COMPANION TO

HISTORIOGRAPHY
 COMPANION TO
HISTORIOGRAPHY

EDITED BY

MICHAEL BENTLEY
Professor ofModern History
University ofSt Andrews

London and New York

 First published 1997
by Routledge
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 CONTENTS

Editorial Board V111

Contributors IX
General Introduction: The Project of Historiography
Michael Bentley XI

PART I: BEGINNINGS - EAST AND WEST

Introduction
Paul Cartledge 3
The Evolution of Two Asian Historiographical Traditions
David Morgan 11
2 Historiography and Ancient Greek Self-definition
Paul Cartledge 23
3 Re-reading the Roman Historians
Michael Comber 43
4 The Religion of Rome from Monarchy to Principate
5~~~ ~
5 Late Antiquity and the Early Medieval West
Peter Heather 69
6 Modernizing the Historiography of Rural Labour: An Unwritten Agenda
Jairus Banaji 88

PART II: THE MEDIEVAL WORLD

Introduction: Regarding Medievalists: Contexts and Approaches
Julia M. H. Smith 105
7 The Historiography of the Medieval State
Susan Reynolds 117
8 Saladin and the Third Crusade: A Case Study in Historiography and the
Historical Novel
Robert Irwin 139

v
 CONTENTS

9 Family, Gender and Sexuality in the Middle Ages

Janet L. Nelson 153
10 The Medieval Nobility in Twentieth-Century Historiography
Timothy Reuter 177
11 Medieval Military Historiography
Bernard S. Bachrach 203
12 Popular Religion in the Central and Later Middle Ages
Peter Biller 221

PART III: EARLY MODERN HISTORIOGRAPHY

Introductory Survey: From the Renaissance to the Eighteenth Century
C. E. Aylmer 249
13 The Idea of Early Modern History
Woljgang Reinhard 281
14 The Scientific Revolution
Stephen Pumfrey 293
15 The Writing of Early Modern European Intellectual History, 1945 -1995
aR~~ ~
16 The English Reformation, 1945 -1995
Patrick Collinson 336
17 Popular Culture in the Early Modern West
James Sharpe 361
18 Revisionism in Britain
Ronald Hutton 377

PART IV: REFLECTING ON THE MODERN AGE

Introduction: Approaches to Modernity: Western Historiography since
the Enlightenment
Michael Bentley 395
IV.I Revolution and Ideology
19 The Historiography of the French Revolution
Jacques Soli 509
20 The Soviet Revolution
Catherine Merridale 526
21 The Historiography of National Socialism
Jane Caplan 545
22 Modern Italy - Changing Historical Perspectives since 1945
John A. Davis 591
23 The Critique of Orientalism
Ulrike Freitag 620
IV.2 Area Studies
24 The Historiography of Modern China
Pamela Kyle Crossley 641

Vl
 CONTENTS

25 The English-Language Historiography of Modern Japan

Alan Smith 659
26 Modern Indian Historiography
C. A. Bayly 677
27 History in Africa
David Birmingham 692
28 Modern American Historiography
Carl N. Degler 709
29 Latin America
Alan Knight 728

PART V: CONTEXTS FOR THE WRITING OF HISTORY

V.I Hinterlands
30 Philosophy and Historiography
William Dray 763
31 History and Anthropology
Jordan Goodman 783
32 Archaeology and Historiography
Guy Halsall 805
33 The History of Western Art History
Nigel Llewellyn 828
V.2 Approaches
34 The Historical Narrative
Peter Munz 851
35 The Annales Experiment
George Huppert 873
36 Marxist Historiography
S. H. Rigby 889
37 Women, Gender and the Fin de Siicle
Olwen Hufton 929
38 World History
R. I. Moore 941
39 Archives, the Historian and the Future
Michael Moss 960

Index 974

VII
 EDITORIAL BOARD

Gerald Aylmer, St Peter's College, University of Oxford

James Campbell, Worcester College, Oxford
David Morgan, School of Oriental and African Studies,
London
Nicholas Purcell, St John's College, Oxford

Vlll
 CONTRIBUTORS

GENERAL EDITOR
Michael Bentley, University ofSt Andrews

EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS
Gerald Aylmer, St Peter's College, University of Oxford
David Morgan, School of Oriental and African Studies, University ofLondon

CONTRIBUTORS
Bernard S. Bachrach, University ofMinnesota
Jairus Banaji, formerly St John's College, University of Oxford
C. A. Bayly, St Catharine's College, University of Cambridge
Peter Biller, University of York
David Birmingham, University of Kent
Jane Caplan, Bryn Mawr College, USA
Paul Cartledge, Clare College, University of Cambridge
Patrick Collinson, University of Cambridge
Michael Comber, StJohn's College, University of Oxford
Pamela Kyle Crossley, Dartmouth College, USA
John A. Davis, University of Connecticut
Carl N. Degler, Stanford University
William Dray, University of Ottawa, Canada
Ulrike Freitag, School of Oriental and African Studies, University ofLondon
Jordan Goodman, UMIST
Guy Halsall, Birkbeck College, University ofLondon
Peter Heather, University College, University ofLondon

IX
 CONTRIBUTORS

Olwen Hufton, European University Institute, Florence

George Huppert, University ofIllinois at Chicago
Ronald Hutton, University ofBristol
Robert Irwin, London
Alan Knight, St Antony's College, University of Oxford
Nigel Llewellyn, University ofSussex
Catherine Merridale, University ofBristol
R. I. Moore, University ofNewcastle-upon-Tyne
Michael Moss, University of Glasgow
Peter Munz, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Janet L. Nelson, King's College, University of London
J. A. North, University College, University ofLondon
Stephen Pumfrey, University ofLancaster
Wolfgang Reinhard, University of Freiburg, Germany
Timothy Reuter, University ofSouthampton
Susan Reynolds, University of Oxford; Birkbeck and University Colleges, University of
London
S. H. Rigby, University ofManchester
James Sharpe, University of York
Alan Smith, University of Glasgow
Julia M. H. Smith, University ofSt Andrews
Jacques Sole, University of Grenoble, France
D. R. Woolf, Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia, Canada

x
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The Project of Historiography
Michael Bentley

Fifteen years ago, when I first considered mounting undergraduate courses in

'historiography', most students and not a few colleagues possessed barely more than
a blurred notion of what the word meant. Secretaries pronounced it 'history-
graphy'. Professors, some of them major figures in their fields, advised that one
could not teach the subject at all, either because it was too difficult and would
'confuse' the students, or, more radically, because the subject had no existence
outside the particular historical problem one might be considering. It made sense,
they said, to talk about the historiography of the French revolution or the
historiography of feudalism; but there was no category, 'historiography', that one
could discuss or teach. They were not aware, perhaps, that a sequence of ideas that
had gained some currency in the 1970s and 1980s had already undermined these
certainties in interesting ways.
A first subversion dwelt on the startling insight that students might understand
more and develop faster if someone set about 'confusing' them with some serious
thoughts about what they assumed the study of the past involved - assumptions
which were and are often painfully innocent of all forms of criticism and lacking
context for the historical writing that students regularly encounter. The second took
into account important changes in how 'historiography' had modified as an idea
both in its nature and its status. It had lost its character as a form of sophisticated
description and moved in the direction of an explanatory discussion that demanded
answers to hard questions about why historians write what they do and why past
historians did it differently. The need for a book like this one echoes these
perceptions even when many of its .contributors would not wish to be associated
with some of the styles of thought reflected in contemporary approaches to history
or social science.
In its older form, historiography (or, as it was usually called, 'the history of
historiography') reminded readers that historical writing has fashions in its
method and approaches and attempted to provide as comprehensive an account as

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE PROJECT OF HISTORIOGRAPHY

possible of the writings of previous historians. Some saw the task as a philosophi-
cal one and battled against the tightening grip of 'scientific' models - none more
resolutely than the Italian Idealist thinker, Benedetto Croce. I But most writers
went in the direction of 'empirical' study. This could be done with a Germanic
commitment to systematic treatment, as in the pioneering account of Eduard
Fueter at the turn of the century. 2 It could become an unconcealed mode of holier-
than-thou liberalism in the hands of George Peabody Gooch. 3 It could become a
concealed mode of Christian apologetic, as it did for Britain's most self-conscious
historiographer, Herbert Butterfield. 4 It could turn into an annotated bibliography
determined to list anyone who ever wrote anything: the besetting difficulty of a
highly-scholarly compendium by the American historian Harry Elmer Barnes. 5
Each of these examples had its own point of view and distinctive tone; but joining
them all together (and linking them with many other studies from the same
period) were a series of characteristics which no longer go unchallenged. For what
they all assumed was that the task of the historiographer should be seen as
biographical, expository and corrective. Their books took shape from the lives and
writings of the 'great historians' they wanted to bring to the reader's attention.
Typically, they presented arguments about a single individual who had, by
acclamation, become part of the historical canon from Thucydides to Gibbon and
then onwards into the congested list of major professional historians working in

Noteworthy in Croce's astonishing output from this point of view are Storia della storiografia
italiana nel secolo decimonono (2 vols, Bari, 1921); Filosofia e storiografia (Bari, 1949); La dialetta
hegeliana e la storia della storiografia (Bari, 1952).
2 Eduard Fueter, Geschichte der neuren Historiographie (Munich and Berlin, 1911).
3 G. P. Gooch, History and Historiam in the Nineteenth Century (1913) 'Happy in the treasures of his
monastic library, the pious chronicler did not stop to investigate their value .. .' (p. 1). 'Gibbon
constructed a bridge from the old world to the new which is still the highway of nations, and stands
erect after every other structure of the time has fallen into ruins' (p. 7). His judgement of Michelet's
French Revolution is a memorable paradigm of this sort of criticism:
' ... though the book possesses unique merits [it is 'a contribution to knowledge as well as to
interpretation'], his judgement of the Revolution is unacceptable ... [H]e is too tender to the masses,
he is too harsh to the Church. He regards the Revolution as a struggle between two conceptions of
life, the life of rationalist democracy against Christian monarchy ... The execution of the work is not
less faulty than its general conception. Some events are described with infinite detail, others no less
important are scarcely noticed. The book swarms with errors, and suffers from exaggeration and
effervescence'
(pp. 183-4).
Nobody ever accused Gooch of effervescence.
4 Herbert Butterfield's oeuvre concentrated, most atypically for his generation, on historiography
rather than substantive historical writing. As G. R. Elton commented with not untypical sweetness,
Butterfield rarely troubled the editors of learned journals. See in particular The Whig Interpretation oj
History (1931); Christianity and History (1949); Man on his Past (1955); George III and the Historiam
(1957).
5 Harry Elmer Barnes, A History oj Historical Writing (1937, revised edn, NY, 1962). The index to
this formidable work of scholarship is over thirty pages long and contains between 1,500 and 2,000
names.

xu
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE PROJECT OF HISTORIOGRAPHY

the shadow of the magisterial figure of Leopold von Ranke. Their investigations
gave rise to a text which abbreviated and epitomized what those historians had said
- reducing the sixty volumes of Ranke to a few pages of pith, expanding the terse
passages of Marx or Burckhardt to give the reader more idea of what the author
intended to convey. Once beyond this expository role, they then turned to
criticism; but the critique had a particular flavour. It showed where the authors
under review had in some sense gone wrong. The point of the exercise lay in
showing the 'modern' reader how historians of past ages, unblessed by the clinical
judgement of the critic's own epoch and usually cursed by 'bias', had mangled the
'truth' through incompetence, wilful manipulation or - the ultimate patronage -
through no fault of their own. Fingers were wagged at religious zeal, ears tweaked
for thin or purblind research, heads patted for insight in advance of their time.
The historiographer gave his contemporaries some reassurance that history
advances towards truth by avoiding the mistakes committed by wanton predeces-
sors. He (for there were no female historiographers of note in this period) told the
fellow members of a professionalizing discipline what they wanted to hear and
reinforced the claim of history to stand beside science as a means of appropriating
reliable and permanent knowledge.
Thus historiography became, like theology, the study of error. And the result of
that self-image has proved ruinous for the subject. If modern writers are correct
and past writers are wrong, what is the point of bothering with what Condorcet or
Theodore Mommsen or Bishop Stubbs happened to believe? They have, after all,
been 'superseded'. If one does bother with them out of a respect for civilized
values and the importance of having an educated mind - every sound Englishman
should read Macaulay, every true Frenchman Michelet, and so on - then what
can be done with those texts beyond paraphrasing them or telling the young to
read them on the same grounds that one might tell them to read Shakespeare or
Moliere? The difficulty has proved intractable for generations of teachers,
especially those who graduated in the West before about 1960. Approaching the
subject with this baggage, they presented courses in 'historiography' that
supposedly represented the leading edge of historical thought only to find that
students deemed them pointless and campaigned for their removal to make way for
something more 'relevant'. Many readers of this Companion will remember
seminars in 'historiography' whose leaders had read the 'text' of the week while
lacking any clear notion of what to do with it. Indeed the sad and brutal facts are
these: historiography cannot be effectively taught or learned without a prior
interest in epistemology; and no one is likely to take the trouble with challenging
philosophical problems of that kind until he or she has come to appreciate that
history is a theoretical subject.
At some point between 1960 and 1975, in most countries of the West, history
took a turn towards theory. Why it did so raises difficult issues that we shall
examine later in this volume. The point to be pressed here is that the arrival of
theoretical models of one sort or another brought upon professional history an
embarrassing sense of self-consciousness. Historians quite deliberately made

Xlll
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE PROJECT OF HISTORIOGRAPHY

models and drew graphs, spoke in -isms and -ologies, with a 'sixties contempt for
those who did not. They began a journey (still continuing) away from telling the
'truth' about 'the' past towards a view that there are infinitely many sorts of past to
talk about and towards a deep scepticism about the possibility of discerning the
truth about most of them. For some, it has been a frustrating, even appalling
transition and the period certainly provided more than one instance of chic,
superficial fashion overriding patient research. Others, however, have found in it a
new plausibility for the subject and a liberation for the individual attempting its
study. Both points of view will appear in this book but, regardless of the point of
view one may hold about the shifts in method and approach over the past thirty
years, what seems clear is that a revolution in the understanding of historiography
has proved one of its central consequences. Not only has historical writing itself
received an irresistible impetus, that is to say, but the idea of historiography found
itself swept along on the tide. The question, how and why did previous generations
see their past(s) in ways different from those current now, became a serious issue
for those trying to evaluate present perceptions rather than an optional visit to the
National Portrait Gallery. The problem of how historical work ought to be done in a
changed intellectual and political climate threw light backwards on how other
generations and cultures had gone about it. The patronizing of past historians for
having got the story wrong (or for having written stories at all) turned into a
genuine curiosity about why their pictures and models look so strange to us and
why they seemed persuasive to the particular audience for whom they had been
intended. Historiography began to look like a first-rank subject in which, it was
increasingly thought, serious historians needed encouragement and training - a
training that would stimulate students to go beyond their immediate period or topic
and examine the broader development of historical writing by relating it to various
other forms of intellectual expression.
Acknowledging the challenge does not take one very far without a literature to
which students and interested historians at all levels may be sent. And here there are
profound problems. It is not that no literature exists: historiography is a subject whose
bibliography has undergone enormous extension in the past two decades. But the
material is frequently highly technical (especially in its more philosophical reaches)
and its scope often turns out either too narrow to offer general guidance or so wide as
to give the reader little more than a superficial impression. Perhaps this awkwardness
lies so close to the heart of the subject that neither teachers nor books can change it.
Whatever help secondary sources may provide, after all, it remains the case that the
only way to understand historians is to read what they wrote; and any form of
abbreviation or characterization will lose something. Many readers cannot spend
weeks coping with a single author's historical works, on the other hand: they need
urgent help in making sense of voluminous and elusive writers and of the schools and
tendencies to which they may have contributed. Teachers no less urgently wish to
have around them some basic texts to which they can direct pupils for initial
orientation before writing that essay on Hitler or the coming project on the medieval
family. For the general reader, intrigued by Marx as a historian or the Soviet

XIV
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE PROJECT OF HISTORIOGRAPHY

Revolution as a drama, some sense of context for such writers and events becomes the
desideratum - a field-guide to the territory, as it were. These needs ought not to be
beyond the capacities of a communicative and prolific profession. They have in some
degree guided the modest ambitions of this Companion to Historiography.
Good books make good companions and the intention here has been to produce
a volume that can be read rather than pulled from the shelf sporadically like an
encyclopedia or compilation of historical 'facts'. Indeed, this collection of essays is
as far from a mere work of reference as we could make it. If anyone needs a
column of print on Lord Acton or a column and a half on Ranke, he or she will
find little difficulty in tracking it down in these days of historical 'dictionaries'.
Harder to find is an overview of developments within English or German
historical practice within which the writing of these two writers might be located.
So the starting point here has been that coverage of so vast an area as that bounded
by historiography over the two and a half thousand years of its (Western)
existence would prove less valuable (and less feasible in a single volume) than a
series of studies whose analysis would remain relevant for subjects beyond the
specific ones treated here. The emphasis would be placed, in other words, on
approach and method as much as on content. By not including everything,
conversely, it has become possible to insert important material about parts of the
world - China, Japan, India, Africa - that frequently disappear in systematic
treatments of European developments and which in no way replicate those
experiences. Scaling down the space on the familiar canon of great historians has
also allowed a greater concentration on changes since the Second World War. For
young people trying to make sense of their own historiographical context, these
years are the crucial ones because they made the perceptions of their parents and
teachers and supplied the material against which many of the young stand in
unconscious, or sometimes highly purposive, resistance. Balancing the competing
claims of the general and the particular, of completeness and concentration, has
proved no easier for this editor than it seemed to Ranke, who at least had talent on
his side. But I have done my best within the parameters of the exercise and amid
the often-acknowledged exasperations of a collaborative venture.
In the main body of the text we provide an understanding of development over
time and a recognition of the spatial issues involved. The four sections dealing with
ancient, medieval, early-modern and modern styles of historical writing operate in
similar ways. Each has either an interpretative gloss on the essays that follow or, in
the case of the later sections, a more extended introduction to historiographical
changes within the period under discussion. In this way readers new to the period
will find enough context to make intelligible the more detailed treatments of
contemporary historiography reflected in the essays. Those essays offer a meditation
by an expert on some aspect of the period's more recent historiography - usually
one that has attracted interest or debate in the last thirty years or so. It goes without
saying that the choosing of issues to include has turned on a compromise between
the general purposes of the volume and the particular interest of the author.
Another editor and other authors could identify precisely the same purposes and yet

xv
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE PROJECT OF HISTORIOGRAPHY

choose an entirely different range of topics to illustrate them. My own prejudice has
been to concentrate on finding interesting and engaged authors rather than lurch
towards the boring out of Calvinist relish. This procedure, compounded as any
would have been by the defaulting of authors, leaves manifest gaps in the account
but it also has enabled me to include some writing of extremely high significance
and quality. Time having been satisfied, space receives its own treatment in a series
of case-studies whose purpose is comparative as well as illustrative. No one should
walk away from this volume thinking that the history of non-Western cultures is
trivial or without its own special character. We then move on to think about more
general contexts for the writing of history by situating the activity, first, against
some other disciplines which have become especially important for how historians
have seen their problems in the last few decades and, second, by examining some of
the major new approaches to the subject that have often resulted from various forms
of fertilization from beyond the acknowledged boundaries of the subject. The
journey offered here is not the only one possible but I hope that readers with
interests in any historical period or territory will find in it some of the stimulation I
have received in watching it take shape.
The task of bringing forty essayists, each with a distinctive vision, topic and
temperament, into a common framework would give pause to anyone familiar with
the problems that beset the structuring of historical argument. To do so when the
framework itself has frequently changed to accommodate a failure to commission a
particular subject satisfactorily or, far more unsettling, to deal with someone else's
failure to produce an essay when contracted to do so, has given editor and
contributors alike a lesson in patience and persistence. But the overwhelming sense
from the editorial end is one of gratitude. Many of these contributors provided their
essays longer ago than either of us wish to remember. Not a single one has
complained about the delays and disappointments that, almost inevitably, dog the
progress of a large-scale undertaking of this kind. I am immensely conscious of their
tolerance and encouragement. Of those who came into the project very late in the
day - often to fill the place of those who had promised to arrive by mid-afternoon -
I cannot speak too highly for their professionalism and unselfishness. It is a pleasure
to record help at early stages of the book's preparation from Professor James
Campbell and Dr Nicholas Purcell and throughout the enterprise from Dr Gerald
Aylmer and Dr David Morgan whose expertise in, respectively, early-modern and
Asian history has greatly enhanced the scope and content of what follows. I am also
extremely grateful to Dr Paul Cartledge and Dr Julia Smith for supplying
contextual glosses for the ancient and medieval sections and to a roll-call of friendly
helpers at Routledge, most recently Samantha Parkinson, during the years of
preparation. Finally but emphatically, I have to thank Jonathan Price. His was the
original instinct out of which this volume arose and, during the period that I worked
with him, he struck me as a figure rarely met with in academic publishing: a
commissioning editor who is driven by the intellectual credentials of a project rather
than its market-value or the demands of publishing as a streamlined, competitive
branch of commerce. When others thought that this book might never happen,

XVI
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE PROJECT OF HISTORIOGRAPHY

Jonathan never wavered. When others lowered their sights, Jonathan always raised
them again. When all around him were keeping their heads, Jonathan resolutely lost
his - to the immense benefit of the book he inspired.

Michael Bentley
University of St Andrews
October 1996

XVll
I BEGINNINGS - EAST
AND WEST
 INTRODUCTION
Paul Cartledge

THE ANXIETY OF AMBIGUITY

History, the word, has a Greek etymology, being derived ultimately from a root
meaning eyewitness, judgement and enquiry.! But only in our 'natural history' is
that etymological connection at all closely maintained, and 'history' itself - whether
the past, or the study of it, or of some of it - is and must remain a radically
ambiguous term. Whence the coinage of 'historiography', struck in order to
distinguish the study of and writing about some past facts from the facts them-
selves. But, since the distinction of facts from the writing about or of them is
actually not at all clearcut - indeed is eminently contestable - a further meaning
has been accorded to historiography, as meta-history or the study, from various
standpoints, of the writing of history by others than the historiographer. 2 Both these
senses are in play in Peter Heather's chapter (5), on the historiographical invention
of 'Late Antiquity' as a concept.
Ancient historians, however, that is historians of Antiquity, tend as a breed not
to concern themselves primarily with such higher-order semantic or (still less)
philosophical issues. For most of them most of the time, history is history is history,
as it were, and at least until quite recently Antiquity has unproblematically meant
Greece and Rome, that is the world or worlds of Greek- and Latin-speakers divided
off chronologically from the more or less text-free universe of the archaeological
prehistorians at the upper end, and at the lower end from the far less easily defined
post-Roman 'medieval' universe: in round figures, from c.1000 BC (or - see below
- BCE) to c. AO/CE 500. Introspection and doubts, however, are steadily creeping
into even this fairly hermetically sealed scholarly domain. For example, the
difficulty of a specification of 'ancient' that excludes China, source of the oldest

References in Chapter 2, n. 3.
2 Classic is White 1973. But see the rejoinder by Momigliano 1981b. See also below, n. 8.

3
 BEGINNINGS - EAST AND WEST

historiographical tradition in the world, is manifest: hence in part the decision to

print David Morgan's chapter (1) first below, as a small gesture towards
historiographical rectification and recuperation. Another sign of altering perspec-
tives is the increasing use by ancient historians of the non-Christian BCE/CE
(Before/Common Era) chronographic notation, in belated recognition of the need
to problematize and avoid a form of chauvinistic or ethnocentric cultural deter-
minism and, conversely, of the desirability of fostering a non-teleological cultural
pluralism.
However, respect for the primacy of texts, and texts written in at least two 'dead'
languages requiring a lengthy period of linguistic and cultural immersion before
they can be 'read' at even the most straightforward level, has tended to inhibit any
Gadarene rush towards modernity, let alone postmodernity, of local or global
interpretation in this field of historiography. Ancient historians have even been
relatively slow to deploy systematically the 'ancillary' disciplines of archaeology,
epigraphy and numismatics to eke out or contextualize their preferred literary
sources, let alone indulge in the consensual interdisciplinarity and comparativism
rightly desiderated below by Jairus Banaji (Chapter 6), across the whole range of
thematic and material issues confronting them in their potentially highly hetero-
geneous area and period. As for theory - or Theory - that, despite (or because of)
its Aristotelian pedigree, has typically always been at a discount among them, more
so than among their literary Classicist colleagues.
Yet, as ever, there have been exceptions, and some of the exceptional ancient
historians have made contributions within ancient history and historiography, the
impact and import of which have been felt and acknowledged quite widely beyond
conventional disciplinary boundaries (themselves in process of dissolution). Three
such historians writing in English (but not only in English) deserve special mention
here, all born - not coincidentally - within four years of each other (1908-12): the
Piedmontese Italian-Jewish intellectual historian Arnaldo Momigliano (a refugee to
England from fascist persecution, d. 1987); the concept-driven sociological
historian Moses Finley (American-Jewish by birth, but British by adoption
following McCarthyite witch hunting, d. 1986); and, still alive and writing, the
Marxist Geoffrey de Ste. Croix (of Huguenot descent, born to Christian mission-
aries in Macao). 3 Not for the first time one notices the impact of exile and
transpatriation on ancient historiography, a trend set by Herodotus and Thucydides
at its very outset. Only Momigliano, moreover, experienced fully the conventional,
if dubiously beneficial, philological training of the typical classical historian.

NEW VARIETIES OF HISTORY: PROGRESS OR CHANGE?

To the ancient Greeks and Romans what was old, traditional, and ancestral was in
principle good, what was new, the reverse: hence, Greek neoterismos

3 Momigliano: see Chapter 2, n. 5; cf. Finley 1986a. Finley: 1985; cf. 1981. Ste. Croix: 1975; 1981;
cf. Cartledge and Harvey 1985.

4
 INTRODUCTION

('innovationism') or neotera pragmata ('newer transactions') meant revolution in an

unwelcome negative sense, and precisely the same went for the Romans' res novae
('new things') (Finley 1986b). Of course, the Greeks and Romans did actually and
inevitably innovate almost all the time, not least in historiography, which had after
all to be invented and was so - for the Greeks - by Herodotus (fl. c.450 BCE), and
- for the Romans some two and a half centuries later - by Fabius Pictor (though
he wrote in Greek, the then culturally fashionable literary language). But
Thucydides' reception of Herodotus set the dominant tone and mode: one might
legitimately hope to improve on the manner of one's predecessor or predecessors,
but not usually his or their matter. The prescribed limit of wholly acceptable
novelty was to find a subject not treated historically hitherto, namely the major
event or events of one's own lifetime, and it was then sometimes - but not always -
thought to be an advantage for the historian to have been an eventmaker rather than
a mere observer. 'New' historiography in the sense of radically innovatory kinds of
writing about the past was almost by definition considered bad or worse
historiography.4
To us, in the sharpest possible contrast, new is cool, the newer is the better. That
in itself is a revolution (in a positive sense). Since the 1960s wave upon wave of
supposedly new histories have beaten against the supposedly hidebound bastions of
traditional historiography - the traditions attacked having typically been invented
in the later Victorian era of positivism and scientism, intellectually speaking, and of
macho drum-and-trumpet activism, pragmatically speaking. There is, though, an
element of caricatural rhetoric in the representation of both sides of this opposition:
the post-Victorian traditions were not quite as one-dimensional as they have been
painted, the new traditions (though that word was of course avoided like the
plague) not quite as unprecedented as their proponents and exponents have liked to
pretend. Yet there is also an element of truth, in the sense of correspondence to the
facts, in the claims of the New. After about 1960 History did seriously and
irrevocably begin to decompose into a plethora of smaller histories (social,
economic, religious, intellectual, cultural, women's and so forth), narrative history
of events (meaning typically large-scale public events of politics, diplomacy and
war) did cede pole position to analytical accounts of deep structures and spatio-
temporal conjunctures, and new -isms (especially feminism, comparativism and
constructionism) have joined the older empiricist and Marxist tendencies. (Rabb
and Rotberg 1982; Hunt 1989; Burke 1991; see also n. 5).
Indeed, the pace of change has been such that the fashion for social and economic
history (e.g. history from the bottom up, attempting to restore a voice to the
voiceless, whether they be earth-coloured rustics or other literally as well as
metaphorically enslaved and silenced majorities) was quite quickly succeeded by a
still apparent rage for cultural and intellectual history, and innovative modes such as

4 Excellent bibliographies on the ancient historians, and the modern study thereof, in Momigliano
1980: 150-3; 1981a: 182-4; 1982; 1990. On the Greek historians see also Canfora 1985, further
references in Chapter 2, n. 2. On the Roman historians, see further Chapter 3.

5
 BEGINNINGS - EAST AND WEST

the women's history of the 1960s and 1970s have been fairly rapidly subsumed or
superseded by even newer ones such as the gender/sexuality studies of the 1980s
and 1990s (Scott 1988; Abelove et at. 1994). Worse still, from the point of view of
conservatives, self-styled 'progressive' historiography, most noticeably in its
postmodernist or New Historicist forms, not only has abandoned even the weakest
versions of the nineteenth-century positivist claim that history was a science, no
more and no less, but has even questioned the sacred notion of historical truth, in
the name either of a rhetoric of discourse or of an ethical and/or cultural relativism. 5
Of all this ferment the ancient world's accredited historians were blissfully
innocent and ignorant. After Herodotus, the father not only of history for the
Greeks but also of what some moderns might approve as having a more than passing
resemblance to Annates-style total history, political history - sometimes enlarged by
consideration of social, economic, intellectual and cultural factors, but more usually
not - ruled the ancient roost more or less unchallenged. A moral point of view was
not to be hidden behind the mask of faceless objectivity but rather, at least in the
Roman case, proclaimed as the historian's ultimate task. Rhetoric, so far from being
shunned as a shameful distortion or disguise, was praised and pursued as the
necessary adornment of an essentially literary genre. Above all, history was regularly
touted as useful, not merely diverting, and centrally important, a proper study for
the ancient world's movers and shakers to whom it was mostly directed. 6

THE NEW ANCIENT HISTORY AND THE OLD

Modern historians of antiquity find themselves for the most part in a very different
situation, addressing small, socially unrepresentative readerships whose hands are
far removed from the levers of power. Classics, once thought just the thing for
aspiring nineteenth-century imperial administrators, now must not only run the
gauntlet of non-academic debunkers without but also face the friendly fire of canon-
debunkers within. Orientalists in the old and supposedly harmless descriptive sense
now find themselves accused of orientalism in its new, unambiguously charmless
signification. In response, some defenders of the old faith rather petulantly ask why
we should study the Greeks and the Romans in particular if not as our admirable
and imitable cultural ancestors and models. But others more open-mindedly and
more boldly take the attacks on the chin, investigating historiographically how and
why it was that such phrases as the Glory that Was Greece and the Grandeur that
was Rome could ever have attained such general currency. The relativists and
anthropologizers among them, moreover, rather than merely knocking the Greeks
and Romans off their factitious paradigmatic pinnacle, seek to account for their
undoubtedly inspired as well as inspirational cultural achievements through the

5 Appleby et at. 1994; Appleby et at. 1996; Veeser 1989; Veeser 1994. Broadly under the sign of the
new historicism is Hartog 1988. Ankersmit and Kellner 1995 in fact reviews various such 'philosophies'.
6 De Romilly 1958, with discussion on pp. 67-81. Audiences of historians in antiquity: Momigliano
1978.

6
 INTRODUCTION

medium of a more inclusive historiography than the ancients themselves could have
countenanced. 7
It is precisely in this context that the ancient historians themselves have come
under renewed critical scrutiny. Fathers of history and truth - or Fathers of lies,
fiction, and rhetoric? Such has been the emphasis on what for want of a better word
might be called the ancient historians' inventiveness that one leading student of
Greece has recently felt obliged to mount a 'defence of the Greek historians'; it is a
fair index of the nature and success of the attack that the burden of his defence is that
they 'were not so unlike modem historians that we cannot read them as historians at
all'.8 It would be harder, as Michael Comber's chapter (3) shows, though not perhaps
quite impossible, to construct such a defence of the Roman historians, since they
were quite up front about the desirability, indeed necessity, for authorial pleading.
Not even the rhetoric of impersonal objectivity (cf. Novick 1988) was deployed.
Tacitus's famous prefatory sine ira et studio ('without anger and partisanship'), for
example, had the strictly limited self-referential meaning that he himself personally
had no cause to feel resentment or take sides in the subject-matter he had chosen to
narrate - not that he did not feel indignation about the past or attempt vigorously,
and often most subtly, to sway the reader towards one interpretation of it rather than
another.
But if the manner of the ancient historians is controversial, their relative
narrowness of scope is not. The sorts of agenda that a historian of antiquity
influenced by recent turns in historiography more generally might wish to espouse
simply could not begin to be addressed, if the ancient historians were all we had left
to go on. 9 Consider, for example, religious history, the subject of Chapter 4. The
ancients differed considerably in the amount of interest they took in and importance
they allowed to religious phenomena, Thucydides occupying one end of the
spectrum, that of almost complete denial, Livy the other. But not even Livy gives
us nearly enough to begin to write a decent history of, say, religious change in the
Late Republic and early Empire, roughly the last couple of centuries BCE and the
first two CEo For that we must tum to archaeology, epigraphy and non-historical
literary sources, complemented or informed by liberal applications of modem
theory derived from comparative sociology and social anthropology.

THE BLACK ATHENA DEBATE: IS EAST EAST AND WEST WEST?

The liveliest current debate within ancient historiography, which is also the most
embittered, and - worryingly - the one with the most potential practical relevance,

7 A subtextual reading of Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon is offered in Cartledge 1993.

8 Useful perspectives in Woodman 1988; Gill and Wiseman 1993; cf. Cartledge 1995. Quotation
from Rhodes 1994: 169.
9 Compare and contrast Davies 1975 (recommending thirteen themes, area studies and approaches,
none of which could be studied or taught chiefly let alone exclusively from the ancient literary
historians) with the rejoinder by Brunt 1976.

7
 BEGINNINGS - EAST AND WEST

concerns Martin Bernal's 'Black Athena' project. 10 Briefly, Bernal is a professor of

Chinese government studies and not a specialist historian, let alone a historian of
classical antiquity. He has nevertheless devoted two major tomes (so far) and a
number of ancillary studies to charging the dominant tendency within ancient
Greek historiography since the mid-eighteenth century (Roman history and
historiography are largely spared) with what he regards as a lethal combination of
anti-black racism and anti-semitism. As a result, credit has not been given where the
credit is in Bernal's opinion due for the original creation of the Western tradition of
culture and civilization: namely, in the first place to Africa, and more particularly to
Egypt (the relevant Egyptians were for him in some useful sense 'black', if not
necessarily negroid), and secondarily to Phoenicia (the Phoenicians were a Semitic
people). And this despite the classical Greeks' own willingness to acknowledge that
it was from those countries and peoples that they had taken over many of their most
basic cultural tools and ideas lock, stock and barrel.
The contemporary political immediacy of this debate stems from the circumstance
that Bernal's general thesis, both as an exercise in intellectual-social historiography and
as a positive reconstruction of how it supposedly was, has been adopted as ammuni-
tion, in very simplified and often distorted forms, by promoters of various versions of
Afrocentrism on and off American campuses. Uews have been noticeably less keen to
embrace Bernal's supposed recuperation of Phoenician influence on Greece.) Scholars,
including prominent classicists, have taken reasoned and reasonable issue with Bernal,
on points of both method and fact. One of the most prominent, Mary Lefkowitz, has
gone to the lengths of publishing a book defiantly entitled Not Out ofAfrica directed
not only or primarily at Bernal but at the more detectably outrageous variants of a
recognizably Bernalian line on the ultimate ancestry of Western civilization
(Lefkowitz 1995; Lefkowitz and Rogers 1996; cf. Levine 1989).
As in the recent German Historikerstreit over the responsibility of Germany or
Germans for Nazism and more especially the Holocaust, we have here another sadly
spectacular illustration of Benedetto Croce's dictum that all histor(iograph)y is
present histor(iograph)y. Inevitably, as Julia Smith has put it below, 'in one way or
another, all history is always ideological, relative and zeitbedingt'. Sometimes,
indeed, as I have myself attempted to show here, conscious or subconscious
definition of the group addressed in ideological terms can be an important or even
the major goal of historiography. Such public and heated debates as that concerning
'Black Athena' are not perhaps entirely deleterious to the historical profession, in so
far as they may foster a necessary self-reflexivity and send us back chastened to re-
examine our intellectual and methodological roots and conceptual presuppositions.
But they do little, on the other hand, to enhance History's positive reception and
perception by wider society, and they do nothing to support claims that 'progress'
in historiography is a measurably attainable goal. 11

10 Bernal 1987 - 91. Further references and discussion Cartledge 1997.

11 Note the inverted commas of Finley 1977, of which the first chapter of Finley 1985 is a slightly
revised extract.

8
 INTRODUCTION

REFERENCES
Abelove, H. et al. (eds) (1994) The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, New York and
London.
Ankersmit, F. and Kellner, H. (eds) (1995) A New Philosophy ofHistory, London.
Appleby, J., Hunt, L. and Jacob, M. (1994) Telling the Truth about History, New York.
~~ et al. (eds) (1996) Knowledge and Postmodernism in Historical Perspective. A Reader from
1700 to the Present, London and New York.
Bernal, M. (1987 - 91) Black Athena. The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, 2 vols (to
date), London and New Brunswick, NJ.
Brunt, P. A. (1976) 'What is ancient history about?', Didaskalos 5.2: 236-49.
Burke, P. (ed.) (1991) New Perspectives on Historical Writing, Cambridge.
Canfora, L. (1985) 'Gli storici greci', in L. Firpo (ed.) Storie delle idee politiche e socia Ii. I.
L'antichita classica, Turin.
Cartledge, P. (1993) The Greeks. A Portrait ofSelf and Others, Oxford.
- - (1995) 'Vindicating Gibbon's good faith', Hermathena 158: 133-47.
~~ (1997) 'Classics: from discipline in crisis to (multi)cultural capital', in Y. L. Too and
N. Livingstone (eds), Pedagogy and Power: Rhetorics ofAncient Learning, Cambridge.
- - and Harvey, D. (eds) (1985) CRUX. Essays in Greek History Presented to G. E. M. de
Ste. Croix on his 75th Birthday, Exeter and London.
Davies, J. K. (1975) 'New ways of teaching ancient history', Didaskalos 5.1: 75-89.
Finley, M. I. (1977) '''Progress'' in historiography', Daedalus 106: 125-42.
~~ (1981) Economy and Society in Ancient Greece, ed. B. Shaw and R. Saller, London.
~~ (1985) Ancient History: Evidence and Models, London.
~~ (1986a) 'The historical tradition: the Contributi of Arnaldo Momigliano', in The Use
and Abuse ofHistory, 2nd edn, London.
~~ (1986b) 'Revolution in antiquity', in Porter, R. and Teich, M. (eds), Revolution in
History, Cambridge.
Gill, C. and Wiseman, T. P. (eds) (1993) Lies and Fiction in the Ancient World, Exeter.
Hartog, F. (1988) The Mirror of Herodotus. The Representation of the Other in the Writing of
History, Berkeley.
Hunt, L. (ed.) (1989) The New Cultural History, Berkeley.
Lefkowitz, M. R. (1995) Not Out of Africa: How Afrocentrism became an Excuse to Teach
Myth as History, New York.
- - and Rogers, G. M. (eds) (1996) Black Athena Revisited, Durham, NC.
Levine, M. M. (ed.) (1989) The Challenge o/,Black Athena' (Arethusa special issue).
Momigliano, A. D. (1978) 'The historians of the classical world and their audiences', Annali
della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, 3rd ser., 8: 59-75.
~~ (1980) 'Ancient historiography in modem historiography', in W. Den Boer (ed.) Les
Etudes classiques aux XIXe et XXe siecles: leur place dans l'histoire des idees (Entretiens
Hardt 26), Vandoeuvres-Geneva.
- - (1981a) 'History and biography', in M. I. Finley (ed.) The Legacy of Greece: A New
Appraisal, Oxford.
~~ (1981b) 'The rhetoric of history and the history of rhetoric: on Hayden White's
tropes', in E. S. Shaffer (ed.) Comparative Criticism: A Yearbook vol. 3, Cambridge.
~~ (1982) 'The origins of universal history', Annali della Scuola N ormale Superiore di Pisa,
3rd ser., 12: 556-60.
- - (1990) The Classical Foundations ofModern Historiography, Berkeley.
Novick, P. (1988) That Noble Dream, The 'Objectivity Question' and the American Historical
Profession, Cambridge.
Rabb, T. and Rotberg, T. (eds) (1982) The New History: The I980s and Beyond. Studies in
Interdisciplinary History, Princeton.

9
 BEGINNINGS - EAST AND WEST

Rhodes, P. J. (1994) 'In defence of the Greek historians', Greece f5 Rome 41.2 (October):
156-71.
Romilly, J. de (1958) 'L'utilite de l'histoire selon Thucydide', in O. Reverdin (ed.) Histoire
et historiens dans l'antiquiti (Entretiens Hardt 4), Vandoeuvres-Geneva.
Ste Croix, G. de (1975) 'Karl Marx and the history of classical antiquity', Arethusa 8: 7-41.
- - (1981; corr. impr. 1983) The Class Struggle in Ancient Greece, London.
Scott, J. W. (1988) Gender in History, New York.
Veeser, H. A. (ed.) (1989) The New Historicism, London and New York.
- - (ed.) (1994) The New Historicism Reader, London and New York.
White, H. (1973) Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-century Europe,
Baltimore.
Woodman, A. (1988) Rhetoric in Classical Historiography, London and New York.

10
Introduction
Abelove, H. et al. (eds) (1994) The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader , New York and London.
Ankersmit, F. and Kellner, H. (eds) (1995) A New Philosophy of History , London.
Appleby, J. , Hunt, L. and Jacob, M. (1994) Telling the Truth about History , New York.
Appleby, J. , Hunt, L. and Jacob, M. et al. (eds) (1996) Knowledge and Postmodernism in
Historical Perspective. A Reader from 1700 to the Present , London and New York.
Bernal, M. (1987–91) Black Athena. The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization , 2 vols (to
date), London and New Brunswick, NJ.
Brunt, P. A. (1976) ‘What is ancient history about?’, Didaskalos 5.2: 236–249.
Burke, P. (ed.) (1991) New Perspectives on Historical Writing , Cambridge.
Canfora, L. (1985) ‘Gli storici greci’, in L. Firpo (ed.) Storie delle idee politiche e sociali. I.
L'antichità classica, Turin.
Cartledge, P. (1993) The Greeks. A Portrait of Self and Others , Oxford.
Cartledge, P. (1995) ‘Vindicating Gibbon's good faith’, Hermathena 158: 133–147.
Cartledge, P. (1997) ‘Classics: from discipline in crisis to (multi)cultural capital’, in Y. L. Too and
N. Livingstone (eds), Pedagogy and Power: Rhetorics of Ancient Learning , Cambridge.
Cartledge, P. and Harvey, D. (eds) (1985) CRUX. Essays in Greek History Presented to G. E.
M. de Ste. Croix on his 75th Birthday , Exeter and London.
Davies, J. K. (1975) ‘New ways of teaching ancient history’, Didaskalos 5.1: 75–89.
Finley, M. I. (1977) ‘“Progress” in historiography’, Daedalus 106: 125–142.
Finley, M. I. (1981) Economy and Society in Ancient Greece , ed. B. Shaw and R. Sailer ,
London.
Finley, M. I. (1985) Ancient History: Evidence and Models , London.
Finley, M. I. (1986a) ‘The historical tradition: the Contributi of Arnaldo Momigliano’, in The Use
and Abuse of History , 2nd edn, London.
Finley, M. I. (1986b) ‘Revolution in antiquity’, in Porter, R. and Teich, M. (eds), Revolution in
History , Cambridge.
Gill, C. and Wiseman, T. P. (eds) (1993) Lies and Fiction in the Ancient World , Exeter.
Hartog, F. (1988) The Mirror of Herodotus. The Representation of the Other in the Writing of
History , Berkeley.
Hunt, L. (ed.) (1989) The New Cultural History , Berkeley.
Lefkowitz, M. R. (1995) Not Out of Africa: How Afrocentrism became an Excuse to Teach Myth
as History , New York.
Lefkowitz, M. R. and Rogers, G. M. (eds) (1996) Black Athena Revisited , Durham, NC.
Levine, M. M. (ed.) (1989) The Challenge of ‘Black Athena’ (Arethusa special issue).
Momigliano, A. D. (1978) ‘The historians of the classical world and their audiences’, Annali della
Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa , 3rd ser., 8: 59–75.
Momigliano, A. D. (1980) ‘Ancient historiography in modern historiography’, in W. Den Boer
(ed.) Les Études classiques aux XIXe et XXe siècles: leur place dans l'histoire des idées
(Entretiens Hardt 26), Vandoeuvres-Geneva.
Momigliano, A. D. (1981a) ‘History and biography’, in M. I. Finley (ed.) The Legacy of Greece: A
New Appraisal , Oxford.
Momigliano, A. D. (1981b) ‘The rhetoric of history and the history of rhetoric: on Hayden White's
tropes’, in E. S. Shaffer (ed.) Comparative Criticism: A Yearbook vol. 3, Cambridge.
Momigliano, A. D. (1982) ‘The origins of universal history’, Annali della Scuola Normale
Superiore di Pisa , 3rd ser., 12: 556–560.
Momigliano, A. D. (1990) The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography , Berkeley.
Novick, P. (1988) That Noble Dream, The ‘Objectivity Question’ and the American Historical
Profession , Cambridge.
Rabb, T. and Rotberg, T. (eds) (1982) The New History: The 1980s and Beyond. Studies in
Interdisciplinary History , Princeton.
Rhodes, P. J. (1994) ‘In defence of the Greek historians’, Greece & Rome 41.2 (October):
156–171.
Romilly, J. de (1958) ‘L'utilité de l'histoire selon Thucydide’, in O. Reverdin (ed.) Histoire et
historiens dans Vantiquitè (Entretiens Hardt 4), Vandoeuvres-Geneva.
Ste Croix, G. de (1975) ‘Karl Marx and the history of classical antiquity’, Arethusa 8: 7–41.
Ste Croix, G. de (1981; corr. impr. 1983) The Class Struggle in Ancient Greece , London.
Scott, J. W. (1988) Gender in History , New York.
Veeser, H. A. (ed.) (1989) The New Historicism , London and New York.
Veeser, H. A. (ed.) (1994) The New Historicism Reader , London and New York.
White, H. (1973) Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-century Europe ,
Baltimore.
Woodman, A. (1988) Rhetoric in Classical Historiography , London and New York.

The Evolution of Two Asian Historiographical Traditions

Beasley, W. G. and Pulleyblank, E. G. (eds) (1961) Historians of China and Japan , London.
Cook, M. A. (1992) ‘Eschatology and the dating of traditions’, Princeton Papers in Near Eastern
Studies 1: 23–47.
Cornford, F. M. (1908) Microcosmographia Academica , Cambridge.
Dawson, R. (tr.) (1994) Sima Qian: Historical Records , Oxford.
Dunlop, D. M. (1971) Arab Civilization to A.D. 1500 , London and Beirut.
Guillaume, A. (tr.) (1955) Ibn Ishaq: The Life of Muhammad , London.
Hawting, G. R. (1988) ‘Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir’, in J. Cannon et al. (eds) The Blackwell
Dictionary of Historians , Oxford.
Khalidi, T. (1994) Arabic Historical Thought in the Classical Period , Cambridge.
Raychaudhuri, T. (1988) ‘Indian historiography’, in J. Cannon et al. (eds) The Blackwell
Dictionary of Historians , Oxford.
Schacht, J. (1950) The Origins of Muhamnedan Jurisprudence , Oxford.
The first point of reference should be a series of substantial volumes, ‘Historical Writing on the
Peoples of Asia’, which arose from study conferences held at the School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London, in 1956–8. Of particular relevance to this essay are B. Lewis and
P. M. Holt (eds) Historians of the Middle East (London, 1962) and W. G. Beasley and E. G.
Pulleyblank (eds) Historians of China and Japan (London, 1961). The series also includes C. H.
Philips (ed.), Historians of India, Pakistan and Ceylon (London, 1961) and D. G. E. Hall (ed.),
Historians of South East Asia (London, 1961). Much of the material in these volumes is now
inevitably out of date, but nothing has since been attempted on a remotely comparable scale.
A much shorter but slightly less out-of-date survey is D. Sinor (ed.), Orientalism and History,
2nd edn (Bloomington and London, 1970). This contains essays on Islam by B. Lewis and on
China by E. G. Pulleyblank. It should be noted that the title of this book dates from before the
time when the word ‘Orientalism’ regrettably acquired a pejorative sense. Useful short articles
on both Islamic and Chinese historiography, by R. G. Irwin and T. H. Barrett respectively, may
be found in J. Cannon, R. H. C. Davis, W. Doyle and J. P. Greene (eds), The Blackwell
Dictionary of Historians (Oxford, 1988). Individual Chinese historians are conspicuous by their
total absence from that work of reference; the Islamic world fares very slightly better, being
represented by Tabari (G. R. Hawting), Ibn Khaldun and Rashid al-Din (D. O. Morgan).
On Islamic historiography, a well-established work of reference is F. Rosenthal, A History of
Muslim Historiography (Leiden, 1952), but though massive this is much more limited in its scope
than its title suggests. There is valuable material in C. Cahen, Jean Sauvagets Introduction to
the History of the Muslim East (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1965), and in R. S. Humphreys,
Islamic History: a Framework for Inquiry, revised edn. (Princeton and London, 1991). A learned
discussion of the early period, from a conservative point of view, is A. A. Duri, The Rise of
Historical Writing among the Arabs (Princeton, 1983). The most recent more general treatment,
an interesting and lucid book containing many translated extracts, is T. Khalidi, Arabic Historical
Thought in the Classical Period (Cambridge, 1994). He is also the author of Islamic
Historiography: The Histories of Mas‘udi (Albany, 1975); on the same historian see A. Shboul,
Al-Mas‘udi and his World (London, 1979). Ibn Khaldun has attracted a good deal of attention:
one of the best studies is M. Mahdi, Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History (London, 1957). D. O.
Morgan (ed.), Medieval Historical Writing in the Christian and Islamic Worlds (London, 1982),
contains studies of, among others, Baybars' biographers (P. M. Holt), Ibn al-Athir (D. S.
Richards) and some of the Persian historians of the Mongol period (D. O. Morgan). An
outstanding study of another individual historian, from a later period, is C. L. Fleischer,
Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa Ali (1541–1600)
(Princeton, 1986). A short older survey which has been influential is H. A. R. Gibb, ‘Tarikh’,
originally an article in the first edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, reprinted in his Studies on
the Civilization of Islam (London, 1962), pp. 108–37. There is much of interest in D. M. Dunlop,
Arab Civilization to a.d. 1500 (London and Beirut, 1971), ch. 3, ‘History and historians’.
For China, there is a detailed examination of official history in D. C. Twitchett, The Writing of
Official History under the Tang (Cambridge, 1993). An older survey is C. S. Gardner, Chinese
Traditional Historiography (1938; 2nd amended printing, Cambridge, MA, 1961). E. G.
Pulleyblank, ‘The historiographical tradition’, in R. Dawson (ed.), The Legacy of China (Oxford,
1964), pp. 143–64, is very useful, as is an English version of an essay that appears in French in
Historians of China and Japan: E. Balazs, ‘History as a guide to bureaucratic practice’, in his
Chinese Civilization and Bureaucracy, ed A. F. Wright (New Haven and London, 1964), pp.
129–49. Of individual historians, Ssu-ma Ch'ien is the subject of B. Watson, Ssu-ma Ch'ien:
Grand Historian of China (New York, 1958). Considerable parts of his work have been
translated into English, notably by Watson; but for a flavour of it see the World's Classics
selection, Sima Qian [Ssu-ma Ch'ien in Piny in romanization], Historical Records, tr. R. Dawson
(Oxford, 1994). For an example of the intractability to the non-specialist of much of the contents
of the official dynastic histories, see H. F. Schurmann (tr.), Economic Structure of the Yuan
Dynasty (Cambridge, MA, 1956).

Historiography and Ancient Greek Self-Definition

1
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Re-Reading the Roman Historians

Albrecht, M. von (1979) Masters of Roman Prose . (English translation 1989, Trowbridge,
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The Religion of Rome from Monarchy to Principate

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Late Antiquity and the Early Medieval West

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1
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Windelband, W. (1894) Geschichte und Naturwissenschaft , Strasbourg.
Winkel, H. (1977) Die deutsche Nationalökonomie im 19. Jahrhundert , Darmstadt.
Winter, E. J. (1961) August Ludwig v. Schlözer und Russland , Berlin.
Wolin, R. (1992) The Terms of Cultural Criticism: The Frankfurt School, Existentialism,
Poststructuralism , New York.
Wrigley, E. A. (1987) People, Cities and Wealth: The Transformation of Traditional Society ,
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Wrigley, E. A. (1988) Continuity, Chance and Change: The Character of the Industrial
Revolution in England , Cambridge.
Wrigley, E. A. and Schofield, R. S. (1989) The Population History of England 1541–1871 ,
Cambridge.
Wücher, A. (1956) Theodor Mommsen. Geschichtsschreibung und Politik , Göttingen.
Yovel, Y. (1980) Kant and the Philosophy of History , Princeton.

The Historiography of the French Revolution

Aulard, A. (1901) Histoirepolitique de la révolution française , Paris.
Baker, K. M. (1981) ‘Enlightenment and Révolution’, Journal of Modern History : 297ff.
Baker, K. and Lucas, C. (eds) (1987–90) The French Révolution and the Creation of Modern
Political Culture , 3 vols, London.
Chartier, R. (1991) Les Origines culturelles de la révolution française , Paris.
Cobb, R. (1970) The Police and the People: French Popular Protest, 1789–1820 , Oxford.
Cobban, A. (1955) The Myth of the French Revolution , London.
Cobban, A. (1984) Le Sens de la révolution française , Paris.
Cochin, G. (1979) De l' esprit du jacobinisme: une interprétation sociologique de la Révolution
Française , Paris.
Darnton, R. (1968) Mesmerism and the End of Enlightenment in France , Cambridge.
Doyle, W. (1980) Origins of the French Revolution , Oxford.
Dupuy, R. (1988) De la Révolution à la Chouannerie: Paysans en Bretagne 1788–1794 , Paris.
Furet, F. (1978) Penser la Révolution Française , Paris.
Furet, F. and Ozouf, M. (eds) (1989) Dictionnaire critique de la Révolution Française , Paris.
Furet, F. and Richet, D. (1973) La Révolution Française , Paris.
Gaxotte, P. (1988) La Révolution française , Paris.
Godechot, J. (1965) Les Révolutions (1770–1799) , Paris.
Hobsbawm, E. (1969) L'Era des révolutions , Paris.
Hunt, L. (1984) Culture and Class in the French Revolution , Berkeley.
Jaurès, J. (1968–73) Histoire socialiste de la Révolution Française , 7 vols, Paris.
Jones, P. M. (1985) Politics and Rural Society: The Southern Massif Center: 1750–1880 ,
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Jones, P. M. (1996) The French Revolution in Social and Political Perspective , London.
Kaplan, S. L. (1993) Adieu 1989 , Paris.
Labrousse, E. (1933) Esquisse du mouvement des prix et des revenus en France au 18ième
siècle , 2 vols, Paris.
Labrousse, E. (1953) Le XVIIIième siècle (1715–1815) , Paris.
Lamartine, A. M. L. (1847) Histoire des Girondins , Paris.
Latreille, A. (1946–50) L'Église catholique et la Révolution Française , 2 vols, Paris.
Lefebvre, G. (1951) La Révolution Française , Paris.
Lucas, C. (1973) ‘Nobles, bourgeois and the origins of the French Revolution’, Past and Present
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Martin, J. C. (1987) La Vendée et la France , Paris.
Mathiez, A. (1934–40) La Révolution Française , 3 vols, Paris.
Michelet, J. (1952) Histoire de la Révolution Française , 2 vols, Paris.
Palmer, R. (1964) The Age of the Democratic Revolution .
Pocock, J. G. A. (1985) Virtue, Commerce and History , Cambridge.
Quinet, E. (1866) La Révolution , Paris.
Rudé, G. (1959) The Crowd in the French Revolution , Oxford.
Schama, S. (1989) Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution , London.
Soboul, A. (1970–83) La Civilisation et la Révolution Française , 3 vols, Paris.
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Sorel, A. (1885–1901) L'Europe et la Révolution Française , 8 vols, Paris.
Sutherland, D.M.G. (1985) France, 1789–1815: Revolution and Counter-Revolution , London.
Tackett, T. (1986) Religion, Revolution, and Regional Culture in Eighteenth-Century France:
The Ecclesiastical Oath of 1791 , Princeton.
Taine, H. (1896) Les Origines de la France contemporaine , 2 vols, Paris.
Taylor, G. V. (1967) ‘Non-capitalist wealth and the origins of the French Revolution’, American
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Tocqueville, A. de (1952–3) L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution , 2 vols, Paris.
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Woloch, I. (1996) The New Regime: Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789–1820 ,
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The Soviet Revolution

Acton, E. (1991) Rethinking the Russian Revolution , Sevenoaks.
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Dubrovskii, S. M. (1963) Stolypinskaya zemel'naya reforma , Moscow.
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Haimson, L. (1964—5) ‘The problem of social stability in urban Russia, 1905–1917’, Slavic
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Harcave, S. (1965) First Blood. The Russian Revolution of 1905 , London.
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Nineteenth Century , New Brunswick.
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Laue, T. H. von (1963) Sergei Witte and the Industrialisation of Russia , New York.
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Tucker, R. (1990) Stalin in Power. The Revolution from Above, 1928–41 , London and New
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Policy , London.

The Historiography of National Socialism

Abraham, D. [1981] (1986) The Collapse of the Weimar Republic , 2nd rev. edn, New York.
Abraham, D. (1984) ‘Debate: David Abraham's The Collapse of the Weimar Republic’, Central
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The Critique Of Orientalism

1
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Nathan, A.J. (1993) ‘Is Chinese culture distinctive? — a review article’, Journal of Asian Studies
52 (November): 923–936.
Ng, V. (1987) ‘Ideology and sexuality: rape laws in Qing China’, Journal of Asian Studies 46
(Feb.): 57–70.
Ng, V. (1990) Madness in Late Imperial China: From Illness to Deviance , Norman, OK.
Ng, V. (1994) ‘Sexual abuse of daughters-in-law in Qing China: cases from the Xing'an huilan ’,
Feminist Studies 20: 373–391.
O'Leary, B. (1989) The Asiatic Mode of Production: Oriental Despotism, Historical Materialism,
and Indian History , Oxford.
Ono, K. (1989) Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution, 1850–1950 , ed. J. A. Fogel ,
Stanford.
Perdue P. C. (1987) Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan, 1500–1850 ,
Cambridge, MA.
Peyrefitte, A. et al. (1922) The Immobile Empire , New York.
Polachek, J. M. (1992) The Inner Opium War , Cambridge, MA.
Rankin, M. B. (1986) Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province,
1865–1911 , Stanford.
Rawski, E. S. (1972) Agricultural Change and the Peasant Economy of South China ,
Cambridge, MA.
Rawski, E. S. (1991) ‘Research themes in Ming—Qing socioeconomic history — the state of the
field’, Journal of Asian Studies 50 (February): 84–111.
Rawski, T. G. (1989) Economic Growth in Prewar China , Berkeley.
Rawski, T. G. and Li, L. M. (eds) (1992) Chinese History in Economic Perspectives , Berkeley.
Roberts, M. (1971) ‘The structure and direction of contemporary China studies’, Bulletin of
Concerned Asian Scholars 3 (3–4) (Summer-Fall).
Rowe, W. T. (1984) Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796–1889 , Stanford.
Rowe, W. T. (1989) Hankow: Conflict and Community in a Chinese City, 1796–1895 , Stanford.
Said, E. (1978) Orientalism , New York.
Said, E. (1993) Culture and Imperialism , New York.
Said, E. (1995) ‘East isn't East: the impending end of orientalism’, Times Literary Supplement
4792 (3 February): 3–6.
Sawer, M. (1977) Marxism and the Question of the Asiatic Mode of Production , The Hague.
Schoppa, R. K. (1982) Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early
Twentieth Century , Cambridge, MA.
Schwartz, B. (1951) Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao , Cambridge, MA.
Shulman, F. (1978) Doctoral Dissertations on China 1971 — 1975: A Bibliography in Western
Languages , Seattle.
Skinner, G. W. (1964–5) ‘Marketing and social structure in rural China’, Journal of Asian Studies
24: 3–43.
Skinner, G. W. (1985a) ‘Presidential address: the structure of Chinese history’, Journal of Asian
Studies 44 (February): 271–292.
Skinner, G. W. (1985b) ‘Rural marketing in China: repression and revival’, China Quarterly 103
(September): 393–413.
Spence, J. (1966) Ts'ao Yin and the K'ang-hsi Emperor; Bondservant and Master , New Haven,
CT.
Spence, J. (1978) The Death of Woman Wang , New York.
Spence, J. (1984) The Memory Palace of Mattee Ricci , New York.
Spence, J. (1988) The Question of Hu , New York.
Stacey, J. (1983) Patriarchy and Socialist Revolution in China , Berkeley.
Strand, D. (1989) Rickshaw Beijing: City, People and Politics in the 1920s , Berkeley.
Tan, C. (1978) China and the Brave New World: A Study of the Origins of the Opium War
(1840–42) , Durham, NC.
Tao, W-Z. (1992) ‘John King Fairbank and Sino-US relations’, Beijing Review 35 (25 May):
33–35.
Têng, S-Y. (1971) The Taiping Rebellion and the Western Powers: A Comprehensive Survey ,
Oxford.
Têng, S-Y. and Fairbank, J. K. (eds) [1954] (1963) Chinas Response to the West: A
Documentary Survey 1839–1923 , Cambridge, MA.
Têng, S-Y. and Knight, B. [1950] (1969) An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Chinese
Reference Works , Cambridge, MA.
Torchinov, E. A. (1992) ‘Philosophical studies (Sinology and Indology) in St. Petersburg
(Leningrad), 1945–1990’, Philosophy East and West 42 (April): 327–333.
Tseng, Chi-fen (1993) Testimony of a Confucian Woman: The Autobiography of Mrs. Nie Zeng
Fifen, 1852–1942 , tr. and ed. T. L. Kennedy , Atlanta, GA.
Waley-Cohen, J. (1993) ‘China and Western technology in the late eighteenth century’,
American Historical Review 98 (December): 1525–1544.
Wang, Y-C , (1982) ‘Notes on the sprouts of capitalism’ in Albert Feuerwerker (ed.) Chinese
Economic and Social History from Song to 1800 , Ann Arbor: Unversity Center for Chinese
Studies.
Weller, R. (1994) Resistance, Chaos, and Control in China: Taiping Rebels, Taiwanese Ghosts,
and Tiananmen , Seattle.
Will, P.-E. (1990) Bureaucracy and Famine in Eighteenth-Century China , tr. E. Forster ,
Stanford.
Wittfogel, K. (1957) Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power , New Haven, CT.
Wixted, J. T. (1993) Japanese Scholars of China: A Bibliographical Handbook , Princeton.
Wolf, M. (1984) Revolution Postponed: Women in Contemporary China , Stanford.
Wolf, M. and Witke, R. (eds) (1975) Women in Chinese Society , Stanford.
Wong, R. B. (1991) Nourish the People: The State Civilian Granary System in China ,
1650–1850, Ann Arbor.
Wright, M. C. (ed.) (1968) China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900–1913 , New Haven, CT.
Wright, M. C. (1971) The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The Yung-chih Restoration,
1862–1874 , New York.
Yang, L-S . (1961) ‘Toward a study of dynastic configurations in Chinese history’, in Y. Lien-
Sheng , Studies in Chinese Institutional History , Cambridge, MA.
Young, M. B. (ed.) (1973) Women in China: Studies in Social Change and Feminism , Ann
Arbor.
Zelin, M. (1985) The Magistrates Tale: Rationalizing Fiscal Reform in Eighteenth-Century Ch'ing
, Berkeley.
Zhongguo jindai shi congshu bianxiezu [Compilation Group for the ‘History of Modern China’
Series] (1976) The Taiping Revolution , Peking.
Zito, A. and Barlow, T. E. (eds) (1994) Body, Subject and Power in China , Chicago.

The English-Language Historiography of Modern Japan

1
Akita, G. (1967) Foundations of Constitutional Government in Modern Japan: 1868–1900 ,
Cambridge, MA.
Barnhart, M. A. (1987) Japan Prepares for Total War: The Search for Economic Security,
1919–1941 , Ithaca, NY.
Beasley, W. G. (1972) The Meiji Restoration , Stanford.
Beasley, W. G. (1987) Japanese Imperialism 1894–1945 , Oxford.
Beasley, W. G. (1990) The Rise of Modern Japan , London.
Beckmann, G. M. (1957) The Making of the Meiji Constitution: The Oligarchs and the
Constitutional Development of Japan, 1868–1891 , Lawrence, KS.
Berger, G. M. (1977) Parties out of Power in Japan, 1931–1941 , Princeton.
Bernstein, G. L. (1983) Harukos World: A Japanese Farm Woman and her Community ,
Stanford.
Bix, H. P. (1992) ‘The Showa emperor's “Monologue” and the problem of war responsibility’,
Journal of Japanese Studies 18: 295–363.
Connors, L. (1987) The Emperors Adviser: Saionji Kinmochi and Pre-war Japanese Politics ,
London.
Cook, A. H. and Hayashi, H. (1980) Working Women in Japan , Ithaca, NY.
Craig, A. M. (1961) Choshu in the Meiji Restoration , Cambridge, MA.
Crowley, J. B. (1962) ‘Japanese army factionalism in the early 1930s’, Journal of Asian Studies
21:309–326.
Crowley, J. B. (1966) Japans Questfor Autonomy , Princeton.
Crump, T. (1989) The Death of an Emperor , London.
Cummings, W. K. (1980) Education and Equality in Japan , Princeton.
Cusumano, M. A. (1985) The Japanese Automobile Industry: Technology and Management at
Nissan and Toyota , Cambridge, MA.
Daikichi, I. (1970) Meiji no bunka , Tokyo. (Tr. as The Culture of the Meiji Period, ed. M. B.
Jansen, Princeton.)
Dale, P. N. (1986) The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness , London.
Dore, R. P. (1959) Land Reform In Japan , London.
Dore, R. P. (1965) Education in Tokugawa Japan , Berkeley.
Dore, R. P. (ed.) (1967) Aspects of Social Change in Modern Japan , Princeton.
Dower, J. W. (ed.) (1975) Origins of the Modern Japanese State: Selected Writings of E. H.
Norman , New York.
Drifte, R. (1990) Japans Foreign Policy , London.
Duke, B. (1986) The Japanese School: Lessons for Industrial America , New York.
Duus, P. (1968) Party Rivalry and Political Change in Taisho Japan , Cambridge, MA.
Duus, P. (1976) The Rise of Modern Japan , Boston, MA.
Duus, P. (ed.) (1988) The Cambridge History of Japan, 6: The Twentieth Century , Cambridge.
Duus, P. and Okimoto, D. I. (1979–80) ‘Fascism and the history of pre-war Japan: the failure of
a concept’, Journal of Asian Studies 39.
Duus, P. , Myers, R. H. and Peattie, M. R. (eds) (1989) The Japanese Informal Empire in China,
1895–1937 , Princeton.
Earhart, H. B. (1982) Japanese Religion , 3rd edn, Belmont, CA.
Earl, D. M. (1964) Emperor and Nation in Japan: Political Thinkers of the Tokugawa Period ,
Seattle.
Ellwood, R. and Pilgrim, R. (1985) Japanese Religion , Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Fukui, H. (1970) Party in Power: The Japanese Liberal Democrats and Policy-Making ,
Berkeley.
Gluck, C. (1978–9) ‘The people in history: recent trends in Japanese historiography’, Journal of
Asian Studies 38: 25–50.
Gordon, A. (1985) The Evolution of Labour Relations in Japan: Heavy Industry, 1853–1955 ,
Cambridge, MA.
Hackett, R. F. (1964) ‘The military’ in R. E. Ward and D. A. Rustow (eds) Political Modernization
in Japan and Turkey , Princeton.
Hackett, R. F. (1968) ‘Political modernization and the Meiji genro’, in R. E. Ward (ed.), Political
Development in Modern Japan , Princeton.
Hackett, R. F. (1971) Yamagata Aritomo in the Rise of Modern Japan , Cambridge, MA.
Hall, I. P. (1973) Mori Arinori , Cambridge, MA.
Hall, J. W. (1968) ‘Feudalism in Japan — a reassessment’, in J. W. Hall and M. B. Jansen (eds)
Studies in the Institutional History of Early Modern Japan , Princeton.
Hall, J. W. (1970) Japan from Prehistory to Modern Times , London.
Hane, M. (1982) Peasants, Rebels and Outcasts: The Underside of Modern Japan , New York.
Hane, M. (1983) ‘Agrarian Japan and modernization’, in H. Wray and H. Conroy (eds) Japan
Observed , Honolulu.
Hanley, S. B. and Yamamura, K. (1977) Economic and Demographic Change in Preindustrial
Japan, 1600–1868 , Princeton.
Harootunian, H. D. (1970) Toward Restoration , Berkeley.
Havens, T. R. (1978) Valley of Darkness: The Japanese People and World War II , New York.
Hendry, R.J. (1987) Understanding Japanese Society , Beckenham.
Hirschmeier, J. and Yui, T. (1981) The Development of Japanese Business , London.
Hoston, G. A. (1986) Marxism and the Crisis of Development in Prewar Japan , Princeton.
Huber, T. M. (1981) The Revolutionary Origins of Modern Japan , Stanford.
Hunter, J. L. (1989) The Emergence of Modern Japan , London.
Hunter, J. L. (1990) Review of the Cambridge History of Japan , vols 5 and 6 (1989), Japan
Forum 2: 284–286.
Imamura, A. E. (1987) Urban Japanese Housewives: At Home and in the Community ,
Honolulu.
Jansen, M. B. (ed.) (1965) Changing Japanese Attitudes toward Modernization , Princeton.
Jansen, M. B. (1989) The Cambridge History of Japan, 5: The Nineteenth Century , Cambridge.
Johnson, C. (1982) MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy 1925–1975
, Stanford.
Kahn, H. (1970) The Emerging Japanese Superstate , Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Kawai, K. (1960) Japans American Interlude , Chicago.
Kitagawa, J. M. (1966) Religion in Japanese History , New York.
Koh, B. C. (1989) Japan's Administrative Elite , Berkeley.
Lockwood, W. W. (ed.) (1965) The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan , Princeton.
McCormack, G. and Sugimoto, Y. (1986) Democracy in Contemporary Japan , Armonk, NY.
McMillan, C. J. (1985) The Japanese Industrial System , Berlin and New York.
Masao, M. (1969) Thought and Behaviour in Modern Japanese Politics , expanded edn, ed. I.
Morris , London.
Maxon, Y. C. (1957) Control of Japanese Foreign Policy: A Study of Civil Military Rivalry ,
Berkeley.
Michio, N. and Irrutia, N. (1985) Meiji Ishin: Restoration and Revolution , Tokyo.
Miller, F. O. (1965) Minobe Tatsukichi, Interpreter of Constitutionalism in Japan , Berkeley.
Minami, R. (1986) The Economic Development of Japan: A Quantitative Survey , London.
Morishima, M. (1982) Why has Japan ‘succeeded’? Western Technology and the Japanese
Ethos , Cambridge.
Morley, J. W. (ed.) (1971) Dilemmas of Growth in Prewar Japan , Princeton.
Myers, R. H. and Peattie, M. R. (eds) (1984) The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 ,
Princeton.
Nakamura, T. (1981) The Postwar Japanese Economy: Its Development and Structure , tr. J.
Kaminski, Tokyo.
Nakane, C. (1979) Japanese Society , London.
Nish, I. (1966) The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The Diplomacy of Two Island Empires,
1894–1907 , London.
Nish, I. (1977) Japans Foreign Policy, 1868–1942 , London.
Norman, E. H. (1940) Japans Origins as a Modern State , New York.
Passin, H. (1965) Society and Education in Japan , New York.
Patrick, H. and Rosovsky, H. (eds) (1976) Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy
Works , Washington.
Perren, R. (ed.) (1992) Japanese Studies from Pre-history to 1990: A Bibliographical Guide ,
Manchester.
Pittau, J. (1967) Political Thought in Early Meiji Japan: 1868–1889 , Cambridge, MA.
Quigley, H. S. (1932) Japanese Government and Politics , New York.
Reading, B. (1992) Japan: The Coming Collapse , London.
Roberts, J. G. (1973) Mitsui: Three Centuries of Japanese Business , New York.
Roden, D. J. (1980) Schooldays in Imperial Japan: A Study in the Culture of a Student Elite ,
Berkeley.
Rohlen, T. P. (1983) Japans High Schools , Berkeley.
Saito, S. (1990) Japan at the Summit: Its Role in the Western Alliance and in Asian-Pacific
Cooperation , London.
Scalapino, R. A. (1962) Democracy and the Party Movement in Prewar Japan , Berkeley.
Sheldon, C. D. (1958) The Rise of the Merchant Class in Tokugawa Japan, 1600–1868 , Locust
Valley, NY.
Sheldon, C. D. (1976) ‘Japanese aggression and the Emperor, 1931–1941, from contemporary
diaries’, Modern Asian Studies 10: 1–40.
Sheldon, C. D. (1978) ‘scapegoat or instigator of Japanese aggression? Inouye Kiyoshi's case
against the emperor’, Modern Asian Studies 12: 1–35.
Shillony, B.-A. (1981) Politics and Culture in Wartime Japan , New York.
Shiveley, D. H. (ed.) (1971) Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture , Princeton.
Siemes, J. (1966) Hermann Roesler and the Making of the Meiji State , Tokyo.
Sievers, S. L. (1983) Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Modern
Japan , Stanford.
Silberman, B. S. (1974) ‘The bureaucratic role in Japan, 1900–1945: the bureaucrat as
politician’, in B. S. Silberman and H. D. Harootunian (eds) Japan in Crisis: Essays in Taisho
Democracy , Princeton.
Smethurst, R. J. (1986) Agricultural Development and Tenancy Disputes in Japan, 1870–1940 ,
Princeton.
Smith, R.J. (1983) Japanese Society , Cambridge.
Smith, T. C. (1959) The Agrarian Origins of Modern Japan , Stanford.
Spaulding, R. M. (1971) ‘The bureaucracy as a political force, 1920–1945’, in Morley 1971.
Stockwin, J. A. A. (1982) Japan: Divided Politics in a Growth Economy , 2nd edn, London.
Storry, R. (1957) The Double Patriots , London.
Storry, R. (1982) A History of Modern Japan , rev. edn, London.
Thayer, N. B. (1969) How the Conservatives Rule Japan , Princeton.
Thomsen, H. (1963) The New Religions of Japan , Westport, Conn.
Tiedemann, A. E. (1971) ‘Big business and politics in prewar Japan’, in Morley 1971.
Titus, D. A. (1974) Palace and Politics in Prewar Japan , New York.
Titus, D. A. (1980) ‘The making of the “Symbol Emperor System” in postwar Japan’, Modern
Asian Studies 14: 529–578.
Totman, C. (1980) The Collapse of the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1862–1868 , Honolulu.
Vogel, E. F. (1979) Japan as Number One: Lessons for America , Cambridge, MA.
Ward, R. E. (ed.) (1968) Political Development in Modern Japan , Princeton.
Ward, R. E. (1978) Japans Political System , 2nd edn, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Ward, R. E. and Yoshikazu, S. (eds) (1987) Democratizing Japan: The Allied Occupation ,
Honolulu.
Waswo, A. (1977) Japanese Landlords: The Decline of a Rural Elite , Berkeley.
Webb, H. (1968) The Japanese Imperial Institution in the Tokugawa Period , New York.
Woronoff, J. (1986) The Japan Syndrome: Symptoms, Ailments and Remedies , New
Brunswick.
Wray, H. and Conroy, H. (eds) (1983) Japan Examined , Honolulu.
Yamamura, K. (1971) ‘The increasing poverty of the samurai in Tokugawa Japan, 1600–1868’,
Journal of Economic History 31: 378–406.
Yamamura, K. and Yasuba, Y. (eds) (1987—) The Political Economy of Japan , 3 vols,
Stanford.
Yoshio, S. and Hall, J. W. (1956) ‘The motivation of political leadership in the Meiji Restoration’,
Journal of Asian Studies 16: 31–50.

Modern Indian Historiography

This is not a full bibliographical list, only a sample of relevant works. More comprehensive
bibliographies are provided in the volumes of the New Cambridge History of India, ed. G.
Johnson, Cambridge, 1986- ; see also, C. H. Philips (ed.) Historians of India, Pakistan and
Ceylon, London, 1962, and J. S. Grewal, Muslim Rule in India: The Assessments of British
Historians, Calcutta, 1970. Oxford University Press India's ‘Themes in Indian History’ series, ed.
N. Bhattacharya et al. , also provides bibliographical essays and a sample of important articles.
Bahadur, Mustajab Khan (1821) [‘Gulistan-i-Rehmat’] The Life of Hafeez-ool-Moolk , tr. C. Elliot
, London.
Baksh, M. F. (1889) [‘Tarikh-i Farah Baksh’] Memoirs of Delhi and Faizabad , tr. W. Hoey ,
Allahabad.
Banga, I. (ed.) (1991) The City in Indian History. Urban Demography, Society and Politics ,
Delhi.
Banga, I. (1992) Ports and their Hinterlands 1700–1950 , New Delhi.
Barnett, R. (1980) North India between Empires. Awadh, the Mughals and the British , Berkeley.
Bayly, C. A. (1988) ‘Rallying around the subtaltern’, Journal of Peasant Studies 16(3).
Bayly, S. (1989) Saints, Godesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society
1700–1900 , Cambridge.
Bhattacharjee, G. P. (1971) Evolution of the Political Philosophy of M. N. Roy , Calcutta.
Byres, T. J. and Mukhia, H. (eds) (1985) Feudalism in Non-European Societies , London.
Chakrabarty, D. (1989) Rethinking Working Class History: Bengal 1890–1940 , Princeton.
Chandavarkar, R. (1994) The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India , Cambridge.
Cole, J. R. I. (1988) The Roots of North Indian Shi'ism in Iran and Iraq , Berkeley.
Cunningham, J. (1852) History of the Sikhs , London.
Dutt, R. P. (1940) India Today , London.
Elliot, H. M. [1869] (1958) The History of India Told by its own Historians. The Muhammadan
Period. The Posthumous Papers of Sir H. M. Elliot , Calcutta.
Fisher, M. H. (1987) A Clash of Cultures: Awadh, the British and the Mughals , New Delhi.
Fisher, M. H. (1991) Indirect Rule In India. Residents and the Residency System, 1764–1858 ,
Delhi.
Fisher, M. H. (ed.) (1993) The Politics of British Annexation of India, 1757–1857 , Delhi.
Gooptu, N. (1991) ‘The political culture of the urban poor in U.P., 1920–47’, unpublished Ph.D.
thesis., University of Cambridge.
Guha, Ramchandra (1989) The Unquiet Woods. Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance ,
Delhi.
Guha, Ramchandra and Gadgil, M. (1992) This Fissured Earth , Delhi.
Guha, Ranajit (ed.) (1982) Subaltern Studies , 8 vols., Delhi.
Gupta, H. R. (ed.) (1957) The Life and Letters of Sir Jadunath Sarkar , Hoshiarpur.
Habib, I. (1963) The Agrarian System of Mughal India , Bombay.
Hardy, P. (1960) Historians of Medieval India. Studies in Indo-Muslim Historical Writing ,
London.
Harrison, S. S. (1960) India. The Most Dangerous Decade , Princeton.
Hussain, R. (1971) The Politics of Iqbal , Lahore.
Irschick, E. (1986) Tamil Revivalism in the 1930s , Madras.
Isfahani, Abu Talib (1885) [‘Tafzih-ul Ghafalin’] History of Asaf'ud Dawlah, Nawab Wazir of
Oudh , tr. W. Hoey , Allahabad.
Jones, K. (ed.) (1992) Religious Controversy in British India , New York.
Kincaid, C. A. and Parasnis, D. B. (1918–25) History of the Maratha People , 3 vols, Bombay.
Kumar, R. (1989) The Making of a Nation: Essays in Indian History and Politics , Delhi.
Maine, H. S. (1871) Village Communities in East and West , London.
Majumdar, R. C. et al. (eds) (1951–69) The History and Culture of the Indian People , 14 vols,
Delhi.
Masani, R. P. (1939) Dadhabhai Naoroji. The Grand Old Man of India , London.
Mill, J. [1817] (1975) History of British India , Chicago.
Moreland, W. H. (1912) The Agriculture of the United Provinces. An Introduction for the Use of
Landholders and Officials , Allahabad.
Moreland, W. H. (1924) The Agrarian System of Moslem India , London.
Mukherjee, R. (1984) Awadh in Revolt, 1857–8. A Study of Popular Resistance , Delhi.
Naoroji, D. [1893] (1962) Poverty and un-British Rule in India , Delhi.
Nehru, J. (1965) Glimpses of World History , repr. Bombay.
O'Hanlon, R. (1988) ‘Recovering the subject; subaltern studies and the history of resistance in
south Asia’, Modern Asian Studies 22(1).
Pandey, G. (ed.) (1993) Hindus and Others. The Question of Identity in India Today , Delhi.
Prasad, B. S. (1851) Sikhiyon Ka Udaya aurAsta , Benares.
Ranade, M. G. (1900) History of the Maratha Power , Bombay.
Rao, P. S. M. (1963) Eighteenth Century Deccan , Bombay.
Robinson, F. C. R. (1974) Separatism among Indian Muslims , Cambridge.
Sardesai, G. D. (1946–8) New History of the Marathas , 3 vols,
Sarkar, J. N. (1901) The India ofAurangzeb , Calcutta.
Sarkar, J. N. (1919) Studies in Mughal India , Calcutta.
Sarkar, J. N. (1955) The House of Shivaji , Calcutta.
Savarkar, V. D. (1947) The Indian War of Independence 1857 , Bombay.
Smith, V. (1958) Oxford History of India , 3rd edn, Oxford.
Stokes, E. (1986) The Peasant Armed. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 , Oxford.
Tabatabai, Ghularn Hussain (1790) [‘Siyar al-Muta ’akhkhirin’] Seir Mutaqherin , tr. ‘ Haji
Mustapha ’, Calcutta.
Thompson, E. and Garrett, G. T. (1934) The Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India ,
London.
Tod, J. [1829] (1982) Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han , 2 vols, repr. Delhi.

History in Africa
Ageron, C. R. (1991) Modern Algeria , tr. M. Brett , London.
Anstey, R. (1975) The Atlantic Slave Trade and British Abolition , London.
Apter, D. (1955) The Gold Coast in Transition , Princeton.
Austen, R. (1987) African Economic History , London.
Beinart, W. (1982) The Political Economy of Pondoland 1860–1930 , Cambridge.
Berger, I. (1992) Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry , Bloomington.
Birmingham, D. and Martin, P. M. (1981) History of Central Africa , vol. 1, Harlow.
Boahen, A. A. (1964) Britain, the Sahara and the Western Sudan , Oxford.
Bovill, E. W. (1933) Caravans of the Old Sahara , London.
Bovill, E. W. (1964–6) Missions to the Niger , 2 vols, Cambridge.
Boxer, C. R. (ed.) (1959) The Tragic History of Sea , Cambridge.
Boxer, C. R. (1964) Portuguese Society in the Tropics , Madison.
Bradford, H. (1987) A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa , New Haven, CT.
Bulliet, R. W. (1975) The Camel and the Wheel , Cambridge, MA.
Bundy, C. (1979) The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry , London.
Cammack, D. (1990) The Rand at War , London.
Cavazzi, G. (1687) Congo Matamba e Angola , Bologna.
Chittick, N. (1974) Kilwa , London.
Clarence-Smith, W. G. (1985) The Third Portuguese Empire: A Study in Economic Imperialism ,
Manchester.
Clarence-Smith, W. G. (ed.) (1989) The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade , London.
Clark, J. D. (1970) Prehistory of Africa , London.
Cocks, J. (1980) Maids and Madams: A Study in the Politics of Exploitation , Johannesburg.
Coleman, J. (1958) Nigeria , Berkeley.
Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. (1972) Le Congo au temps des grandes compagnies concessionaires ,
The Hague.
Crowder, M. (1968) West Africa under Colonial Rule , London.
Crowder, M. (ed.) (1971) West African Resistance , London.
Crowder, M. (1988) The Flogging of Phineas Mcintosh: A Tale of Colonial Folly and Injustice ,
New Haven.
Curtin, P. D. (1969) The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census , Madison.
Curtin, P. D. (1975) Economic Change in Precolonial Africa , Madison.
Daaku, K. Y. (1970) Trade and Politics on the Gold Coast , Oxford.
Dalby, D. (1970) Language and History in Africa , London.
Davidson, B. (1959) Old Africa Rediscovered , London.
Davidson, B. (1992) The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation State ,
London.
Davies, O. (1967) West Africa before the Europeans , London.
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Greenberg, J. H. (1963) Languages of Africa , The Hague.
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Guy, J. (1979) The Destruction of the Zulu Kingdom , Harlow.
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Harlan, J. R. et al. (1976) Origins of African Plant Domestication , The Hague.
Harms, R. (1981) River of Wealth, River of Sorrow , New Haven.
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Hodges, T. and Newitt, M. (1988) São Tomé and Príncipe , Boulder, CO.
Holt, P. M. (ed.) (1970) The Cambridge History of Islam , Cambridge.
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Lewis, I. M. (1966) Islam in Tropical Africa , Oxford.
Lhote, I. (1959) The Search for the Tassili Frescoes , London.
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Lyons, M. (1992) The Colonial Disease: A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire
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Marks, S. (1970) Reluctant Rebellion , Oxford.
Marks, S. (1986) The Ambiguities of Dependency in South Africa , Baltimore.
Marks, S. (1987) Not Either an Experimental Doll: The Separate Worlds of Three South African
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Marks, S. (1994) Divided Sisterhood: The Nursing Profession and the Making of Apartheid ,
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Marks, S. et al. (1980) Economy and Society in Pre-industrial South Africa , Harlow.
Marks, S. et al. (1982) Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa , Harlow.
Marks, S. et al. (1987) The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth Century South
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Mazrui, A. (1993) General History of Africa , vol. 8, Paris.
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Oliver, R. (1957) Sir Harry Johnstone and the Scramble for Africa , London.
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Ranger, T. (1970) The African Voice in Southern Rhodesia , London.
Reefe, T. Q. (1981) The Rainbow and the Kings , Berkeley.
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Modern American Historiography

Alperovitz, G. (1965) Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam , New York.
Axtell, J. (1981a) The European and the Indian , New York.
Axtell, J. (1981b) Indian Peoples of Eastern America. A Documentary History of the Sexes .
Baym, N. (1978) Woman's Fiction: A Guide to Novels by and about Women in America,
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Benson, L. (1961) The Concept of Jfacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case ,
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Berube, A. (1990) Coming Out Under Fire. The History of Gay Men and Women in World War
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Blassingame, J. (1972) The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South , New
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Boorstin, D. (1958) The Genius of the American People , Chicago.
Brown, D. (1971) Bury my Heart at Wounded Knee. An Indian History of the American West ,
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Carnes, M. C. (1989) Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America , New Haven, CT.
Carnes, M. C. and Griffen, C. (eds) (1990) Meanings for Manhood. Constructions of Masculinity
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Cohen, L. (1990) Making a New Deal. Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939 , Cambridge.
Cott, N. (1977) Bonds ofWomenhood: Woman's Sphere' in New England, 1780–1835 , New
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Cronon, W. (1983) Changes in the Land , New York.
Cumings, B. (1983–90) The Origins of the Korean War , 2 vols, Princeton.
Dawley, A. (1976) Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn , Cambridge, MA.
D'Emilio,J. (1983) Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities, the Making of a Homosexual Minority in
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D'Emilio,J. and Freedman, E. B. (1988) Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America ,
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Degler, C. N. (1959) Out of Our Past. The Forces that Shaped Modern America , New York.
Degler, C. N. (1974) ‘What ought to be and what was: women's sexuality in the nineteenth
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De Loria, Jr, V. (1969) Custer Died for your Sins. An Indian Manifesto , New York. Dublin, T.
(1972) Women at Work. The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts,
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Du Bois, W. E. B. (1935) Black Reconstruction , New York.
Elkins, S. (1959) Slavery. A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life , Chicago.
Epstein, B. (1980) Politics of Domesticity , Middletown.
Faragher, J. M. (1979) Women and Men on the Overland Trail , New Haven, CT.
Fleming, D. F. (1961) The Cold War and its Origins , New York.
Foner, E. (1988) Reconstruction. Americas Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 , New York.
Foner, E. (ed.) (1990) The New American History , Philadelphia.
Formisano, R. P. (1971) The Birth of Mass Political Parties; Michigan, 1827–1861 , Princeton.
Franklin, J. H. and Meier, A. (eds) (1982) Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century , Urbana.
Freedman, E. B. (1988) Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America , New York.
Genovese, E. (1974) Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made , New York.
Goldin, C. (1990) Understanding the Gender Gap , New York.
Gutman, H. G. (1976a) Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925 , New York.
Gutman, H. G. (1976b) Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America , NewYork.
Handlin, O. (1953) Uprooted , London.
Hareven, T. (1982) Family Time; Industrial Time , Cambridge.
Hofstadter, R. (1948) The American Political Tradition and the Men who Made it , New York.
Huggins, N. I. (1971) Harlem Renaissance , New York.
Jacobs, W. R. (1972) Dispossessing the American Indian , Norman, OK.
Jeffrey, J. R. (1979) Frontier Women. The Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–1880 , New York.
Jennings, F. (1975) The Invasion of America; Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest ,
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Jones, J. (1985) Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow , New York.
Jordan, W. (1968) White over Black; American Attitudes toward the Negro , Chapel Hill, NC.
Kammen, M. (ed.) (1980) The Past before us. Contemporary Historical Writing in the United
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Katz, J. (1976) Gay American History , New York.
Katzman, D. M. (1978) Seven Days a Week: Women and Domestic Service in Industrializing
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Kessler-Harris, A. (1982) Out to Work; a History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States ,
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Kleppner, P. (1970) The Cross of Culture. A Social Analysis of Midwestern Politics, 1850–1900 ,
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Kolko, J. and Kolko, G. (1972) The Limits of Power: The World and United States Foreign
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Leavitt, J. W. (1986) Brought to Bed; Childbearing in America, 1750–1950 , New York.
Lebsock, S. (1984) Free Women of Petersburg. Status and Culture in a Southern Town,
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LeFeber, W. (1967) America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1967 , New York.
Lerner, G. (1967) The Grimke Sisters , New York.
Levin, N. G. (1968) Woodrow Wilson and World Politics , New York.
Levine, L. W. (1977) Black Culture and Black Consciousness; Afro-American Folk Thought from
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Lewis, D. L. (1981) When Harlem Was in Vogue , New York.
Lubell, S. (1952) The Future of American Politics , New York.
Luebke, F. C. (1990) Germans in the New World , Urbana and Chicago.
Marks, G. (1989) Unions in Politics. Britain, Germany, and the United States in the Nineteenth
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Matthaei, J. A. (1981) An Economic History of Women in America: Women's Work, the Sexual
Division of Labor, and the Development of Capitalism , New York.
Matthews, G. (1987) ‘Just a Housewife’. The Rise and Fall of Domesticity in America , New
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Meier, A. and Rudwick, B. (1986) Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915–1980 ,
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Meyerowitz, J. J. (1988) Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880–1930 ,
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Mohr, J. (1978) Abortion in America: The Origins and Evolution of National Policy, 1800–1900 ,
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Montgomery, D. (1987) Fall of the House of Labor. The Workplace, the State, and American
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Mosher, C. D. (1980) The Mosher Survey , New York.
Osofsky, G. (1966) Harlem: the Making of a Ghetto , New York.
Perdue, T. (1979) Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540–1866 , Knoxville, TN.
Potter, D. M. (1954) People of Plenty , Chicago.
Rawick, G. (1972) From Sundown to Sunup , Westport, Ont.
Reed, J. (1978) From Private Vice to Public Virtue: The Birth Control Movement and American
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Rosen, R. (1982) Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900–1918 , Baltimore.
Ross, D. (1991) The Origins of American Social Science , Cambridge.
Schweninger, D. (1990) Black Property Owners in the South, 1790–1915 , Urbana.
Scott, A. F. (1970) Southern Lady: From Pedestal to Politics, 1830–1930 , Chicago.
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Strozier, C. B. (1982) Lincoln's Quest for Union. Public and Private Meanings , New York.
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Latin America
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Conrad, R. (1972) The Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, 1850–1888 , Berkeley.
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