (Quadrature Phase-

Shift Keying) demodulation, the digital bit stream obtained The basic technology used in Set Top Box is DVB (Digital
contains several multiplexed channels as well as error Video Broadcasting) and MPEG (Moving Picture Expert
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control bits. The bit stream is processed to correct and Group). Modern compression technique allows a TV
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detect errors, de-interleaved, and decrypted. A digital signal to be compressed and transmitted at rate 1.5 to 15
de-multiplexer then extracts the bits for wanted channel, Mbps. The standardization process initiated in 1988 and
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and sends them to MPEG decoder, and finally generates almost completed in 1994 - which develop MPEG 1,
stereo audio and video signals with DIA converters to MPEG 2 up to MPEG 7. DVB is recently created DTV
drive TV set. Connection of set-top box to TV is shown transmission standard, which allows Inter- operability
in Fig 5. between different systems and manufactures. DVB
group establishes a set of transmission parameters for
Basic operation of STB
compression, error correction and channel coding. DVB
Set-top box can be operated using either by front panel technology leads to transformation of basic analog
switches or using Remote control as shown in Fig 5 and transmission system into digital, which is used for all
Fig 6. The various functions which can be operated, transmission and communication applications.
using front panel control or remote control are tuning of

E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 399
Figs 6 & 7 shows front and rear view of a set-top box. b Flickering/intermittent picture: Ensure that all cables
are securely connected. try using different input
sources and cables to determine if the issue is specific
to one source or input. Check for loose or damaged
connectors.
c Distorted/Unusual Colors adjust the picture settings
on the TV, including brightness, contrast and color
settings. If the issue persists, it could indicate a
problem with the display panel or the mainboard“
d Backlight Issues If the TV has a backlight but no
picture, the backlight may be faulty Shine a flashlight
on the screen and check if you can see a faint image
If so, the backlight or its associated circuitry may
require replacement.
3 Audio Issues

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a No Sound: Verify that the TV volume is not muted and
is turned up Check the audio settings and ensure the

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correct audio output source is selected Test the TV
with different audio sources (eg, external speakers) to

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determine if the issue lies with the TV's speakers or
audio circuitry.

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b Distorted Sound: Adjust the audio settings, such as

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bass treble, and equalizer settings. Check for “loose
connections between the TV and extemal audio
devices If the issue persists, there may be a““problem

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LCD and LED TV: with the audio amplifier or speakers““
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Detecting and Rectifying Defects in an LED/LCD TV 4 Remote Control Issues:
Receiver and Rectify the fault.
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a Replace Batteries: Check if the batteries in the
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when an LED/LCD TV receiver experiences defects or remote control are depleted and replace them if
malfunctions, it’s important to systematically troubleshoot necessary.
and rectify the issues. Here are the steps to detect and
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rectify faults: b Line of Sight Interference: Ensure there are no

obstructions between the remote control and the TV.
1 No Power/Power issues: Remove any objects blocking the infrared (IR) sensor
a Check the Power Source: Ensure that the TV is on the TV
properly plugged into a functional power outlet. Test
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c Paining Reset: Consult the TV's manual to determine

the outlet using another device to verify its functionality. if the remote control needs to be paired or if there's a
b Power cord and connections: inspect the power procedure to reset the remote control
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cord for any signs of damage or loose connections. 5 Software/Firmware Update: Check if there are any
Ensure that the power cord is securely connected to
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available software or firmware updates for the TV

both the TV and the power outlet. Updating the TV's software can sometimes resolve
c Power Indicator LED: Check if the power indicator performance or compatibility issues. Follow the
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LED on the TV lights up when the power is turned on. manufacturer's instructions to perform the update
correctly.
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If it doesn't, the issue may lie in the power supply

board or the main board. 6 Professional Assistance: If the troubleshooting steps
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d Power Supply Board: Inspect the power supply do not resolve the issues, or if you are uncomfortable
board for any visible sign of damage, such as bulging performing repairs on your own, it's recommended to
capacitors or burnt components. Replace any faulty seek professional assistance. Contact the
components or consider replacing the entire power manufacturer's support team or a qualified technician
supply board if necessary. to diagnose and rectify the faults.
2 Pictures Issues: Note: When troubleshooting and performing
repairs, ensure the TV is unplugged and avoid
a No Display/Blank Screen: verify that the TV is touching sensitive components without proper
turned on and the correct input source ( e.g., HDMI, precautions. If you're unsure or inexperienced,
VGA). Test the input source it's best to consult a professional to avoid
causing further damage to the TV

400 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
1 Power Buttons: It is used to turn on /off the unit to specific features, such as picture mode, sound
mode, subtitle control, or aspect ratio adjustment.
2 Navigation Buttons: These buttons typically arranged
in a circular or cred con““allow you to navigate through 8 Transport Buttons: These buttons include play,
menus and options on the TV pause, stop, rewind, and fast-forward functions for
controlling playback of media content.
3 Number Buttons: These buttons are bond with
numbers and are used to directly input channel 9 Remote control indicator: This small LED or infrared
numbers of numerical values transmitter on the front of the remote control emits a
signal when a button is pressed. It communicates with
4 Volume and Me Buttons: These button control the
the TV receiver to execute the corresponding
TV’s audio. The volume increase or decrease the
command.
sound level, while the mute button temporary disables
audio 10 Battery compartment: Typically located on the back
of the remote control, the battery compartment houses
5 Input/Source Button: This button allows you to with
the batteries that power the remote.
between different input sources, such a HDMI, AV or
VGA These parts may vary slightly depending on the specific
make and model of the remote control. Additionally,
6 Menu button: Pressing the button on the TV's on-

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advanced remote controls may include additional features
screen menu, which provides to various settings and
such as voice control, dedicated app buttons, or smart
options

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home integration.
7 Function Buttons: Some remote controls have

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additional function buttons that provide quick access

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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 401
Troubleshooting chart-LED LCD TV’s
Trouble shooting: First of all check whether all of cable
between board is inserted properly or not. (Main B/D-
power B/D, LVDs cable, speaker cable)

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Picture broken/freeaing

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402 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
Check RF signal cable
Check whether other equipment have problem or not.
(By connecting RF cable at other equipment)
Set-Top-Box, Different maker TV etc.

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Colour error
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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 403
Vertical/Horizontal bar, residual image, light spot, external device colour error

External device screen error-colour error

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No power
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404 E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255
Switches ON/OFF while viewing

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Status Power off list Explanation

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“POWEROFF REMOTEKEY” Power off by REMOT CONTROL

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“POWEROFF OFFTIMER” Power off by OFF TIMER

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“POWEROFF SLEEPTIMER” Power off by SLEEP TIMER
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Normal “POWEROFF_INSTOP” Power off by INSTOP KEY
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“POWEROFF AUTOOFF” Power off by AUTO OFF

“POWEROFF_ONTIMER” Power off by ON TIMER

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Abnormal “POWEROFF RS232C° Power off by RS232C

“POWEROFF SWDOWN” Power off by S/W download

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“POWEROFF UNKNOWN” Power off by unknown status except listed case

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“POWEROFF_ABNORMAL 1” Power off by abnormal status except CPU trouble

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“POWEROFF_CPUABNORMAL” Power off by CPU abnormal

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E&H : Electronics Mechanic (NSQF - Revised 2022) - Related Theory for Exercise 2.16.248 - 255 405