Unit 1: Study Skills

1.2. Grammar focus: Modals and infinitives for giving advice

Study Note
A modal verb is a “helping verb” a verb that we must use together with another verb. Modal
verbs are auxiliary verbs that express ideas like ability, advice or recommendation,
obligation or duty, necessity, possibility, permission, prohibition, or request etc. There are
various kinds of modal verbs in English. Thus, in this lesson we are going to explore some
modal verbs that frequently used for giving advice or recommendation.

English speakers use the modal verbs “ought to” “should,” and “had better” to express that
they think something is a good (or bad) idea. For example: Ayantu should go to the doctor.
This shows that we think it is a good idea for Ayantu to visit the doctor.

Some characteristics of modals verbs

They never change their form; you can't add ‘-s’, ‘-ed’, ‘-ing’, etc.
They are always followed by an infinitive without “to” (i.e. the bare infinitive).
We use the same modal verb for all subjects whether the subject is singular or plural
They are always followed by the base verb (V1).
All modal verbs have more than one meaning
Should
Is used when we want to express our subjective opinion which is based on our own opinions
rather than facts. It is the most common way to give advice about something that is definitely
a good idea. We use it when we want to say or ask what is the correct or best thing to do.
It’s used to say that something is advisable/necessary (in our opinion). This indicates, in my
opinion it is advisable, but there is some choice. Should is used as a way of giving advice in
two forms. In one hand, it is used in present structure. In this case, it can be constructed as
subject + should + base verb.

Example
You should eat healthy food or
You should exercise every day.
On the other hand, should is used for advice in the past structure: Here it can follow the
pattern
subject+should + have + past participle (V3).
Example
You should have gone to the party.
She should have studied more often.

Negative Form
It is common to use “should not” to give negative advice or expression.
Example
You should not drink so much beer.
You should not smoke.
You should not eat too much candy.
Question Form
It’s a good idea to use the structure modal + subject + basic verb + ...? to construct
questions.
Example
I have a problem. Should I call my parents or my friend? wh- (information questions) can be
formed by putting the wh- question word immediately before the modal verb. Here is the
pattern: wh-word+modal+sub+base verb+…?
Example
why should you believe them?
Ought to
Is used when we want to express an objective truth which is based on/considering facts rather
than personal opinions. Ought to isn’t used as often as should and is rarely used in questions
or in the negative. In fact, in some cases, ought to and should are similar in meaning. Should
is more common than ought to but, ought to be more formal than should. For example; there
ought to be more street lights here (means the same as there should be more street lights
here).
Negative Form
You ought not to drink so much beer.
Had better

It is used when we want to make stronger advice to indicate that the advice we are giving is
really important. We use it if we think there will be something bad will happen if you do not
apply it as recommended by someone/body else. That means there may be a consequence if
you ignore it. Had better is a bit stronger than should and ought to. For example, you are
seriously injured, so you had better see a doctor. Or the tanker is empty therefore, you had
better stop drive.

We use had better to provide an urgent advice. For instance, you had better do your
homework. If you don’t do it, the teacher will give you low mark. Don’t say had better to as
modal verbs followed by bare Infinitives. “You had better...” can be contracted to become
“You'd better....”

Negative form
You had better not lose your passport, or you will encounter problems at the airport.
Sometimes it may be necessary to use ought to and had better interchangeably to give advice.
For example, some consider you ought to work very hard as similar with you had better work
very hard.

Note: Ought to and had better are not used in question forms.

Infinitives
It is formed from a verb but doesn't act as a verb. Rather it functions as a noun and it is
usually made up of two words: to + verb. These two words act together as a noun, as an
adjective or an adverb because an infinitive is not a verb. Despite the fact that infinitives refer
to actions, they often act as nouns. For example: to jump, to sneeze, to believe, to wonder, to
love, to play, to cry, to go, etc. frequently act as nouns. The infinitive is used to express
purpose: For example; Guta has studied hard to pass the exam. The purpose of studying hard
is to pass the exam.

On the other hand, the infinitive without to is called a bare infinitive. A bare infinitive is used
after a modal auxiliary. Words like must, can, would, and will are modal auxiliaries. Modal
auxiliary verbs are followed by an infinitive without to. For example: Rakeb may comes
today is wrong. Because, verb+es, s, are not used after modal auxiliary verbs. Similarly,
Rakeb may to come today is wrong too. Because to+verb is not used after modal auxiliary
verbs. Likewise, Rakeb may coming today is also wrong as the ing form of a verb are not
used after modal auxiliary verbs. However, Rakeb may come today is correct because the
verb come is bare infinitive which placed after the modal verb may.

Note: The past tense form of a verb, the ing form of a verb, verb+es, s, or to+verb is not used
after modal auxiliary verbs.
Find the errors in the following sentences and them correctly
1. I ought take him to the emergency room. wrong! why?
2. You should to help people. wrong! why?
3. He has better consult a physician. wrong! why?
4. They ought to not hurt his leg. wrong! why?
5. I had not better put hot water on the burn. wrong! why?
6. You should to study harder. wrong! why?
7. You had better slowing down. wrong! Why?
8. She ought to to drink more water. wrong! why?
The Communicative Functions of Modal Verbs

Task 1: Complete the following sentences by choosing the correct uses of modal verbs
from the alternative given in the bracket.
1. They_______ (ought /should to/ought) make this cake without sugar
2. It's cold. You__________(had better/better not/had better to) wear your scarf
3. _______we go by car or by train? (should/ought to/had better)
4. You look tired. You________ (better/should/ought) take a rest.
Task 2: Choose the best answer that completes each sentence with an appropriate
modal
verb: Should, ought to, or had better.
1. My teacher told me that I _________ review my notes every day. I guess it's a good idea
to look at them after class.
a. should b. ought to c. had better
2. I'm going to a party tonight. What _________ I wear: a dress or black pants?
a. should b. ought to c. had better
3. If you are worried about getting fat, you _________ eat at McDonald's every day. You
_________ eat healthy, low-fat foods like fruits and vegetables.
a. had better/should b. should/ ought to c. had better not/should
4. It's really raining outside right now. I _________ forget my umbrella or I'll get wet!
a. shouldn’t b. should not to c. had not better
5. Where _________ we have lunch today: at home or in a restaurant?
a. should b. ought to c. had better
6. My doctor feels that I _________ exercise more because I'm out of shape and want to
lose weight. I think he's right.
a. should b. ought to c. had better

Task 3: Read the dialogue following the box carefully and supply the correct modal
verbs.
will have to must can couldn’t
will would mustn’t had better not
should won’t can’t may not

Melat: Good morning, Fasile!

Fasile: Hi, Melat! I have been looking for you! (1)_________I use your laptop? I’m writing
a report.
Melat: Of course! But what if we have breakfast now?
Fasile: It sounds great!
Waiter What (2)_________you like to have?
Melat: Spaghetti and bread, please! I think Fasile prefers bread and tea
Fasile: Sure…..you know my preference. Who is that coming?
Melat: I think he is John.
Fasile: No, he (3)__________be! John has just gone to Jigjiga. Perhaps Bedilu.
Melat: Maybe! They‘re alike. Have you submitted your term paper?
Fasile: Not yet! I (4)__________have submitted! Yesterday was the deadline.
Melat: No problem! Dr. Fatuma still receives.
Fasile: Oh! I’m lucky! Have you heard about Ujulu? He’s going to drop out of school!
Melat: What?! What’s gone wrong?
Fasile: He doesn’t afford the tuition fee. I’m worried we’re going to miss him
Melat: Take it easy! I (5)___________cover his tuition fee. My brother has sent $ 800 to
me.
Fasile: That’s very nice of you! Melat, I (6)_______go now. Today is the deadline for my
term paper. See you tomorrow!
Melat: Okay, thanks! Have a nice day!
Task 4: Complete the following dialogue by filling in the blank spaces the most
appropriate one of the three alternatives given in brackets against each blank space.
Sami: Hi Sara, what’s the matter? You look worried.
Hana: I just got my grade report back and my GPA is low.
Sami: I’m sorry to hear that. But it’s only the first semester. You still have some time to do
something about it.
Hana: What do you think ________ (should I/ I should/ I had better) do about it?
Sami: Well, why do you think your GPA is this low?
Hana: I guess I didn’t go to class enough. I skipped a lot of classes because of my health and
other personal issues. (And sometimes I didn’t get to hear what was taught in class.)
Sami: Then, I suggest you start by being determined to reform and attend your classes
regularly. You ________(should not/ ought to not/ had better not) miss any of your
classes unless you’ve a compelling reason. Also, you _________ (ought/ should/ had
better) to take better care of your health. Eat healthy food, take vitamins and do
physical exercises to boost your immune system.
Hana: Recently, I’ve been working out three to four hours each day. ________(Ought to I/
Should I/ Had I better) exercise more?
Sami: Actually, you need to lessen it. You seem to have already been overdoing it. So you
_________ (should/ ought to/ had better) work out less, maybe just 3 to 4 times a
week, or you will injure yourself.
Hana: Got it. Thanks for your advice.
Sami: Don’t mention it. We’re friends. I’m always there for you.

1.4. Grammar focus: Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is formed by using ‘have’ or ‘has’ plus the past participle of the
verb. Or (Sub +have/has+V3). This tense is also called “pre-present” or “before present”. It
refers to the time from past to present. There are two tenses in the present perfect (past and
present). Present perfect by definition: is the tense which is used to talk about things that
happened and continue in the past, or at an indefinite time in the past. It is all about past or
finished actions but the specific time is not exactly known. The action expressed in the
present perfect tense does not include a definite past time because the interest is in the
action, not in when the action took place.

Look at the form of the present perfect tense

 Affirmative Negative Interrogative
We have seen the movie We have not seen the Have we seen the movie?
Dawit has paid the bill movie Has Dawit paid the bill?
You have read this poem Dawit has not paid the bill Have you read this poem?
You have not read this
poem
Uses
The present perfect tense is used:
To talk about past actions with some importance now (the result is being seen or observed
now).
Example Meaning
I have cleaned the window the windows are clean now
I have eaten my supper I’m still satisfied. I don’t need any more food now
(dinner) she is looking for it; but she can’t find it
She has lost her keys they know it well or can speak French right now
They have learned French
To talk about recently completed or finished actions. In this case, already, yet and just are
used.
Adverbial words Meaning
already To say that something happened sooner than expected or
pattern earlier than expected.
(sub+ has/have+ already+V3 Example
A: Don’t forget to read this interesting book
B: I have already read it (before expected time).
X: What time is the train leaving?
Y: it has already left (left before expected time).
A: When is Abel going to home town?
B: He has already gone (sooner than you expected)
Just To show something happens a few minutes ago or a short
pattern time ago or a moment ago.
(sub+have/has+just+V3) Example
She has just come (she came a short time ago).
X: Are you hungry?
Y: No, I have just had lunch (I had it a short time ago)
The snow has just stopped (it stopped a short time ago)
We have just heard the news from Alex (I heard it a short
time ago)
Other meanings of just It means, right now, exactly, really and thanks.
Example
I can’t talk now =I am just going out (just=right now)
The plane had just landed (just=a short time ago)
It is just two o’clock (just=exactly).
 I just hate the way he talks to people (just=really)
Can I help you, sir? No, I am just looking round (thanks)
Yet It shows that the speaker is expecting something to
happen.
We use yet in questions and negative feelings or thoughts.
It usually comes at the end of the sentence.
Example
Have you paid the electrician yet? Questions
No, he hasn’t sent his bill yet? Negative
I have written letter, but I haven’t sent it yet.
Did you eat yet?
Have you eaten yet?
To connect the past with the present with some adverbs and adverbial phrases
Adverbs and adverbial Example
phrases
It is the first time It’s the first time he has driven a bicycle
It’s the first time I’ve counted 5000 birr
So far It indicates Up to now
We haven’t had any problems so far.
she has typed six letters so far
Ever It means at any time (throughout life).
pattern It mostly used in questions
(sub+has/have+ever+V3) Example
Have you ever broken your legs? (in your life)
Have you ever driven a motorbike? (in your life)
Ever with present prefect tense superlative degree
Example
This is the worst meal I have ever eaten.
This is the most interesting job I have ever had.
Never It refers not at any time up to now (in your life).
pattern We use it with affirmative statements.
(sub+ has/have+never+V3) Example
she has never given him flowers before.
I have never ridden a bike in my life.
Lensa: Have you ever seen the Prime Minister?
Dame: No, I haven’t or No, never, or Never.

To express repeated actions. In this case, we often use some words like; often/several/many
times.
 Example
Teacher: How many tests have you taken since the beginning of the semester?
Students: we have taken three/several/ many tests since the beginning of the semester.
I have met her several times.
We have often met each other at the party
I ‘ve watched him on TV many times.

To express an action which began in the past and still continuing up to the time of speaking.
To do that, you should use since+ a point of time, for+ a length of time, and incomplete
time expressions like all day, to day, this week, all his life, this year, and this afternoon.
For Uses
pattern Is used to talk about a period of time
(for+duration of time) for two hours for five days for long time
for ages for many years for three weeks
Example:
We have known him for many years (still I know him)
I have been here for ages (I still live here)
X: How long have they used the car?
Y: They have used it for ten years (they still use it).
Note: ‘For’ is used with “past tense” but not since.
Example
I saw this movie for several times (the speaker sees no
longer)
She lived in Bale for ten years (she doesn’t live in Bale now)
Since Is used to talk about the length of time from a particular point
pattern Since last week/year/month Since the school days
(since+a point time) Since 2001/2009.... Since September/October
Since Christmas/New Since I know him
Since her/his birthday Since I was a child
Example
I have liked titanic movies ever since I was child.
(meaning=I still like it)
I have been here since seven o’clock
(meaning=I am still here)
Note: Don’t use since with past simple verbs.
Example
We learned English since grade one. wrong
We have learned English since grade one. right
We learned English for ten years. right
To talk about actions that has taken place once, never or several times before the time of
speaking.
Example
I have never been to Moyale.
Present prefect with has/have gone to + country/city or has/have been to+ country/city
Example
The president has gone to china
(meaning =he/she is in china now)
The president has been to china
(meaning= he/she isn’t there now)
Note: We usually say “I have been/gone to a place”.

Note: Definite past time expressions like last time, last week, last month, last year, two days
ago, five days ago, yesterday etc, are not used with the present perfect tense.
Example
Marta has finished her assignment yesterday (wrong)
Marta has finished her assignment (correct)
He has lived in Bale last year (wrong)
He lived in Bale last year (correct)

Activity 1.4.2: Completing sentences

Complete the gaps using either the present perfect or past simple form of the verbs in the
brackets. When you have finished, compare your answers with those of another student.
1. Yesterday we _played (play) football after class.

2. The boys have cleaned (clean) the car. It looks new again.

3. We have just read (just, read) the book. Now we can watch the film.

4. I first _met_ (meet) my best friend three years ago.

5. None of my family members has ever visited (ever, visit) another country before.

6. She bought (buy) her car when she was working in a business company.

7. Things have changed (change) a great deal at our company. When we first started
(start) working here three years ago, the company had (have, only) six employees.
 Since then, we have expanded (expand) to include more than 2000 full-time
workers.
8. In the last hundred years, traveling has become (become) much easier and more
comfortable. In the 19th century, it took (take) two or three months to cross North
America by covered wagon. The trip was (be) very rough and often dangerous. The
situation has changed (change) a great deal over the last century. Now you can fly
from New York to Los Angeles in a matter of hours.

Unit 2: Health and Fitness

2.2. Grammar focus: Conditionals

Study Note
We use conditional clause to state the dependence of one circumstances or sets of
circumstances on another. Conditional clause describes something which depends on
something else. It is a type of adverbial clause that states hypothesis or condition, real or
imagined. It may start with an if-clause or a main clause without change of meaning. In fact,
the comma is omitted if the main clause comes first. There are four kinds of conditionals in
English. These are:

Probable/real/likely/first conditional
Improbable/unreal/unlikely/second conditional
Impossible/rejected/third conditional
Zero Conditionals

First Conditional (Real conditions in the present or future)

This types of condition are often called as open or real or likely condition because the
condition to be satisfied is real. We use this conditional to describe what will or won’t
(probably) happen. But it can only happen when a certain condition (the clause that begins
with if) is fulfilled. The if clause states the condition, and the main clause states the result.
Real condition express situations that can happen in the present or future. They are often used
when stating facts, general knowledge, habits, predictions, advice, or instructions. Real
condition in the present (factual) use the simple present tense form of the verb in both the if-
clause and the result or main clause. On the other hand, real condition in the future (real
possibility) use the simple present tense form of the verb in the if–clause + modal phrase
(should/could/may/might/will/be going to/have to) and the base form of the verb or the
imperative in the result clause. In general, it is used when we want to discuss possible future
occurrence but the meaning is present or future.

Real condition (if clause) Result or main clause Meaning

If the weather changes suddenly, I get a headache Factual
Present simple tense Present simple tense
If it rains a lot tonight, they will call off school tomorrow Certainty/ prediction
Present simple tense Future tense for the future
If you have time, you should visit Axum Advice for the future
Simple present tense Modal+verb (V1)
If she comes, don’t open the door Instructions for the
Present simple tense Imperative future
If you need a ticket, I can get you one for offers
Present simple tense Modal+verb (V1)
If you go on like this, you will make yourself ill. for threats
Present simple tense Future tense
If you don’t apologize, I will never speak to you again. for warning
Present simple tense Future tense
If Hawa finishes it today, She is going to visit you
Present simple tense be+going to

Note: Negative forms of the verb can be used in the condition or result clause or both.
Common Students Errors

Common students errors Explanation

If it will rain tonight, I will call you for a Do not use will or be going to in the if-
ride home. clause
Lightning can cause severe damage to a Do not use a comma after the result clause.
building, if they touchdown. Use a comma after the if clause.
Unless you don’t start at once, you will be Don’t use unless /if not with another
late. But, unless you start at once, you will negative verb. (Wrong: unless+don’t)
be late. Unless you start=if you don’t instead it is good to use (Right: unless+
start=correct affirmative verb=start)
 Unless you will work much harder, you If/unless+will is a wrong expression. (i.e.
won’t pass the exam. (wrong) with if we use present tense to talk about the
Instead it is possible for request.
future).
If you will just wait a moment, I’ll find
someone to help you. We can use will (if + will) when we make a
(please wait a moment…). request.

Activity: Read conditions in the present or future

Circle the real conditions from the list of items from gardening pamphlet
1. If you choose the wrong plants for your garden, the plants will not grow
2. The plants may not need fertilizer if the soil is rich
3. If plants are not covered with mulch, diseases cannot infect them so easily.
4. If you put a small fence around your garden, it may help keep unwanted animal out.
5. If weeds are not picked, the plants have to complete for water and nutrients.
Unless
Unless is used in conditional sentence to mean if…not or “except if”. Thus, it is not used
with a negative clause.

Unless (if-clause) Meaning (if…not)

Pattern Unless+affirmative verb or if+ negative
Unless she loves you, I will settle your If she doesn’t love you, I will settle your
verb.
problems. problems
Unless he reads this book, he won’t answer If he does not read this book, he won’t
the question answer the question
You cannot be successful unless you live You cannot be successful if you don’t live
wisely wisely
Unless she studies hard, she would not pass If she does not study hard, she will not pass
the exam. the exam
Unless it rains, I’ll pick you up at 6:00. If it doesn’t rain, I’ll pick you up at 6:00.
We cannot avoid soil erosion unless we We cannot avoid soil erosion if we don’t
plant trees around the hills. plant trees around the hills
Unless the girl is happy, I won’t talk with If the girl is not happy, I won’t talk with her
her
Second conditional (Unreal condition in the present or future)
The second conditional is also known as unlikely/unreal/ improbable conditional. Unreal
conditions in the present or future express situations that are untrue, not possible, or
imaginary in the present and that probably will not happen in the future. Although it is
possible that the situation could change and become true in the future, it probably will not.
Unreal conditions in the present or future use the simple past form in the if-clause and would,
could or might+the base form of the verb in the result clause. The form is in the past but the
meaning is present/future to say that the past tense form doesn’t refer to past time. There is
no difference in time between the first and the second conditional sentences.i.e. type 2 like
type 1 refers to present or future. To sum up, the past tense in the if clause is not a true past
but a subjective, which indicates unreality. Now look at the following structure of second
conditionals.

Unreal (imaginary) Imaginary result or main Meaning

condition or (if clause) clause
If I had time, I could take a long vacation I don’t have time
Simple past Would/could/might+V1 Present
If I were you, I would plan the picnic for I am not you
Simple past Sunday Present
If heavy rain hit the It would destroy everything. Heavy rain will probably
town, Would/could/might+V1 not hit the town (Future)
Simple past
If she joined a travel She might not feel so lonely. She has not joined a travel
club, Would/could/might+V1 club yet (Future)
Common Students Errors

Common students errors Explanation

If they know the answer right now, I would Use the past tense for unreal conditions in
tell you the present
If I was you, I would memorize this rule Use were instead of was for the verb be for
about unreal conditions all persons, singular and plural.
If I was better qualified, I’d apply for the In unreal conditions in the present or future
job (if I was=less formal) “was” is used only in very informal
language.
Instead it is good to use.
If I were better qualified, I’d apply for a job
If we were serious about pollution, we We
(if I don’t use past
were=more tense or past perfect after
formal)
would spent more money on research would in main clause
(wrong). Instead it is good to use.
If we were serious about pollution, we had
If we were serious about pollution, we
spent more money on research (right)
would spend more money on research
(right)

Inversion
Inversion is using a verb before a subject. In inversion, the subject comes after the verb.
Inversion is possible with improbable and impossible conditions. In inversion, we begin a
sentence with were or had but not was.
 Inversion Example Meaning
Were I you Were I you, I would go to USA. I am not you
(If I were you…) (Unreal condition in the present or future)
Had I Had i a villa house, i would be happy I haven’t villa so I am not happy
(If i had…) (Unreal condition in the present or future)

had I had Had i been you, i wouldn’t marry her (unreal condition in in the past or
(If I had had….) present)
Were I Were I a doctor, I would help I am not a doctor so, I cannot help
patients patients
Had Hanna (If
HadI were a doctor…)
Hanna had some money, she Hanna hasn’t money…Thus, she did not
had might have bought this jacket. buy this jacket
(If Hanna had had money...)

Third conditional (Unreal condition in the past)

Unreal conditions in the past express situations that did not happen. Consequently, it is
impossible for the results of the situations to happen. Unreal condition in the past are often
used to express regret about the situation. Unreal conditions in the past use the past perfect
form in the if clause and would have, could have, or might have plus the past participle of the
verb in the result clause. In general, it is to talk about things that can never happen now. It is
to talk about past situations which didn’t happen and therefore, are impossible. It expresses
consequences which didn’t /couldn’t happen. If clause=assume something purely imaginary
but main clause consider the imagined consequences. That is why it refers to something that
didn’t happen in the past. They are therefore, called ‘hypothetical conditions.’

Unreal past condition/ if Result or main clause Meaning

clause
If we had saved more we could have taken a longer We didn’t save money, so
money, vacation we were not able to take a
Past perfect tense would/could/might+have+V3 longer vacation
If you had been on time, we would not have missed the We weren’t on time, so we
Past perfect tense plane. missed the plane
would/could/might+have+V3
If it hadn’t rain so hard, It would have been a perfect It rained hard, so it was not
Past perfect day a perfect day.
would/could/might+have+V3
If you had bought her you might not have had to pay You did not buy your ticket
ticket last spring, so much. last spring, so you had to
Past perfect would/could/might+have+V3 pay a lot for it later.
Note: we use would have +V3 when we feel certain/nearly certain, but we use could have
+V3 and might have +V3 when we do not feel certain.

Common students errors Explanation

If I studied more last night, I could have Do not use simple past tense. Instead you
done better on this morning’s test. must use past perfect tense.
If he’d had more time, he’d have taken up a Do not get confused. The ‘d can be either
new sport. had or would. Example, he’d had=he had
had
he’d have taken up=he would have taken

Zero Conditionals
Is used to express something which is always true (general truth/scientific fact) that happen
under certain circumstances. It uses the pattern: If clause+present simple and main
clause+present simple. Will can be omitted or it cannot be used at all.

Zero- condition/ if clause Result or main clause Meaning

If you heat water, it boils General truth/ facts
If you heat ice, it melts
If you add oil in water, it floats
If you go higher, you get colder
present simple present simple
If you eat too much food, you get fat Habitual/customs
If a dog sees a strange it barks
people, present simple
Words/phrases which has similar meaning with ‘If’
It is true that the following words/phrases can be used instead of if without a significant
meaning difference. They help to emphasize more the condition that needs to be present so
that something can happen or be done.

Words/phrases used instead of Example

‘If’
suppose (that) / supposing that Supposing that we miss the train, what shall we do?
Meaning: if we miss the train, what shall we do?
 provided (that)/providing (that) Provided that you work hard today, you will gain
too much tomorrow.
Meaning: if you work hard today, you will gain too
much tomorrow.
on condition that He will buy a car on condition that he sells his
Ihouse
will tell you what really happened as long as you
as long as/so long as keep the secret.
He will buy a car so long as he sells his house or
He will buy a car as long as he sells his house
only if We will invest the money, but only if you can prove
that it’s a safe investment.

The Main difference between Conditionals

Note: the difference between, conditionals for example, if i go...and if i went or if i

speak...and if i spoke...is not a difference of time. Because they can both refer to the present
or future. However, the difference is the probability of conditions to be happen.

Note: the past tense (would) usually suggest that the speaker thinks the situation is less
probable or less definite or impossible or imaginary.
Compare:
If I become president, i will reduce corruption (said by a candidate in an election)
If I became president, i would reduce corruption (said by a school boy)
If I win the race, i believe that i will earn much money (said by the faster runner)
If I won the race, i believe that i would earn much money (said by the slowest runner).

Note: In the examples above, if i become and if i win are more likely to happen. There will
be a great chance. On the other hand, if i became and if i won are less likely to happen or
there will be less chance.

1. Circle the correct words in parentheses in the following dialogues (1-4).

Dialogue 1

Tigist: What’s wrong? You look really stressed out about something.
Kedir: It’s this research paper I’m writing. The outline is due tomorrow, and I’m still
working on it. If I don’t finish it tonight, I (get, will get, would get) an F!
Tigist: Well, I can help you if you (need, will need, would need) it.
Kedir: Really? That would be great! I get off work at 4:30. Man, I feel better already.
Dialogue 2

Almaz: Are you ready? Let’s go. The movie starts in half an hour. We need to leave right
now if we (want, wanted, will want, would want) to get there in time.
Muhaba: I know, I know, but I can’t find my wallet.
Almaz: Can I do something to help you get ready?
Muhaba: Well, if you helped me look for it instead of telling me what time it was, that (is,
was, would be) a big help.
Almaz: Okay. But let me say just one more thing: I’d keep my wallet in the same place
every day if I (am, were, can be) you. That way I’d always know where it was.
Dialogue 3

Bontu: How was your Spanish exam, Hadas?

Hadas: Fine, I guess. I got a B. I could have got a better mark provided I (worked, work, had
worked, have worked) on the verbs. And you?
Bontu: I didn’t study and I failed, but I (would fail, will fail, would have failed) even if I had
studied; that’s why I decided not to do it.
Hadas: That’s not true. Nobody fails an exam as long as they (study, studied, had studied).

Dialogue 4

Mother: You can't go out. That's out of question.

Son: Please, mum. Can I go out on condition that I (did, do, have done, had done) all my
homework before leaving.
Mother: Well, if you (do, did, had done, have done) your homework when I asked you, you
would be allowed to go out now.
Son: But I didn't hear you. If I had heard you, I (would have done, will do, would do, will
have
done) it.
Mother: That's the problem; you never listen. It (won’t, wouldn’t, wouldn’t have) hurt if you
listened to me once in a while. If you (did, do, had done, have done) it more often, your
life would be much easier.
Q. What would you do if you were the mother? Write your answer and show it to a partner.

Worksheet About Conditional tense

Task 1: Circle the correct verb in the if-clause or result clause to make a real
conditional in the present or future. Take correction when necessary.
Playing at the park

Every weekend, if the weather is nice, I (1) (will spend/spend) time outside with my sisters.
One of their favourite things to do is to go to a nearby park. If we ride our bikes to the park, it
(2) (takes/will take) about 10 minutes. If there (3) (is/ will be) a lot of traffic, it takes a little
longer. Once we get to the park, my sisters choose their favourite playground equipment to
play on. Jerry likes climbing walls, but if she (4) (climbs/will climb) too high. I start to get
nervous. I always have to remind her, “if you’re not careful, you (5) (fall/will fall) and hurt
yourself.” Her reaction is usually to roll her eyes at me. My younger sister, Arssema loves to
play on the seesaw. On the way to the park, she almost always asks me, “Abel, if there (6)
(is/will be) no one for me to play with, (7) (do/will) you go on the seesaw with me?” If she
(8) (finds/will find) someone to play with at the park, she (9) (will spend/should spend) the
entire time on the seesaw. Sometimes, I talk to the other parents who are there. After an hour
or so, my sisters and I ride our bikes back home. On the way, I tell them, “if the weather is
nice next weekend, we (10) (come/will come) back.”

Task 2: Fill in each blank with the correct form of the verb given in parentheses to
make
conditional or result clauses in the following dialogue.

Kebede: Can't you stop playing that trumpet? You're making awful noise.
Lapiso: Well, unless I practice, I (1) _________ (pass) my exam.
Kebede: But why at night? It's half past twelve. If you (2) _______(play) it in the daytime, I
would not have heard you because I'd be at work. I'm afraid it's becoming a nuisance.
Lapiso: I'm sorry, but you can't play a trumpet quietly.
Kebede: Had I realized a year ago what you were going to do, then I would have thrown you
out long ago. If you (3) _________(keep) on making this noise at night, I will complain
about it to your college.

Task 3: Fill in each blank with the correct form of the verb given in parentheses to
make
 conditional or result clauses in the following dialogue.

If I were world leader, I (1) __________(try) to stop the destruction of the existing earth and
I would make the world a better place for all people. If the world’s problems had been
tackled sooner, the quality of life (2)___________(improve) long ago. First of all, i would
try to bring about peace in the world. As long as there is fighting between nations, millions of
people will continue to suffer and die. If wars continue, children will be left without parents
and growing up in a world of misery and fear. But as long as people disagree over land and
possessions, the fighting. (3)______ (go on). Therefore, I would ensure that all people were
treated as equals and given the same opportunities in life. It would also help if all countries
(4) __________ (stop) producing arms so there would no longer be the weapons with which
to fight. In addition, I would introduce laws to reduce pollution. If pollution levels controlled
earlier, life (5)__________(not/become) so unbearable. If I (6) ___________ (have) the
power, I would ban all cars from city centres and increase public transport. If there were
more trees, the air we breathe (7) __________ (be) cleaner. Unless measures are taken soon,
it would be too late both for ourselves and our children.

2.3. Reading: Health and fitness

A. Read quickly the text below and find the main idea of each paragraph. Take notes while
you read to help you capture the main ideas. The first one has been done for you as an
example.

Team Sports
There are so many ways to exercise, both to alone and with friends. Team sports are one of
the best ways, for a lot of reasons, and there are so many of them to try!

When you join a team sport, there are regular practices and games. Keeping on a routine and
schedule means you will stick with exercise. It makes you keep going because you have
made a promise to the team to show up and play.

Team sports allow for health competition. You can’t always win, but you can certainly try
your best to win! When you don’t quite make it, make sure you show good sportsmanship!
Don’t be rude to other players or teams when you win, and don’t pouf if you lost. Just
practice and try again. There are always more chances. Team sports are also a lot more fun
than doing something alone. You can make a lot of friends and learn a lot of things about
games and other people.

There are a lot of different sports, something for everyone! Do you like action sports? Try
karate, football, boxing, hockey, taekwondo, rugby, or other sports like that. Do you like
having to hit and catch a ball? try baseball, basketball, volleyball, tennis, cricket, lacrosse, or
similar sports. Do you like sports where accuracy counts? Try bowing ping pong, billiards,
pool, archery, and target shooting. How about sports that take balance and rhythm? Try
competitive dancing, gymnastics, cheerleading, and that kind of sports. Don’t forget those
sports where you have to swim! Try water pool, diving, swimming, and other fun water
games! There are games that take speed, too! Try snowboarding, running, skiing, sailing,
racing, and other fast sports!

Try a whole bunch of sports. Each one is fun in a different way. Enjoy a healthy life style
and have fun at the same time!

Study note
Identifying main ideas
The main idea is the central, or most important idea in a paragraph or passage. It states the
purpose and sets the direction of the paragraph or passage. The main idea may be stated or it
may be implied. When the main idea of a paragraph is stated, it is most often found in the first
sentence of the paragraph. However, the main idea may be found in any sentence of the
paragraph. The main idea may be stated in the first sentence of a paragraph and then be
repeated or restated at the end of the paragraph.

2.4. Vocabulary: Guessing Meaning from Context

Learning how to guess the meanings of words you don’t know is an important skill. Nobody
wants to look every word up in a dictionary! If you learn how to guess the unfamiliar words
in sentences, then you won’t have to read with your dictionary open all the time. In such case,
context clues are useful for learning new words and better understanding of what you read. It
can help you to figure out the meanings of new words. Therefore, in order to easily
understand the meaning of an unknown word from its context, you can apply a strategy called
LPR3. It is a useful aid for predicting the meanings of unfamiliar words from contexts. The
LPR3 is explained as follows:

Look - before, at, and after the new word as it gives some clue about the new word.
Predict - quickly predict the word's meaning, remembering that a wrong prediction is
often a good start
Reason - think more carefully about the word's meaning, trying to be as precise as the
context clues permit
Resolve - recognize that you may need to take other steps (e.g., look it up, ask someone)
Redo- go through the steps again if necessary

It’s not a good habit to drag dictionaries every time when you find new words in texts.
However, look it up a word only if you do not have adequate context clues. For example;
Melat's reply was incoherent. In addition to dictionaries you can use your prior knowledge,
ask people (teachers, friends, parents…) or analyse word parts (prefix, root word, suffix).
Good readers make effort to understand the new words from the context in a text before
consulting dictionaries or asking the appropriate people. There are four types of context clues
to look for: These are;
definition (synonym clue) contrast (antonym clue),
example clue and logic of the text (inference).

A. Definition (synonym) clues

Many times, a writer defines (gives a synonym of) a word immediately following its use. The
writer may directly a word by giving a brief definition or a synonym (words that have the
same meaning). As means, is, refers to, is known as and can be defined as are often used in
definition clues.
Example

1. Corona refers to the outermost part of the sun’s atmosphere.

2. A soliloquy is a speech made by a character in a play that reveals his or her thoughts to
the audience.
Another time, rather than formally define the word, a writer may provide you with clues or
hints. Punctuation is often used to signal that a definition clue to a word’s meaning is to
follow. It also separates the meaning clue (synonym) from the rest of the sentence. Three
punctuation marks -commas, parentheses, and dashes -are used in this way.
Example
1. Many diseases have latent periods, periods of time between the infection and the first
appearance of a symptom.
2. Lithium (an alkali metal) is so soft; it can be cut with a knife.
3. Ancient Egyptians wrote in hieroglyphics – pictures used to represent words.

B. Example clues
Writers often include examples that help to explain or clarify an unfamiliar word. Suppose
that you do not know the meaning of dolmings. Have a look at the following sentence: In
history, mankind has built several dolmings such as villas, huts and wooden houses. The
above sentence provides three examples of dolmings. From the examples given, you could
conclude that dolmings means shelters.
C. Contrast (Antonym) clues

It is sometimes to determine the meaning of an unknown word from a word or phrase in the
context that has an opposite meaning. In the following, how a word opposite in meaning
from the boldfaced word provides a clue to its meaning: for example; One of the dinner
guests succumbed to the temptation to have a second piece of cake, but the others resisted.

Although you may not know the meaning of succumbed, you know that the one guest was
different from the others who resisted. The word ‘but’ suggests this. Since the others resisted
the second dessert, you can tell that one guest gave in and hand a piece. Thus, succumbed
means the opposite of resist; that is, to give into.

Example

Some city dwellers are affluent; others live in or near poverty.

I am certain that the hotel will hold our reservation; but, if you are dubious, call to make
sure.
Although most experts concurred with the research findings, several strongly disagreed.

D. Inference (logic of the text clues)

Many times, you can figure out the meaning of new words by using logic and reasoning
skills. Because, the general sense of the text enables you to understand the contextual
meaning of a certain new words. For instance, look at the following sentences:
Nitsuh is quite versatile; she is a clever student, a top athlete, an excellent car mechanic and
a gourmet cook. If you can see that, Nitsuh is successful in different types of activities, and
you could reason that ‘versatile’ means ‘capable of doing many things competently’.

Vocabulary skills (the contextual meanings of words)

Task 1: Guess the meanings of the following boldface words as it is used in the given
text.
1. My absent-minded uncle loses his keys, his book and his chalk almost every day! What
does it mean to be absent-minded?
A. Be hatful B. Not pay attention C. Be- intelligent D. Not-like
someone
2. When Sara was sick, her voice was almost inaudible. We couldn’t hear what she was
trying to say clearly. What does inaudible probably mean?
A. very loud, easy to hear C. very soft, hard to hear
B. very strange, un common D. very shy, introverted
3. Chaltu has so many friends because she is a gregarious person. What does gregarious
probably mean?
A. introverted, self-contained C. rude, hostile
B. shy, quiet D. friendly, outgoing
4. After the harvest, we had an abundant amount of apples. We made apples pie, and
apples juice because we had so many apples1 what does abundant probably mean?
A. Shortage B. Not enough C. Plentiful D. Very red
5. The thought of eating a rat is abhorrent to most people. What does abhorrent probably
mean?
A. Horrible, repugnant B. Fun, lively C. Delicious, tasty D. Sweet, sugary
 Unit 3: Cultural Values
3.2. Grammar: The present simple, past simple, and past perfect in
contrast

The present Simple

It expresses events, or situations that exist always, usually, habitually, and factual. They exist
now, have existed in the past and probably will exist in the future. Its forms are presented as
Sub+V1.

Uses Examples
To express something which happens I get up every day at 6am
regularly A nurse treats patients
To express a general truth The sun rises in the east
Lion is the king of forest
Dog is a faithful animal
The sun rise in the east
To express a permanent situation My brother teaches in university
I come from Harar
To express ability (can and be able to) I speak English language
My brother plays tennis
I can’t read doctor’s handwriting
To talk about future actions The bus leaves today at 5pm
For repeated/regular actions (always) I always read a story book
My mother always goes to the market every Friday
To express speaker’s opinions or beliefs I think he is a good teacher

To express condition in if clause (likely If she comes, call me please.

condition)
To express instructions First, activate the power, then take the photograph.
To express scientific facts (which has Water consists of Hydrogen and Oxygen
been proved by science) The earth revolves round the world
Water boils at 1000 c
Water freezes at zero degrees

Task: Complete the sentences with the correct form of the simple present tense
 1. The students at HU__________hard. (work)
2. Many Ethiopians___________more than one language fluently. (speak)
3. My best friend ____________her clothes on Sunday. (wash)
4. Teff____________in Ethiopia. (grow)
5. My mother______________to church every day. (go)
6. My older sister_____________3 children -2 girls and one boy. (have)
7. Water____________when the temperature is below 0°C. (freeze)
8. My father _____________to relax on Sunday afternoons. (like)

Task: Change the following simple present tense statements into negative and question
form

Statement Negative Question

She speaks English

We play basket ball
He drinks alcohol
I chew khat
They leave tonight
It lives here

Task: Complete the sentences with the negative form of the simple present:

1. I__________on Sunday morning because I go to church. (study)

2. My best friend__________to dance. (like)
3. My brother is married but he __________children. (have)
4. Most students at HU__________drugs. (take)
5. A liar is someone who ____________the truth. (tell)
6. When Orthodox Christians are fasting, they ___________meat, eggs or dairy. (eat)

The Past Simple

Indicates that an action or activity began and completed at a particular time in the past (before
now) and have no connection to the present. The time of the action can be in recent past or
the distant past.
Example
She went to college last year (recent)
Colombous discovered America in 1419. (distant)
You might use it to answer a question about your past:
Example
Tana: which sports did you do during your childhood?
Fasil: I played football a lot and I often went swimming with my friends
Tana: have you always lived in Addis Ababa?
Fasil: No. I was born in Bale and I spent most of my childhood there. We moved to
Addis when I was 10 years old.
Form: Subject+V2

Its Uses Examples

To express or say when something happened. Here I saw able yesterday
it can associate with certain past time expressions We finished the job last week
or time indicators like yesterday/last week, year, Sadam was sentenced in 2001
month.../in 2001/ago/then/when....
To express past habit with ‘used to”. We use used She used to live in Gondar. (But now she
to for finished habits and situation doesn’t, no longer she lives there).
I used to travel a lot (I don’t do this
anymore)
To express the wish/regret in the present (I I wish I did my best (but I don’t)
wish+past tense) I wish I were rich (but I am not)
I wish I could play guitar (but I can’t)
I wish I wrote to her (but I don’t)
To describe the sequence of events such as when I saw the old woman across the road. She
we are telling a story or an anecdote was alone and tried to walk quickly but she
couldn’t........
After I got home from class, I changed into
some clean clothes and then went shopping
to get some fruit for dinner

Task: Answer the following questions

Affirmative Negative Question
 I worked here
Did you work here?
I didn’t work here
We/they

Past Perfect Tense

Is used to talk about things that happened in the past before something else happened or
before a particular time. In this tense had is common for all kinds of persons. Pattern:
Subject+had+V3.

Uses Examples
To express the fact that one of When I arrived there the concert had already started.
the two actions was done earlier Earlier action, the concert had already started and
than the other latter action, I arrived there.
By the time she got home, she found that somebody had
broken into the flat.
First action, somebody had broken into the flat and
second action, she got home
First the thief escaped. Then the police arrived. (The thief had
escaped when the police arrived). (Meaning= the thief had
escaped before the police arrived).
When i arrived, he had left. (Before i got there).
To express an action completed At the age of 25, he had completed his PhD
at a certain point of time in the He had completed the paper with in half the allotted time.
past.
To express an unfulfilled wish I didn’t start Earlier-I wish I had started earlier.
referring to the past.

Worksheet about How to use Tense

Task 1: Fill in the blanks with an appropriate tense form.

Sandra Fisher, (speaks / speak / is speaking) 42 languages. As well as (speak / speaking) her
native German and English, she (pick / picked / has picked) up the Italian and Greek (speak /
speaking / spoken) by immigrants in her home town; she also quickly (learn / has
learned /learned) the Aboriginal language (speak / spoken / speaking) by the Corrie children
at her primary school. She can’t explain how she (manages / managed / is managing) to do
this. She says that she only (have / has / had) to listen for a few minutes before she
(start /starts / started) speaking.

Task 2: Complete the text below by changing the verbs given in the parentheses into
their
correct tense form.

Good morning! This is the seven o’clock news. The traffic police station at Addis Ababa city
(1)_______(report) that at least eleven people (2)________(die) in a serious accident on a
crossing road vehicle collision. It (3) __________(attest) that the accident happened when a
minibus carrying more than fifteen passengers (4)_________(crash) into Addis Ababa city
bus an hour ago. Eyewitness testified that there (5)________(be) a thick fog at the time of the
accident. According to the report from the station, a local farmer saw the collision and alerted
the emergency services, who rushed to the scene. Lifesavers from Addis Ababa police station
worked there for the last two hours, and they (6)________(just/manage) to free the last
survivors. An ambulance (7)________ (already/ take) the most seriously injured to the black
lion hospital. The police (8) ______ (not release) any names of the died and the wounded
yet.

Task 3: Complete the text below by changing the verbs given in the parentheses into
their
correct tense form.

I really (1)_________(like) learning English. I (2)________(start) it two years ago. I hope I

(3)________(have) strong advanced level next year. I(4)_______(study) very intensively
now. In other words, I (5)_________(learn) English for two years. When I
(6)________(take) up English, my brother was learning intensively too. Have you ever
(7)_______(try) to learn English very intensively? I will be waiting for your answer. My
friend (8)_______(tell) me that he had tried lots of different methods but without success.
When I came to him, he (9)________(read) an English book for about an hour. I
(10)_________(complete) this course by next year. To be more exact, I will have been doing
this course for five months by next year.

Task 4: Fill the following blank space with the correct given verbs to make it a good
sense.
1 2
I _______ (just/received) an email from our customer in Addis so far. They
________(need) more Harar Coffee as they 3_________ (give out) entire stock over the last
few months. They 4_______ (have) a stand at the “Genna Expo” and 5__________
(distribute) a thousand of tons. Now they 6________ (want) us to send another 10, 000
kilos. I 7________ (already/contact) sales to see if they have any spare, but I 8_______
(think) we’ll need some more.

Task 5: Complete the text below by changing the given words in the parentheses into
their correct forms. Use either simple past/ simple present and present prefect tense.

My English is really getting better. I (try) _______ 1to learn the language every day, but only
recently have I been able to make some real progress. By the time I_______2(start) high
school in 1999, I (study) _________3 the language for almost three years; however, I was
only able to introduce myself and say a few memorized sentences. For more than two years, I
(struggle) ________4through grammar and vocabulary lessons, which made absolutely no
difference. Nothing worked, so I decided to join English institution. I found an exchange
program in Somali that sounded like the perfect answer. I________ 5(stay) 4with a host
family for one month. It was a huge disappointment! I_______ 6(sit) there the whole time
staring at the host mother and father hoping that there would be some breakthrough. Nothing.
When I returned, I mentioned to a friend that I (have)_______ 7problems with the language
for years. He recommended that I spend a year in an English speaking country. Now I have
decided to go abroad. But I ______8(never, go) to abroad yet. Any ways, if I _______9(go)
there, I will focus on I should be completely fluent.
Task 6: Complete the following short conversation by supplying the verb in the correct
tense, past simple or present perfect.

Ahmed: What do you do?

Derartu: I ______(work) for a private hotel since 2013. I ________(start) in the reception
department and then________(move) into management section in 2007. I ______(always
enjoy) working with people and during the past few months I ______(attend) two courses in
human resource management.

Task 7: Fill in the blank space in each item with the present perfect or the past simple
form of the verb given in parentheses.

Ramadan: Addise, may I ask you a question? How long _______ you _____unemployed?
(be)
Addise: Since February, 2018. But I ________ (apply) for a teaching position at Haramaya
High School last week.
Ramadan: In what field of study did you graduate?
Addise: I _________(receive) a BA degree in English in January,2018.
Ramadan: It sounds great. _________ you ever ________ any teaching experience? (have)
Addise: Sure! I ________(use to) teach English to high school students when I was second
year university student.
Ramadan: When do you have an interview?
Addise: I ________ (not know) the date yet? I will tell you when I am informed of it.
Ramadan: I hope so! You should be prepared for the interview.
Addise: Thanks, I’m doing that! See you later.
Ramadan: Okay, bye!

1.3. Strategies for improving English grammar knowledge

Study Note

Though there has been varied views on the definition of the term grammar learning strategy,
many scholars tend to have the opinion that the definition of the term strategy may involve
techniques, tactics, ways, learning skills, functional skills, basic skills, cognitive abilities,
language processing skills, problem-solving procedures, preferred learning behavior, specific
learning actions and the likes.

So, the strategy is a problem-solving strategy in which you use general rules in approaching
English language learning. In other words, you use previously learned or acquired conceptual
knowledge to drive specific information about the linguistic form, meaning or a speaker’s
intention.
Thus, it is quite important to emphasize on the significance of grammar knowledge to the
success among good language learners. A number of scholars refer to grammar as the heart,
the core or the frame of language learning. Wang (2010), for example, states grammar is just
like a frame of house, without this framework, good materials and building blocks cannot
constitute a solid house. This confirms that have a clear strategy to improve knowledge of
grammar is very useful; it helps you to be able to shape the order and organization of
information more effectively.

Deductive and inductive approaches to learning grammar

The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that in inductive reasoning
you search for specific meanings or rule, whereas in deductive case you try to use and look
for more general meaning/information based on a given context.

In this strategy, you try to practices the mastery of a language item or a grammatical point.
Remember, practice is often characterized by the act of repetition, rehearsal, experimentation,
application of rules and repeated attention to details. This strategy contributes much to the
storage and retrieval of language knowledge or data in the process.

Activity: Choose and explain the strategies which you prefer to improve your English
grammar knowledge about learning a language structure.
1. I learn English grammar better as a result of mere repetition
2. I learn grammar better as a result of comprehension
3. I learn grammar better when I get chance to link new topics to previously known topics
4. I learn grammar better through using the grammar items to communicate my own ideas
when I talk with my partners or classmates
5. I learn an item of English grammar better when there is a chance to extract a general
language rule from a serious of experiences
6. I learn better when I imitate grammatical items/ grammatical structures after my teacher
7. I think I learn grammar unconsciously while I consciously try to deal with problem-
solving tasks or activities
8. I learn a grammar item better when I use it to express what I already know.
 Unit 4: Wild Animals
4.3. Vocabulary: Denotative and connotative meanings

What does to know a word mean? One of the many things that one has to know about a word
is its denotative and connotative meanings. To understand a word fully and use it correctly, it
is necessary to know both its denotation (the standard definition) and its connotation (the
feelings associated with it). If we are not fully aware of a word's connotation, we may choose
an inappropriate synonym in our writing. This can lead to confusion or even to our reader
taking offense. For example, consider the words "group," "clique" and "club". All these three
words have basically the same denotative meaning: a set of more than one person. However,
each of these words has a different connotative meaning. This shows that when we study a
new word, we should attend to its denotative and connotative meanings

Some may think about the denotation of a word (its dictionary meaning) and the
(connotation-the implied meanings and associations) when choosing word. In fact, every
word has at least two definitions: connotative and denotative. Is there more to a word than
how it is defined in the dictionary? So, what’s the difference? Many words have multiple
meanings or can be implied to mean something other than the definition we find in the
dictionary. The connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings.
For example, the denotation of the word snake is legless, and sometimes “reptiles”. Whereas
the connotations for the word snake could include evil or danger. Another example: “She’s
my baby”. What is its denotative meaning? It is clear that its denotative meaning is infant
and its connotative meaning is: girlfriend. Thus, one can conclude that, the denotative
definition is based on the literal definition of a word whereas the connotative definition is the
figurative or emotional meaning of a word.
Main word Denotative meaning Connotative meaning
Cheap low in cost poorly made
The couple has a commitment a pledge to do an emotional connection
to each other (commitment) to another person
The dress she was wearing was fixed firmly in place good, fantastic, awesome
really tight. (tight)
4.4. Grammar focus: Conditionals Revised

National Parks What one can see in Your sentences

in Ethiopia the parks
Kafta Sheraro African elephant If tourists go to the Semien Kafta Sherara National
National Park Ground squirrel Park, they will see_____________.
Crested porcupine
Semien Walia ibex ________________________________________
Mountains Gelada baboon
National Park Caracal
Bale Mountains Mountain Nyala ________________________________________
National Park Ethiopian wolf
Spotted hyena
Nechisar Plains zebra ________________________________________
National Park Greater kude
Dik-dik
Yangudi Rassa Beisa oryx ________________________________________
National Park Abyssinian mohr
Grevy’s zebra
Other Parks ____________________________________
______________________________________
_____________________________________

1. Try to complete the following table. Write your own example sentences for each
conditional type.
Conditional If-clause or result-clause Main clause
Type I
Example:
Type II
Example:
Type III
Example:
 Unit 5: Population
5.3. Vocabulary: Collocation

A collocation is a set of words that often go together. It refers to a relationship between words
that frequently occur together. For example: pretty girl, pretty boy, pretty women. So,
combination of these (collocations) just sounds ‘right’ to native speakers, who use them all
the time. On the other hand, other combination may be un natural and just sound ‘wrong.’
That is why collocation refers to how words go together or form fixed relationship.
Collocation is a way in which some words are often used together and sound natural together.

Example

Say the fast train, not the quick train.

Say make lunch, not do lunch.
Say nock the door, not touch the door
Say a quick shower, not a fast shower
Say blonde hair, not beige hair (for female)
Say discharged from hospital, not released from hospital
There are some other ways in which we can make collocations in English.

Verbs that collocate with nouns:

Example: take a bath instead of saying do a bath,
make an effort instead of do an effort, and
commit a crime instead of do a crime and so on.

Adverbs that collocate with adjective:

Example: highly controversial instead of very controversial,
deeply offended instead of very offended,
bitterly disappointed instead of very disappointed....

Types of collocations
Collocations are composed of verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Some of the most common types
are:
Adverb + adjective e.g. commit suicide
Verb +noun e.g. excruciating pain
Verb +adverb e.g. wave frantically
Noun +verb e.g. lions roar
Some words occur with other words in predictable way. This is called collocation.
Collocation is a sequence of words or terms that co-occur in a conventional style. In other
words, collocations are partly or fully fixed expressions that become established through
repeated context specific use.

Such terms as ‘crystal clear’, ‘middle management’, ‘nuclear family’, ‘pay attention’, ‘fast
food’, ‘make an effort’ and ‘cosmetic surgery’ are examples of collocated pairs of words.
Collocation is one of the things that you need to know about a word. Therefore, it is
important that you focus on collocation when you study vocabulary.

Try to find as many words or groups of words as you can which the words written in bold in
the following table collocate with examples are given to help you.
have Do Make take break catch
a bath Business a noise a break a habit a disease
a drink nothing a difference a chance a leg a ball
a holiday a favour a mess a look a promise a bus
a problem the cooking a mistake a rest a record a cold
a relationship the house a noise a taxi a window a thief
a good time work an effort a seat someone’s a fire
a rest your best furniture an exam heart a flu
a lunch your hair money notes the ice someone’s
sympathy your progress someone’s the rules eye
homework trouble place
Pay save keep come go get
Attention time a promise close abroad angry
by cash energy a diary direct bad a job
interest money a promise early blind a shock
the bill yourself for a secret first crazy divorced
the price the trouble calm last dark drunk
respect something to in touch on time deaf married
by credit a life quite right back mad permission
card someone’s place second on foot pregnant
an appointment a decision on line ready
to an end to war upset

Now, find more words that co-occur with the words written in bold in the above table.
Task 1: Fill in the blanks using appropriate verbs that would complete the collocation.

1. If you park there, you will have to __________ a fine.

A. pay B. take C. have D. revenue

2. I __________ a cough to catch her attention.
A. paid B. gave C. took D. grabbed
3. Few people can __________ a secret.
A. have B. save C. keep D. bar
4. He still __________ in touch with most of his old school mates.
A. take B. saves C. hoards D. keeps
5. They __________ close to hitting each other.
A. came B. took C. brought D. seized
5.4. Grammar focus: Voice

"Voice" refers to the connection between the subject and the object of a sentence, which is
linked through a verb. Active voice means that a sentence has a subject that acts upon its
verb. In active forms, the subject of the sentence is the person or thing that does the action
whereas in passive constructions, the subject receives the action.
Form
Both the active voice and the passive voice can be used with different tenses and with
modals. The tense of the passive sentence is shown in the verb ‘be’. Use the past participle
with every tense. If two verbs in the passive voice are connected with ‘and’, do not repeat
‘be’.
Example
The Oscar ceremony is televised and seen by millions of people.

Both the active voice and the passive voice can be used with different tenses and with
modals. The tense of the passive sentence is shown in the verb ‘be’. Use the past participle
with every tense. The following recapitulates active and passive forms of all verb tenses.
Tense Active verb form Passive verb form
Present simple base form or “es/-s” form am/is/are+V3
Present am/is/are+-ing am/is/are+being +V3
progressive
Present has/have+V3 has/have+been+V3
perfect
Past simple simple past (V2) forms was/were+V3
Past was/were+-ing was/were+being +V3
progressive
Past perfect had+V3 had+been+V3
Future simple will/shall+V1 will/shall+be+V3
Future will be +-ing will+being+V3
progressive
Future prefect will have+V3 will have been+V3
Present would/could/should/might+V1 would/could/should/might+be+V3
conditional
Perfect would/could/should+have+V3 would/could/should +have+been+ V3
conditional
Modals modal+V1 modal+be+V3
Infinitives to+V1 to be +V3
to have +V3 to have been +V3
Participles -ing being +V3
having +V3 having been +V3
be (going to) am/is/are+going to +V1 am/is/are going to +be +V3
was/were going to +V1 was/were going to +be +V3
Uses
The active voice focuses on the person who does the action.
Haramaya University awards scholarships to several foreign students every year.
We will prepare the report, and Gemechu will proofread it.
The passive voice focuses on the receiver or the result of the action.
Several foreign students are awarded a scholarship by Haramaya University.
The report will be written by us, and it will be proofread by Gemechu
When to use active and passive voice in writing
Many are also unsure about when to use these grammatical voices in academic writing. So,
which is better? The short answer is neither: Both active and passive voice sentences have a
role to play in formal writing. The key is knowing when to use them. Thus, in writing, always
consider whether you should use the passive or active voice. It will depend on what you want
to convey.

When to use active voice?

In scientific writing, overuse of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause
readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally-though
not always - clearer and more direct than those in passive voice. Look at the following
sentence:
Research has been done to discredit this theory.
This sentence is vague; readers do not know who has carried out the study to disprove the
theory. Hence, it should be rewritten in the active voice. Using the active construction in
sentences of this kind helps you to make your writing clear and concise. The below sentence
is being clearer and more concise than the former:
Halfom (2008) conducted research to discredit this theory.
When to use the passive voice?
In some sentences, passive voice can be perfectly acceptable. We use the passive in these
situations:
 When the actor is unknown:
Example
My bag has been stolen (we don’t know who stole it)
 When we are interested in what was done, not who does it
Example.
The founders of the AU launched the AU at the Durban summit in 2002
The AU was launched at the Durban summit in 2002.
 When the person or thing that does the action is obvious and does not need to be
stated
Example
Coffee is grown in Ethiopia. (we know that the people who grow coffee are farmers)
 To emphasize the receiver of the action instead of the doer
Example
The experiment was carried out in a pathology laboratory.
 When you want to sound impersonal or avoid using the subject “I”
Example
Longitudinal survey was employed in this study.
 When the doer is generally known (general truth)
Example
6, 500 languages are spoken around the world today.
 When you do not wish to mention the doer of the action (passive voice a safety net)
Example
I was given some bad advice.
Not enough has been done to end homelessness.
The Passive Voice without an Agent
The passive voice is used more frequently without an agent than with an agent. Below are the
contexts in which we do not need to mention the agent.
 The passive voice is used when it is not important to mention who performed the action.
Example
The winners’ names are placed in envelopes.
 The passive voice is used when we do not know the agent
Example
My cell-phone has been stolen.
 The passive voice is used when the agent is and doesn’t need to be mentioned
Example
Oscar night has been televised since 1953.
The Passive Voice with an Agent
 When the sentence has a strong agent, we can use either the active or the passive
voice
Example
Last year’s Nobel Prize was won by Abiy Ahmed.
Active and Passive Voice in all English Tenses with detailed examples

Tense Active voice Passive voice

Present simple I clean the room everyday The room is cleaned everyday
is/are/am+V3 She washes the window The windows are washed
everyday everyday
Present progressive They are building a hospital A hospital is being built now
am/is/are + being +V3 now The trees are being cut down
Present perfect He is cutting
I have downthe
completed thework
trees The work has been completed
Has/have+ been V3 She has sent the letters The letters have been sent
Present prefect progressive She has been interviewing him No passive form
Past simple tense They cancelled the match The match was cancelled
was/were+V3 Someone stole my watch My watch was stolen
I bought all the books All these books were bought
Past progressive He was repairing the car The car was being repaired
was/were/+being+V3 They were cleaning the The machines were being
machines cleaned
Past perfect tense Someone had killed the The president had been killed
Had+been+V3 president
Future tense They will cut the grass The grass will be cut
will/shall be +V3 tomorrow tomorrow
Future (going to) They are going to repair the The car is going to be repaired
going to+ be +V3 car The letters are going to be
She is going to burn the letters burnt
Modal verbs Active Voice Passive Voice
modal +be+V3
Can They can solve the problem The problem can be solved
Could They couldn’t move the stone The stone couldn’t be moved
Must They must punish the thief The thief must be punished
Should Someone should change the The music should be changed
music
Ought to They ought to move the car The car ought to be moved
May They may change the phone The phone number may be
number changed
Might Someone might steal the The painting might be stolen
painting
Need Someone needs to wash the The clothes need to be washed
clothes
Infinitives Active Voice Passive Voice
to+V1 Invite me He wants to be invited
to have+V3 Respect me She wants to be respected
Remember me She/he wants to be
remembered
Questions in Passive What does she do in morning? What is done in the morning?
(wh+be+V3) Where do they post the letters? Where are the letters posted?
NB: Do/does: in passive
question is changed into the
possible be
NB: When do/does begins a Do people know more things Are more things known about
question sentences in active about her? her with people?
voice, it replaced by is/are in Do you speak Spanish well? Is Spanish spoken well by
the same position (comes at the Did you bring all your books? you?
beginning of a passive voice) Did should be replaced by
were
Let in passive Park the car Were
Let theall
caryour books brought?
be parked
Imperative sentences can be Give up smoking Let smoking be given up
changed into passive voice by Post this letter Let this letter be posted
using Let. Pay the amount Let the amount be paid
Pattern: Let+object+be+V3
Imperatives with passive: Please post this letter You are requested to post this
Various ideas like Shut the door letter
commands/orders/requests Apply for leave You are ordered to shut the
may be expressed in passive Teach me English Language door
voice: You are advised to apply for
Pattern: You are leave
asked/requested/ordered.. You are asked to teach me
English Language
It is/was time It is time to send a telegram It is time for the telegram to be
+for+object+passive form It is time to stop the work sent
It was time to repair the watch It is time for the work to be
stopped
It was time for the watch to be
repaired
Worksheet: Active & Passive Construction
Task 1: Complete the following text using Active or Passive forms of the verbs in the
parentheses with the correct tense.

How the Memory Works

Recently I (1)________(learn) how the memory works. There are three stages of memory
systems: sensory, short-term and long-term memory. Information (2) _______ (encode) into
sensory memory through eyes and ears, which is a very prime stage of memory. Visual
sensory memory only last for a fraction of second for image brainstem to judge if the data is
important to (3)________(bring) into consciousness. After the auditory information has been
collected by ears, it (4)________(can hold) on longer, and the duration is about two to four
seconds to recognize the meaning of the phrase. Subsequent, our brain will figure out which
sensory memory is important, and then the information (5) ________(select) from sensory
memory to short term memory. The short-term memory will last about twelve to thirty
seconds without rehears, and this kind of memory is easy to (6) _________ (interrupt) and
decay. If the new information is contacted with something that is already well known, which
can help us remember it easier and longer, hence using this method short term memory
(7)_______ (transfer) into long term memory.
Task 2: Complete the following text with the correct passive or active forms of the verbs
in the parentheses.

The Spread of COVID-19 until 22 May 2020

In December 2019, an outbreak of acute respiratory illness (1)_______(cause) by a novel
coronavirus, was detected in Wuhan, China. Since then, this mystery disease covid-19 has
continued to spread rapidly around the world, and until 25 May 2020, 213 countries and
territories reported 5.4 million confirmed cases, of whom 343,070 (2)________(die). So far,
Africa is the least affected continent; from 54 countries, 99,433 confirmed cases with 3,078
deaths, (3)_______(report) on 22 May 2020. On the same date, Ethiopia
(4)______(announce) 582 confirmed cases and 5 deaths. Taking the rapid spread of the virus
into account, WHO (5)________(advise) all nations to establish a body of emergency
response team so as to prevent the possible crisis that could be resulted from the invidious
consequences of the pandemic.
Adapted from Amare et al 2020

Task 3: Complete the following text with the correct passive or active forms of the verbs
in the parentheses.

Problems of Paragraph Writing

With me, writing (1)________ (consider) a hard subject because I usually (2) ________
(make) many mistakes in writing a paragraph. First, I (3) _____ (stick) in creating ideas of a
brainstorm so many supporting sentences are not relevant to topic mostly. Second, there are
many errors in my writing like using language. For example, the words which (4) _______
(use) in paragraph have caused readers confusing about meaning. Third, I am caught in
faults of sentence structure and grammar so I have not expressed my ideas exactly. As a
result, my paragraphs have not been unified. Therefore, it (5)_______ (take) often me many
hours to write a paragraph. However, by knowing these problems, I have been trying to learn
and refer more books about how a paragraph (6) ________ (write/can/) and I have had many
useful lessons. Hopefully, in a near future my writing (7)_______(improve) with ideas are
clearly stated and supported, grammar and vocabulary are used more correctly.

Task 4: Complete the following text with the correct present simple passive or active
form of the verbs in parentheses. Take care of the tense you use.
The World Cup
The world cup is an international football competition which (1)______(hold) every four
years. One of the most popular events in the world, the first game (2)______(take place) in
1930 in Uruguay. Each time, there is a different host country although this sporting event
(3)_________(limit) in Europe and the Americans until 2002. In 2002, however, the matches
were moved to Korea and japan. Africa also (4)__________(host) the world cup in 2010 for
the first time. It is hoped that the world cup (5)__________(host) in Africa again in the
future.
The world cup was first broadcast on television in 1954 and is now the most prominent
televised sporting event in the world. It has been reported that more spectators
(6)__________(watch) the event than the Olympic Games(Foster,1997). The audience of the
2002 world cup (7)_________(estimate) to be almost 3 billion. According to FIFA (2006),
1.1. Billion people watched the final match of this tournament. Broadcasting this event
(8)_______(result) in 41,100 hours of football on TV across the world. Clearly, the world
cup matches attract huge audiences, but even the draws, which decide the distribution of
teams into groups, are widely viewed. 300 million people were reported to
(9)_________(see) the 2006 world cup draw (brown,2006).
Task 5: Complete the following text using Active or Passive forms of the verbs in the
Parentheses using the correct tense.

How Surveys are conducted

A survey is a method of gathering information about a topic, a group of people or a specific

area. Surveys (1) _________ (commonly use) to collect information and opinions. If the
survey is well-designed and conducted correctly, its results (2) _________(can be) reliable
and valid, and can offer an accurate picture of the surveyed population. There are many steps
involved in conducting a survey, depending on the kind of information that needs to be (3)
________ (collect). In general, though, the purpose of the study, the required information,
and the sample population (4) ________ (identify) first. Then, the questions (5) _______
(develop) and the method of gathering answers (6) _______(determine). Once this is done,
the survey (7) ________ (conduct), the data is collected and, finally, the findings are
analyzed and reported. Surveys are most commonly conducted through questionnaires. They
can be used in telephone or face to face interviews, or completed and submitted by survey
participants. In either case, strong knowledge of the surveyed topic (8) ________ (require)
to prepare good questions for the survey.

GOOD LUCK!

THE END