Understanding Development

UNIT 7 PHYSICAL AND PSYCHO-MOTOR

DEVELOPMENT
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Understanding Physical Development
7.3.1 Changes in Body Size
7.3.2 Changes in Body Proportions
7.3.3 Changes in Skeletal Structure, Bones and Muscles
7.3.4 Changes in Teeth Structure
7.4 Psycho-Motor Development
7.4.1 Gross Motor Development
7.4.2 Fine Motor Development
7.5 Factors that Hinder Physical Development in Children
7.5.1 Malnutrition
7.5.2 Physical Disabilities and Vulnerabilities
7.5.3 Infectious Diseases and Illnesses
7.5.4 Vision Problems
7.5.5 Accidents and Unintentional Injuries
7.6 Physical Development and Education: The School Context
7.7 Let Us Sum-up
7.8 Unit-End Exercises
7.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
7.10 Suggested Readings

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1, you have learnt that there are various aspects of development such as
physical, cognitive, social, emotional, language and moral development. You have also
studied how these various aspects of development are interrelated and contribute
towards holistic development in children. In this unit, you will learn about the physical
and psycho-motor development in children with more emphasis on elementary school
age-groups.
Suppose that you have a very young niece who stays at a different city than yours and
so, you get to meet her occasionally. Imagine that you had last seen her when she
was just 5 years old, almost three years ago. Now, she would visit your place along
with her parents. You decide to buy a new dress for her based on your recollection of
her body size at that time. Do you think the chosen dress would fit your niece completely?
It can be a possibility that the dress bought by you would not fit her at all! Why do you
think that would happen?
It is because that the child has developed into a more mature child over the years with
apparent changes in her body due to the physical growth. In general, physical
development refers to the growth and changes in the body which involves changes in
size, weight, height, bone thickness, psycho-motor skills, vision, hearing and so on.
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Across different developmental stages; the child’s size, shape, organs and senses Physical and Psycho-
undergo remarkable changes. As each physical change occurs, the child acquires Motor Development
new abilities and skills.
As a teacher, it is essential to understand the key features of the physical and psycho-
motor development of children you are going to work with. So, what is it that you will
learn in this Unit? See the objectives of this Unit below.

7.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
● describe important physical changes that take place in children, specifically during
elementary school years
● define the concept of psycho-motor development which includes gross motor
skills and fine motor skills in children
● identify factors that hinder sound physical development
● discuss the role of schools and teachers in promoting physical development of
children

7.3 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

“Think about how much you have changed physically and will continue to change
as you age. We come into this world as small beings but grow very rapidly in
infancy, more slowly in childhood, and once gain more rapidly during puberty,
and then another slowdown takes place in adulthood which follows in old age
till death”.
—Santrock (2008)
Children undergo many bodily changes in the course of development over the years.
The very visible changes in body size are accompanied by less visible ones in body
proportions, skeletal structure, bones, muscles and internal organs of the body. The
general growth pattern in children involves rapid growth during infancy, slower gains
in early and middle childhood, and rapid growth spurt again during adolescence with
puberty. The changes in size, proportions and muscles support the development a
number of large or gross motor skills and fine motor skills amongst children. As the
child grows it is natural for the child to develop gross motor skills before the fine motor
skills.

Check Your Progress

1. You might have observed children belonging to different age-groups.
For instance, have you noticed how a mixed group of children belonging to age
6 - 11 organize a group play like ‘pitthu’ or ‘kho-kho’? Is there a difference
between how younger and older children perform? Highlight some of the
differences between the younger and older children.
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Let us now look at the physical changes that take place in children during the elementary
school years. 39
Understanding Development 7.3.1 Changes in Body Size
What do you think are the most visible and noticeable changes in physical development
of children? The most significant signs of physical development are changes in the
overall size of the child’s body which can be observed through the visible changes in
height and weight. During infancy, these changes are most rapid – faster than they
would be at any time after birth. In the first two years, growth is very rapid. From 2
years onwards, the growth rate slows down a bit and is not as rapid as it was up to 2
years of age.
Physical growth further slows down in early and middle childhood. By the time a child
is 5 years old, she is usually about twice as tall as she was at birth and weight about
five times her birth weight. During the next few years, children add about 2 to 3 inches
in height and 2 to 3 kilograms in weight each year. At ages, 6 to 8, girls are slightly
shorter and lighter than boys. By age 9, this trend reverses in favour of boys. Later, in
adolescence period, puberty brings a sharp acceleration in body size. A rapid growth
spurt occurs in girls from age 10 and 14 and in boys from 12 to 14. Up to 10 years,
boys are slightly taller and heavier than girls. Between 11 to 12 years, the rate of
growth of girls is faster; but after 13 years, boys grow faster and they are taller and
heavier than girls. It is followed by a period of slow growth until 18 to 20 years, when
full adult height is attained. Although the pattern of growth remains same for all children;
the rate at which they grow, or the size and weight they acquire may differ. Would you
be able to tell the reasons for these differences? Let us try to explore this question
with the help of the cases given below:

Case -1
Sakshi is a 10 year old girl who studies in class V. Her weight is 20 kilograms and her
height is 123 centimetres, Sakshi is the eldest amongst 4 siblings and takes on a lot of
responsibility of household work and sibling care. The family income is limited but
they share the resources amongst themselves.

Case -2
Sonal is another 10 year old girl who also studies in class V. Her weight is 28 kilograms
and her height is 129 centimetres. She likes to read books and study on her own. She
also enjoys playing different games with her friends. She has one younger brother
who studies in the same school. Her mother makes sure that she gets a balanced diet
to eat and helps her in doing school homework too.

Check Your Progress

2. Why do you think that there are wide differences in the height and weight of
these two girls, Sakshi and Sonal, in the same age-group?
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 Physical and Psycho-
3. What do you think could be the possible factors which are responsible for the Motor Development
differences in physical development among children belonging to the similar
age-group?
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The body size which includes the aspects of height and weight in a child gets influenced
by both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factor refers to what children
inherit from their parents which is composed of hereditary traits that are passed on to
the child. For instance, the children of tall parents may be expected to be tall. However,
environmental factors like nutrition, socio-economic status, family surroundings, cultural
settings, also play an important role in child’s physical growth and development etc.
There can be individual differences in physical development; but by and large there is
a pattern in the way children acquire height and weight. Based on research studies,
there are suggestive ranges of height and weight for a particular age. The rate of
increase in the height and weight are important for determining the normalcy of a
child. These are, however, not the only development changes taking place. There are
other, less apparent aspects of development which we will study in the subsequent
sections.

Some children are unusually short. Some reasons cited are:

● Congenital factors (genetic or prenatal problems)
● Growth hormone deficiency which refers to the absence or deficiency of
growth hormone produced by the pituitary gland in brain to stimulate the body
to grow. Growth hormone deficiency may occur during infancy or later in
childhood.
● Physical problem that may develop during childhood
● Chronic sickness - Children who are chronically sick are shorter than their
counterparts who are rarely sick.
● Children who have been physically abused or neglected may not secrete
adequate growth hormone, which can restrict their physical growth.
● Maternal smoking during pregnancy

7.3.2 Changes in Body Proportions

As children grow from infancy to childhood, changes in the form of bodies can be
noted from the differences in the proportion of body organs. In general, they progress
from the chubbiness of infancy to the long-legged, more slender body of childhood. By
adolescence, they are comparatively still slender and thin. However, the shoulders in
boys and hips in girls tend to become broad.
During infancy, the head of the infant is much larger in proportion to the rest of the
body. It constitutes 1/4th of the total body length as compared to 1/8th in the case of
adults. The head grows in width up to age 3, but continues to grow in length until
eighteen years of age. The growth pattern is the same for body and girls, though boys’
heads are slightly larger than girls’ heads at every age. By the age of six, the trunk
(i.e., body minus head) is twice as long and wide as it was at birth. The child gradually
becomes slim until pre-puberty, when the body widens out again. The length of the
arms and hands increases between 60 to 75% from birth to two years. At the age of 41
Understanding Development 8 years, the arms are nearly 50% larger than what it was at two years and are thin in
appearance, giving the child an all adult’s look. The legs grow at a slower rate than the
arms. By 6 years of age, a child’s legs equal about half her body length. This ratio
remains constant for the rest of his/her life.
Different parts of the body in children grow at different rates. Some parts of the body
attain mature proportions earlier than others. However, by sixteen years of age, different
parts of the body assume their mature proportions. Before we move further, let us try
to have a look at few classroom situations given below.

Situation-1
Karan is a 10 year old child who is quite short and obese when compared to
other children in his class. His classmates make fun of him by calling him with
words such as “chhotu”, “motu’, “lazy”, “baby elephant”, “buffalo”, etc. He
does not like going to school and his performance in studies is declining too.

Situation-2
Nidhi is a 12 year old girl who looks quite mature of her age because she is
extraordinary tall and overweight. She is very clumsy and restless. She finds it
difficult to sit quietly in class. She likes to push and beat other children when
they don’t listen to what she wants. She is labelled with words such as “aunty”,
“bossy”, “crazy” etc. by her classmates.

Situation-3
Rohan is an 8 year old child who is very thin and underweight as compared to
other children. He stammers while speaking and feels very hesitant to speak in
class. His classmates call him with words such as “tota’”, “ullu”, “idiot”, etc.
Due to this reason, he cries when he reaches home but does tell the reasons to
his parents.
Do you think it is justifiable to label children on the basis of their bodily characteristics
and behaviours?
It has been observed that the body size, proportions and characteristics of a child at a
certain age may cause other people to label her/him with words such as abnormal,
short, fat, skinny, unusual, strange or lazy etc. However, such labels may greatly harm
the child’s personality and how s/he feels about oneself. The labels about physical
proportions may also influence the kind of activities child indulges and interests s/he
develops,, later in life e.g., an obese child can rarely be found exerting himself/herself
in the play field with other children.
It is, therefore, advisable that some children who look different from other children do
not get labelled with so-called negative terms. Also as important adults in child’s life
you should be careful in making comparisons among children and while comparing
and one should also take into account the norms of a sample from the region to which
the child belongs. Past growth record of the child could be seen to monitor his/her own
progress and if s/he does not gain any height/weight for some time, it should be
investigated further with the help of experts, doctors or psychologists.

7.3.3 Changes in Skeletal Structure, Bones and Muscles

Changes in skeletal structure and bones contribute to the overall physical development
during childhood. The bones of an infant are soft and flexible as they are composed
mainly of cartilages. Cartilages are flexible connective tissue found in many parts of
human body, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the

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elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the inter-vertebral discs. It is not Physical and Psycho-
as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer and less flexible than muscle. As the child Motor Development
grows, his/her bones become broader as well as longer. This process of hardening of
the bones is known as ossification. It begins early in the first year and ends during
puberty. At birth, the infant has approximately 270 bones. By puberty, this number
increases to about 350. Though the bones of an infant do not fracture very easily; they
are quite susceptible to deformities as a result of their soft and flexible nature. At birth,
girls are more advanced than boys in bone development. By 6 years, they are about
one year ahead of boys and by nine years, one and a half years advanced.
During middle childhood, the bones of the body lengthen and broaden. However,
ligaments are not yet firmly attached to bones. Ligaments connect bones to other
bones to form a joint in human body. Some ligaments limit the mobility of articulations,
or prevent certain movements altogether. Combined with increasing muscle strength,
it grants children unusual flexibility of movement. As their bodies become stronger,
many children experience a greater desire to physical exercise.
Even in elementary school years, bone deformities can result from tight shoes or
sitting in a wrong posture at a school desk. You, as a teacher, therefore should make
sure that:
● the child does not slouch while sitting, standing or walking,
● s/he does not bend over his/her school desk while studying,
● s/he wears comfortably loose clothes and shoes, etc
Any bone deformities that occur during this age may last throughout the life of the
child. Along with an increase in size, bones also increase in number.
Increase in weight at all periods of growth is due to the development and addition to
the weight of the bones, muscle and fatty tissue. Muscles and fatty tissues develop as
the child grows. The large muscles develop more rapidly than small ones and motor
abilities progress from broad to precise.
In the early years of childhood, the development of fatty tissue is more rapid, and
during the early adolescent years, there is a rapid development of the muscle tissue.
You may have seen chubby little babies grow into slim and slender adolescents. During
middle childhood, the muscles of the child are still developing. Children, therefore
need constant change of activities to activate different groups of muscles and to relieve
fatigue from the tired muscles. Excessive strain at this age may injure the muscles.
After certain illnesses, muscles tend to loose their tone and children get tired easily,
but usually recovery is fast. However, when a child is recovering from illness, s/he
should be prevented from taking part in strenuous activities.
Can you imagine the role played by muscles in our bodies? Muscles play an important
role in the functioning of body organs like the heart, the digestive system, etc. They
are also responsible for strength and co-ordination of activities. With time and practice,
the small muscles mature and the child can perform increasingly complex activities.
The child has better control over her/his muscles and her/his movements become
more coordinated, efficient and refined. By adolescence, the small muscles too gain
maturity. A nutritious diet and a regular routine with physical activities and proper rest
would enhance the healthy development of muscles and fatty tissues in children.
There are many wide individual differences in skeletal structure, bones and muscles
development. The skeletal development of two children of the same age may show
variations.

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Understanding Development
Check Your Progress.
4. What role can schools play in promoting a healthy bone and muscle development
of children?
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7.3.4 Changes in Teeth Structure

At the elementary school stage, there are many significant changes in the structure of
teeth in children. Teeth appear in the same sequence in all children but the age at
which they erupt and the amount of discomfort experienced by the child are extremely
variable. When the foetus is six week old and when the baby is born, her teeth are
already in the process of development. The first teeth usually erupt between 4 and 12
months of age, with the average at seven months. By the age of two and a half years,
children have 20 teeth. These teeth are temporary and are often called primary or
milk teeth.
Around six years of age, most children begin to lose their milk teeth. Beginning with
joint teeth, their permanent teeth start erupting. Between the ages 6 to 12, all 20
primary teeth are replaced by permanent ones, with girls losing their teeth slightly
earlier than boys. The first teeth to go are the lower and upper front teeth which give
many 7-year and 8-year old children a “toothless” smile. The first molars appear at
about the age of 6. These are permanent teeth just behind the milk teeth and are often
mistaken for milk teeth.
For a while, permanent teeth seem much too large. Growth of facial bones, especially
the jaw and chin, gradually causes the child’s face to lengthen and mouth to widen,
accommodating the newly erupting teeth. By the age of 13, the second molars appear
and the child now has 28 teeth. The last 4 teeth called the wisdom teeth erupt, if at all,
between the age of 17 and 25 years. The age for the appearance of teeth varies from
child to child. However, generally girls’ teeth appear earlier than boys’
Unfortunately, childhood tooth decay remains high, especially among children with
low socio-economic status. The possible reasons are poor diet, lack of fluoridation in
some communities and inadequate dental care.
Dental care is important to maintain healthy teeth throughout life. Diseased baby teeth
can affect the health of permanent teeth. A balanced diet, supplemented with additional
vitamins and fluoride along with proper dental care by brushing consistently, avoiding
sugary foods, drinking fluoridated water is essential to the development of healthy
teeth in children.

Check Your Progress.

5. Give a few suggestions to improve dental health and avoidance of tooth decays
in young children in the space provided below:
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So far, you have learnt about the physical changes that occur during the elementary
school years. In the next section, you will study the psycho-motor development during
these years.
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 Physical and Psycho-
7.4 PSYCHO-MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Motor Development

Psycho-motor development pertains to the function of muscles and origination of

movements in the body under the conscious control of mental activity. It is
demonstrated by motor skills such as movement, coordination, manipulation, dexterity,
grace, strength and speed. It involves two kinds of skills – Gross motor skills (such
as walking, running, hopping, climbing, dancing, etc.) and Fine motor skills (such as
drawing, writing, sewing, painting, etc.).
As children grow from infancy into middle childhood, they gain better control over her
large or gross muscles, which enables her to control gross movements, involving large
areas of the body, e.g. walking, running, jumping etc. Later, the child gains control
over her smaller muscles, which enables her to obtain skills such as throwing and
catching balls, writing, sewing, etc. A child will therefore walk before she can run;
throw the ball before she is able to catch it and scribble before she is able to write.
At birth, the child can display a variety of motor reflexes which refer to involuntary
responses or motions that occur in infants based on environmental stimuli. You may
try placing a small object in an infant’s palm or touching her mouth slightly with a
finger. The infant immediately grasps the object placed in her palm and sucks on the
finger. Some of these reflexes are present since birth and can therefore be attributed
to maturation. Source of these reflexes gradually disappear before the first year, while
others that are more useful in later life become stronger and better coordinated. The
child can experience heat, cold, pain, etc. and reacts to these. S/he can also distinguish
between certain sounds, smells and tastes. S/he can also distinguish between dark and
light and some colours. The infant gets to know the world around her through the
senses.
The control a child achieves over her body depends on whether she is ready for it.
Motor skills, like grasping, walking, running, balancing, aiming and reaching out are
acquired by the child only when her body and her brain are mature enough and no
amount of urging would help. For example, a six-year-old cannot be expected to aim
a signal as accurately as a child of twelve. However, once she is ready to perform, the
child should be encouraged to do so and given plenty of opportunity to practice. Now,
you will learn about large or gross motor development in children.

7.4.1 Gross Motor Development

Gross motor skills are the abilities usually acquired during infancy and early childhood
as part of a child’s motor development. By the time they reach two years of age,
almost all children are able to stand up, walk and run, walk up stairs, etc. These skills
are built upon, improved and better controlled throughout early childhood, and continue
in refinement throughout most of the individual’s years of development into adulthood.
These gross movements come from large muscle groups and whole body movement.
Can you tell – which is the most important motor development milestone in a child’s
life? One of the most important milestones achieved by a child is walking. Walking
enables the child to move around more efficiently and frees her hands. It enables her
to explore and manipulate the things around her. Delay in walking may be an indication
of some kind of problem with the child, related to her physical, mental or socio-emotional
well-being. The average age for unassisted walking is between 13 and 14 months.
Some children, however, may start walking a little earlier or later than this. The ability
to walk develops in a series of stages.
As the child reaches preschool years, she discovers that she can do many things as
there are great advances in strength, speed and coordination. At about age five, she is
capable of jumping, running, climbing, etc. Between two and five, children’s play consists
largely of these large muscle activities. By the age of six, most children have mastered
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Understanding Development the basic motor skills such as sitting, walking, running, jumping, pushing, pulling, grasping,
throwing, etc. They can balance themselves on a rail, a wall, a chalk mark on the floor,
etc.
Children of six, seven and eight years continue to enjoy strenuous physical activity.
Any activity that uses the large muscles is likely to be enjoyed by all children of these
ages. Games that involve running, jumping, climbing, etc. are enjoyed more than sitting.
Sitting involves less of physical activity. During middle childhood; running, jumping and
hopping become more refined. At seven to 10 years, children can engage in various
types of play activities due to advances in gross motor skills. The diverse skills in
children reflect gains in four basic motor capacities:
i) Flexibility: Compared with pre-schoolers, elementary school-age children have
physically more elastic bodies. This difference can be seen as children swing a
bat, kick a ball, jump over a hurdle or execute tumbling routines.
ii) Balance: Improved balance supports advances in many athletic skills in children.
It includes running, hopping, skipping, throwing, kicking and the rapid changes of
direction as required in many sports.
iii) Agility: In older children, quicker and more accurate movements can be observed
in the forward, backward and sideways motions in their bodies as they play
different games.
iv) Force: Older youngsters can throw and kick a ball harder and propel themselves
farther off the ground when running and jumping than they could at earlier ages.
Children begin to develop fine motor skills after developing gross motor skills about
which we will learn in the next section.

7.4.2 Fine Motor Development

Fine motor skills refer to the coordination of small muscle movements which occur in
different organs of the body, such as the fingers, usually in coordination with the eyes.
In elementary age children, fine motor skills improve over the years. By five or six
years of age, children are ready to begin to coordinate fingers and hands in simple
small muscle activities, such as writing, drawing, cutting, sewing, craft work, etc. At
this age, the fine motor skills that a child has are rudimentary. However, these improve
as the child grows. From age six to 10, there is a progressive improvement in the
attainment of these skills.
By age six, most children can write the alphabet, their first and last names, and the
numbers from one to 10 with reasonable clarity. However, their handwriting tends to
be quite large because they use the entire arm to make strokes, rather than just the
wrist and fingers. Children’s handwriting improves gradually as they produce more
accurate letters with uniform height and spacing. You can observe clearly the difference
in the writing, craft work and other activities involving fine muscles as they go through
the elementary school. If given the opportunity to learn and practice, children can
easily acquire these skills. There is a great variation in the achievement of fine motor
skills. The child learns to do the things for which, she has the ability, the opportunity to
practice and is given encouragement for accomplishment.
There is a steady improvement in the acquisition of fine motor skills by the child as she
grows. The child gains better control over her eye and hand movements. By six years
of age, most children can make objects out of paper or clay, do simple craft work, and
sewing, write, etc. Improvement in these skills continues not only during middle
childhood but also in late childhood and adolescence. The pattern of development of
motor skills is the same for girls and boys, but generally boys are found to be better in
all physical activities as compared to girls. This may also be due to cultural reasons, as
boys are usually encouraged to participate in sports and games and task that involve a
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lot of physical activities. Girls on the other hand are encouraged to play quiet games Physical and Psycho-
and do more of activities that involve the fine motor skills. The teacher should try to Motor Development
avoid this kind of discrimination and encourage boys and girls equally to participate in
all kinds of activities.
Handedness: Another related and interesting concept on fine motor development in
children is the notion of handedness. Handedness means predominant use of one
hand over the other. It is a function of the physiological maturation of the brain. Most
babies feel equally at ease with and are able to use both hands, but by the age of two,
they will show a definite preference for either the left or the right hand. Whether a
child will be right or left-handed gets determined in the early childhood stage. Children
are said to be right-handed if they use the right hand most or left-handed if they favour
the left hand. Children are referred to as ambidextrous if they use both hands equally
well. Although they prefer their left hand, they sometimes use their right hand as
skilfully as well.
If the right hemisphere of the brain is more developed than the left, then the child is
likely to be left-handed and vice-versa. Right or left handedness does not make any
difference to a person’s intelligence, skills or personality. But children who have been
forced to change show some difficulties like stuttering and stammering or reading
disorder. In cases where handedness appears to persist, the best way is to allow the
child to purse his/ her natural pattern of development. But if you decide to change,
start when the child is as young as possible. Do it gently and subtly and watch for
difficulties. If there is resistance of difficulty, the effort should not be pursued. Whether
handedness is hereditary or the result of training and social conditioning has been
debated for many generations. But there is no conclusive evidence available to decide
on the issue either way.

Check Your Progress

6. Based on your understanding, write some fine motor skills in children at
elementary school age-group.
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7. State some classroom activities which can help children develop small muscles
and fine motor skills in school setting? Mention at least three activities in the
space provided below.
i) ........................................................................................................
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ii) ........................................................................................................
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iii) ........................................................................................................
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There may be, however, a great variation in the motor skills in individual children. A
child of 9 may still be doing what another did at six. This is because the acquisition of
fine motor skills depends upon the ability, opportunity and practice that vary from child
to child.

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Understanding Development In order to briefly summarize the physical and psycho-motor development in children,
refer to the milestone chart which follows.
Physical and Psycho-Motor Milestone Chart for Different Age-groups
Age Characteristics
2 years ● Slower gains in height and weight than in toddlerhood
● Balance improves, walking becomes better coordinated
● Running, jumping, hopping, throwing and catching develop
● Puts on and removes some items of clothing
● Uses spoon effectively
3 – 4 years ● Running, jumping, hopping, throwing and catching become better
coordinated
● Galloping and one-foot skipping appear
● Rides tricycle
● Uses scissors, draws first picture of a person
● Can tell the difference between writing and non-writing
5 – 6 years ● Body is streamlined and longer-legged with proportions similar to
adults
● First permanent tooth appears
● Skipping appears
● Shows mature throwing and catching patterns
● Ties shoes, draws more complex pictures, writes name
6 – 8 years ● Slow gains in height and weight continue until adolescence
● Gradual replacement of primary teeth by permanent teeth
● Writing becomes smaller and more legible Letter reversals decline
● Drawings become more organized and detailed and include depth
cues
● Games with rules become common
9 – 12 years ● Adolescent growth spurt begins 2 years earlier in girls than in boys
● Gross motor skills of running, jumping, throwing, catching, kicking,
batting and dribbling are executed more quickly and with better
coordination
● Reaction time improves, contributing to motor skill development
● Representation of depth in drawings expands
Source: Laura E. Berk (2007)

7.5 FACTORS THAT HINDER PHYSICAL

DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN
We have learnt about physical and psycho-motor development of children in general
and of elementary age groups in particular. We know that certain factors such as
nutritious food, clean and hygienic surroundings, and conducive environment are
important for proper physical development. However, unfortunately many children
are not in a position to experience and enjoy these on the contrary are often deprived
of things that are essential for their growth and development. . In the next section, we
will discuss the factors that hinder physical development in children and try to arrive at
some ways of dealing with the problems.

7.5.1 Malnutrition
As you know nutrition is an essential factor that influences growth and development
of the child. Of the many environmental factors that influence development, nutrition
is one of the most basic aspects. Nutrients are the chemical substances, obtained
48 through food in various ways and are the essential fuels of life. The body uses these
substances in various ways to supply energy, build and maintain body cells and to Physical and Psycho-
regulate body processes. There are about 50 essential nutrients grouped into six Motor Development
categories – carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. Each of these
categories is needed by our body and in amounts which are relative to age, activity
and body size. School children are active and need three complete/balanced meals a
day to stay alert and energetic in their everyday lives.
Now, can you define Malnutrition in children? World Health Organisation (WHO)
defines it as follows: ‘Malnutrition essentially means “bad nourishment”. It concerns
not enough as well as too much food, the wrong types of food, and the body’s response
to a wide range of infections that result in malabsorption of nutrients or the inability to
use nutrients properly to maintain health. Clinically, malnutrition is characterized by
inadequate or excess intake of protein, energy, and micronutrients such as vitamins,
and the frequent infections and disorders that result. People are malnourished if they
are unable to utilize fully the food they eat, for example due to diarrhoea or other
illnesses (secondary malnutrition), if they consume too many calories (over-nutrition),
or if their diet does not provide adequate calories and protein for growth and maintenance
(under-nutrition or protein-energy malnutrition)’.
Malnutrition in children is caused by a number of factors; most are related to poverty
and poor nutrition. However some of the important factors also include, recurring
infection that affect the absorption capacity, in particular recurrent problems of diahorrea
and worm infestation affect young children, Incidentally both are preventable through
hygienic practices and provision of clean and safe drinking water. Children suffering
from malnutrition in the early years have been known to perform at a lower level in
tasks involving mental abilities.
Due to poor nutrition, growth of the child’s brain and intellect is seriously impaired.
Such a child continuously performs poorly at the pre-school and elementary school
stages and often parents pull the child out of school. The child thus misses the chance
to continue study and gets caught in the vicious circle of poverty. The impact of
malnutrition extends well into adulthood. Malnutrition is more pronounced amongst
girls than boys, this is essentially due to the discrimination girls face at homes. Early
marriage and early child birth by girls in their early teens is known to produce low
weight babies, leading to either mortality or stunted growth. Importantly the lives of
young girls are at risk due to early pregnancy. There are many parts in India where
girls of elementary school age are married away.
In general the nutritional status of children in India is a matter of concern, according to
UNICEF. ‘Malnutrition is more common in India than in Sub-Saharan Africa. One in
every three malnourished children in the world lives in India. Malnutrition limits
development and the capacity to learn. It also costs lives as about 50 per cent of all
childhood deaths are attributed to malnutrition. In India, around 46 per cent of all
children below the age of three are too small for their age, 47 per cent are underweight
and at least 16 per cent are wasted. Many of these children are severely malnourished.
The prevalence of malnutrition varies across states, with Madhya Pradesh recording
the highest rate (55 per cent) and Kerala among the lowest (27 per cent)’.

8. Why are more girls malnourished than boys in India and what can be done?
Give three key reasons and suggestions to address it?
i) ........................................................................................................
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ii) ........................................................................................................
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iii) ........................................................................................................
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Understanding Development
9. What is the status of malnourished children in your state? Give reasons.
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................................................................................................................
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................................................................................................................

Malnourishment can be addressed if all concerned about children’s welfare work

together that includes National and State Governments, Panchayats, schools and parents.
Let us understand what the Government is doing to address the issue of
Malnourishment. Read the box to learn about the latest government initiatives in
providing nutrition to young children.

The Right to Food

In April 2001, People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL, Rajasthan) filed a writ petition in the
Supreme Court seeking legal enforcement of the right to food. The basic argument is that
the right to food is an implication of the fundamental “right to life” enshrined in Article 21 of
the Indian Constitution. Following on this, Supreme Court hearings on various aspects of
the right to food have been held at regular intervals. This “public interest litigation” (PIL) is
far from over, and it may take years before the Supreme Court pronounces its final “judgment”.
The right to food can be seen as an implication of the fundamental “right to life”, enshrined
in Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. Indeed, the Supreme Court has explicitly stated
(several times) that the right to life should be interpreted as a right to “live with human
dignity”, which includes the right to food and other basic necessities.

Mid-day Meals in Schools

The Supreme Court (order of 28th November 2001) directed State Governments/ Union
Territories to start providing cooked mid-day meals in primary schools. Every child who
attends a government or government-assisted primary school is now entitled to a cooked,
nutritious mid-day meal every day. The Court directed that the prepared mid-day meal
should have a minimum content of 300 calories and 8-12 grams of protein each day of school
for a minimum of 200 days in a year.
The said order further directed that those governments which provide dry rations instead of
cooked meals, within three months, should start providing cooked meals in all government
and government aided primary schools in half of the districts of the State (in order of
poverty) and must, within further period of three months, extend the provision of cooked
meals to the remaining parts of the State. The provision of cooked mid-day meals in primary
schools is an important step towards “the right to food”. Indeed, mid-day meals help to
protect children from hunger (including “classroom hunger”, a mortal enemy of school
education), and if the meals are nutritious, they can facilitate the healthy growth of children.
Mid-day meals serve many other useful purposes. For instance, they are quite effective in
promoting regular school attendance, and in that respect mid-day meals contribute not only
to the right to food but also to the right to education. Mid-day meals also help to undermine
caste prejudices, by teaching children to sit together and share a common meal. They
reduce the gender gap in school participation, provide an important source of employment
for women, and liberate working women from the burden of having to feed children at home
during the day.
Aside from this, mid-day meals can be seen as a source of economic support for the poorer
sections of society, and also as an opportunity to impart nutrition education to children. For
all these reasons, the Supreme Court order on mid-day meals has been widely welcome,
especially among disadvantaged sections of society.
50
You may like to reflect on the role of other agencies like Panchayat, schools and Physical and Psycho-
parents in preventing malnourishment. You will now study about other important factors Motor Development
that hinder physical development in children.

7.5.2 Physical Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Do you think it is common to find children with disabilities in classrooms with other
children? Do you think that our schools are equipped to incorporate such children and
cater to their individualised needs? Children may suffer from different types of physical
defects and disabilities. The common physical defects are orthopaedic disabilities,
unusual auditory and visual difficulties, speech defects, dental causes, and chronic
diseases. Physical defects can be present at birth, or may be acquired during childhood
due to illness, accident and neglect of the child’s physical well being. All these abilities
can affect the child’s development adversely. The affect on the child will depend on
the type and severity of the defect. Diseased tonsils may not have as serious and
crippling effect as blindness or some orthopaedic defect.
Disabilities may prevent children from participating in activities with their age groups.
Most children with disabilities fail to function as normal children in school and may
need special facilities, medical care and attention. For example, when a child named
Seema, who is born with hereditary deafness but raised in an environment designed
for children with normal hearing, she may display symptoms of retarded development
especially in communication skills and socialization. Then her teacher Seema informs
the parents about a special school for the deaf where special education and sign
language was taught. With time, Seema’s adjustment improved dramatically and
development proceeded far more normally.
It is equally important teachers to teach children to be accepting and tolerant of children
with special needs. Ignoring or rejecting such children can make them depressed and
withdraw from school. These attitudes will make them disabled children more aware
of their disability and result in further maladjustment.

Check Your Progress

10. How can schools promote inclusion of children with physical disabilities and
vulnerabilities in classroom with other children?
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.............................................................................................................
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7.4.3 Infectious Diseases and Illnesses

As you know, it is common to find children suffering from infectious diseases and
illnesses in schools. Children experience a somewhat higher rate of illnesses such as
viral fever, cold and cough, etc. during the initial two years of elementary school than
they would later due to exposure to other sick children and an under-developed immune
system. On average, illness causes children to miss a few days of school per year, but
most absences can also be traced to a few students with chronic health problems.
How do you think a teacher can help in solving the problem of contracting infectious
and communicable diseases by children from their classmates in school?

51
Understanding Development Some children may even suffer from chronic diseases and conditions which include
physical disabilities as studied in previous section. Physical discomfort, painful medical
treatments and changes in appearance often disrupt the sick child’s daily life, making
it difficult to concentrate in school and causing withdrawal from peers. For these
reasons, chronically ill children are at risk for various cognitive, emotional and social
difficulties about which we will study further in the subsequent units.

7.5.4 Vision Problems

You might have seen very young children wearing spectacles at the age of 5-6 years
in schools. What do you think could be the reason that children have to face vision
problems at such an early age? The most common vision problem in middle childhood
is myopia, or nearsightedness. Heredity contributes to myopia because studies have
found that identical twins are more likely to share the condition than fraternal twins.
Early biological trauma can also induce it. School-age children with low birth weights
show an especially high rate, believed to result from immaturity of visual structures,
slower eye growth, and a greater incidence of eye disease.
Myopia progresses more rapidly during the school years when children spend more
time reading and doing other close work. Furthermore, it is one of the few health
conditions that increase with socio-economic status of child’s family. Fortunately, it
can be corrected easily with glasses. A teacher can pay more attention to children
with vision problems and make them sit near the blackboard so that they don’t face
problem in reading from the back benches of the classroom. Regular screening for
vision permits defects to be corrected before they lead to serious learning difficulties.

7.5.5 Accidents and Unintentional Injuries

Do you think it is common to find children experiencing unintentional injuries and
accidents in schools? How can you, as a teacher deal with such accidents at school
level?
The frequency of injury fatalities increases from middle childhood into adolescence,
with the rate for boys rising considerably above that for girls. Young school-age children
are not yet good at thinking before they act, especially when many stimuli collide on
them at once. They need frequent reminders, supervision and prohibition against using
electricity materials at home and school, moving into busy traffic on roads and touching
with harmful materials on playground.
As children range farther from home, safety education becomes especially important.
School-based programmes with lasting effects use extensive modelling and rehearsal
of safety practices; give children feedback on their performance, along with praise
and tangible rewards for acquiring safety skills.
In the next section, you will explore the role of the schools in promoting physical
development of children.

7.6 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION:

THE SCHOOL CONTEXT
We all know and recognise the significance of a well-developed child and a healthy
childhood. You might have noticed that some children are taller than others, some
children can balance well, or do craft work better than others. You may have wished
that all children could do these things as well as “a particular” child and whether that
child was stronger enough and so on. What then must be teacher do to enhance the
development of physical and motor skills in children?
The physical and motor development of a child depends largely upon the biological
52
and environment factors. To be able to perform a physical or motor task, the child has Physical and Psycho-
to be maturation ally “ready”. This state of maturation is often called readiness and Motor Development
until a child is ready to perform a task, no amount of training or ‘pushing’ will be of
much help. For example, a child will aim accurately, or balance well only when her
bones and muscles are developed; if any of these is immature, the child will be unable
to perform these tasks despite all the coaching in the world. Too much pressure at this
point may result in frustration, and anxiety reactions in the child.
Physical activity which supports many aspects of children’s development – the health
of their bodies, their sense of self worth as active and capable beings, and the cognitive
and social skills necessary to get along with others. This, however, does not mean that
an enriched and stimulating environment will not be beneficial. The child’s diet, the
health care s/he receives, physical exercise etc. all affect the physical and motor
development of the child.
Providing ample opportunities for play and physical education in the schools could be
one of the ways to promote healthy development of elementary school children.
However, physical education is not considered a very significant area in our schools
even today. The average child gets only 20-30 minutes of physical activities per week
in the fixed time-table of our schools. Many experts believe that besides offering more
frequent physical education classes, schools should change the content of physical
education programmes. Training in competitive sports often a high priority but it is
unlikely to contribute towards any physical fitness for young children. Instead, the
programmes should emphasize informal games and play activities that most children
can perform well and individual exercises such as walking, running, jumping, tumbling,
climbing and the like.
Moreover, children of varying skill levels tend to sustain physical activity when teachers
focus on each child’s physical activity when teachers focus on each child’s personal
progress and contribution to team accomplishment. Then physical education fosters a
healthy sense of self while satisfying school-age children’s need for relatedness.
Physically fit children become more active adults who reap many benefits. These
include greater physical strength; resistance to many illnesses, from colds and flu to
cancer, diabetes, and heart disease; enhanced psychological well-being and a longer
life. A nutritionally balanced diet, physical exercise and plenty of opportunity to practice
skills would help the child achieve full growth potential and optimum motor development.
This in turn will lay the foundation for the future progress of the child.

Check Your Progress

11. State five ways through which schools can promote physical development of
children in elementary age-groups.
i) ......................................................................................................
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ii) ......................................................................................................
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iii) ......................................................................................................
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iv) ......................................................................................................
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v) ......................................................................................................
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Understanding Development
12. What role can a teacher play in promoting physical development of children?
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13. Which play activities can you suggest for promoting physical development in
children?
i) ...............................................................................................................
ii) ...............................................................................................................
iii) ...............................................................................................................
iv) ...............................................................................................................
v) ...............................................................................................................

7.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have attempted to understand about physical development in children
with focus on elementary school years. We have learnt that changes in body size,
proportions, skeletal structure, bones, muscles and teeth contribute to the physical
development in children. The physical changes in body are accompanied by the psycho-
motor development which includes development of gross motor skills and fine motor
skills in children. We have also studied about factors that hamper physical development
in children along with some remedies. We have been able to arrive at the role that
schools and teachers can play in promoting physical development among children.
It is important to note that most of the physical development becomes visible to others
and can also be verified through medical examinations. However, there are some
aspects of development which are not as overt as physical development and can only
be inferred indirectly. In the next two units, you will discuss two such aspects - cognitive
development and socio-emotional development in children.

7.8 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. Observe children belonging to different age-groups (6—8, 8-10, 10-12, 12-14)
around your home, school, neighbourhood, community, etc. systematically and
arrive at a list of their physical characteristics based on your observations.
2. Suggest at least 10 activities that teachers can use in classroom in order to promote
physical development of children. Try to practise those activities with children in
your class or around your neighbourhood.
3. What role can schools play in the physical health and development of the child?
Give a comprehensive plan keeping in mind the various issues around the physical
development of the children,

7.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Younger children do not follow rules whereas older children follow rules. Younger
children like to play games which are not having much rules whereas older children
like games which are difficult to play.
2. Sakshi is not getting nutritious food when compared to Sonal. Sakshi is responsible
to take care of her siblings whereas for Sonal she got enough time to play and
54
enjoy.
3. Genetic factors. Physical and Psycho-
Environmental factors like nutrition, socio-economic status, family surroundings Motor Development
and cultural settings.
4. Physical activities such as exercises and games give opportunity to students to
strengthen their muscles and bones. Practicing yoga also help them to have a
healthy body.
5. ● Adequate dental care
● Proper diet
● Avoidance of much sugary food. etc.
6. Writing, drawing, cutting, sewing, craft work, alphabet writing, number writing etc.
7. i) Writing
ii) Sewing
iii) Making objects out of clay
8. Suggestions
Imbalanced diet: Nutritious food should provide
Child Marriage Adult Marriage should practice
Early Pregnancy Adult Pregnancy should practice.
9. Teachers should teach children to accept and tolerate children with special needs
10. i) Provide mid-day needs
ii) Physical Exercises
iii) Games
iv) Sport Competition
v) Co-curricular Activities
11. Teacher can provide opportunities inside and outside the classroom to develop
physical development.
12. i) Running
ii) Jumping
iii) Walking
iv) Exercises
v) Group play

7.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

● Berk, L. (2003). Child Development. New Delhi: Pearson. See chapter-5 on
Physical Growth.
● Mangal, S.K. (2007). Essentials of Educational Psychology. New Delhi:
Prentice hall of. India. See chapter-6 on Physical Growth and Development.
● Santrock, J. W. (2008). A topical approach to life-span development (3rd
edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. See chapter-5 on Physical Development
and Biological Aging.
● Chand, T. (2006). Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Anmol Publication.
● Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson. See
chapter-1 on Teachers, Teaching and Educational Psychology.
● Web links:
● http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/malnutrition/en/.
● http://www.unicef.org/india/children_2356.htm
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