Module 4 Mos.

Sajala tHt
Biopolymers
Biopolymers are natural, carbon & neutral polymers produced by living
organisms and are
considered environmentally friendly, sustainable and are always
renewable materials.
The physical properties of biopolymers widely
vary with types and compositions. They can
either be synthesised chemically from biological
materials or biosynthesised by living
organisms. The monomeric units are bonded together by
covalent bonds and form larger
molecules. The biopolymers are derived from living organisms like
plants and microbes:
unlike most polymers which are
petroleum-based polymers. They find use in various
industries ranging from food industries to manufacturing,
packaging and biomedical
engineering.
Some Biopolymer examples are
Proteins, Carbohydrates, DNA, RNA, Lipids Nucleic acids,
Peptides, etc.,
These biopolymers account for a greater part of the
human body and also the
ecosphere. The most common biopolymer is Cellulose. It is also the most
abundant
organic compound available in nature. It comprises of 33% of all
Earth.
plant component on

Characteristics:
Biopolymers are promising materials owing to their characteristics like
abundance.
biocompatibility and unique properties like non-toxicity etc. With some nanosized
reinforcements enhances its properties and practical applications
Biopolymer Classification
There are four main types of Biopolymers. These are

Sugar based Biopolymers

Sugar based polymers like Lactic acid polymers

sugar (lactose) which are extracted from (Polylactides) are created from milk
potatoes, maize, wheat and sugar beet.
are resistant to water and can be Polylactides
manufactured by methods like vacuum forming, blowing and
injection molding.
 Starch based Biopolymers

Starch acts as a natural polymer and can be obtained from wheat, tapioca, maize and
potatoes. It is composed of glucose and can be obtained by melting starch. This polymer is
not present in animal tissues. It can be found in vegetables like tapioca, corn, wheat and
potatoes.

Biopolymers based on Synthetic materials

Synthetic biodegradable polymers such as aliphatic aromatic polyesters, are manufactured

from synthetic components. They are completely compostable and bio-degradable.

Cellulose based Biopolymers

This polymer is composed of glucose and is the primary constituent of plant cellular
walls. It is obtained from natural resources like cotton, wood, wheat and corn. They are used
tor packing cigarettes and confectionary. In packaging applications, the material is selected
based on its permeability and tensile properties.
Synthesis
or
The production of biopolymer may be done either from animal products
materials i.e.. from
agricultural plants or synthesized chemically from biological starting
hydrolysable ester group into it.
sugar. corm, starch etc. One of the methods includes inserting

Properties of Biopolymers

(l BPs are biodegradable.

tissues and body fluids.
(2) BPs are compatible with human
laboratory
(3) BPs are easy to manipulate in the
changes.
to ionization with conformational
(4) BPs have the ability to respond
Biodegradable biopolymers include.
polymers from renewable resources such as poly (lactic acid) PLA
i) Synthetic
such as PHA(Poly hydroxy
Biopolymers produced by nmicroorganisms,
alkanoates).
proteins.
Naturally occurring biopolymers, such as starch or
ii)
PHAs
used bio-based biodegradable polymers are starch and 2
The most
 Mas. 44RS
Biopolymer Uses

Biopolymers play an essential role in nature.

They are extremely useful in performing functions like storage of energy, preservation
and transmittance of genetic information and cellular construction.
Sugar based polymers, such as Polylactides, naturally degenerate in the human body
without producing any harmful side effects. Therefore, they are used for medical
purposes. Polylactides are commonly used as surgical implants.
Starch based biopolymers can be used for creating conventional plastic by extruding
and injection molding.
The use of biopolymers reduces carbon dioxide emissions, municipal solid waste, and
dependency on petroleum-based resources.
Biopolymer-based composites derived from natural sources find their functional
applications in tissue engineering, medical implants, drug delivery systems and
wound healing.
Biodegradable plastics or Bio plastics.
Biodegradable plastics and polymers were first introduced in 1980s. There are many
sources of biodegradable plastics, from synthetic to natural polymers. Natural polymers are
available in large quantities from renewable sources, while synthetic polymers are
produced
from nonrenewable petroleum resources
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Biodegradable plastic: is a degradable plastic in which the degradation results from
the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae.
Bioplastics have very promising prospects for use in pesticide soil pins, for packaging
in-flight catering products and for packaging dairy products
Classification of Bioplasties
Bioplastics can be classified into,

IMaterials derived directly from natural polymers (agro-polymers), with or without

proteins
modifications such as polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose) and
(casein, zein, gluten, gelatin)
polyhydroxyalkanoates-PHAs), and
2 Polymers produced by microbial fermentation (e.g.,
materials (e.g., polylactic acid
3) Biomaterials chemically synthesized from renewable raw
bio-polyurethanes). Oils can also represent a
PLA. bio-polyethylene-BPE, bio-nylons, and
feedstock for the development of bioplastics.
based on the type degradation
Another type of classification of Biodegradable Plastics
reaction.

There are two types

1Oxo-biodegradable 2) Hydro-biodegradable

chemical process (oxidation and hydrolysis

In both cases. degradation begins with a
Both types emit CO; as they degrade, but
respectively). followed by a biological process.
hydro-biodegradable plastics can also emit methane.
Advantages:

production and use of bioplastics instead of synthetic plastics (non-biodegradable

The
polluting gases
and oil-based ones) reduce emissions of
and/or biodegradable sources.
" Provide materials from renewable
greenhouse effect, bioplastics and
Regarding environmental problems such as the
measures in relation to global 6
biofuels are considered as one of the important
warming.
Limitations: Different biopolymers used have Mys. HRS
disadvantages such as high-water vapor
permeability, oxygen permeability, fragility, low thermal resistance, low mechanical
properties, vulnerability to degradation, and low
processability.
Large-scale production of bioplastics for different applications is limited due to high
costs, in comparison to synthetic plastics derived from fossil oil.
Polylactic acid

Introduction

Polylactic acid (PLA), classified as an aliphatic polyester because the ester bonds
connect the monomer units. PLA merges several interesting properties that make it an ideal
candidate for biomedical applications such as suture threads, bone fixation screws, devices
for drug delivery.

Physical and Chemical Properties

" PLA polymers range from amorphous glassy polymer to semi-crystalline and highly
crystalline polymer with a glass transition 60-65°C, a melting temperature 130
180°C, and a Young's modulus 2.7-16 GPa.
Heat-resistant PLA can withstand temperatures of 110°C.The basic mechanical
properties of PLA are between those of polystyrene and PET
Polymer crystallinity influences mechanical and physical properties such as hardness,
modulus, tensile strength, stiffness, and melting points.
The polymer with more than 90% of PLLA is semi crystalline, while lower
amounts
lead to an amorphous polymer. The density values lie in small
range depending on the
composition.
PLA is soluble in dioxane, acetonitrile, chloroform, & partially
soluble in ethyl
benzene, toluene, acetone when heated to boiling temperature.
PLA is not soluble in water, alcohols, and linear
hydrocarbons. Crystalline PLLA
cannot bedissolved in acetone, ethyl acetate, or tetrahydrofuran.
Polymer properties can change after processing, because of thermal and
stresses.
mechanical
PLA undergoes thermal degradation above 200°C.
PLA (as wellas its copolymers) degrades because of
hydrolysis mechanism: water
breaks the ester bonds that constitute polymer backbone
 Applications:
Consumer goods Ms. ARS
" PLA is used in a large variety of
consumer products such as disposable
cutlery, housings for kitchen appliances and tableware,
electronics such as laptops and handheld
devices, and microwavabletrays
It is used for compost bags, food
packaging and loose-fill packaging material.
In the form of a film, it shrinks
upon heating, therefore used in shrink tunnels.
In the form of fibres, it is used for
monofilament fishing line and neting.
In the form of nonwoven
fabrics, it is used for disposable garments
PLA has applications in engineering plastics in the form of blended
polymers which
have good form stability and visual transparency, making them
useful in low-end
packaging applications.
PLA is used for automotive parts such as floor mats, panels, and
covers
PLA is the most widely used plastic filament
material in 3D printing.

Agricultural uses
In the form of fibres, PLA is used for
monofilament fishing line and netting for
vegetation and weed prevention
It is used for sandbags, planting pots, binding tape and ropes
Medical Applications:
PLAcan be used for medical implants in the
form of anchors, screws, plates, pins,
rods. and mesh

PLA can be used as support structure,

because it gradually transfers the load to the
body (e.g., to the bone) as that area heals.

Because of its bio-compatibility and

purposes.
biodegradability, used for drug delivery
The composite blend of (PLDLLA) with tricalcium
phosphate (TCP) is used for bone
engineering.
 MsRS
PLLAis under investigation as a scaffold that can generate a
small amount of electric
current via the piezoelectric effect that stimulates the growth of mechanically robust
cartilage in multiple animal models.
PLA can be blended with biodegradable or non-biodegradable polymers (such as
polyethylene. polypropylene. polycarbonates) or by making composite materials by
(the addition of carbon nanotubes), used for devices for bone healing,

The natural degradation of PLA -baseddevices due to hydrolysis avoids the need of
additional surgery for device removal, improving patient care.
SOLARENERGY:

Solar energy is the energy which has a greatest potential of acting as a alternate
source of energy because of the reason that the reserves of fossil fuels are very limited and
are depleted very fast.
Photovoltaic Cells: (Photo = sunlight, voltaic = electricity)
Definition: "Photovoltaic cells or solar cells are the semiconductor devices that convert
sunlight into direct-current electricity on illumination."
Or

Solar panels (also known as a photovoltaic cell or P.V. panel) is defined as an electrical
device that converts light energy into electricals energy through a photovoltaic effect. A solar
cell is basically a P-N junction diode.
When semiconductors such as silicon are illuminated by photons (eg. From sunlight),
electricity is generated.
Construction of a photovoltaic cell:

Light Encrgy
Nickel Plating

+
Anti reflecting
Coat1ng
Load
N type Silicon

P-type Silicon

& Hole
Electron
 Mos HRS
Solar cells consist of p-n junction formed from a semi-conductor diode, obtained by
the diffusion of n-type & p-type semiconductors. The diode has two electrical contacts, one
of which is in the form of a metallic grid & the other isa layer of noble metal (Al)on the back
of the solar cell. The metallic grid allows light to fall on the semiconductor between the
gridlines to increase the amount of light transmitted through the front to the cell.
Working
All electromagnetic radiations including sunlight consist of particles called photons.
The photons carry a certain amount of energy given by E =h c/h
Where h is Planck's constant, c is the velocity of light, is the wave length of radiation.
When electromagnetic radiation (sunligh) is incident nornal to the plane of the solar cel, the
photons which possess energy sufficient to overcome the barrier potential are absorbed &
electron-hole pairs are formed. Electrons are driven out into the external circuit & could be
stored & used for various applications.
Single-junction silicon solar panels can produce maximum open-circuit voltages of about 0.5
to 0.6 volts.

Advantages:
Solar cells never need recharging like a battery.
Use renewable source of energy, produce no pollution and therefore environment
friendly.
" Photovoltaic cells have no movable parts & hence do not suffer from wear &tear.
They operate at ambient temperature.
They do not corrode.
Fuel is vast and essentially infinite.
No emissions, no combustion or radioactive residues for disposal.
" Quick installation
High public acceptance and excellent safety record

Disadvantages:
Work only in presence of sunlight.
" High Installation Cost.
The efficiency of solar cells depends on seasonal variations, climate conditions.
" Space is a constraint.
Collection of dust on parnels may reduce the efficiency of PV cels.
Green Hydrogen: M|RS
Introduction
Due to increase in population and standards of
living, globally energy consumption has
increased. Therefore, development of renewable sources has become
essential.
An alternative source of energy which is clean
continuous and renewable to meet global
energy demand is hydrogen.
Hydrogen is one of the promising clean, sustainable energy carriers and emits only water as
by product without any carbon emissions. The produced hydrogen is used in industry and
other applications like in fuel cells, IC engines, passenger cars, buses, space craft propulsion.
etc..

Hydrogen production:
Currently. the main source of hydrogen production is based on fossil fuels. Majority
production is done by steam reforming or partial oxidation of methane.

The hydrogen production by steam reforming process can give the efficiency of 65%-75 %.
This reaction releases greenhouse gases CO &CO:.

Green H; is any hydrogen that is produced from renewable energy. This includes electrolysis
with electricity coming from green sources such as solar, wind & hydroelectric power.
Water electrolysis is a non-spontaneous chemical reaction. The process occurs by applying
sufficient voltage between the two end electrodes and connecting to external source (DC
supply). Anode is connected to positive end and cathode is connected to negative end.

Catnode Ancde
CIectoyte jWater
Water electrolysis can be classified on the based on the
electrolyte, operating conditions and
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ionic agents.

Alkaline water electrolysis (AWE)

Proton exchange membrane water
electrolysis (PEM)
Alkaline water electrolysis (AWE)
Components of the Cell
Electrodes: Anodes and Cathodes are made of Nickel materials. Nickel metal
particles dispersed on
porous Carbon are used as electrocatalvst for the evolution of gases
at the respective electrodes.
Electrolvte: Aqueous solution (20 to 30 %) ofKOH is used.
Separator/diaphragm: A porous anion exchange membrane placed in the middle of the cell separates
the electrodes and avoids the mixing of produced gases during the process.

Working:

Draphragm

H.

OH
ANODIC CATHODIC
CHAMBER CHAMBER

H,0
H,0

Electrolyte (akal1ne solution)

The Cell operates at low temperature such as 30-80° C.

On passing electricity through the electrodes, following reaction takes place.

At the cathode, water molecules are reduced to hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.
Cathode: 2H,0 +2e- ’ H +20H
Hydroxyl ions formed migrate towards anode passing through the separator and electrolyte
solution and oxidised to oxygen.

Anode: 2OH--’ ½O; + H20 + 2e

The products formed at anode are oxygen and water with the release of electrons. 12
Overall reaction: H,0 -’ H3 + ½O2 Mos. 4RS
Advantages:
It is a simple, casier and cheaper method for hydrogen
production.
Pure C free hydrogen is obtaincd.

Disadvantages:
Limited current density, low operating pressure and low energy efficiency.
Proton exchange membranc water eleetrolysis (PEM)

PEM water clectrolysis is one of the favourable methods for conversion of renewable energy
to highly pure hydrogen. PEM electrolysis plant is simple with compact design. It has high
current density, high efficiency and operates at low temperatures producing ultrapure
hydrogen and the by product oxygen.
Components of the Cell
lectrodes: Iridium metal particles dispersed on porous Carbon are used as anode and Platinumn metal
for the evolution of
particles dispersed on porous Carbon are used as cathode. They act as suitable
gases at the respcctive clectrodes.

Llectrolyte Separator: Achemically stable porous solid sulphonated tetra fluro ethylene polymer
between the electrodes
(nation membranc) is used as an clectrolyte as well as separator. It is placcd
insulated. It is stable and
and plav s the dual role. It is ionic conductor for protons but electronically
non-corrosive.

Working

!
DC Source
H20

PEM
Membrane

13
Catalyst
 Ms. tRS
Electricity is supplied by external DC source. Water is pumped to anode, where it
splits into oxygen, protons and electrons.
At anode: H0 ’2H" + ½ O + 2e
membrane, where they reduced
These protons migrate towards cathode via proton conducting
into Hydrogen.
At cathode: 2H*+ 2e- ’ H2

Overall reaction: H0 -> H2 + ½O:

Advantages:

Higher efficiency than AWE

Pure C free hydrogen is obtained.
Disadvantages:

Production cost is high.