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Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs (#p595)

by fzabkar » Fri May 03, 2013 12:30 pm

Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

This article is intended to introduce and explain the workings of linear and switchmode
power supply regulators used on HDD PCBs.

A regulator or DC-DC converter is a component or circuit which takes a voltage input which
can vary over a wide range, and converts it to a steady DC voltage which remains stable
over wide variations in load current. The input voltage may be stepped down, or boosted,
or inverted.

Linear regulators reduce ("step down") an input voltage to a stable lower DC voltage by
dissipating the voltage difference internally as ohmic losses. That is, any excess power is
dissipated within the regulator as heat.

For example, if Vin is 5V, Vout is 3.3V, and the load current is 1A, then the load dissipates
3.3 watts. The regulator dissipates 1.7W, ie (5V - 3.3V) x 1A. This means that the efficiency
of the regulator is only 66%, with 34% of the power being wasted as heat.

A switchmode regulator steps down the input voltage by means of Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM). Simply speaking, the input voltage is switched rapidly on and off (pulsed), and the
output is then averaged to provide smooth DC.

For example, let's say that we want to reduce a +5V input to +2.5V. We could switch ("chop")
the input on and off with a duty cycle of 50%. That is, the input would be on half the time
and off half the time. Alternatively, if our desired output voltage were to be +1.25V, then
the duty cycle would be 25%. Actually it is not as simple as that, but it is useful to think of it
in this way.

The ideal switchmode regulator would have an efficiency of 100%. When its on/off switch is
on, the voltage across it is zero. When the switch is off, the current through it is zero. This
means that the power dissipated in an ideal switch would be zero (Power = Voltage x
Current). Furthermore, the regulator's averaging components consist of capacitors and
inductors. Since ideal capacitors and inductors are lossless, then they also would dissipate
:
 no power.

In practice the efficiency of a switchmode regulator is more like 80% - 90%. The component
that handles the switching is often a MOSFET which has a finite ON resistance (RDSon). The
Schottky diode also has a substantial ON resistance. Inductors and capacitors also have
finite ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance).

In today's HDDs the switching frequency is in the MHz range. This means that very small
capacitances can be used to filter the output voltage. That's why the older electrolytic and
tantalum capacitors have been replaced by MLCCs (Multi-Layer Ceramic Capacitor). MLCCs
also have extremely low ESR ratings and extremely low leakage currents.

Examples of Linear Regulators

One of the simplest linear regulators is a positive 3-terminal device such as the LX8117-33.

(./download/file.php?
id=234&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=235&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)
:
 It has an input pin (+5V), an output pin (+3.3V), and a Ground pin. These devices are usually
internally current limited. This provides a measure of protection against a short circuit on
the output. The devices also have on-chip thermal protection which causes them to shut
down when they begin to overheat.

Earlier drives had multiple-output linear regulators. The following example (IRU1239SC)
has two inputs (+5V and +12V) and three outputs (+8V, +3.3V, +2.6V). The +8V supply was
usually required by the preamp, while the 2.6V and 3.3V outputs were the Vcore and Vio
supplies for the MCU.

(./download/file.php?
id=236&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)
:
 IRU1239SC_photo.jpg (32.1 KiB) Viewed 7386 times

Later drives incorporated the linear regulator control circuitry within a separate IC, usually
the motor controller. The current was carried by an external NPN "pass" transistor, and the
voltage feedback was provided by external resistors.
:
 (./download/file.php?
id=238&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=239&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

The error amplifier compares the reference voltage (Vref) against the feedback voltage
(Vfb). If the output voltage is too low, then the error amp generates a positive error output
which drives the transistor harder. Conversely, if the output voltage is too high, then the
error amp generates a negative error output which reduces the drive to the transistor.

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Part 2 (#p596)
by fzabkar » Fri May 03, 2013 12:41 pm

Examples of Negative Switchmode Regulators

Here are two typical negative switchmode regulators based on an Inverting Buck-Boost
:
 topology:

(./download/file.php?
id=244&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=245&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=246&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)
:
 The error amplifier and PWM control circuitry are incorporated within the motor
controller IC.

The following diagrams illustrate the current flow when the MOSFET "chopper" is switched
ON and OFF:

(./download/file.php?
id=247&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)
:
 (./download/file.php?
id=248&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

When the MOSFET is ON, current flows into the inductor (coil). The inductor stores this
current as energy:

E = 1/2 x L x I^2 where L is the inductance and I is the current

When the MOSFET is switched OFF, the current in the inductor decays via the diode and
capacitor, resulting in the energy being transferred to the capacitor and to the load. This
causes the capacitor to become negatively charged.

Here is another negative switchmode regulator based on the Cuk Converter topology:
:
 (./download/file.php?
id=249&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=250&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

Although the above example shows a Samsung drive, the Cuk topology is more commonly
implemented in Hitachi drives. A Cuk converter is distinguishable by its additional inductor
and capacitor.

The following negative switchmode regulator is comprised of a standalone PWM controller

IC with an integrated MOSFET chopper.
:
 (./download/file.php?
id=251&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=252&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

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Part 3 (#p597)
by fzabkar » Fri May 03, 2013 12:50 pm
:
 Still another negative switchmode regulator utilises two switched or "flying" capacitors to
charge the output filter capacitor. The PWM control comes from the motor controller IC.

(./download/file.php?
id=253&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

Here is a similar circuit from a Samsung SP0411N:

:
 (./download/file.php?
id=255&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

VCC
+
|
+-------------------+-------------------+
| |
| |
| -5.0V |
| o |
| | |
||-+ +----+----+ +-||
Q1 ||<- | | | ->|| Q2
--||-+ P1 | | | P2 +-||--
| V | V |
| C1 - | - C2 |
(HA13627 pin#41) | R1 | |C | R2 |
| ___ || | --- | || ___ |
PWM1 o---+--|___|--||---+ --- +---||--|___|--+---o PWM2
(HA13627 pin#40)
| 3R3 || | | | || 3R3 |
| V | V |
| - | - |
||-+ N1 | | | N2 +-||
Q3 ||<- | | | ->|| Q4
--||-+ +----+----+ +-||--
| | |
| | |
:
 | | |
| | |
| | |
+-------------------+-------------------+
|
===
GND

The -5V negative supply for the preamp appears to be a "regulated charge-pump inverter"
topology. I don't have a datasheet for the HA13627 motor controller, but I'm guessing that its
internal circuit could be represented by an H-bridge. This circuit works by charging
capacitors C1 and C2 via Q1 and Q2, respectively, during alternate half cycles. The charge
on each capacitor is then transferred to capacitor C on opposing half cycles via Q3 and Q4.

Examples of Positive Switchmode Regulators

Positive switchmode regulators in HDDs use the buck topology. In most cases the error
amplifier and PWM control circuitry are incorporated within the motor controller IC. This
part of the circuit is very similar to the Inverting Buck-Boost topology discussed previously.
The difference is in the layout of the MOSFET, diode and inductor.

When the MOSFET is switched ON, current flows into the inductor, filter capacitor and load.
When the MOSFET is switched OFF, the current decays via the diode. This is very similar to
the negative regulator, except that the positions of the diode and inductor are
interchanged, resulting in a positive output rather than negative.

(./download/file.php?
id=256&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)
:
 (./download/file.php?
id=257&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

Here is an example where the MOSFET and Schottky diode are packaged within the same IC
(FETKY):

(./download/file.php?
id=258&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

Here is the pinout of a typical FETKY:

(./download/file.php?
id=259&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

In the example for the Cuk converter mentioned previously, the photo of the SP2514
regulators shows a positive buck regulator consisting of a diode, coil, and capacitor. The
MOSFET chopper and PWM control circuitry are located within the motor controller. This
:
 regulator provides the Vcore supply for the MCU.

Here is an example comprising a standalone PWM controller with integrated MOSFET:

(./download/file.php?
id=260&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=261&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

The following database has links to datasheets for many of the components mentioned in
this article.

Datasheets for HDD semiconductors, regulators, op-amps:

http://www.users.on.net/~fzabkar/HDD/HD ... _Regs.html
(http://www.users.on.net/~fzabkar/HDD/HDD_Semis_Regs.html)

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs (#p606)

by Spildit » Fri May 03, 2013 10:13 pm
:
 Thanks for sharing !
Very nice guides.

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Western Digital example - WD800BB-75JHA0 (#p632)

by fzabkar » Sat May 04, 2013 12:04 pm

Here is a typical Western Digital PCB. It has one +3.3V linear regulator to supply the Vio for
the MCU, SDRAM and flash memory. There is a -5V inverting buck-boost converter for the
preamp, and one positive buck converter for the MCU's Vcore rail, usually around +1.2V.

(./download/file.php?
id=276&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

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Quick and dirty tutorial on switchmode power supplies (#p8909)

by fzabkar » Fri Jun 24, 2016 12:26 am

Quick and dirty tutorial on switchmode power supplies

Perhaps the above is too technical for some people, so I have written the following cut-down
version.

Here is a rough diagram of a linear regulator:

I current I
--> .---------. -->
Vin o---| linear |------. Vout
eg +5V |regulator| | eg +3.3V
o '---------' | .-.
| I | | |
=== V | | Load
GND '-'
|
:
 ===
GND

The power supply Vin is down-converted to Vout and a current I flows through the regulator
and the load.

The power drawn from the supply is ...

Pin = Vin x I
The power drawn by the load is ...

Pout = Vout x I
The power dissipated (wasted) in the regulator is ...

Ploss = (Vin - Vout) x I

Therefore the efficiency of the supply is ...

Efficiency = Pout / Pin = (Vout x I) / (Vin x I) = Vout / Vin

In the given example this comes to 66% (= 3.3/5).

Here is a rough diagram of a stepdown switchmode supply:

averaging/
very fast smoothing
switch circuit
.-------. (inductor/diode/capacitor)
| _/ | .-----------.
Vin o--|-o/ o-|----|-+--UUU--+-|------. Vout
eg +5V | | | | L | | | eg +2.5V
'-------' | | | | .-.
| - D C---| | |
| ^ ---| | |
| | | | '-'
'-|-------|-' |
| | |
=== === ===
GND GND GND

Let's say we wish to reduce an input voltage of Vin to Vout. In the case of a switchmode
supply we do this by switching the supply on and off very rapidly and then averaging the
output. In the above example we would switch the 5V supply on for half the time and off for
the other half (it doesn't quite work like that, but it is useful to think of it that way). We
then smooth the output with the inductor/diode/capacitor circuit.

The advantage of such a supply is that in the ideal case it is 100% efficient. When the switch
is on, the voltage across it is zero. When the switch is off, the current is zero. This means
that no power is dissipated in the switching component in either state.

Pon = V x I = 0 x I = 0
:
 Poff = V x I = V x 0 = 0
In practice the efficiency is typically 90%.

To quickly identify a switchmode regulator, simply look for the coils. The junction of the
coil and capacitor is the output voltage test point. It's as simple as that.

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Vcore circuit for Hitachi 3K7000 (#p9159)

by fzabkar » Thu Sep 01, 2016 11:21 pm

Here is an example of a step-down converter utilising two complementary MOSFETs:

+5V
+
|
.-.
| | R100 current sense
| | 0.1 ohm resistor
'-'
|
.-----------+
CS | | N0300P
.--------. XZ | P-ch MOSFET
| | ||-+
| hi-drv | ||-> 1uH
| |-----||-+ inductor
| motor | | ___
|control | +---UUU---+-------+---------+--o Vcore
| | | | | |
| | ||-+ 1R0 --- .-. |
| lo-drv | ||-< --- | | Rfb1 |
| |-----||-+ | Cout | | --- Ccomp
'--------' XY | N0300N | '-' ---
Comp| |FB | N-ch | |_____. |_________.
| | | MOSFET | | | | |
| | | | .-. | .-. |
| | | | | | | | | Rcomp |
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | '-' | '-' |
| | | | Rfb2 | | | |
| | '---------+-------' | | |
| | | | | |
| | === | === |
| | GND | GND |
| | feedback | |
| '-----------------------------------' |
| compensation |
'----------------------------------------------------'
:
 (./download/file.php?
id=3201&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

N0300P, Renesas, P-Channel MOSFET, marking XZ, -30V, -4.5A, SC-96:

http://pdf.tixer.ru/540531.pdf (http://pdf.tixer.ru/540531.pdf)

N0300N, Renesas, N-Channel MOSFET, marking XY, 30V, 4.5A, SC-96:

http://datasheet.datasheetarchive.com/originals/library/Datasheet-077/DSAE0047462.pdf
(http://datasheet.datasheetarchive.com/originals/library/Datasheet-077/DSAE0047462.pdf)

Warning: There may be errors in the circuit.

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Boost Converter (#p9161)

by fzabkar » Fri Sep 02, 2016 12:48 am

The following topology is sometimes used to boost a supply voltage.

When the MOSFET is switched ON, the coil current (I) is as follows:

VCC
+
|
| |
| |
| C| inductor
I | C|
| C|
V |
| diode
+---->|-----+---o Vboost
MOSFET | | |
| | |
||-+ | ---
||<- | I ---
PWM >--||-+ | | capacitor
pulses | V |
+-----------'
(ON) |
===
GND
:
 When the MOSFET is switched OFF, the decaying coil current (I) charges up the boost
capacitor as follows:

VCC
+
|
| |
| |
| C| inductor
I | C|
| C|
V |
| diode
+---->|-----+---o Vboost
MOSFET | --------> |
| I | |
||-+ | ---
||<- I| ---
PWM >--||-+ | | capacitor
pulses | V |
+-----------'
(OFF) |
===
GND

(./download/file.php?
id=3202&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)
:
 I believe that the example shows the boost voltage for a VCM circuit (Hitachi 3K7000). It is
required for switching the high-side MOSFETs in the VCM H-bridge.

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p9219)
by Spildit » Wed Sep 07, 2016 2:21 am

Thank you very much for the updated small tutorial !!!

As usual very nice info and very well explained !

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Cuk converter - Seagate (#p10858)

by fzabkar » Thu Dec 15, 2016 9:05 am

Here is another example of a Cuk converter, this time in a Seagate ST373307LC Cheetah
drive.

(./download/file.php?
id=3882&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)
:
 LM2611_Pinout.gif (5.08 KiB) Viewed 3154 times

(./download/file.php?
id=3880&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

LM2611BMF, National Semiconductor, 1.4MHz Cuk Converter, SOT-23, marking S40B, 2.7V -
14V, 1.2A:
http://www.farnell.com/datasheets/78694.pdf (http://www.farnell.com/datasheets/78694.pdf)

Thanks to Dr Gough Lui for allowing me to use his resources.

http://goughlui.com/2015/06/29/salvage-teardown-seagate-cheetah-10k6-10k7-scsi-
ultra320-hard-drives/ (http://goughlui.com/2015/06/29/salvage-teardown-seagate-cheetah-10k6-
10k7-scsi-ultra320-hard-drives/)

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Quicker-and-dirtier switchmode regulator (#p16236)

by fzabkar » Tue Mar 06, 2018 9:14 pm

How to find the voltage test points (in pictures):

:
 (./download/file.php?
id=6446&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p16237)
by Spildit » Tue Mar 06, 2018 10:32 pm

Thanks !!!

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p16239)
by agent007 » Wed Mar 07, 2018 4:14 am

Very nice write up! Thanks and Appreciate!!

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p19868)
by fzabkar » Mon Jan 21, 2019 2:06 am

This excellent site has a comprehensive rundown of electronics concepts, including

animations.
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/index.php (http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/index.php)

Buck Converter Operation:

http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/PSU/psu31.php (http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/PSU/psu31.php)

Boost Converter Operation:

http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/PSU/psu32.php (http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/PSU/psu32.php)

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p19870)
by Spildit » Mon Jan 21, 2019 3:38 pm

WOW !!!!
:
 Thanks for sharing those links to those fantastic tutorials !

Very nice info as usually !

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p20797)
by CSL PC » Mon Apr 29, 2019 12:31 am

fzabkar wrote:
This excellent site has a comprehensive rundown of electronics concepts,
including animations.
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/index.php (http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/index.php)

Buck Converter Operation:

http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/PSU/psu31.php (http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/PSU/psu31.php)

Boost Converter Operation:

http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/PSU/psu32.php (http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/PSU/psu32.php)

Wow, I haven't seen this before. You are genius man. You are probably electronic engineer.
Very high level.

Thank you for sharing.

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p20801)
by Spildit » Mon Apr 29, 2019 9:40 pm

Agree !

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Power Loss Protection (#p21248)

by fzabkar » Mon Jul 15, 2019 10:34 am

Some SSDs are now equipped with power loss protection. Typically a bank of capacitors are
charged to a voltage of +12V via a boost converter. When a power loss is detected, the
stored energy in this bank of capacitors is diverted to power the SSD.

The MP5505A is a typical lossless energy storage and management IC targeted at solid-state
:
 and hard-disk drive application.

https://www.monolithicpower.com/pub/media/document/MP5505A_r1.1.pdf
(https://www.monolithicpower.com/pub/media/document/MP5505A_r1.1.pdf)

(./download/file.php?
id=9157&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=9156&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

(./download/file.php?
id=9155&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)
:
 Panasonic's Conductive Polymer Tantalum Solid Capacitors (POSCAP) are a common choice
for backup applications.

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/capacitors/polymer-capacitors/poscap
(https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/capacitors/polymer-capacitors/poscap)

(./download/file.php?
id=9158&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708&mode=view)

POSCAP utilizes sintered Tantalum as an anode system and highly conductive

polymer created with Panasonic's unique method as a cathode system. This
enabled POSCAP to be thin, small and at the same time have low ESR (Equivalent
Series Resistance) and superior high frequency characteristics. These features
make POSCAP one of the best candidates for digital/high frequency applications.
POSCAP also has high reliability and heat resistance.

MP5505A_r1.1.pdf (./download/file.php?id=9154&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708)
(1.04 MiB) Downloaded 40 times

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Reply with quote (./posting.php?mode=quote&f=59&p=21259&sid=dbe93b5b1281a459b5c6fdcd3f198708)

Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p21259)
by fzabkar » Fri Jul 19, 2019 11:02 pm

Another popular choice for backup capacitors is Kemet's KO-CAP:

http://www.kemet.com/KO-Conductive-Polymer (http://www.kemet.com/KO-Conductive-
Polymer)

The KEMET Organic Capacitor (KO-CAP) is a tantalum capacitor with a Ta anode

and Ta2O5 dielectric. A conductive organic polymer replaces the traditionally used
:
 MnO2 as the cathode plate of the capacitor. This results in very low ESR and
improved capacitance retention at high frequency. The KO-CAP also exhibits a
benign failure mode which eliminates the ignition failures that can occur in
standard MnO2 tantalum types. KO-CAPs may also be operated at voltages up to
90% of rated voltage for part types with rated voltages of ≤10 volts and up to 80%
of rated voltage for part types >10 volts with equivalent or better reliability than
traditional MnO2 tantalum capacitors operated at 50% of rated voltage.

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Re: Tutorial - Linear and Switchmode Regulators used in HDDs

(#p21262)
by CSL PC » Mon Jul 22, 2019 6:57 pm

fzabkar wrote:
Another popular choice for backup capacitors is Kemet's KO-CAP:

http://www.kemet.com/KO-Conductive-Polymer (http://www.kemet.com/KO-
Conductive-Polymer)

The KEMET Organic Capacitor (KO-CAP) is a tantalum capacitor with a Ta

anode and Ta2O5 dielectric. A conductive organic polymer replaces the
traditionally used MnO2 as the cathode plate of the capacitor. This
results in very low ESR and improved capacitance retention at high
frequency. The KO-CAP also exhibits a benign failure mode which
eliminates the ignition failures that can occur in standard MnO2
tantalum types. KO-CAPs may also be operated at voltages up to 90% of
rated voltage for part types with rated voltages of ≤10 volts and up to
80% of rated voltage for part types >10 volts with equivalent or better
reliability than traditional MnO2 tantalum capacitors operated at 50% of
rated voltage.

Thank you for sharing, I'm kind of lost in all this large pool of info, I learn electronic over 30
years ago. The law and the rules stayed the same but new component started to appear and
some other changes.
Now I must swim in the pool and learn new thing everyday to make a living.
I still enjoy it though

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