APPLYING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES WITH

STATIC FREQUENCY CONVERTERS TO TURBOMACHINERY

by
Lucien Terens
Special Projects and Technical Assistance
and
Andrej Grgic
Senior Consulting Engineer
ABB lndustrie AG
Turgi, Switzerland

INTRODUCTION
Lucien Terens graduated in 1957 from
In recent years, more than 65 percent of the total electrical
the Federal Institute of Technology in
energy produced has been used to drive rotating machines of one
Zurich (ETHZ), Switzerland, with the Dipl.­
kind or another. A considerable part of it is spent on driving turbo­
Ing. degree (Electrical Engineering) and in
machinery.
1965 he received the Dr. sc. techn. degree
Outdated methods for flow control that are based on fixed speed
from the same institute. He joined Asea
waste large amounts of energy, e.g., throttling, and generally also
B rown B overi, Switzerland, (1965) as
lead to poor process control. In this respect, control methods based
Development and Design Engineer for
on variable speed are substantially better. The electrical variable
Static Frequency Converters. In 1967, he
speed drives with AC motor and static frequency converter all have
became Head of the Frequency Converter
a very high efficiency and also far superior control features.
Group. 1975 he was appointed Manager of
Static frequency converter technology has today reached a level
the Department System Development and Design of Converter
which permits the design and manufacturing of very reliable
Controls for variable speed AC drives, static VAR systems, HVDC
variable speed drives for all kinds of applications and in particular
Systems and high current rectifier applications. He has published
for turbomachinery. They are available for high power and high
various !'apers on these subjects. Since 1993, he has been working
speed and are applied in an ever increasing number.
on specwl problems and giving techn ical assistance.
DIFFERENT DRIVE SYSTEMS (GENERAL)
Andrej Grgic graduated 1956 from the When planning a drive application, a multitude of drive
Technical Faculty of the University Zagreb, �
so utions generally has to be evaluated in the light of a variety of
Croatia with the Dipl. -Ing. degree drive tasks. On the one hand, the wide range of drive system alter­
(Mechanical Engineering). In 1960, he natives offers the advantage that the system best suited to a
joined Asea Brown Boveri in Baden, particular application or drive problem may be chosen. On the
Switzerland as a Development Engineer. other hand, the decision-making process becomes more complicat­
From 1970 to 1991, Mr.Grgic was ed and selecting the right drive , as an optimum between
Supervisor of the Department of Applied drive-system features and application-related requirements, can
Mechanics for Rotating Electrical become a complex undertaking, especially when high performance
Machines. He is now acting as Senior and high drive power are involved.
Consulting Engineer. A number of selections have to be made before arriving at
the best solution. It is opportune to insert a screening-step prior
to evaluating the drive options. Selection should be made
concerning: Adjustable speed or fixed speed? If adjustable speed,
ABSTRACT which kind? Electric, mechanical, or hydraulic speed control? If
electric, which type of motor? AC or DC motor? And if electric
Today, the variable speed drive with AC motor and static with AC motor, which drive system?
frequency converter is an outstanding solution to control the speed An outline of drive systems available for any motion process is
of turbomachines in the power range up to 100 MW and more. A shown in Figures 1 and 2. The figures also provide some hints for
wide selection of variable speed drives, both mechanical and elec­ drive system selection.
trical, is available. These systems are listed and discussed. The
aspects that are essential for their application are dealt with. A Variable Speed Vs Fixed Speed
further issue is the integration of the variable speed drive into its
For large drives, there are two practicable ways to control a flow
application environment. From the itemized electrical variable
(that is to transfer air, gas, liquid, etc.). These are based on constant
�peed drive's interfaces, two are treated in more detail, namely the or adjustable speed. Following are the main reasons why we should
mterface to the power supply system and the one to the mechani­
use adjustable speed.
cal system (shaft train). Some practical cases concerning design
and operation characteristics of the mechanical system are subject • Substantial energy savings : In many industrial processes
to reflection. and also in utility applications, most of the machines such as

35
36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FIFTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

compressors, fans, blowers, pumps, etc., present a load torque to

the drive system, which decreases with the square of the reduction
of shaft speed. Running these machines at fixed maximum speed
and controlling the process variables, such as flowrate or pressure,
by mechanical means, e.g., impeding the flow with throttling
valves or bypass valves, has a poor efficiency and leads to vast
energy losses at operating points below equipment capacity. The
energy losses can be substantially reduced if the speed of the
machines is controlled according to process requirements leading
to drastically lower operating costs.

• Improved process control: Adjustable speed offers the possibili­

ty to gain better control over any process. A better and smoother
process control can be achieved through continuously matching the
process output to demand, by means of accurate and fast control of
the drive's speed (but also its torque and acceleration). Fluctuations
r
in process output vaiables are avoided or at least reduced, and
process stability can be improved. In many cases variable speed
also enables an extended range of process regulation.
Mechanical • Extended equipment life and less maintenance: The use of
variable speed permits decreasing of existent vibration, which
leads to reduced wear on the mechanical parts. The results are less
blade/impeller erosion and corrosion, extended seal and valve life
and extended bearing life. As a consequence, frequency and cost of
maintenance are reduced.

• Further advantages of adjustable speed are: Less environmental

impact, e.g., reduced air emission, reduced noise level, etc.

Electrical Vs Mechanical and Hydraulic Speed Control

Variable speed control can, in principle, be achieved in several
ways. The most important methods in use are:
Variable Controlled Electric drives, motors with power electronic converters
frequency •

DC-drives
AC-drives • Mechanical drives, prime movers as gas turbines or steam
turbines

• Hydraulic speed control, using electric, fixed speed motor

together with a hydraulic torque converter.

The investment costs of an electric VSD, i.e., of all drive

equipment with site cost for building, erection and commissioning,
are lower than those of a gas turbine, respectively about equal to
those of the hydraulic speed control option. Their better efficiency
and low maintenance contribute essentially to large savings in
operation and life cycle cost.
Whereas the economic advantages of the electric VSD option
are generally at the fore, one should not forget further benefits
resulting from several of its superior features. High reliability of
the electric equipment and short time to repair of the modular
designed static frequency converters (SFCs) guarantee the required
high drive availability. The potentiality of the electric VSD system
Figure 1. Drive Systems Guide.
for wide speed control range, superior control accuracy and
dynamic response makes provision for better process control and
thus for increased production quality. The electric VSDs permit
quick soft start as opposed to the gas turbine and will not impair
the supply system as is the case when starting the motor of the
hydraulic control option direct on line. Environmental issues, such
as total lack of air emissions and substantially reduced noise level,
are further advantages of the electric solution. Last but not least, it
is also the design flexibility of the SFC of the VSD that has brought
the electric option in a favorite position. Modular design provides
more flexibility in the placement of the SFC, leading to good uti­
lization of the available installation space. The SFC does not
require space close to the motor contrary to the gas turbine, the
steam turbine and the hydraulic torque converter. It can be located
in a separate switchgear room, or if necessary, even outdoors in a
Figu re 2. Drive Systems Guide (continued). containerized walk-in cabinet.
 APPLYING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES WITH STATIC FREQUENCY CONVERTERS TO TURBOMACHINERY 37

ACVs DC

The electric VSD version may be implemented with:

• Voltage controlled DC motors or

• Frequency controlled AC motors

The incentives to use AC motors for variable-speed drives are

not only that these motors are simpler, more rugged and less
subject to wear and tear but also the fact that they can be operated
at considerably higher speeds, voltages, and powers than DC
motors.
Power Trans­ Static AC� Turbo·
The size and power of DC machines-up to several MW system former Frequency Motor machine
depending on speed range-m·e subject to certain technological lim­ Converter
itations. The mandatory commutator and brushes restrict the
armature voltage and current along with the speed. The commuta­
tor is the main cause of stoppages for maintenance. It is also the Syncluo­
CSI
commutator that makes complicated encapsulation necessary if the nous
(LCI) Motor
motor is to be used in hazardous area. Moreover, the power­
size/weight ratio of an AC motor is superior to that of a DC motor
e
and the same is generally true for the power-size/price ratio. �
Adjustable-speed AC drives have not primarily replaced �c
adjustable-speed DC drives in applications traditionally dominated
by the latter, hut rather they are being used where modern AC drive
0
u
.lil:
CSI 1 Induction
Motor
technology offers opportunities which previously could not be �
realized, or could only be realized with great dit1iculty using DC 0
c
motors.
The major technical reasons for choosing adjustable speed AC
drives arc:
VSI
(PWM)
l Induction
Motor
• Requirements for high drive power and/or high drive speed

• Applications where ambient conditions or special circumstnnccs Fixure 3. Key VSD Systems for Large Turhomachinery.
either put the DC motor at a disadvantage or exclude its use
entirely. • Induction Motor/Current Source Converter (CSI for short)
After this short comparison and discussion of the major drive The CSI drive system is based on a current-source-inveterr (CSI)

systems basically suitable to high power turbomachinery applica­ of the DC-link type and is for use with a cage induction motor.

tion, it seems as if all considerations made so far favor the electric • Induction Motor/Voltage Source Converter (PWM for short)
variable speed AC drive option. The PWM drive system (pulse width modulated) is based on a
One attribute of these drives, namely the physical property of voltage-source-inverter (VSl) of the DC-Iink type and is for usc
their static frequency converters to generate harmonics, needs with a cage induction motor.
special consideration. This is given in INTEGRATION OF THE
As the concept and functions of these drive systems are well
LARGE AC DRIVE INTO ITS APPLICATION ENVIRONMENT
known [l], this presentation is restricted to a summarized presen­
(INTERFACES).
tation of those features tbat are essential to the turbomachincry
application. Subsequently, in the section following this one, special
VARIABLE SPEED LARGE AC DRIVES (LAD) emphasis will be put on aspects that are of importance when inte­
The various drive systems for speed control of AC motors arc grating the LADs into their application environment.
based on static frequency converter (SFC) equipment. The funda­ The typical power and speed limits for the variable speed drive
mental function of the converter is to transform the AC power from systems considered are plotted in Figure 4. The limits arc primarily
the power system of fixed frequency and voltage to AC power of determined by physical constraints in the motor and by the motor

adjustable frequency and voltage to control the torque and speed of design. The SFC of the cunent source type, an example of which

the AC motor (Figure 3). is shown in Figure 5, places practically no restrictions on the
maximum design power. Variable speed synchronous motors with
Compared to variable-speed DC drives, of which finally only
unit power exceeding 40 MW, for operation up to about 4000 rpm,
one standardized converter configuration for control has prevailed,
have been built to drive natural gas transmission compressors.
LADs may be designed and built according to one of several
Motors with even higher power of up to 100 MW and more are
different systems (Figure 2). All arc based on the combination of a
being manufactured for special applications, e.g., fan drives for
suitable AC machine, namely a synchronous or an induction motor
wind tunnel facilities.
with one of the available SFC types.
Commonly, the power rating of the cage induction motor for
Experience has shown that there are several drive systems
variable speed application seldom exceeds seven to twelve MW.
basically suited for most applications. The SFC key configurations
Whereas, the lower values are more applicable with the PWM
cunently used for medium to high power turbomachinery applica­
converter, the upper limit is valid with the CSI converter type.
tions arc shown in Figure 3. The corresponding LADs are:
Maximum speed is about 7000 rpm. If even higher speed is
• Synchronous Motor/Cunent Source Converter (LCI for short) required, motors must be built using nonstandard material and
The LCI drive system (load commutated inverter) is based on a unconventional design.
cunent-source-invertcr (CSI) of the DC-link type and is for use Motor and converter voltage are chosen in such a way that the
with a synchronous motor. entire drive system is designed t o its economic optimum. For
38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FIFfH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

It is obvious that the drive system should also satisfy general

requests as low prime costs including equipment, engineering, civil
works, erection and commissioning, and low operating costs (high
overall efficiency, reduced maintenance, environmental issues,
etc.), all playing a part in the economic drive evaluation.
The characteristics and attributes of all three key LAD systems
put forth (Figure 3) are largely consistent with the requirements for
application to high power turbomachinery.
The synchronous motor VSD is best suited to very high
power, single-motor applications and also in conjunction with high
speed requirements. The LCI type of SFC places practically no
restrictions on the maximum design power. The motor is fully self
controlled and hunting or loss of synchronism is ruled out.
Regenerative braking can be achieved without including any
additional equipment in the SFC.
2 4 6 8 10 12 In the power range up to about 12 MW the cage induction motor
Motor speed in 1000 min·1 VSDs gain momentum and tend to replace the synchronous motor
VSDs. Main impetus is the ongoing development of tum-off power
Figure 4. Typical Power and Speed Limits of Large VSD Systems. semiconductor devices (GTO thyristors). At present the voltage
source converters and the current source converters are competing
for predominance. The current stage of development of both types
of converters makes use of PWM GTO-thyristor inverter technolo­
gy. The purpose of it is to improve voltage and current waveforms
and to reduce harmonic effects.
The voltage source PWM type is a highly efficient drive with
extremely low consumption of reactive power throughout the
whole speed and load range. It has outstanding dynamic perfor­
mance and can be controlled down to zero speed while maintaining
a smooth torque, a characteristic which, as a matter of fact, is not
so much of importance in turbomachine applications.
The CSI type of SFC for the induction motor displays quite a
limited speed/load operation field which is, however, very well
Figure 5. Water-cooled, LCI-type Current Source Converter; 41 suited to the typical squared torque-speed characteristics as they
Mw, 0 ... 60Hz. (Supply for synchronous motor; 0 ... 3600 rpm, for occur in turbomachine applications.
variable speed driving a natural gas compressor). The different converter configurations of all three LAD systems
are clearly defined and well established. Today suppliers offer stan­
dardized equipment, which is more and more superseding
turbomachinery applications of the power class considered, this
application and even project specific configurations. This stan­
generally means "higher voltage for higher power" so that medium
dardized equipment is based on modular mechanical and electrical
voltage drives (MVD) prevail. Variable speed synchronous motor
designs. Sufficient modularity permits a high degree of pre-fabri­
drives for voltages up to 10 kV have become standard practice, but
cation and component standardization but still has the intrinsic
special solutions for higher voltages have also been designed.
flexibility to comply with special applications and with customer
Variable speed cage induction motor drives with PWM voltage
requirements. Focused on technical and economical benefits, stan­
source inverters are presently built with voltages up to about 3 .3
dardization of designs and of equipment not only leads to
kV. For higher motor voltages, step up transformers at the SFC
improved quality and increased availability of these VSDs but also
output are put to use. However, induction motor drives with current
cuts down the engineering effort required, altogether resulting in
source inverters are built for higher motor voltages up to about 6.9
reduced total cost, in an expeditious schedule and in less risks.
kV.
The selection of the best suited VSD system depends mainly on
INTEGRATION OF THE LARGE AC DRIVE INTO
the application. Apart from obvious premises related to quality
aspects such as proven, highly reliable solutions, the VSD systems
ITS APPLICATION ENVIRONMENT (INTERFACES)
for high power turbomachinery applications should fulfill the The main components of the drive system are the motor, the
following requirements: converter with its controls and, if needed, the transformer. An
outline of the drive system integrated into its application environ­
• Present a wide range of power ratings, leaving the option for an
ment is shown in Figure 6. Already at an early stage of any project,
overall economic rating.
this integration calls for careful treatment of the drive interfacing.
• Offer a wide range of speed ratings, in order to be rather free to In LAD applications it is not recommended that an entrepreneur
choose rated speed for process optimization also from an econom­ purchases and puts together components such as a motor, a
ical point of view. converter, a transformer and switching equipment to solve his
• Have an adequate speed control range. specific drive task. It is more expedient that he procures the
complete drive system, including system engineering and commis­
Have the fully controlled soft start capability.
sioning, from a single authoritative supplier. Apart from the basic
•

• Be "network friendly" with regard to reactive power and drive design, the drive system engineer has to take into considera­
harmonics. tion the aspects related to the integration of the drive into its
application environment. SFC technology has evolved to an extent
• Be within acceptable levels of electromagnetic torque pulsations.
where it is now possible to build very reliable, high power VSDs.
• Permit operation in hazardous areas. To support this advanced technology in its correct application, it is
 APPLYING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES WITH S TATIC FREQUENCY CONVERTERS TO TURBOMACHINERY 39

Automation (3) Drive <=> Power System Interface

and Operator (4) Both the influence of power system disturbances on the drive
Interface system behavior and the impact the SFC can have on the power
system generally need careful analysis. Power system disturbances
can affect the voltages at the SFC's input in tenns of voltage tran­
sients, undervoltage, voltage dips and voltage loss, frequency
deviation and harmonic distortion. The SFC has to be robust
enough to largely withstand these disturbances and the drive
Power Mechanical system as a whole has to be examined in this respect. For certain
disturbances, a ride-through capability is required.
System System
The reactions of the drive on the power system are caused
Interface Interface mainly by consumption of lagging reactive power for control of the
(1) (2) converter and by injection of current harmonics into it. Both
reactions are typical features of the current and of the voltage
source converter types, whereas for the latter the effects are much
less dominant. The reactive power requirement principally means
an additional load on the supply. The power factor, i.e., the ratio of
Environment (5) the active power to the apparent power, of current source convert­
ers is typically 0.85 to 0.92 at rated speed and rated load and
in General
declines with reduced speed. With quadratic torque-speed charac­
teristic, which is the load in turbomachine applications, the
Figure 6. Integration of the Drive into its Application Environment. maximum reactive power consumption is at rated speed and load
even though the power factor declines at reduced speed.
absolutely essential that the manufacturer and supplier work
closely together with the customer/enduser right from the planning Harmonic Gene ration
phase. Variable speed large AC drives act as nonlinear loads on the
The major interfaces of the drive to its application environment connected power system. The static power conversion equipment
are between: put to use distorts the current waveform compared to the pure sine
1. Drive and power system wave shape. This distortion can be expressed as a sum of harmonic
waveforms. From the standpoint of harmonic generation, the
2. Motor and mechanical system current source converter and the voltage source converter are both
3. Drive control and control room/automation of the DC-link type. They may, in first approximation, be consid­
ered as harmonic current sources injecting the currents into the
4. Drive control and operator (local).
power system. The generated harmonics are known and can be
Interfaces (1) and especially (2) are subject of further examina­ sorted according to the following categories.
tion and discussion, but first a few comments on (3) and (4) along
• Characteristic integer (i) harmonic currents with typical
with on environment in general are given.
frequencies
At interface (3) the integration of the drive controls is looked
upon at the plant level (control room, automation). From the point (1)
fs(i)= (a X p8±1) X fs
of view of plant control, the drive is generally regarded as an
ancillary function. Data exchange should be restricted to signals are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency fs of the supply
necessary to accommodate functions to the safe application of the system. [Ps= 6,1 2, . . is the pulse number of the rectifier configu­
.

various operating modes. The communication with, for example, ration, a= 1,2,3 ... ordinal number and (a X Ps::!:: 1) the harmonic
the control room can be designed with analogue and binary order]. Ideally looked at, the per unit magnitude of these harmonic
input/output modules, using conventional wiring. However, today currents is equal to the inverse of the harmonic order. It follows
digital solutions dominate and, therefore, the drive should provide that only the lower order harmonics are of any significance for
communication interfaces for serial data exchange. As communi­ harmonic effects.
cation standards are only just firming up, the bus interface
(hardware and protocols) should be such that it conforms with • Characteristic noninteger (n) harmonic currents. In all DC-link
those types most commonly used and offers the customer a high type converters, the output section ("inverter") is not completely
degree of flexibility to accommodate changes. isolated from the input section ("rectifier"). The energy storage
At the operator (local) interface (4), there is a demand for easy­ capacity of the inductor, respectively of the condenser bank in the
to-use, powerful operator panels, presenting all information in DC-link, is limited, which results in a DC ripple. The effect of this
plain language. They feature parameter access and handling, along is the generation of harmonic currents with noninteger frequency
with extended diagnostic capabilities. They facilitate rapid trou­ multiples, caused by interference from the constant supply,
bleshooting and contribute to high availability in case of a frequency fs with the speed dependent motor frequency fM, which
malfunction. are injected into the supply system.
Some words to environment in general. Aspects such as installa­ The frequencies of these noninteger harmonics can be
tion restrictions, conveyance of the cooling media and of electric represented by
power, have to be evaluated. Here modular design of the LADs
provides more flexibility in the placement of the drive, leading to fs (n) = (a X Ps ::!:: 1) X fs ::!:: b X PM X fM ( 2)
good utilization of the available installation space. Also aspects
as-demands on safety class, a well designed earthing system, and [PM = 6,12, ... is the pulse number of the inverter configuration
proper shielding of components-are prerequisites if problems, and b = 1,2,3 ... ordinal number]. These interharmonic sidebands
resulting from insufficient electromagnetic compatibility, are to be are typically small in magnitude, provided that the dimensioning of
avoided. the DC-link storage elements is sufficient and are, under normal
40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FIFTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

circumstances, uncritical. But as their frequencies vary with drive

speed (n proportional to fM ) they should be checked regarding
their effect on the supply system.
• Noncharacteristic harmonics, which are not specific to the
perfected design objective, can originate from imperfections, such
as imbalance, whether in the power supply system (unbalanced
voltage amplitudes and phase relations) or in the drive system
(components, control, asymmetry in the firing angles).
Noncharacteristic integer along with noninteger harmonics may
develop. Since such harmonics are not deliberate they occur, if at
all, only in small magnitudes and can usually be ignored. However,
in critical applications they should be considered presuming appro­ TRANS­
priate values gained from experience. FORMER

System Reaction
Attention should be paid to the matter of harmonic injection.
PCC
The current harmonics injected into the power system cause
voltage drops across the power system reactance and lead to
distorted voltages (voltage harmonics and notching), at the point of
common coupling (PCC). This could cause interference with other
equipment in the plant. In applications with weak power systems
having low fault levels, these effects could become troublesome.
The amount of harmonics that may be tolerated to preserve the
quality of the power system at the PCC is specified in the IEEE
Standard 519-1992. This standard recommends acceptable levels
in terms of current harmonics, voltage distortion and telephone
interference. In most VSD applications, with supply systems
having sufficient fault level, standard drive equipment can comply
with these limits without any special measures. However, attention
has to be paid to applications with very high drive power, espe­
cially when supplied by relatively weak power systems. In such
cases, and even more if resonant conditions can be expected, a
harmonic study of currents and voltages at the start of the project
is recommended in order to avoid problems rather than having to
cure them later on.
Figure 7. Arrangement of VSD with Filter Circuits at Point of
Remedies
Common Coupling.
Reducing the harmonic reaction of the VSD on the supply can
be achieved in one of three ways. One basic method is the use of
Drive �Mechanical System Interface
"network friendly" SFC configurations. The design of the rectifier
for 12-pulse operation, cancelling the more dominant 5th and 7th At this interface special attention has to be paid to the following
harmonics, is a good way to reduce the harmonic impact on the items:
power system. For higher drive powers this has become a standard
• The electromagnetic torque of the motor and the torque of the
solution. A PWM-controlled voltage source converter on the
load machine
supply side of the SFC, practically loading the supply system with
sinusoidal currents and a power factor of one, could become an • The response of the whole shaft train to the electromagnetic
ideal solution in the future. torque of the motor and that of the load machine (torsional
Another obvious way is to increase the fault level at the PCC. A analysis)
practical method for such an increase is to move the PCC to a • The rotordynarnic properties of the whole shaft train (lateral
higher voltage system. The limits of system harmonic voltage critical speeds, unbalance response, complex eigenvalues)
levels can so be better adhered to.
A third method, more of a remedial solution, is the addition of • The design restrictions, if specified, concerning the selection of
harmonic filters at the PCC, i.e., several absorbing LC shunt filters the coupling type and its mounting on the shaft
·tuned to the frequencies of those harmonics which are to be kept • The requirements relating to the foundation of the motor.
away from the supply (Figure 7). As the filters are capacitive at 60
Hz, their use provides a certain degree of power factor correction Harmonic Generation
as additional benefit.
The electromagnetic torque harmonics of t h e motor basically
However, attention has to be paid in case of any resonant condition have similar properties as the current harmonics described in the
in the power system. The power source impedance coupled with the
previous section. The harmonic categories are listed hereafter, irre­
filters represents in general a parallel resonance at lower frequen­ spective of their technical significance.
cies which could be excited at corresponding drive speeds. This
situation becomes quite complicated if the frequency-dependency • Characteristic integer (i) harmonic torques, with typical
of the power source impedance enters into the game. In such a case a frequencies:
thorough system analysis is necessary. Efficient computer programs
for network analysis and harmonic filter calculation are available. (3)
 APPLYING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES WITH S TATIC FREQUENCY CONVERTERS TO TURBOMACHINERY 41

are integer multiples c X PM of the fundamental electrical • In most cases, the examination of the steady-state operation of a
frequency fM of the motor (at speed n). [PM 6, 12, ... is the pulse
= variable speed drive can be limited to its performance when
number of the inverter configuration and c 1,2,3 ... the ordinal
= running at some of the lowest resonance points [2]. An example of
number]. a frequency map for an LCI drive is shown in Figure 8. For a shaft
The amplitudes of some of these components can, in worst train built with couplings using steel components only, the
cases, amount to about 0.20 of the rated torque for the LCI and to response calculations should be made with a conservative internal
about 0.40 for the PWM. Usually, they are about 0.10 of the rated damping value, i.e., D 0.005. Only elastomeric couplings have
=

torque. considerably higher damping values. Usually, the highest trans­

missibility ratio appears under resonance conditions with the flrst
• Characteristic noninteger (n) harmonic torques. They are also
torsional natural frequency. In most cases, the highest shaft torque
caused by interference as explained in Drive <=> Power System
occurs at the resonance of a noninteger component with the first
Interface. Their frequencies can be represented by
natural frequency of the shaft train (one of points C, D or E, F in
Figure 8). In steady-state operation the stresses occurring within
fT(n) c X PM X fM d X Ps X fs (4) the shaft, couplings and rotors should never exceed the fatigue
= ±
limit of the material.

[Ps = 6, 12, ... is the pulse number of the rectifier configuration d

= ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... integers and fs the fundamental frequency of the
supply system].
The amplitudes of some of these components can, in worst
cases, amount to about 0.10 of the rated torque. Usually they are
about 0.03 of the rated torque.
• Noncharacteristic harmonic torques, which are not specific to the
perfected design objective, can originate from imperfections as
explained in section Drive <=> Power System Interface.
Noncharacteristic integer along with noninteger harmonics may
develop. The amplitudes of these harmonics are generally small
and, therefore, usually not considered in the torsional analysis.
• In addition to the torque harmonics mentioned so far, the PWM
drive system also generates characteristic harmonic torques origi­
nating from the PWM inverter switching frequency (modulation).
The PWM strategy is, among others, to reduce low frequency
torque pulsations at the expense of high frequency torques. The
corresponding pulsations generally occur well above the first five
mechanical resonances of the shaft train. In the lower frequency 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 fM(Hz]

!----·-·----�.YJ:I:!.!IL <'··.{���=��:�1\!ILJ
range, the amplitudes of these types of harmonics are small and,
therefore, usually not considered in the torsional analysis. ;>
_____.....__ ...

• Another characteristic of the PWM drive system is the occur­ f(drlve,rated)

rence of torque transients due to pulse pattern switchover. Here
discontinuities must be considered in the average torque and also Figure 8. Frequency Map of an LCI Drive (f = exciting resp.
in the characteristic integer harmonic torques, each time the drive natural frequency, fM motor supply frequency).
=

passes through a pattern switchover speed. With a well tuned

control, the shaft torques excited by this phenomenon remain • Runup of a VSD is an operational mode that does not normally
below the level of those excited by characteristic harmonics and determine the shaft dimensions. Nevertheless, it is highly advisable
switchover is also relatively infrequent. to perform a torsional analysis for this mode also. All three of the
• In the case of LCI systems, a transient due to pulse operating drive types under consideration produce the same/similar excita­
mode occurs at the beginning of runup (up to about five percent of tion during runup as in steady state operation. The only exception
maximum speed). In tih s operating mode the torque is intermittent. occurs with the LCI (see the final point section Harmonic Torque
The magnitude of the first pulse must be higher than the breakaway Generation). The corresponding shaft train stresses, especially
torque. This means that in applications with turbomachines (torque when running through the first torsional natural frequency (points
proportional to the square of the speed) it can be kept low. A and B in Figure 8), are considerably lower than those occurring
during the direct-online start of the motor. The design rules for
For torsional analysis, all torque components with frequencies
fixed-speed motors with direct-online starting allow the sizing for
up to 100 Hz which have amplitudes not less than 0.01 of the rated this kind of operation to be done according to the fatigue strength
motor torque should be considered. Components with frequencies
for a limited number of load cycles. For larger motors, 5000 down
above 100 Hz are considered only if their amplitudes are higher to 1000, runups are acceptable values, depending on application. In
than 0.03 ... 0.05 of the rated torque.
any case, the stresses in the shaft train of a VSD during runup will
be considerably lower than those of a comparable flxed speed
System Response motor when starting directly online.
The response calculations for the shaft train have to cover the • Further points requiring consideration are the electrical distur­
whole speed range including all relevant operational modes. For a bances. Most electrical machine manufacturers take the line-to-line
VSD these are: The steady-state operation (control range), the terminal short-circuit as the worst case disturbance. This short-circuit
runup and electrical disturbances. In addition, all excitation torques is highly unlikely. The magnitude of the electromagnetic short-circuit
produced by the load machine have to be considered. They must be torque is higher than that of any other electrical disturbance, be it
specified by the responsible manufacturer. in the frequency converter or in the power system.
42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FIFfH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

The shaft can, therefore, be sized without any additional safety

margin. An essential prerequisite is that the torsional stress in the
critical shaft section does not exceed the torsional yield point of the
shaft material. In those cases where the stress cannot be kept below
this limit by acceptable changes to shaft train dimensions
(coupling) and/or materia l quality, the application of a shaft-torque
limiting device is acceptable. This may consist of shear pins,
slipping of a shrink-fit connection, etc. FAN
COUPLING WHEEL
Remedial Measures
The basic measure is the use of "shaft train friendly" SFC con­
figurations. The design of the inverter for 12-pulse operation, for
instance, leads to the cancelling of the more dominant sixth, eigh­
teenth, etc., harmonics, which corresponds to a reduction of the
harmonic impact on the shaft train.
Additional measures to reduce torsional oscillations of the shaft
train are:
Figure 9. Block Diagram of an ID-fan Drive, 5481 kW, 0 ... 890
• Avoiding any torque amplification at and around critical shaft rpm. Notch Filter in the Speed Control Loop tuned to First Natural
train resonance via control (speed control loop). Frequency of the Shaft Train.
"Electromechanical damping" of the mechanical system. An
After about 200 days in operation the shear pins failed on one
•

example is given in case study LCI for ID-Fan.

drive unit and about 40 days later the same occurred with the other
• Avoiding critical operation at and around mechanical resonance one. During this time the fans had been in continuous operation.
speed by a narrow automatically actuated "blocking speed The metallurgical examination report on the broken pins stated:
window." " ... , these fractures initiated at the shear neck radius and propa­
gated due to cyclic metal fatigue, ...." The events which caused the
• Shifting the first torsional natural frequency out of the operating
fractures obviously produced stresses that exceeded the fatigue
control range. An example is given in case study PWM for Recycle
(endurance) limit of the pin material. This indicated that the dis­
Gas Compressor.
turbing effects occurred only occasionally, perhaps during runup or
CASE STUDIES other special operating conditions, e.g., speed change.
The currents measured in the DC-link indicating the electro­
The case studies reported here are the only known disturbances
magnetic torque pulsations, showed that the speed controller had a
for which the authors' company had to organize a special task
high noise sensitivity. The addition of a notch filter in the speed
force. All other VSDs delivered, representing more than 1000 MW
measuring channel is depicted in Figure 9. The filter is tuned to the
of installed power, were put into service by our commissioning
first natural frequency of the shaft train. This resulted in the
personnel without any difficulty.
reduction of the system res p onse by about 50 percent.
LCI for ID-Fan Unfortunately, this change did not bring a sufficient decrease in the
shaft torques. The shear pins continued to break.
In 1993, the existing two induction motors driving the two ID­ A thorough examination of the coupling concept and the quality
fans in a 1000 MW conventional steam power plant were replaced of the machining, especially that of the shear pins and their fixation
by two variable speed LCI drives. The arrangement of this system in the coupling flanges (Figure 11 ), showed that the shear pins
is shown in Figure 9. It comprises a double-flow centrifugal fa n were poorly designed and also not machined finely enough.
connected t o a n LCI-fed, eight-pole 5481 k W synchronous motor Bending moments due to misalignment were transmitted directly
by a resilient (elastomeric block) coupling. The operating range of to the shear pins. During operation, the holes in the coupling
this drive is between 270 and 890 rpm, i.e., 18.0 to 59.3 Hz supply flanges were deformed by knocking action. As a result the pins
frequency. The torsional analysis showed the following shaft loads: were no longer tightly held and, therefore, additionally stressed.
Runup 0 to 890 rpm 52 ± 80 kNm Shear pin rupture was the consequence. The collars on both sJdes
Steady-state operation 270 to 890 rpm 58 ± 6 kNm of the pin notch retained the pins within the flange. During further
rotation, the protruding pin stubs repeatedly struck one another,
Short circuit (Figure 10) 270 to 600 rpm 58 ± 8000 to 256 kNm producing axial impact forces that damaged the guide bearing and
600 to 890 rpm 58 ± 256 kNm the bracket. It was found that the sharp notch (small radius) on the
During steady-state operation and also during runup, the stresses pin had been badly manufactured, having small dents and sharp
occurring in all shaft elements are below the allowed limits. In case corners from which cracks initiated. Note that couplings using
of the very improbable termnal i line-to-line short circuit (Figure shear pins are working satisfactorily in many rolling mills [3].
1 0) in the operating range from 270 to 600 rpm, according to motor The final solution, which has now been in operation for more
supply frequency between 18.0 and 40.0 Hz motor supply than two years, was to replace the shear pins by normal coupling
frequency, the von Mises stress can reach and even considerably bolts. This was possible because further electrical studies showed
exceed the material yield strength of the shaft parts. At the time the that, in the speed range between 90 and 490 rpm, a reduction of the
above calculations were made, modifications to the shaft train were air gap flux was permissible. In this way the short-circuit excitation
no longer possible (existing foundation, fixed delivery date, etc.). torques were considerably reduced (Figure 10). The corresponding
The only practicable solution to the problem was the modification response shaft torque no longer caused overstresses to any part of
of the coupling to incorporate shear pins, recommended and the shaft.
supplied by the coupling manufacturer. The design of the shear
LCI for Ethylene Compressor
pins was for an alternating torque of 256 kNm. The maximum
allowed alternating shaft torque of 450 kNm for the weakest shaft In 1986, the steam turbine driving the ethylene compressor in a
element guarantees an adequate safety margin. petrochemical plant was replaced by an LCI drive. The block
 APPLYING VARIABL E SPEED DRIVES WITH STATIC FREQUENCY CONVERTERS TO TURBOMACHINERY 43

Steady state operation range

500 I I
I I
old
- ,..--- L_ 35 Hz/424 kNm -
400 f-

kNm 6 Hz/342 kN //
300

200 � /new
I
100 "' ' 17 Hz/106 kNm

Figure 11. Longitudinal Section of the Resilient Coupling with

0
6 59.3 Shear P ins.

FREQUENCY
CONVERTER
GEAR
BOX
700 It aooo
\
\ H
600 SPACER·
�old
\\...-- MOTOR SHAFT COMPRESSOR STAGES 1 ••• 6

500 \
\
Tp Figure 12. Block Diagram representing Shaft Train of Five-stage
Compressor (power rating 13000 kW, max. speed 6400 rpm., resp.,
400 \ 11540 rpm).
kNm
1...1 �
\
.....
300 / following torque peak values between the motor and the compres­
sor were calculated:
\
200 \ J�ew [\... - / Runup 0 to 5700 rpm 5 ± 19 kNm

' Steady state operation 5700 to 6400 rpm 20 ± 1 kNm

Short circuit 5700 to 6400 rpm 20 ± 5 kNm
100 The resulting torsional stresses are below the permissible limits.
The calculation results for lateral critical speeds, unbalance
6 17 35 59.3 response and complex eigenvalues were acceptable and indicated
0
no cause for concern. As usual at that time, the oil-film coefficients
0 10 40 50 60 for the motor bearings were determined for mean values of bearing
Hz load, bearing clearance and oil viscosity. The operating speed
range for the shaft train, comprising motor, floating spacer shaft
I 90 1 I 89011 ...
I and low-pressure compressor with one half of the gear coupling at
the nondrive end, lay between the third and the fourth lateral
150 300 600 750 900
0
n 450 rpm
critical speeds.
After about two weeks of test runs, the shaft failed. A thorough
investigation with extensive tests using a provisional spacer shaft,
Figure 10. Peak Values for Electromagnetic Torque (upper led to the final solution. An auxiliary bearing was added to the
diagram) and Shaft Torque (lower diagram) for a Line-to-line floating shaft and the membrane couplings were replaced by rigid
Terminal Short-circuit. flange couplings. After this modification, only two critical speeds
still lay below the operating range. The critical speed dictated by
the spacer shaft was now above the operating speed range. In this
diagram of the shaft train for the upgraded drive is shown in Figure case, a solution featuring the replacement of the existing four-lobe
12. The 13400 kW synchronous motor with a solid pole rotor, fed bearings of the motor by tilting-pad bearings was not considered
by an LCI converter, has an operating range between 5700 and safe enough. Since these modifications have been done, the
6400 rpm, i.e., 95.0 to 106.7 Hz supply frequency. The motor was machine has provided trouble-free continuous operation.
connected to the low-pressure compressor via a membrane twin The investigation of this incident has shown that the calculation
coupling with a long (=1500 mm), slender, floating spacer shaft. of complex eigenvalues should not be restricted to a model of the
This torsionally soft shaft was necessary to enable the motor to be complete shaft train. It must also consider the possible scatter of
anchored on the existing steam turbine foundation. The first the values for the oil-film coefficients. In such cases, the Two Limit
torsional natural frequency of the shaft train was 11 Hz. The Cases (TLC) Method [2] is applied. The calculation of the oil-film
44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FIFTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

constants is performed for the following limit values of the relevant about 960 rpm, is the transient excitation of the first natural
variables: frequency by the fundamental supply frequency. The other three
peaks are the consequence of a self-excited, impulse-like, stochas­
Bearing load 1.6 times static load 0.4 static load
tic occurrence. The dominant frequency in the waterfall diagram is
Clearance upper tolerance limit lower tolerance limit 32 Hz. The vibration records, when running the drive at 1575 rpm
Oil viscosity at min. temperature at max. temperature with a load of 1000 kW and 2000 kW, respectively, are given in
Figure )4. Here also, the first torsional natural frequency is pre­
The studies have shown that in this case nonconservative oil­ dominantly excited in an impulse-like stochastic manner. The
film forces have brought into action a latent instability that measured peak amplitudes vary between 1.0 and 5.3 kNm. The
manifested itself through the kinematically weakest link, i.e., the maximum allowed torque amplitude for this shaft train is deter­
floating spacer shaft. For this final dimensioning, the complex mined by the gearing and amounts to 4.8 kNm, which is 35 percent
eigenvalues were calculated in the speed range 5000 to 7000 rpm. of rated torque (13.7 kNm at 1500 rpm). Additional control tuning
The complex eigenvalues for a speed of 5400 rpm are given in brought no appreciable reduction of these stochastic impulse
Table 1. When running through this speed the damping coeffi­ amplitudes.
cients, i.e., the real parts of the seventh, eleventh, and seventeenth
eigenvalue, become positive. Positive damping values are an R A !i G E : 1 1) d B V STMTUB : PAUSED
indicator that with time a continuous increase in vibrations must be 880
expected. m Vo l t

Table 1. List of Relevant Complex Eigenvalues.

A. = a ± t ro a [ 1 ] , ro [H�]
t ee
ASSU M PT I O N FOR O I L F I L M CALCULATION mVo l t
··D I V
LOW E R Ll M IT U P P E R Ll M I T
a ro a ro
1 - 28976.347 0.0 1 - 1 05331 .823 0
2 - 24499. 504 0.0 2 88835.242 0
3 - 2 3 8 1 0.279 0.0 3 79336.756 0
4 20932.460 0.0 4 45003. 1 4 7 0
5 - 3790.790 0.0 5 - 42339.098 0
6 - 2494.565 0.0 6
7
-
-
3959 1 .327
37789.209
0
0
1 ;;a ����----�--,
R A J1 G E : I 0 d .ll l/ STATUS : PAUSED

8 - 371 88.461 0 m V r rn s
9 - 29962.824 0
10 - 8849.825 0
11 - 2582.858 0
12 - 2084.032 0
7 + 0.542 32. 1 1 13 - 1 .878 39.69
9 1 5 . 1 25 9 1 .92 15 - 1 6.256 9 9 . 54
11 + 8.525 121.10 17 4 .424 1 26 . 7 1
13 - 4 . 1 78 1 25.64 19 - 33.851 1 48 . 64
15 - 34.356 1 43.04 21 - 0.409 1 88 . 6 1
17 + 1 .7 1 1 1 69 . 94 23 0.268 1 99 . 2 8
19 - 43.336 253.97 25 8.682 34 1 .6 1
21 - 1 1 .507 3 1 5.28 27 5.357 368.27

?50
u V r· m s:
PWM for Recycle Gas Compressor START :

In 1990 we received an order for a recycle gas compressor for a Figure 13. Shaft Torque and Waterfall Diagram for Runup from
refinery plant. The shaft train of this 2280 kW installation 850 rpm / 190 kW to 1575 rpm / 990 kW.
comprised a four-stage, single-shaft centrifugal compressor, a
high-speed membrane coupling, a single-stage spur gear, a low­
speed membrane coupling and a four-pole cage induction motor A practical solution to the problem was to displace the first
fed by a pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter. The speed control natural frequency below the steady-state operating frequency range
range of the motor is 840 to 1575 rpm, i.e., 28.0 to 52.5 Hz supply of the drive, expressed both as rotational speed in Hz (14.00 to
frequency. With a gear ratio of 8.96 the compressor speed range is 26.25 Hz) and as electrical frequency (28.00 to 5 2.50 Hz). This
7526 to 14112 rpm. In this case, the compressor manufacturer was was realized by replacing the low-speed membrane coupling by an
the only one contracted to perform the torsional analysis, which elastomeric tire coupling. The first torsional natural frequency was
was limited to the calculation of the torsional natural frequencies thus reduced from 32 Hz to 8 Hz. Because of the commissioning
for a lumped 12-mass system. The first natural frequency was cal­ closing date, the testing of the new arrangement could not be
culated to be 32 Hz. This was later confirmed by measurement. performed in the test stand.
On the test stand in the compressor manufacturer's factory, high Onsite security regulations did not allow the installation of the
lateral vibrations on the gearing low-speed shaft were detected. shaft torque measurement system which had been used on the test
These vibrations were load dependent and occasionally reached stand. A "synthetic" measurement of the electromagnetic torque
unacceptable values of about 70 )J.m p-p in the speed range 1400 had to be used instead. As main input data the current and voltage
to 1600 rpm. The dominant frequency was not the rotational in the induction machine were continuously measured. From these,
frequency of about 25 Hz as would be expected, but 32 Hz, i.e., the the electromagnetic torque was calculated on line in a machine
first torsional natural frequency of the shaft train. Subsequent mea­ model. Three tests were run. Each test comprised a linear speed
surements of the torsional oscillations in the shaft train confirmed runup and a constant speed period followed by a linear rundown.
the suspicion that the lateral vibrations were the result of the trans­ The first test run is plotted in Figure 15. The marked regions were
mission of pulsating torques through the gears. In Figure 13, a examined in more detail. The regions 1.1 to 1.4 correspond to
runup from 850 to 1575 rpm is shown. The first vibration peak, at changes of pulse width modulation modes. The regions 1.A and
 APPLYING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES WITH STATIC FREQUENCY CONVERTERS TO TURBOMACHINERY 45

1 0 d B 'I S T H T I) S : PHUSED
A : Bur MAG � ��5 PPM M
F' A ii G E :
1 4 · �� CONCLUSION
For some time now it has been undisputed that adjustable speed
based process control is by far more favorable than mechanical
control in conjunction with fixed speed. Substantial energy savings
and improved process control are just two of many benefits.
In recent years, variable speed AC drives have gained in popu­
larity for an increasingly widening field of applications. With
power and speed ratings which far exceed those of DC drives, they
have become the ideal solution for high power and high speed
motion controL Variable speed drives, built with induction and syn­

me: $ rf0BUF__::_�t'" 71
chronous motors, based on static frequency converters of the
DC-link types, are the key systems currently used for medium and
high power turbomachinery applications. Depending on the type of
Y: 4 1 . 40 mVrms
RANGE : 10 d B 'I STATUS: PAUSED
motor, they are already being built with unit ratings up to about 12
·_:.:_ _ __
MW, respectively about 100 MW.
Compared to other adjustable speed control alternatives, the
variable speed AC drives: save energy, reduce wear and tear on
ru '•, r m .:::
· · mechanical parts, reduce maintenance requirements, guarantee a
�" Il l '/
. . smooth process and increase the life expectancy and reliability of
e . ·

'l'' t� m z: .. 11 l the plant, even under difficult operating conditions .

S T AR T : 0 RPM BW: 2 2 . 5 R P I1 e. 0 0 0 R P M
STOP :
Many equipment manufacturers already offer standardized static

.:!; Ft:"�,. -��·�•• .. � ,_

frequency converters based on modular mechanical, electrical and
software designs. On the one hand, this permits a high degree of
prefabrication and component standardization. This results in
technical and economical benefits during all stages of the project
Yo l t _ · ·
from planning, specifying and ordering, through engineering,
S T AR T :
>:: :
0 S e- c
1 905 RPN
STOP : 1 60 S9c design and manufacturing, to testing, erection and commissioning
y; 2 1 3 . '9 m V r m s
and finally to operation and maintenance. On the other hand, the
Figure 1 4. Record of Shaft Torque Course and Frequency Response modular approach permits easy adaptation of the static frequency
Characteristic (in upp e r diagram for 1 575 rpm/1000 kW and in converter to customer specific requirements.
lower diagram for 1575 rpm/2000 kW). As variable speed AC drives are high technology systems, con­
sideration of the interface aspects relating to their integration into
the application environment should not be forgotten, especially
when they are applied to high power turbomachinery. Both the
influences of the environment on the drive and the impact of the
drive on the environment are of importance. A total drives com­
mitment not only comprises the drive system engineering but must
also cover the electrical analysis of the power supply system and
the torsional analysis of the mechanical system . With careful
design, the influences of harmonic and other impacts are kept
Figure 1 5. Electromagnetic Torque during First Test Run. under control. The static frequency converter technology has
evolved to an extent where it is now possible to build the most
reliable variable speed AC drives for turbomachinery applications.
2 . ooov NOMENCLATURE
1 6 . 0 0 V >< 2

AC Alternating current
CSI Current-source-inverter
DC Direct current
GTO-thyristor Gate-tum-off thyristor
ID fan Induced-draft fan
- 2 . 00 0 IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
-6 . 000 <2
LAD Large AC drives
4000 , 0ms
LCI Load commutated inverter
Figure 16. Electromagnetic Torque and Magnetic Flux i n the LC shunt filter Inductive capacitive shunt filter
Motor during Buildup of the First Torsional Natural Frequency MVD Medium voltage drive
Instability. PCC Point of common coupling
PWM Pulse width modulated
SFC Static frequency converter
VSD Variable speed drive
l .B indicate a self-excitation of the first torsional natural VSI Voltage-source-inverter
frequency. In Figure 16 the region l .A is shown with a much larger
time resolution . It can be seen that with increasing speed the fun­
REFERENCES
damental frequency of the electromagnetic torque actually changes 1. Terens, L ., "Large Adjustable-Speed AC drives : State of the
from about 16 to 8 Hz . Art and Future Trends," Proceedings Conference on Industrial
Since the installation of the elastomeric tire coupling three years Drives, pp . 1-12, University of Central Queensland,
ago, no further problems with the drive have been reported. Rockhampton, Australia ( September 1991).
46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1WENTY-FIFfH TURBOM ACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

2. Grgic, A., Heil, W., and Prenner, H., "Large Converter-Fed 3. Peeken, H., Troeder, C., and Erxleben, S., "Optimierung der
Adjustable Speed AC-Drives for Turbomachines," P roceedings Brechbolzen als Sicherungselement in der Antriebstechnik von
of the Twenty-First Turbomachinery Symposium, pp. 103-112, Walzstrassen;' Stahl und Eisen, 101, (25/26), pp. 59-64 (1981).
Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College
Station, Texas (1992).