This is a chapter summary of Chapter 16 entitled, “Skinner: Behavioral Analysis” of the
Ninth Edition of the Theories of Personality Book by Jess Feist, Gregory J. Feist and
Tomi-Ann Roberts.
To start, the chapter begins with:
• A brief description of B.F Skinner’s upbringing and turning points in life
• Overview of Behavioral Analysis; his findings and beliefs
• A Biography of B.F Skinner with key points such as;
- His full name was Burrhus Frederic Skinner
- Born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania
- He was inclined toward music and literature when he was young
- He once attempted being a writer but found interest in Psychology
- He studied at Harvard, did laboratory research, and hopped from one job offer
to another.
- He was a professor, published books, and had troubles with projects.
- Nearing death, he was awarded with honors and an unprecedented Citation
for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology, the only person to
receive such an award in the history of the American Psychological
Association.
Skinner was indeed a brilliant psychologist who despite his struggles, made his mark
and continued to persevere. His works were influenced by the works of Edward L.
Thorndike and John B. Watson and shared similar viewpoints and ideas with them,
insisting that human behavior should be studied scientifically.
• He held that science had three main characteristics:
A. first, science is cumulative;
B. second, it is an attitude that values empirical observation;
C. and third, science is a search for order and lawful relationships.
• The first characteristic referring to the cumulative manner at which the
amount and nature of scientific knowledge has changed drastically from
2,500 years ago of the Greeks.
• The second, most critical characteristic of science is an attitude that
places value on empirical observation above all else. As it rejects
authority, demands intellectual honesty and suspends judgement.
• The third, in short, means that all science begins with observation of single
events and then attempts to infer general principles and laws from those
events.
Skinner (1953) recognized two kinds of conditioning, classical and operant.
• Classical conditioning - a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with—that is,
immediately precedes—an unconditioned stimulus a number of times until it is
capable of bringing about a previously unconditioned response, now called the
conditioned response.
• Operant conditioning – reinforcement of a response. The organism first does
something and then is reinforced by the environment. Reinforcement, in turn,
increases the probability that the same behavior will occur again.
A. Shaping - is a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment
first rewards gross approximations of the behavior, then closer
approximations, and finally the desired behavior itself.
B. Reinforcement – can strengthen the behavior or it rewards the person.
Positive reinforcement is any stimulus that, when added to a situation,
increases the probability that a given behavior will occur. Meanwhile,
negative reinforcement is the removal of an aversive stimulus from a
situation also increases the probability that the preceding behavior will
occur.
C. Punishment - is the presentation of an aversive stimulus, such as an
electric shock, or the removal of a positive one, such as disconnecting an
adolescent’s telephone.
D. Effects of punishment – It suppresses behavior, conditions a negative
feeling and spread effects.
• Conditioned reinforcers - (sometimes called secondary reinforcers) are those
environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but become so because
they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers as food, water,
sex, or physical comfort.
• Generalized reinforcers - it is associated with more than one primary reinforcer.
Skinner (1953) recognized five important generalized reinforcers that
sustain much of human behavior: attention, approval, affection, submission of
others, and tokens (money). Each can be used as reinforcers in a variety of
situations.
Schedules of Reinforcement - Any behavior followed immediately by the presentation
of a positive reinforcer or the removal of an aversive stimulus tends thereafter to occur
more frequently.
Reinforcement can follow behavior on either a continuous schedule or an intermittent
one.
• Continuous Schedule - the organism is reinforced for every response. This type of
schedule increases the frequency of a response but is an inefficient use of the
reinforcer.
• Intermittent Schedule - based either on the behavior of the organism or on elapsed
time they either can be set at a fixed rate or can vary according to a randomized
program.
Four basic intermittent schedules:
1. Fixed-ratio schedule - the organism is reinforced intermittently according to the
number of responses it makes. Ratio refers to the ratio of responses to reinforcers.
2. Variable-ratio schedule - it is reinforced after the nth response on the average.
3. Fixed-interval schedule - the organism is reinforced for the first response following
a designated period of time.
4. Variable-interval schedule - is one in which the organism is reinforced after the
lapse of random or varied periods of time.
Extinction – the tendency of a previously acquired response to become progressively
weakened upon non reinforcement.
• Operant Extinction – occurs when an experimenter systematically withholds
reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of the response
diminishes to zero. The rate of the operant extinction is significantly influenced by the
schedule of reinforcement that was initially used for learning the response. Compared
with responses acquired on a continuous schedule, behavior trained on
an intermittent schedule is much more resistant to extinction.
The Human Organism
According to Skinner (1987a), human behavior (and human personality) are shaped
by three forces: (1) natural selection, (2) cultural practices, and (3) the individual’s
history of reinforcement. In other words, Skinner acknowledged that behavior–
environment interactions can change behavior (and even, personality) in an individual’s
own lifetime but also in the natural or cultural evolutionary history of an entire group or
species.
Natural Selection
• Human personality is the product of a long evolutionary history. As individuals, our
behavior is determined by genetic composition and especially by our personal histories
of reinforcement. As a species, however, we are shaped by the contingencies of
survival.
• The contingencies of reinforcement and the contingencies of survival interact, and
some behaviors that are individually reinforcing also contribute to the survival of the
species.
Cultural Selection
• In his later work, Skinner (1987a, 1989a) talked about how culture influences human
personality. He explained that cultural practices that persist are a result of selection, just
like human evolution and reinforcement. Essentially, people don’t choose to act for the
benefit of society; rather, societies with cooperative members were more likely to
survive.
• Cultural practices like tool making and language began when individuals were
rewarded for them. Over time, these practices benefited the group, though they might
not have been personally rewarding. Today, few people make tools or invent new
languages.
Inner State - Skinner (1989b) dismissed explanations of behavior based on
hypothetical constructs but did acknowledge the existence of internal states like love,
anxiety, and fear. He believed these internal states can be studied like any other
behavior, though their observation has limitations.
Self-Awareness
• Skinner (1974) posited that humans are aware of their own consciousness and self-
observation, as well as their environment.
• Behavior is influenced by both the external environment and internal, private
experiences.
• Internal states like thoughts and feelings are subjectively experienced but can be
studied scientifically.
Drive
• Radical behaviorism views drive as fictional constructs, not actual causes of behavior.
• Behavior is influenced by deprivation (e.g., lack of food) and satiation (e.g., fullness),
which affect the likelihood of actions like eating.
• Internal sensations, food availability, and past experiences also impact behavior.
• Drives are considered untestable hypotheses until behavior's antecedents, actions,
and consequences are fully understood.
Emotions - Skinner acknowledged that emotions exist but argued that they do not
cause behavior. Instead, he explained emotions through survival and reinforcement. For
example, fear and anger helped early humans survive and pass on these traits.
Similarly, behaviors linked to positive emotions are reinforced, making them more likely
to happen again.
Purpose And Intention - Skinner (1974) also recognized the concepts of purpose and
intention, but again, he cautioned against attributing behavior to them. Purpose and
intention exist within the skin, but they are not subject to direct outside scrutiny. A felt,
ongoing purpose may itself be reinforcing.
Complex Behavior - Skinner believed that even complex behaviors, like thinking and
creativity, are shaped by natural selection, cultural evolution, and reinforcement history.
He acknowledged mental processes but saw them as results of behavioral conditioning.
Higher Mental Processes - Skinner argued that higher mental processes like thinking,
problem-solving, and recalling are covert behaviors, not actions of the "mind." These
behaviors, like searching for lost car keys or recalling a name, are shaped by
reinforcement history, not by a mental storehouse. Problem-solving, including insights in
activities like chess, involves covertly manipulating environmental variables, guided by
reinforcement, rather than originating from mental processes.
Creativity - Radical behaviorism explains creativity as random or accidental behaviors
that are reinforced, similar to how natural selection works with mutations. Creative
actions arise from variations that are reinforced by their outcomes, not from a personal
creative mind. Differences in creativity among individuals come from genetic and
experiential factors.
Unconscious Behavior - Skinner rejected the idea of an unconscious storehouse of
ideas or emotions but accepted unconscious behavior. He argued that much behavior is
unconscious because people often don't recognize how genetic and environmental
factors influence their actions. In some cases, behavior becomes unconscious because
it's suppressed through punishment, leading individuals to ignore or forget it.
Dreams - Skinner (1953) viewed dreams as covert behaviors influenced by
reinforcement, similar to other behaviors. He agreed with Freud that dreams can fulfill
wishes, allowing repressed desires (e.g., sexual or aggressive) to be expressed
symbolically. In dreams, these behaviors can occur without the punishment that might
accompany them in waking life.
Social Behavior - Skinner said only individuals behave, not groups. People form
groups for rewards and may stay in a group despite negative aspects due to positive
reinforcement from some members, inability to leave, or occasional rewards that
outweigh punishments.
Control of Human Behavior - Ultimately, an individual’s behavior is controlled by
environmental contingencies. Those contingencies may have been erected by society,
by another individual, or by oneself; but the environment, not free will, is responsible for
behavior.
Social Control
• Individuals form social groups because it is reinforcing. Groups then control their
members through enduring laws and rules.
• Each of us is controlled by a variety of social forces and techniques, but all these
can be grouped under the following headings: (1) operant conditioning, (2) describing
contingencies, (3) deprivation and satiation, and (4) physical restraint (Skinner, 1953).
• Society exercises control over its members through the four principal methods of
operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and the two
techniques of punishment (adding an aversive stimulus and removing a positive one).
• A second technique of social control is to describe to a person the contingencies
of reinforcement. Describing contingencies involves language, usually verbal, to inform
people of the consequences of their not-yet-emitted behavior.
• Third, behavior can be controlled either by depriving people or by satiating them
with reinforcers. Again, even though deprivation and satiation are internal states, the
control originates with the environment. People deprived of food are more likely to eat;
those satiated are less likely to eat even when delicious food is available.
• Finally, people can be controlled through physical restraints, such as holding
children back from a deep ravine or putting lawbreakers in prison. Physical restraint acts
to counter the effects of conditioning, and it results in behavior contrary to that which
would have been emitted had the person not been restrained.
Self-Control - Skinner argued that self-control involves manipulating external factors
rather than internal choices, using methods such as physical aids, changing the
environment, managing aversive stimuli, taking substances, and distraction to influence
behavior.
The Unhealthy Personality - The detrimental effects that are sometimes produced by
the techniques of social and self-control.
1.) Counteracting Strategies - When social control is excessive, people can use three
basic strategies for counteracting it—they can escape, revolt, or use passive resistance.
• Escape - people withdraw from the controlling agent either physically or
psychologically.
• Revolt - behaving more actively, counterattacking the controlling agent.
• Resistance- are more subtle than those who rebel and more irritating to the
controllers than those who rely on escape.
2.) Inappropriate Behaviors
Behaviors follow from self-defeating techniques of counteracting social control or from
unsuccessful attempts at self-control, especially when either of these failures is
accompanied by strong emotion. They are learned and shaped by positive and negative
reinforcement.
It May Include;
• Excessively Vigorous Behavior - makes no sense in terms of the contemporary
situation, but might be reasonable in terms of past history.
• Excessively Restrained Behavior - people use as a means of avoiding the aversive
stimuli associated with punishment.
• Blocking Out Reality - paying no attention to aversive stimuli.
• Defective Self Knowledge - manifested in such self-deluding responses (boasting,
rationalizing, or claiming to be the Messiah.)
• Self-Punishment - exemplified either by people directly punishing themselves or by
arranging environmental variables so that they are punished by others.
Psychotherapy
One of the chief obstacles blocking psychology’s attempt to become scientific.
Nevertheless, his ideas on shaping behavior not only have had a significant impact on
behavior therapy but also extend to a description of how all therapy works. A therapist
molds desirable behavior by reinforcing slightly improved changes in behavior.
Types Of Therapist
• Non-Behavioral Therapist
- accidentally or unknowingly.
• Behavioral Therapist
- attends specifically to this technique.
Related Research
• Operant Conditioning
- Mostly in studies with animals, then it was applied to simple human responses.
- Used in a multitude of studies dealing with complex human behaviors ome of these
studies have been concerned with the relationship between long-term behavior patterns
(i.e., personality) and contingencies of reinforcement.
These studies are generally of three kinds:
1. How Conditioning Affects Personality
personality change occurs when new behaviors become stable over time and/or across
different situations. a major goal of therapy is to change behavior, and if the changes
are stable over time and situations, then one could talk about changing personality.
Token Economy
One systematized operant conditioning framework that has been used in countless
studies to change behavior in both animals and humans Individuals are given “tokens”
for desired behaviors, which can later be traded in for meaningful reward. Results
showed that the token economy technique increased reinforced target behaviors (e.g.,
different kinds of participation) in students.
2. How Personality Affects Conditioning
can personality affect conditioning? Several thousand studies with both animals and
humans have demonstrated the power that conditioning has to change behavior/
personality. With humans in particular, however, it is clear that different people respond
differently to the same reinforcers, and personality may provide an important clue about
why this may be so.
3. Mutual Influence Between Personality and Conditioning
• Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory - A neuropsychological theory of personality
that emerged within behaviorism that explains the mutual influence between
individuals’ temperaments and responses to conditioning.
1. The Behavioral Approach System (BAS)
- Responsive to rewards, impulses, and pleasurable experiences.
2. The Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)
- Responsive to punishments and anxiety
3. Fight-Flight Freeze System (FFFs)
- Responsive to fear and threat.
- Stoeber and Corr (2015) predicted that reinforcement sensitivity (conditioning) may
help explain different forms of perfectionism (personality) and also that these
sensitivities are reinforced differently by different emotional responses.
Critique of Skinner
Hans J. Eysenck (1988) - Critiqued Skinner once for ignoring such concepts as
individual differences, intelligence, genetic factors, and the whole realm of personality.
These claims are only partly true, because Skinner did recognize genetic factors, and
he did offer a somewhat unenthusiastic definition of personality.
How Useful Is Skinner's Theory?
• Generates research - very high
• Falsifiability - high
• Organizes all that is known about human personality - moderate
• Guide to action - very high
• External consistency - very high
• Parsimonious – difficult to rate
Concept of Humanity
Skinner held a deterministic view of human nature, and concepts like free will
and individual choice had no place in his behavioral analysis. People are not free but
are controlled by environmental forces. They may seem to be motivated by inner
causes, but in reality, those causes can be traced to sources outside the individual. Self-
control depends ultimately on environmental variables and not on some inner strength.
Skinner’s view of human nature is highly optimistic. Human behavior is shaped
by the principles of reinforcement, the species is quite adaptable. The evolution of the
species is in the direction of greater control over environmental variables, which results
in an increasing repertoire of behaviors beyond those essential for mere survival.
Aside from that, he also believes that men are not by nature good, but they can
become so if they are exposed to the proper contingencies of reinforcement. Skinner
believed that the means of becoming autonomous, loving, and self-actualizing must not
be left to chance, but should be specifically designed into the society.
