I I • I

Jens Micah De G
; .11u.1rJE!J

Edna C. Aquino
Rodrigo DP. Tomas
Jeremiah B. Pacer

I
loysius T. Madriaga
Gherold C. Benitez
Lou S. Hualda
estie Allan A. Puno
Anthony B. Banzon
berto M. Bamba, Jr.
Authors
 Ethics is. the branch of philosophy that studies_morality or the rightness or
wrongness of human conduct. Morality speaks of'a code or,system of behavior in
regards to standards of right or wrong behavior. In this book, the two terms (ethics
· a·nd morality), especially their adjective form (ethical and moral), are oftentimes used
interchangeably.

As a branch of philosophy, ethics stands .to queries about what there is reason
to do. Dealing with human actio_ns and reasons for action, ethics is also concerned
with character. In f~ct, the word 'ethics' is derived from the Greek ethos, ·which means
'character', or,·in plural, 'manners'.

Some questions that are et.hical in nature are'.·What is the gopd? Who is a moral
person? What are the virtues of a human bt::ing? What makes an act right? What
' I • ,

duties do we have to each other?

Also called 'moral philosophy/, ethics . ~valuates moral concepts, values,

principles, and .standards. Beca_use it .is cqi:,cerneq with norms of human conduct,
ethics is considered a normative stµdy of human actions.

Clearly, ethics and morality necessarily carry the concept of moral standards or
·rules with .regard ·to behavior. So as a way of introducing moral rules, let us discuss
why rules are important to social beings. _

1. The Importance of Rules to Social Beings

Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct

within a specific activity or sphere ("Rule," n.d.). Rules tell us what is or is not allowed
in a particular context.or situation. In many ways, rules serve as a foundation for any
healthy society. Without rules, society would likely fall into ana~chy!

Rules benefitsQcial beings in variou~ manners:

a. Rules protect social. beings by regulating 'behavior. Rules build boundaries

that place limits on behavior. Rules are usually coupled with means to impose
consequences on those who violate them. One of the reasons people follow
accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences.

ETHICS: P RIN CI PLES OF ETHIC AL BE HAVIOR. IN MODERN SOCIETY ,_ ....,.._ _

 b. Rules help to guarantee each _person certain rig_
ht_s and freedom. Rules forll'I
frameworks for society. Nations are gen.erally nations of laws and the governin
principles are ,outlined' in what is. called constitution. Becau~e the majorit!
has agreed to follow. and consent to be governed by such a constitution , th e·
freedoms outlined exist. One of the advantages of such a system is that each
per~on is guaranteed certain rights as the government is limited in its power to
·ensure that it does not become powerful enough to suppress liberty. Rules on
divisions of power and checks and balances further protect individual liberty.

c. Rules produ_
ce a sense of justice among social beings. Rules are needed in order
to keep the strong .from dominating the_weak, that is, to prevent exploitation
and domination. Without rules, schemes in which those with the power control
the system, would take over. In effect, rules g~nerate a stable system that
'
·provides justice, in which even·the ~ichest and most powerful have limitations
. on what .they can do: If they transgress rules such as laws and ordinances and
take advantage of P,eople, there are consequences_both socially and criminally.

d. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system. Without rule~ regulating
business, power would centralize around monopolies and threaten the strer:igth
and competitiveness·-ot the system.:Rules a~e needed to ensure product safety,
employee safety, and product ·quality: Copyright and patents help protect
people's intellectual property. ~ules and regulations also keep the banking
. .· '. '

sy~tem stable so as ~o avoid depression and the like:

In short, soci~ty coulsf not soundly function without rules and regulations.
Rules are necessary to protect the gr~ater good. Even the freest socjeties ought to
have rules in order fo avoid exploitations and tyranny while upholding the common
welfare.

I 2. Moral vs. Non-moral Standards

Not all rules are moral rules. ,:hat is, not all standards a~e moral standards.

Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about what is
right and wrong, or good and evil. Accordingly, moral standards are th,ose concerne_d
with or .relating to human beha.vior, especially the distinction between good and bad ,
(or right and wrong) behavior. .

2 j ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN M ODERN SOCIETY

""
' . MS !l!l!
. .l"""J!l!IJII
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II
 Moral standa'rds involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions. try,ey
believ~ are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds ,of
objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists·equate m~ral
stand~rds with moral values and moral principles.

Non-moral standards refer to rules that are · unrelated to .mqral or eth'ical

considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by
natur_e lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of ·
etiquette; fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules. ;Technically,
religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances) are non-
. moral ·principles, though they can be ethically relevant depending on some·factors
and contexts.- . -

The following characteristics of m?ral standards further differen_tiate them from

non.. moral standards: _
• . I -• • •~ ; ' ' .• '' • ; ' • • • •. •

a. Moral standards
1
l
involve serrous ll._
,
wrongs
' l'-. 1 . ,
or significant benefits. Moral
•· i'
1
.:, .- 1 • • l , ,
1

standards deal with matters which can seriQlisly impact, that is, injure or benefit
• • • .•· .,f ! ) - • • ' . . . :

human beings. It is not the case .with many non-moral st_ andards. For instance,
\. t ! .', ' \ '• • , ' • , •'' ,:, l 4 •.

following or violating some_. bask~!~all rules m.~Y matter in basketball games

but does not necessa.rily affect one's life or w~llbeing. .
-. _, ·. ' ' . . .. t J'

b. -'Morafstandards ·ought-to·be ,preferred to,other values. Moral standa'rds have

overridi~g character or h~gemo~k authority. If a mqr~l standard states t~at a
· person·has the moral obligation to do s,omething, then he/she is·supposed to
, . •. .,. .. ', . . '!·. . .. .

do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with self-
,. ' ' . • 1 • • •

interest.
. .
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take
"prec:edence over other c_o~ nsideraii'ons, indudin_
g aesthetic, prudential, and even
' legal .ones. Aperson ri,~y be aesthetic.ally justified in leaving behi~d his family
in order to devote his life ·to painting, but m~rally, ali things considered, he/she
probably was not justified. It may be prudent to lie to save one's dignity,·but it
probably is morally wrong to do SO; When a particular law becomes seriously
immoral, it may be people's moraLduty .to ,exercise,icivil disobe~l,ierice: There
is a general mpral duty. to .ob~y the :law, b1,1t. there r,nay .co.me a time .when
the injustice -~f an evil law .is unbearabl~ and thu;.
I '
csills far 1Uegat bu_
.
t moral . . I '' t

noncooperation ,(slKh as the antebellum laws q1lling .fo,r .citizens-. to re~urn

staves to their owners), · ' ·

ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN ·MODERN SOCIETV 1 """

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· ,,..3...- •
, 11 ""
 c. MQral'standards are not estabUshed by authority figures. Moral standards are
not invented, formed,.or gene.rated by authoritative bodies.or persons such as
nations' legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be considered ·
in the process of making laws. In pri.ncipte·therefore, moral standards cannot be
changed nor nullified by the decisions of particular authoritative body: One thing
about these standards; rionethe/ess, is that its validity lies on th.e soundness or
adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support and justify them. -

d. Moral standards have,the trait of universalizability. Simply put, it means that

everyone should .live up to moral standc;nds. To be more accurate, however, it
entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in the relevantly similar
situation. If one judges that act A is morally right for a certain person P, then it ·
is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.

This characteristic is. exemplified in the Gold Rule, "Do unto others-what
you would them q_o unto you (if you were .in the,ir shoes)" and in the formal
A
Principle of Justice, '"It cannot De right f~r to treat B i~ a. m~nne~ ,n which
it ~ould be wrorig for B to treat A, .me;~ly on the ground that they are two
different 'individuals, and without ther~'· being any difference -between the
natures or circumstances tif the.two which dn be stated ~s reasonable ground
. for difference of treatment." U~i~~rsalizability i~ an extension of the principle of
_. consistency, that is, Qne ought to be consistent about one's value judgments . .

e. Moral standards ari! ~ased on impartial ·considerations. Moral standard does

.' not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a certain person or group,
but one that goes beyond personal interests to a \.miveri~, standpoint in which
each person's interests are impartially counted as equal.

Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality

· . ll ' , ,

in morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate considera_tion to the

interests of all concerned parties.' '

f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptivity i~dicates-the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.
These moral standards are generally put forth · as injunction or imperatives
. (such as, 'Do not kill,' 'Do no unnecessary. harm,',and -'Love your neighbor').
These principles are proposed for use, to advise, and to influence .to :action.
Retroactively, this feature is used to ev~luate bel1avior, to .assign praise and
blame, and to produce feetings of satisfaction or of guilt.

4 I ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN MODERN SOCIETY

. Z . %.#UZ..ttJ » ·•
 If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie ev~n to fulfill a special .
I !
p~rpose, it is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of
his/her behavior afterwards. On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes
against the current,fashiori' trend ·(e.g. refusing·to wear tattered jeans). ·

3. Dile~ma and ~oral Dilemma

The term 'dilemma' refers to.a situation.in which a tough choic~ has to be made
between two or mor~ options, especially more or les~ equally unde~irable ones. Not
all dilemmas are mor~~ dilemmas. ·

Also called 'ethical dilemmas,' moral dilemmas are situations in which a .

difficult
.
cho1ce has to be made
.
betwe~n
,
two courses of action I ·either ~f 'which entails
transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma involves
confliqs between moral requirements.

~fo 6nline Standforc! Encyclopedia of Philosophy, in discussing ·moral dilemmas,

gives this example from the Book I of Plato's Republic:

·:.. Cephalus, define; 'justic~' as spe~king the truth and paying one's
debts. S~cra~es -quickly. refutes .this account by suggesting that it would
be wrong to repay certai~ debts-for example, to return a borrowed ·
weapor;i to a friend who is no.t in his right mind. Socrates' point is not that ·
· repaying debts is without mora_ l import; rather, he wants to show that it
is not aiways right to repay one's debts, at least not exactly when the one
to whom the debt is owed demands repayment What we have here is a
, ,

conflict between two moral norm~: repaying one's debts and protecting .
oth.ers from harm ..." ("Moral Dilemmas," n.d.)

What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an

agent regards himself as having moral reasoi:is to do each of two actions, but dqing
both actions seems to be ethically -not possible.

The key features of a moral dilemma are these: (a) the agent is required to do
each of two (or more) actions; (b) the agent can do each of the ·actions; but the agent
cannot,'do both (or all) -of the action~. In a moral di.lemma, the agent thus seems
conqemned -to morai failure; n.o matter what he does, he will do somett:iing wrong,
·or fail to do something that he ought to do.

ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN MODERN.SOCU:.TY ,..,, ._,..5_._.

 In the case given by Plato, many would say that it is more important to protect
people from harm than to return a,borrowed weapon. Or, some would suggest that
the borrowed item can be returned later, when the owner·no longer poses a threat
to others. It can be submitted therefore that the moral requirement to protect others
from ,serious harm overrides the ethical requirement to repay one's debts by returning . ·
a borrowed item even when its owner so demands.

Some ethicists propose that when one of the conflicting moral requirements
overrides .the other, the case is not·a 'genuine rnoral dilemma.' Thus, in ~dditicm to
the features 'mentione·d 'above; in·order. to have a genuine moral' dilemma, some add
that it must also .be the case that (c) neither of the conflicting morai requirements is
overriqden.

4. Three Levels ofMoral Dilemmas ,

Moral dilemmas can ~e categorized according to these levels: (a) pers<?nal, (b).
organizational, and (c) structural. .

a. Personal ·Dilemmas. personal dilemmas are those experien.ced and resolved

- . ! ' • ·- ' ' • •

on the personal
'
leve,t. Sine~ many
.
ethical decisions
' . .
are personally
.
made, many,
· if not most of, moral dilemmas fall ·under, or boil down to, this level.
. '

·· in·1957, th~ philosopher Jean-·~aul Sartre provided a case that could

exemplify a personal moral ditemma: ·

"Sart~e tells of a student whose brother had been killed in the .

. .

· German offensive of.1940. The student wanteq to avenge his brother

a_n_
d to fight forces that he regardeQ as evil. But the student's mother
was living with him, and he was her one consolation in life. The student
·believed that he had conflicting obligations. Sartre describes him as
being torn between ·two kinds of ·morality: one of limited scope but
~ertain efficacy, personal devotion to his ·mother; the other of much
wider scope but uncertain efficacy, attempting t_
o contribute to the
defeat of an li~just aggressor." (ffMoral Dilemmas," n.d.)
\
There are many other personal moral dilel"f)mas; If a person makes ;
conflicting promises, he faces a moral conflict. When an individual has to _;
choose between the life 9f a child who is about to be delivered and the child's ·
mother, he faces an ethical dilemma.

6 '""''-J
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., · ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETH ICAL BEHAVIOR IN MODERN SOCIETY
-
b. Organizati~nal -Dilemmas. Organizational moral dilemmas refer to ethical
cases encountered and resolved by social organizations. This -category includes
moral dilemmas in·b~siness, medical field, and public sector. ·

- A medical institution which believes that human life should not be

deliberately· shortened and that unpreventable pain should not be tolerated
~ncounters a conflict in resolving whether to withdraw life support from a dying
patient. This is a common moral dilemma faced by healthcare organizations.

Ethical dilemmas arise even in professional work. Administrative bodies

in business are confronted with situations in which several courses of action
are ·possible but none of them provide a -totallysuccessful outcome to those
affected by the decision or actions t~ken. Moral dilem~as in business involve
·issues about corporate practices, policies, business behaviors, _
and the conducts
and relationships of individuals fn the organizations. Other business-related
dilemmas -pertai~ to the social responsibility of businesses, employee ri~hts,
_harassment, labor unions, misl~ading advertising,· job discrimination, and
w~istle blowing.
. ·. .

. In a public sector1 gove'rnment leclders and ·empl~y~es have..a moral duty

to act in a manner that is·fa_ir a_~d unbiased, :tliat ls loyarto the public ~y putting .
public interest before personal gain, and that fulfills duties of competenc;, _
integrity, accountability, and ·transparency,--In fulfitlfng these responsibilities,
public officials may encounter foreseeable moral dilemmas. These dilemmas
-incl~e whether-.or-not to favor family, friends, or campaig-~ contributors over
ot_tter con_stifuents; favoring the agenda of one's political party over a policy-one
believes to be good for-the -community; dealing with conflicting public duties
inherent-in serving both as a council member and as a member of an agency
· or commission; resigning from organizations in which membership may give
rise to future conflicts; becoming a whist_l~ blo'wer even if it means potentially
derailing a policy obJective one is pursuing; and' accepting gifts if Jt is legally
permitted but creates the appearance of impropriety.
1
c. · 'structural Dilemmas. Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases involving
network of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms. As they usually
encompass multi-sectoral institutions and .organizations, they may be larger in ·
scope and extent than organizational dilemmas.

ETHICS: PRINCIPLES er- ErnicAL er;;ww 10R iN Mot,rnN s.-JC1 H·f ...,.
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 ·.· Case in point is the prices of medicine in the Phmppines which are higher
~bmpared to other countries in Asia and in countrres of similar economic
status·. ·Factors affecting medicine prices include the cost of research, presence
df competition in the market, government regulations, and patent protection .
. Institutions concerned may want to lower the costs of medicine, thereby
· benefiting the Filipino public, but such a move may ruin t~e interests or legal
· · rights of the involved researchers, inventors or discoverers, and pharmaceutical
•companies which own the patent of the medicines or h~althcare technologies.

Another case which is structural in nature is that of Universal Health

Care (UHC). Localiy ~ppli~d, it i~ called nKalusugan Pangkalahatann (KP}. It ls
the provision to every f:ilipino of the highest possible quality of health care
that is . accessible, effide~t, equitably distributed, adequately -funded, fairly
financed, and appropriately _used by an informed and empowered public. As
. . ' .
a &°.vernment mandate, it intends tc;> ensure that every Filipino _shall receive
·· affordable and quality health bene~ts by (i~eally) providingadeq1,1ate resources
- health huf!1an resources, health facilities1 and health financing.

·· _'..Concerning this
.
program,
.
health
.
financing
..
is
. .
first a,:id foremost
.
a big issue.
· Government could set aside bigger: budget for health for the implementation .
of this provision, But ttien; this·would mean -cutting down allocations on other
sectors (such as education or public works.). · '"

. ·. . .
5. 'Onlyituman beings can be ethical'

Another .basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can be truly
ethicaL Most philosopher_s hold that unlik~ animals, human beings possess some
traits that make it possible for them to be.moral:

a. Only_human beings are rational, autoriomous, and self-conscious. The

· q~~litles·of rationality, autonomy, and setf-cons~ious~ess ~re believed to confer
a full and equal moral status to those that possess them as these beings are
the only ones capable of achieving certain values and goods. These values
and goods are something that outweigh the types of. values and goods that
non-rational, non-autonomous, and non-self-conscious beings are capable of
realizing. For instance, in order to attain th~ kind of dignity and'self-respect that
human beings have, a being !11ust be able to co.nceive of itself as one among
· many, and must be able to consciously select his actions rather than be led by
blind instinct, .
____a..._,,,,) ETHICS: PR1Nc1PLEs oF ETH1cA~ BEHAv10R 1N MooeRN soc1eTv
 Many ethicists thus believe that only rational, autonomous, and self-
conscious beings deserve full and equal moral status. ,Because only human
beings are rati~n~l, autonomous, and self-conscious, it theri follows that only
human bei~gs deserve full and equal mo~al status.

Moreover, the-values of appreciating art, literature, and the goods that come ·
with deep personal relationships all require a being to be rational, autonomous,
and self-:-conscious. These
·-.
values, and
.
others like them, are th~ highest
. '(alues to
us humans; they compri~e t_hose which m~ke our lives worth living.

b. Only human b~ings can act morally or immorally. Strictly speaking, ar animal
which _devours another animal cannot be said to be immoral. In th~ same
manner, no matter how 'good' an animal's action seems to be, it cannot be
technically said to be moral.
, • ', •' • .~ -;_• • • • I ")

. Qnly human beings can act. morally

-
or immorally. This · is important in
. ethics-because
..
only befogs that
', .
can act morally c~n
..,
be required to_. sacrifice
their interests for the sake 9f oth~rs. Not able to truly act morally, animals could
. • • • - . ·• ,_ '....,. .•.• _r - •

not really sacrifice

.
their own- good
-· .
for the
.
sak~_.of others, but would even pursue
at the expense 9f oth~rs.
. . •' '

their good
l • <' •

c, O~Ly lfuman beings are part of the moral community. The so--;:alled moral
com·m unity is not defined in terms of the ir1trinsic properties that beings have,
• I - • •

but rather in ter.ms of the essenti~l social relations that exist between or amon~
beings. Distinctively, only human beings can possess or practicevalues such as
love, honor,
. .,
social relationships,
- .
forgiveness: compassion~ and-altruism.
- .

·. Moreover, only human -b~ings can communicate with each other in truly
meaningful ways, c~nengage ·in economic, ·political,: and -familial relationships
with each ,other,~and can also form deep -personal relationships with each
other. These kinds of relationships require .t he mernbers of such relationships
to extend real c-0ncern to 9ther members of th~s~.relationships in order for the
relationships to continue. _These relations~ip~ are what constitute our lives and
the values ~dntained in them.

Another thing human beings have that no animal has is th~ ability to
participate in a collective cognition. That is, we, as individuals, are able to draw
on the collective knowledge of humanity in a way no animal can.

ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN MOD~RN SOCIETY ·•· ...,..9___

 6 .- Freedorrt as a Foundation of Morality

As ~xplair:ied above, one ofthe r~asons animals cannot be.truly ethical is that
they are not really autonomous or free. Likewise, a robot, no matter how beneficial I
I

its functions may be, cannot be said to be moral, _for it has no fre~dom or choice but
to work according to what is commanded based on its built-in progr~m.

Basically, ·morality is a ·question of choice. Morality, practically, is choosing

ethical codes, values, or standards to guide us in our daily lives. Philosophically,
choosing is impossible without freedom.

Morality requires and allows choice, which means the right to choose even
differently from our fellows. In their daily lives, people make the choice to give to
charities, donate time
.-
and money to schools~ mentor
,
children, open businesses, or
protest against animal cruelty.

Everyone. who wishes to funct_ion morally and rationally in a society has to

make choices virtua~ly every .minute_~
of th~ .day. Pfactically, the sum of our choices
can be-~aid to define our specific 'morality.' Applicably; using the government or one's
culture to coerce people to behave in a certain way is not morality but the antithesis
of morality. This principle in ethics applies even when the motive is pure.

7. Minimum Requirement_for Morality: Reason and·Impartiality

The late Philosophy professor James · Rachels (1941-2003) holds that moral
judgments must be backed by sound reasoning and that morality requires the
impartial consideration of all parties inv~lved (Racheis, 1999). It is thus submitted that
reason and impartiality compose the "minimum conception" of morality or, as some
put it, the minimum. requirement for morality.

· Reason as a requirefT!ent for morality entails that human feelings may

be important in ethical de~i~ions, but th~y ought to be guided by reason. Sound
reasoning helps us to evaluate whether our feelings and intuitions ·about moral cases
are correct and defensible.

•.1.i!a
'. - - 10""""'.., ETHICS:
- ___ PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN MODERN SOCIETY
 lmpartia_
lity, on the other hand, involves the idea that each individual's
interests and point of view are equ/illy impo_rtant. Also called evenhandedness or
fair-mindedness, impartiality is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to
be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring
the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons. (Detailed discussions
on reason and impartiality can be found in a later section of this book. For other
introductory topics about Ethics, you may read _the Appendix A: "Ethics: A Primer" of
this book.)

1. Recall ·some rules you have to follow in school 13nd community. What
rules do you find constricting? Explain why people ~ave to.follow r_ules. .
2. Differentiate oetween moral and non-moral standards. Cite two to three
differences between moral and non-morat,standards.
3. · When do you say something is a mor~l expetience?
·4_ What are moral dilemmas? Give some exampl~s..

S. Identify and explain the three levels of moral dilemma.

6. Explain why only human beings can.be ethical.
7. Explain: Freedom is a foundation of ethics.

8. Discuss the role of reason ·and impartiality in ethics.

1. Make a written case discussion on the following topics:

a. Student's moral dilemma/s

b. Medical ·an~ business ethics case .(e.g., pharmaceutical industry

_case-Dr. X goes to the United States three times a year for ,free)

c. Expensive medicines in the Philippines .

· ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN MODERN SOCIETY ____

.._11
 . . .. . . ....,_~__..,................,. ...... "1,j,...,•.,..•......,_......, .....,,
,__,,_,_i'••~~•W
;io>•e"•_,,.,..~- . -•~,._, ·.
f 2. Video Presentation: View a video clip demon~trating unlimited freedorn
f• the absence of freedom (to be followed by a class discussion to bring
f or .
out reactions and insights on the video cl'.p, zeroi~g i_
n on wh~ freedorn is
i» · crucial to the ethical experience). Alternatively, wnte a reflection paper on
.
JI your reactions and insights on the movie.
.

Go online to www.OurHappySchool.com.
.
Through its search engine.
(upper right section), look for the article, "Cultural Relativism: A chalienge in

1. Read and understand the lecture.

2. In the Facebook (FB) comment ~ection below the· article, answer these
questions in not more than three . (3) sentences: Is Cultural Relativism
sound? Why or why not? Use. hashtags: #CulturalRelativism #Ethics
#JensEnismo

3. Ask at least three friends (preferably not from your school) to write a short
comment on your post.

4. Make a screenshot of your conversation thread. Print the file. Submit it to

your professor.

""'* __""'12..,.J•' ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETHl ~AL BEHAVIOR IN MODERN SOCIETY

19114
NAME: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ DATE: _ _ _ _ _ _ __

PROFESSOR: _ _ _ _ ___,__ _ _ _ __ COURSE & YEAR:._ _ __

I. Identification. Identify the term/s being referred to.

1. · These are moral dilemmas · that are experienced .and

resolved on the individual ·level.

.2. It speaks of a C(?de or system of behavior in regards to

standards of right or wrong behavior.

3. - Tnese type of dilemmas involved situations in which a

. diffic;ult choice has to be m_ade between two courses
of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral
priridple. ·

4. The branch of phil9sophy that studies morality or the

rightness or wrongness of human conduct.

s. These tell us what-is or is not allowed in a particular context

or-situation.

-6. These- are rules that - are unrelated to moral or ethical

consideratio_ns.

7. · Oniy they ·can ·possess or practice values such as love,

honor, social relationships, forgiveness, compassion, and ..
altruism.

8. These refer to cases involving network of institutions and

operative th.eoretical paradigms.

9. These refer to ethical cases ·encountered and resolved by

social organizations.

10. This cannot be said ·to be moral for it has no freedom or

choice but to work according to what is commanded based
on its built-in program.

....,,. . ,- 1 • l

ETHICS: PRIN<;IPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN MODERN SOCIETY ·~ ...j.J.__ _

.,.-~
 11. True or False. Write T if the statemen_t is true; F if f~lse.

1. Ethics is considered as a normative study of human actions for it is

concerned with norms of human conduct.

_ 2. Rule,s generate a stable system that provides justice, ·in which even the ..
.· richest and most powerful liave limitations on whatthey can do.

_ 3. Non-moral standards ar_e not the only rules or principles in society; but
the'9 take ·precedence over other 'considerations, includi~g aesthetic,
prudential, and even legal ones.

·~ 4. Morality requires and allows choice, which means the right to choose
even differently from our ·fellows. .

5. Most philosophers hold that unlike animals, human beings possess some
traits-that make it possible for them to be moral.

6. Dealing with human actions and reasons for action, ethics is 'also
cohcerned with character.

7. The wor~-'et_b_i¥s' is.der1yed from the L~tin ~thos, which means 'character',
or, in plural/manners'.

8. Moral dilemmas arise even in professi.onal,work.

. 9. Copyrigh~ and p~~ents help protect people's intellectual property.

__:___; 10. Basic examples of moral standards includ~ rules of 'etiquette, fashion
standar~s, rules in games, .and various house rules.

~--•..,,14__, ETHICS: PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN MODERN SOCIETY