PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:

Periodic table:

● The atoms of the elements increase in mass as you progress from left to right
- Period: from left to right
- Group: from top to bottom
● Protons and Neutrons → subdivision of atoms
- J. Thompson discovered this
- Rutherford did a gold foil experiment
- Neil Bohr discovered - electrons move in - electron shells/energy levels
- James Chadwick discovered neutrons, a particle within the nucleus.

● Atomic number: Number of protons an element contains.

- Increases by 1 every element
- Use this to draw electronic configurations
● Mass number/ atomic mass: number/ sum of protons and neutrons in an
atom
- Increases by 1 every element
- The higher the mass number, the more mass the atom has
● Neutrons: add mass to an atom and hold the protons tightly in the nucleus
- Protons: positive charge
- Electrons: negative charge
- Neutrons: no electrical charge
● Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number
● Atoms don’t have overall charges because the number of protons is the same
as the number of electrons.
 ● A stable atom will always have an equal number of protons and electrons.
● In atoms, most of the mass is in the centre
(nucleus).
● Mass number > atomic number
Electronic structure:
- First electron shell holds: 2 electrons
- Second and third electron shell hold up to: 8
electrons
- Electrostatic forces between the positive
charge on protons and the negative charge
on electrons hold these atoms in place
Trends in groups:

- Valence electron: the number of electrons in the outermost shell

1. Alkali metals: highly reactive(with water especially)

→ Alkali means soluble in water and neutralizes acids
→ They are all metals
- Lithium
- Sodium
- Potassium
 - Rubidium
- Caesium
- Francium
→ reactivity increases as you go further down the group
→ single electron in the outermost shell (1 valence electron)

7. Halogen - non-metals: (7 valence electrons)

- Fluorine: gas at room temperature
- Chlorine: gas at room temperature
- Bromine: liquid at room temperature
- Iodine: solid at room temperature
- Astatine: solid at room temperature
→ form salts when combined with metals
→ seven electrons in their outermost shells

8. Noble gasses - non-metals: (8 valence electrons)

→ Inert (don't react) and don’t form compounds
- Helium (exception: 2 valence electrons - but still stable)
- Neon
- Argon
- Krypton
- Xenon
- Radon
→ full electronic shells
→ The outermost energy level of electrons full, so they cannot react to form
compounds

Why elements react to form compounds:

● Outermost shell: highest energy level
● Electrons have an electrical charge of -1 and protons of +1
● Large atoms hold more atoms together, so there is more energy.
● Atoms are more stable when the outermost shell is full of electrons
● Chemical bonds hold together the elements in compounds:
- Atoms lose/gain electrons
- Share electrons
 ● Ion: charged particles
● Particle: a tiny piece of matter
● Atom: the smallest part of a substance that cannot be broken down
chemically.
● Molecule: a group of 2 or more atoms (different types or same) bonded
together → H2O, O2
● Element: a substance made up of only one type of atom
● Simple molecule: a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
● Intermolecular force: the act of attraction or repulsion between two
neighbouring atoms (ions, molecules, atoms)
● Compound: a molecule that contains at least two different elements
○ H2O is a compound (hydrogen and oxygen), but O2 is not (2 oxygen
molecules)

When an atom reacts with other elements by losing/gaining electrons, it forms an

ion.
- When an atom loses an electron, it’s positively charged.
- When an atom gains an electron, it’s negatively charged.
● In an ionic bond, there is an attraction between a positively charged ion and
a negatively charged ion
● Atoms have protons (positive charge) in the
centre and electrons (negative charge) around
them, held together by electrostatic force.
● Electrons farther from the protons are not held
as tightly by this force, making it easier for the
atom to lose them.
● Atoms with electrons closer to the protons are
held more tightly, so it's harder for them to lose
those electrons.
● The farther the electrons are from the centre, the
easier it is for them to escape; the closer they are, the harder it is to escape.
 ● Atoms with outer electrons closer to the nucleus attract new electrons more
easily.
● Electrostatic forces are stronger when the outer electrons are near the
protons.
● Atoms with electrons farther from the nucleus have a weaker attraction for
gaining additional electrons.
●

● Ionic compounds are made from ions, they form when a metal reacts with a
non-metal.
● In some elements, more than one electron is lost or gained

. Covalent bonding: happens between 2 non-metals

→ sharing electrons to fill their outermost electron shells
→ doesn’t need a inner shell(exception)

● Duplet rule: when the first orbit has 2 electrons → ion

● Octet rule: when the outermost orbit has 8 electrons → ion

Temperature:

● Room temperature: 27 degrees

- If the point is below 27 degrees → gas

- If the melting point is between 27 - 100 → liquid
- If the melting point is above 100 → solid
Giant structures in ionic compounds:

● Electrostatic forces act in all directions

and form ionic bonds; the ions make a
giant structure called a lattice.
 ● A lattice is an orderly arrangement of ions/atoms/ molecules.
● An ionic compound such as sodium chloride is arranged in a regular pattern
to form crystals.
● Substances that have covalent bonds are
formed of simple molecules: oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and methane
● This is because the forces holding the
molecules together are strong but the
forces between the molecules are
weak(intermolecular forces).
● Some covalent structures, such as silicon dioxide (sand) have giant covalent
structures.
● Carbon atoms in diamonds form a giant structure
- Each carbon atom forms 4 strong covalent bonds → hardest material on
earth.
- Hard because of the strong, rigid, three-dimensional structure of the lattice
● Carbon also forms a giant structure called Graphite(lead in pencil)
- Make bonds with 3 other atoms
- Forms layers that can easily slide over each other
- The covalent bonds between the carbon atoms in the layers are strong. The
bonds between the layers are weak so the layers slide over very easily.
- The surface is soft and it easily comes away(when you make a pencil mark)
● These large structures are called macromolecules

Graphite → Diamond
● Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points → strong electrostatic
forces.
● Covalent substances are made from simple molecules(low melting and
boiling points) although the forces holding the molecules together are strong,
the intermolecular forces are weak → a small amount of energy is needed to
overcome these forces to melt/boil.
● Ionic compounds will conduct electricity if:
- Dissolved in water
- Melted to form liquid
● Can conduct electricity because the ions have an electric charge → free to
move and carry the charge.
● Covalent substances do not conduct electricity.