2

. ai ns the roost prevalent way of

by ha 0
d st:tJl rem . d rnan f
f their light weight an convenient . u aqu.
. k Because o 1 h size a r,t
bric-~ f ed to stones at east \V ere clay js f nct 5b l
bricks are pre err ounct in I q~,
. than stones. arg,.
quao~()' b gb vary considerably in their pr openi _ ' I

Bncks, t ou . [ . e:) and

e foUo\V1Dg advantages l] 1n cons truct · ~~
pearance, bave th 10 0 : y

a) artracti\·e appearance which mellow with age

b) ec-0nomical,
c) durable,
d) structural strength,
CJ fire resistance,
f\J sound insulation,
g) low thermal conductivity,
h) resistance to adverse climatic conditions,
i) flexibility in application, and
j) minimum maintenance.

In this chapter, different types of bricks, their properties, metbocJ

of testing, and different methods of manufacture are presented, Due
to inherent uncertainties involved in the brick manufacturing piO·
cess, brick properties have statistical variations which are presented
at the end of the chapter.

1.2 Types of bricks

l .l. l CLASSIFrCATION BASED ON MAIN CONSTITUENTS

i) burnt clay bricks and
ii) calcium silicate bricks also termed sandlime bricks. .
100
As. tbe name suggests, Burnt clay bricks are produce d bYburo re"
a soil mixtur d . bricks a
. e pre om1nantly consisting of clays. These t all
most widely used t . •10 ahnos
kind 8 f a present and have application
o structures .
• · d1.101·
Calcium siJicat b . k . . ate all
fi . e nc s consist essentially of an 1ntun d lillle
orm mixture of •i ·. ck ao
com bi ed b . ous sand or crushed siliceous ro
si ree ure• ».Y
n y the act' f d p,.ess (lll'
1
heating th . ion o saturated steam un er d a.Ill
e nuxture u d ., ... tes an
Dates are fi . n er pressure, hydrated s1,.i...,a ·
onned which b.
ind the sand grains toge tber ·
 3

1.2.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON APPEARANCE

i) Solid bricks: A brick in which holes or perforations do not
exceed 25 per cent of its volume, or, in which frogs ( depressions in
a bed of a brick) do not exceed 20 per cent of its volume.
ii) Perforated bricks: A brick in which small holes passing
th rou gh exceed 25 per cent of its volume. This type of brick has
become widely accepted in recent years for a variety of applications
as it has better thermal insulation and is light in weight. Further-
more, the strength and absorption characteristics of perforated bricks
may be comparable to those of so1id bricks as the process of drying
and burning these bricks is easier and more uniform. These bricks
are mostly used in construction of brick panels for light weight
structures and multistoreyed framed structures. The perforations
may be circular, square, rectangular or of any other shape in cross-
scction. As per IS : 2222-1969 [2], dimensions measured parallel to
the plane ·of the shorter side shall not be more than 15 mm except
in the case of perforation being of circular shape, in which case it
may be allowed up to 20 mm; and the area of each perforat.ion should
not exceed 2.5 cm 2 • The distance between the edge of the brick and
the perforation should not be less than 15 mm. The thickness of wall
between adjacent perforation should preferably not be less than
10 mm. The water absorption after immersion for 24 hours in
water should not exceed _15 per cent by weight and the compressive
strength should not be less than 7 MPa on gross area.
iii) Hollow blocks: A burnt clay hollow block has holes larger
than 20 mm wide, which exceed 20 per cent of the volume. These
are known as cellular or cavity bricks. They are prepared from
special homogeneous clay. They are light in weight, thus save on
clay requirement. They also reduce transmission of beat, sound
and dampness. They are preferred for construction of brick parti-
tion walls. Their strength characteristics are good because of more
uniform drying and burning.
iv) Cellular bricks': This brick has holes closed at one end,
exceeding 20 per cent of the volume.
v) Special shape bricks: These are solid bricks of various
shapes suited to a particular type of construction. The common
shapes are bullnose bricks, coping bricks, cownose bricks, curved
sector bricks, comer bricks, plinth bricks etc. Splay bricks are made
for jambs of doors and windows. Arch bricks are made of wedge
shape to keep mortar joints of uniform thickness. Ornamental
4
bricks are prepared for corbels, cornices etc.

1.2.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON USE [l]

i) Common bricks: These are defined as 'suitable for general
building work having no special claim to give an attractive appear.
ance'. Therefore, these include many varieties of bricks wh ich fall
outside the categories of facing and engineering bricks ( described
below), and which are used externally and internally for ge neral
construction. These make an ideal backing for rendering plaster
and colour wash.
ii) Facing oricks: These bricks are thoroughly burnt of uni-
form colour, and having plane rectangular faces and sharp straight
right angled edges are treated as facing bricks. They are used in the
exposed face of the brickwork without any plaster or surface treat-
ment. The bricks should have sufficient resistance to penetration by
rain and weathering agencies. In genera], they are selected from a
number of bricks.
iii) Engineering bricks: These heavy duty bricks used in heavy
engineering works have high durability and compressive strength
and low water absorption. They are adequately burnt bricks, free
from cracks and other flaws and lime nodals. The bricks have sharp
corners and emit a clear ringing sound when struck.

1.~.4 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON QUALITY [1] .

1) Internal quality: Suitable only for inter I
.. ) 0 d" . N na use.
11 r mary qua11ty: ormally durable i th 0
f
the building. e external face o
iii) Special quality: Durable even when ex . .
08
mate, where a structure may become froze Pd ed to extreme ch·
taneously, such as retaining walls, pavings c~c~n saturated simul~

1.2.5 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON RAW MATER

(i) Alluvial, (ii) Black cotton, ( iii) Mart
and (vi) Malm.
/~L
' iv Shale, (v) Loamy

1.2.6 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF M

Bricks can be classified as: ANlJPACTtJR.1:
(i) Hand-made: Water-stricken or sand-stricken
a
(iii) Stiu-mu d , and ('1v) D ry-presse d . . • (ii) Wire -cut,
 5
l.2. 7 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SURFACE T
( i_) S th .") EXTURE
moo ' (u Glaced, (iii) Sand-faced, and (iv) Rustic, etc.

l. 2. 8 CLASSIFICATION BASED. ON COLOUR

(i) Red, and (ii) Yellow, etc.

1.2.9 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLACE OF ORIGIN

(i) Kanpur, (ii) Allahabad, and (iii) Hyderabad, etc.

1.2.10 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPE

. (i) Squares, (ii) closers, (iii) squints, (iv) radials, (v) plinths,
(v1) splays (bevels), (vii) angles, (viii) bullnose, and (ix) copings, etc.

1.3 Raw material

Clay, the basic material of which brick is made, is the most
plentiful raw material used for the production of any building pro-
ject. Clay accounts for the extensive use of brick and other struc-
tural clay products throughout the world from ancient times to the
present.
Clay, as it occurs in nature, varies both in its chemical composi-
tion and physical properties. Chemically, it is a compound of silica
and alumina with varying amounts of metallic oxides such as iron
and magnesium.

1.3.1 PRINCIPAL FORMS OF CLAY

Clay occurs in three principal forms [3], aJI of which have similar
chemical compositions but different physical characteristics. They
are:
i) Surface clays which are found near the surface of the earth
are of sedimentary character.
ii) Shales which are clays have been subjected to high pressures
until they have hardened almost to the form of slate.
iii) Fire clays which occur at greater depths below the surface
and are usually mined. Genera1ly, the fire clays contain fewer ~f
the metallic oxides than shales or surface clays and have more um•
form chemical and physical properties. ." .
st1
For satisfactory production of brick, clays must have pla c~ty
Which permit them to be moulded or shaped when mixed Wl1!1
• ta" their
Water. They must have sufficient tensile strength to main 1D
16
t.S Engineering properties of bricks .
Common burnt clay bricks are c)ass1fied on tba basis of
compressive strength as per IS: 1077-1976 [6] as given in T aver,
Each class of bricks is further divided into two sub-clas able I
sesA
B based on tolerances and shape. ~
Bricks are free from cracks. Bricks of 9 cm height are m 1

with a frog, I to 2 cm· deep on one of its flat sides. The sbapou a,
· ofth e frog con1orm
size '" to Fig. 1.6. ear

10 TO 20 10 TO 20
2R

~ ,oo --f 190 ~,,di/ }1

r- ,so
--1
y 190 ~
~ •I

All dimcznsions in mm
Fig. 1.6 Sb
ape and size of frog in bricks.
The standard sizes and
bricks as per IS: 1077-1976 other properties of common building
[6] are as follows:
Length
(mm) Width
(rnm) Height
190 (mm)
90
190 90
90
The dimensions of bricks h 40
f s OU}d
o tolerances per 20 bricks. conforlll to th
(a) L th e following lhnits
eng
Sub-class A { (b) Width
(c) Height
368 to 3
174 to l:~
clll (38o
174 to 186 Cll] (]Bo; 12 CllJ)
· (for 9 cm hi~~ ~J ~O :±::
77 to 83 cm (80 ricks)
!
CllJ)
CQJ)
(for 4 cm high b~ 3 CQJ}
rtcks)
 17
(a) Length 350 to 410 cm (380 ± 30 cm)
{
Sub-class B (b) Width 165 to 195 cm (180 ± 15 cm)
(c) Height 165 to 195 cm (180 ± 15 cm)
(for 9 cm high bricks)
74 to 86 cm (80 ± 6 cm)
(for 4.cm high bricks).

Table 1. l Classes of common burnt. clay bricks

Avcragc compressive strength

Class designation Not less than Less than

kg/cm 2 (N/mm2) kg/cm2 (N/mm1) .

350 350 (35) 400 (40)

300 300 (30) 3SO (35)
250 250 (25) 300 (30)
200 200 (20) 250 (25)
175 175 (17. 5) 200 (20)
. 150 150 (15) 17S (17 . S)
f

125 125 (12.5) 150 (15)

100 100 (10) 125 (12. 5)
75 75 (1.5) 100 (10)
50 50 (5) 75 (7. 5)
35 3S (3. 5) 50 (5)

To perform various tests, a sample of bricks should be chosen

according to IS: 5454-1976 [7]. Bricks should be tested for the fol-
lowing physical requirements to ascertain their suitability for cons-
truction work:
i) Water absorption: Bricks should not absorb water more than
20 per cent by weight up to class 12S and 15 per cent by weight
for higher classes, when soaked in cold water for a period of 24
hours.
18

ii) Compressive strength: The compressive strength of any 10•

dividual brick when tested in accordance wi th IS : 3495 (Part J)-
1976 [8] should not fall below the minimum average co mpressi ve
strength as specified in Table 1.1 for the correspondin g class of
brick by more than 20 per cent.
iii) Efflorescence: lt is a deposit of water soluble salts , eit her
upon the surface or within the por~s of brick or bri ck m a sonry. It
is usually white in colour and crystalline in structure. T he crystals
look like a thin coating of snow. Dampness is fa vourab le to its
formation whereas freezing cold stops it. Sulphates are the most
harmful among the efflorescing salts. The most common sulphates
are KAl (SO,) 2 , K 2 SO,. Na 2 SO 4 , MgSO .. and CaSO,. The most
common salt found in brick and brick masonry is calcium sulpha te.
IS: 1077-1976 [6] specifies that the rating of efflorescence shaJI
not be more than 'moderate' up to class 125 and 'slight' for higher
classes when tested in accordance with the procedure laid down in
IS: 3495 (Part IIl)-1976 [8].
iv) Warpage: For certain classes of bricks, such as the acid
resistant brick, the maximum permissible warpage should no t be
more than 2.5 mm at any point.
v) Bulk density: The weight of burnt brick will depend upon
the specific gravity of unburnt material and various processe_s em-
ployed in its manufacture and burning. The specific gravity of brick
material varies from 2.6 to 2.8.
vi) Soundness: Bricks when struck with each other should give
a clear ringing sound.
vii) Hardness: \Vhen a scratch is made on a brick surfac~ with
the help of a finger nail, there should be no impression left on the
surface of a brick of sufficient hardness.
viii) Structure: Bricks when broken should disclose a homo-
geneous and compact structure.

1.6 Test on bricks

Bricks are generally subjected to the following tests to fi nd out
their suitability for construction work:
1) Water absorption . .
·. 2) Compres&ive strength.
3) Efflorescence.
4) Warpage.
5) Flexural strength.
 19
6) Shape and size.
7) Hardness.
8) Soundness.

1.6.1 WATER ABSORPTION TEST

There are two types ~f wate~ absorption test specified by IS: 3495
( Part 11)-1976 [8] for brJCk which are briefly stated below:
i). . Twenty-four
., . hour immersion
. . water test .• o verd ry b. nc
cold · k
specimen 1s weighed and then immersed in cold water for 2·1: .<lours.
It is weighed again. The difference in weight ind icates the amount
of water abso:be~ by the b.rick and from which the percentage of
water absorption· 1s determined .
ii) Five-hour boiling water test: After taking the overd ry weight
1
of the brick sp cimens, these are imme.rsed iµ water. T he water is
boiled for about six hours and then allowed to cool do wn to room
temperature. J'he weight of the brick is again taken. The percentage
of water absorption is found out by using these two weights .

1.6.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The method of testing of solid and . perforated bricks for com ..
pressive strength as per IS: 3495 (Pa.rt I)-1976 [8] is briefly explain ..
ed as follows:
.i) So.'id bricks: The brk~k specimens are immersed in water for
24 hours. Then they are removed from water and the frogs are
filJed and flushed with the face of the brick with I: 1 cement•
sand mortar. The sample are c-ured for four days (one . day under
damp jute bags and three days in clean water). Then the specimen
is placed in a compression testing machine .with flat faces hori-
zontal and the mortar filled face upwards. The load is applied
at the rate of i'4 N/mm2 min till the. brick specimen fails. !he
maximum load which the specimen fails is divided by · the average
bc:d area of the bed faces of the brick to get the compressive
strength. .
ii) Perforated bricks: The sa.m-p les are immersed in water ~t ,.
room temperature for 24 hours. The perforated faces of the spect• .
Dlen are kept h1)rizontal in the cornpression testing machine. Load · ·
• · f: '] and the
15 applied axially at the same rate till the specimen at s ..
maximum load at failure is noted. The maximum loa~ is dLvtded
by average net area of the two faces under compression to ge.t .the
~ompressive strength.
20
1.6.3 EFPLORBSCBNCB TEST . . • .
A shallow glass dish of specified d1mens1ons 1s fill ed with d.
tilled water. Then brick samples are placed in it such that the dep~s~
of immersion in water is at least 25 mm. The whole arrangemc
is kept'in well ventilated room until all the water in th e dish is a:
sorbcd by the bricks and surplus water evaporate:,. A similar
quantity of water is again poured in the dish and allowed to eva.
porate as before. The rating of efflorescence is reported as 'nil',
•slight' , 'moderate', 'heavy' or 'serious' in accordance with the
definition stated in IS: 3495 (Part 111)-1976 [8].

1.6.4 WARPAGE TEST

A straight edge is placed :flat over the brick specimen resting on
a plane surface, so as to leave maximum gap between the straight
~ge and_ the ~urface of the ~rick. A metallic wedge (Fig. 1.7) is
msertcd tn this gap and maximum value of warp is measured.

60 rn n-,
~
Fig. J.7 Mcasurin11 ,.nctal}f
c Wedge.

1.6.5 FLEXURAL STRENGTH T ClST

The brick specimen is immersed in Wnt "
for 24 hours. The test specimen is placed er at rootn tern . ture
C f h , co ntrnt) pera
bearers A, B and o t e tcs t111g 1nnchi , Y ou self- r ·ng
The load is applied at a uniform r ate no t ~ ~~- ns Show11 i' n pa-.tgni 8
• o lt ll t ~ r
through bearer C. Tbe individual h reuking loi,l) 1, .l llla 300
I
N/ ·.
10 1 •

flexural strength is calculated by th e fo rnrnlu s ' t~~) rdect drohm

an t e
3PL
F = 2BL;:,,
where
P = load in Newtons,
 21
F = flexural strength of the brick in N/mm 2,
L = span in mm,
B = width of the brick in mm, and
D = depth of the brick in mm.

L 12

,_~_ _ _ _ L
•I
4L/3

Fig. 1.8 Arra~gement of loading for flexural strength test.

1.6.6 SHAPE AND SIZE

In this test, the bricks a.re closely inspected. They should be or
·standard size and the shape should be truly rectangular with sharp
~dges.

1.6. 7 HARDNESS TBSr

In this test, a scratch is made on the brick surface with the help
~fa finger nail. If no impression is Jeft on the surface, the brick
1s assumed to be sufficiently hard.

l .6.8 SOUNDNESS TEST

In this test, two bricks are taken and are struck with each other.
Tbey should not break and a clear ringing sound should emerge.

1•7 IS classification
IS: 3 I02.J965 classifies clay bricks according to various physical
ProPerties as shown in Table 1.2.
1·8 Stat·18t· •
_ 1caJ variations
tbTbe sta tistical variations in length bread th width and other streng-
Properties depend on the method of man'ufacture of bricks. The