Ecology

By Mr. Shamekh

Edexcel IGCSE Biology

 Chapter 26: Ecosystems

To understand ecosystems; we should differentiate between the following terms:

•
⑳ O

Habitat: The place where living organisms live seeking food, shelter & reproduction
• Population: Number of members of a certain species in a certain habitat.
-
-

• Community: All the living organisms found in a certain

-
-(diff habitat. .

species)
• Ecosystem: All living organisms in a habitat (community) plus the non-living part of
the environment (water, soil, air & light).

Living organisms in an ecosystem are either:

• Producers: Organisms that can produce their own food by photosynthesis “Plants”
• Consumers: Organism that depend on other organisms for nutrition. Herbivores eat
plants while carnivores eat animals. Omnivores eat both.
Manus

• Decomposers: Organisms that feed on dead organisms by secreting extracellular

enzymes to digest their bodies externally producing nutrients which are absorbed back
by decomposers (saprophytic nutrition).

⑳ Food chains

The food chain is a feeding relationship between organisms.

Grass → Grasshopper → Small bird → Large bird
(Producer) (1ry consumer) (2ry consumer) (3ry consumer)

Each stage in the food chain above is called a trophic level.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 115

 Food webs

Food web is a series of interconnected food chains. This is because a certain living organism
may feed on more than one prey and maybe eaten by more than one predator.

-
respiratio -7

& ⑳

T
②
·

Factors affecting a food web: + - op nation

1- Shortage of food
2- Pollution
3- Predators
4- Diseases

Q. Use the food web drawn above to extract five different food chains and highlight the
trophic levels in each of them.

N.B. The factors affecting a food web are the same factors affecting the size of any
population as feeding affects survival which consequently determines the population size.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 116

 Energy flow in Ecosystems

The Sun is the main source of energy in any ecosystem. Plants use energy from the sun to
- -

undergo photosynthesis that is why they are called producers. Then primary consumers feed
on plants and the chain continues.

However, it was found that there is a great energy loss between different trophic levels,
example:

*Causes of energy loss between trophic levels:

1. Some parts of the organism are not eaten. e.g. roots or bones Celinasins
↑

2. Some parts of the eaten organism are not digested and pass out as feces Criters,
3. Some energy is lost in the form of heat energy in respiration.
4. Some energy is used in activities such as movement, reproduction or active transport.
5. After death, some energy is still found in the organism and known as “locked up
energy”. This energy is transferred to decomposers.

N.B. This energy loss explains why we have a maximum of 4 trophic levels in a food chain as
there is no energy available for other organisms.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 117

 &Biological pyramids
A biological pyramid is a diagram showing a measure of different organisms in a food chain.
This could be either a pyramid of number, a pyramid of biomass or a pyramid of energy.

• The pyramid of number is the easiest to prepare as counting is easier than calculating
the energy or biomass. However, it is inaccurate & maybe inverted (one tree maybe
providing food for thousands of primary consumers)

• The pyramids of biomass & energy are more difficult to prepare but they are more
accurate and never inverted. Why? Because energy is always lost between trophic
levels which maintains the pyramidal shape.

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 Decomposition
Decomposition is the decay of dead organisms. Decomposers are either bacteria or fungi.

e
Importance of decomposition:
o T
⑳
• Recycles nutrients back into the &
soil
• Cleans the environment by removing dead materials
----

Factors affecting the rate of decomposition:

• Temperature: increasing temperature increases decomposition

• Humidity: increasing humidity increases decomposition.
• Oxygen: increasing Oxygen increases decomposition.

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 Nutrient cycles
Carbon cycle

CO2 is removed from atmosphere through

photosynthesis.

CO2 is returned through:

1. respiration of animals & plants

2. decay of animals and plants
3. Combustion of Carbon containing fuels.
seriou
=>
-

⑳
is :
Nitrogen cycle

Nitrate level in the soil is increased by: ⑫ge

e NEW
- -

•# Nitrogen fixing bacteria: convert

=>
78 %
foots atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates in the
N
Plast
-

soil.
• Decomposers: decay dead bodies
- - - -

forming ammonia.>
>
-

s
• Nitrifying bacteria: convert ammonia
- -
=

produced by decomposers into nitrites

e
-
and nitrites into nitrates.
-

Nitrate level in the soil is decreased by:

• Denitrifying bacteria: Convert nitrates
back into nitrogen gas.

aird
Water cycle

e
Water vapor is removed from air by condensation. While it is added by:

[
1- Evaporation from the surface of seas and oceans.
2- Respiration & sweating of animals.
3- Respiration & transpiration of plants.

Dr. Mohab Megahed

⑰ 120
 Chapter 27: Human influences on the environment

Pollution is the addition of a pollutant to the ecosystem causing damage to the living
organisms within the habitat. This includes air pollution, acid rain & water pollution.

Air pollution
Contestin
Sulphur dioxide: Fossil fuels contain Sulphur. When they are burned, they release Sulphur
- - - -

dioxide into the air. When Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water, it produces-
>
- -
Sulfuric acid leading
to acid rain.
-

-
Son

NQ -

Nitrogen dioxide: Released from the motor vehicle exhausts. When nitrogen dioxide
-

dissolves in water, it produces nitric acid leading to acid rain.

-
-

Cc
Carbon monoxide: Vehicle engines undergo incomplete combustion releasing Carbon
!
-
- Co

monoxide. This CO binds to Hemoglobin forming Carboxyhemoglobin which reduces oxygen

-
Menofutie
incomplete delivery to all tissues.
combustin
ng O2

Acid rain

Causes of acid rain:

• Sulphur dioxide released from chimneys of
H
I subpar ,
large factories. (He socia

• Nitrogen dioxide released from car exhausts.

Effects of acid rain:

- Dissolves the limestone of buildings &
statues.
- Harms the human respiratory system causing asthma & bronchitis.
- Kills plants by damaging their leaves and roots.
- Acidifies fresh water which kills aquatic organisms.

Prevention: Using filters for factory chimneys to reduce Sulphur dioxide & Catalytic
converters for car exhausts to reduce Nitrogen dioxide.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 122

 Water pollution
a
providenutrients for plant
,

Water pollution maybe caused by sewage or Fertilizers causing eutrophication.

)

& Eutrophication means enrichment of natural water with nutrients which increases the
growth of plants and algae.

- Leaching of fertilizers to water provides nutrients causing over growth of algae.

- The over growth of algae prevents
penetration of sunlight leading to
death of lower aquatic plants.

-
- Death of aquatic plants encourages
decomposition.
- Decomposers consume all oxygen
from the water.
- Fish either die or move to other
places.
entrophication
demimusea-Over growth of algae
- overgreth agre
-
die
Chnutrients rive)
out fil die
How to prevent Eutrophication (due to over use of fertilizers): de

1. Do not apply fertilizers when it is about to rain.

2. Do not apply too much fertilizers.
3. Apply fertilizers only when plants are growing to ensure rapid uptake.

Some factories dispose their sewage in nearby water surfaces. Sewage contains
bacteria that undergo aerobic respiration and consume oxygen. This reduces the
availability of oxygen in water and may cause death of lower aquatic organism,
which stimulates decomposition that consumes more & more oxygen.
The rate of oxygen consumption by bacteria in &
- - =>
sewage is known as Biological
-

oxygen demand (BOD). If the BOD exceeds a certain limit, sewage disposal in
-
-

water is prohibited to protect the aquatic organisms.

-

= Bod =S

= ---

Dr. Mohab Megahed 123

 Pesticides -5108

A pesticide is any chemical that kills pests. They may be either Insecticides that kill insects,
-

Fungicides that kill Fungi, Herbicides that kill weeds or even Antibiotics that kill bacteria.
-

Advantages: mutrient
&
• Protect crops from pests so increase food production.

·
• Control the spread of diseases having insect vectors.

Disadvantages:
• Non-specific: may kill other non-harmful organisms.
• Non-biodegradable: cannot be broken down by enzymes so they accumulate in the
food chain (bioaccumulation).
• Pests may develop resistance so pesticides become useless.

Biological control is a method to get over the disadvantages of pesticides. It depends on

using specific predators to control pests.

For example; Lady birds can be used to control aphids as aphids destroy the leaves of tomato
plants.

Advantages:
• Specific: Only kills the selected harmful pest.
• No bioaccumulation.
• No pest resistance.

Disadvantages:
• Predators are not available for all pests.

·
• May cause food chain disruption as the organism introduced might lack natural
predators.

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 Greenhouse effect

Planet earth is surrounded by a blanket of greenhouse gases that trap sunlight and reradiate
it back towards earth surface. This keeps earth temperature within normal limits. Without
these gases, the temperature on earth would be - 40ºC.

C
We have 5 main greenhouse gases:
Hic
1. Carbon dioxide: Produced from the combustion of fossil fuels.
- -

2. Water vapor: Produced from the combustion of fossil fuels.

- - -

3. -02
Nitrous oxide: Produced from the incomplete combustion of fuels in vehicle engines.
- -

E
-

4. Methane: released from anaerobic bacteria in guts of cattle and rice fields.
-

------
5. Chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs): released from refrigerators and ACs.
-

--

#
- -

#
feases
(Hy)

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 Global warming

It is an increase in earth temperature due to human activities that increase the levels of
greenhouse gases above normal (enhanced greenhouse effect).
- -

Causes of global warming:

-
-

↑
1. Deforestation
-which raises the levels of Carbon dioxide due to reduced Photosynthesis.
-
- - -

2. Increased burning of fossil fuels in motor vehicles.

- - -

3. Raising more cattle for meat & milk.

-

·
Consequences of global warming:

1. Melting of the polar ice caps leading to rise water levels of seas & oceans causing
- -
- -- -
-

flooding.
-

2. Loss of natural habitat which increases risk of[7

-
- - -
extinction.
3. Migration of animals causing food chain disruption.
-
-
-

4. Change in the =
global rainfall pattern leading
-
to desertification.
= -

Suggested solutions:
Generate -
1. Reforestation.
- &

2. Reducing the use of fossil fuels and using alternative sources of energy such as solar
- -
-
-

energy, wind
- energy & nuclear energy.
= )

Dr. Mohab Megahed 126

 Deforestation

It is the cutting down of forests. It is lately taking place intensively to:

⑫ -

- Clearing the-
land for agriculture.
=

- Building new cities & establishing new roads.

- -

- Using wood in furniture industry.

- -

Harmful effects of deforestation:

- -

1. On the soil:
=

- Soil erosion: which means removal of

--

the top fertile layer of the soil as plant

roots no more hold soil particles
together. So, water from rainfall
washes soil particles into nearby
waterways.

- leaching of mineral ions.

2. On the life of Animals:

=

- Loss of the natural habitat which increases risk of extinction.

- Migration of animals leading to food chain disruption.

3. On the water cycle:

-

- Disturbance of the water cycle as transpiration rates will fall down which leads
to dry air and reduced rainfall. So, deforestation increases the risk of droughts.

4. On the Atmosphere:
-

- Reduced photosynthesis thus increasing Carbon dioxide level and decreasing

Oxygen (this increases global warming).
- Reduced transpiration so less humidity.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 127

 Biological consequences of overfishing and overgrazing

Over fishing threatens fish species as it mainly affects younger fish causing their depletion.
So, the breeding stock becomes unable to maintain the population size.

Over grazing: means allowing animals as sheep &

camels to graze excessively. When this occurs in a
fragile ecosystem as areas on the edges of deserts, it
leads to desertification.

Biodiversity: The number of different species in a certain area or habitat. To

measure biodiversity, we can depend on Random sampling using quadrats.
20
Extinction means the permanent loss of a certain species. When the population size
of a certain species drops below a certain level, this species is at risk of extinction
and we call it endangered species.

Conservation of endangered species protects them from extinction. Conservation

of animals is done in zoos by captive breeding programs and conservation of plants
is done by storing their seeds in seed banks.

Biotic means living and Abiotic mean non-living.

The main Biotic factors affecting animals are food availability, predation &
diseases.

The main Abiotic factors affecting animals are temperature, light intensity & water
availability (humidity)

The main Abiotic factors affecting plants include Temperature, Light intensity &
humidity.

The main Biotic factors affecting plants include competition with other plants for
space, water and minerals in the soil & Sunlight. In addition to numbers of
herbivores and diseases affecting plants.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 128

 Chapter 28: Modern methods of food production

To meet the increasing demands for food due to increased population sizes, there are
continuous trials to increase efficiency and quantity of food production by:

1. Using modern machinery.

250
2. Plowing to aerate the soil.
cid //d:

3. Adding fertilizers to supply the soil with nutrients.

a +

> nectral
-

4. Adding pesticides: either chemical pesticides or biological control

5. Adding Calcium Carbonate
ainline
(liming): neutralizes acidity and improves soil structure.
6. Crop rotation: growing different crops on the same land every season, this reduces the
chances of crop diseases.
7. Greenhouses where factors affecting photosynthesis are controlled
(temperature, CO2 concentration, light intensity, water availability & mineral ion
concentration in soil)

Hydroponics: It is a very recent method of growing plants in glass houses. This involves
removing the soil which is replaced by a solution containing mineral ions. Removing
the soil reduces the risk of diseases caused by organisms living inside the soil.

Glass house Hydroponics

(roots in the soil) (roots in a solution of mineral ions)

Dr. Mohab Megahed 129

 Fish farming
Fish farming is a method to produce large quantities of fish grown in water tanks with
optimum conditions. This achieved through:

Improving water Quality:

1- Ensuring proper oxygenation:

- By allowing water to circulate through cages.
- Using paddles under cages for rapid circulation of water.
2- Ensuring proper nutrition:
- By offering small frequent meals to avoid accumulation of wastes causing
[eutrophication.3
- By offering high protein diet.
3- Removal of wastes using filters.
4- Removal of dead fish to prevent decomposition & spread of diseases.
5- Adding antibiotics to kill bacteria.

Samen Surm
Reducing competition:

1-CIntraspecific competition means competition with organisms from the same species.
- - -

This is achieved by:

- [Using large sized tanks to reduce competition for space
- -

- Offering enough food to reduce competition for food.

-
-

>
-
-

2- interspecific competition means competition with organisms from different species

-
-
-

which includes predation. This is achieved by:

- Placing only one species of fish per cage.
- Using hanging nets around each cage to prevent entry of other fish.
- Covering cages by nets to prevent birds from attacking fish.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 130

Advantages of fish farming over wild catching:

1- Less risk to fishermen.

2- Guaranteed harvest.
3- Avoid depletion of wild fish due to overfishing.

Disadvantages of fish farming:

1- Antibiotics may cause harm to humans eating fish.

2- Escape of nutrients may lead to Eutrophication.
3- Escape of farmed fish might cause unfair competition with fish from the same species
in the wild, predation of other species or spread of diseases.

Large cages in which fish is grown (fish farms)

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