EDU 204 Foundations of Education II (2 (Units 2)(LH:30)

A study of the educational development and institutions, from ancient times to

the present with particular reference to the evolution of modern education in
Nigeria. Detailed major sociology and comparative education
should be taught.

Course Outline
Sociology and Education
Culture, Society, and Education
Socialization and Education
The School. Classroom Socialization
Education and Social Stratification
The Teaching Profession
Education and Socio-Cultural Change in Nigeria.

Comparative Education
Meaning
Scope
Principle
Approaches
Relevance

Philosophy and Education

Major Branches of Philosophy
The Significance of Philosophy in Education
Schools of Philosophy.
Philosophy and Educational Objectives of Nigeria:

Sociology and Sociology of Education

As a new academic discipline that evolved in the early 19 thcentury, when there was that need
for urgent solution to an emergent social problems that erupted and was at a fast growing rate
as a result of industrialization, modernization and post-modernization. Sociology as a modern
science considers the need to analyze social political matters sociologically.
The word Sociology was derived from two words, namely: Socio which means society and logy
meaning science. These words are put together and used by Auguste Comte (1798-1857) to
mean science of the society. Other ancient thinkers like Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
developed their own scientific studies of the society and referred to them as Sociology. As a
result of this, the word Sociology became the permanent name for science of the society.
According to Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Sociology is the science of social institutions. Ross &
Haag (1961) defined Sociology as the study of the formation and transformation of groups and
the relationship of groups and of groups’ members with one another, noting that where there
are groups, there are tendencies for participation, cohesion and conflict. According to
Akubukwe (1997) sociology is defined as the study of human groups of social relationships, of
social institutions. Sociology is also defined as the scientific study of the patterns of human
social life in groups. Others definitions of sociology are as follows:
(i) Sociology is concerned with nearly all aspects of human social behaviour.
(ii) Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of society and social behaviour
(iii) Sociology is the science that deals with the investigation and analysis of human
relationships, their causes and consequences
(iv) Sociology is a perspective and tries to give a factual reason of why people behave in that
manner.
Sociology is concerned about social facts in the economy, education, legal, security, politics,
medical, religion, family, technology, sports and so on. Daramola (2006) said that within the
province of these sub-systems both the structural aspects of human society and every type of
social relationship are being examined. The structure of society meaning the recurring patterns
of behaviour and ordered interrelationships to achieve the needs of people is represented by
six major institutions that constitute some of the major subject areas in sociology: family,
religion, education, politics, economics, and health.
Muhammad – Baba & Abubakar (2012) state that as literal connotation of the term suggests,
Sociology is interested in enquiring into, analyzing and explaining the ways through which
human beings relate with each other as well as the meanings and implications given to such
relationships. A critical examination of the above definitions shows certain similarities, the
different scholars only differ in their approaches. Sociology is all about man, social interaction,
social institutions as well as the pattern of social relation between social institutions and
between people as well as groups in the society.
Education
The word education is derived from the Latin word ‘Educare’ meaning “to lead out” Education
therefore literally means to lead out. Education is also the process of imparting knowledge,
attitudes and skills on individual in order to lead him out of illiteracy and enable him develop his
potentials. According to Sharma (2010) Education can be defined as lifelong process of
interaction, growth and development which results in the modification of the behaviour of
individual by more and more social interactions leading to the socialization of individual. It is
pertinent to also mention here that sociologists of education are specifically concerned with the
social aspect of education. This is why education to sociologists has been described as
socialization. It is based on this that Mahuta (2007) viewed education as one aspect of
socialization which includes the acquisition of knowledge and learning of skills. It is an
instrument used in shaping beliefs, attitudes, behaviour, and morals of individual. One can go
on citing various definitions of the concept of education by different scholars but one common
fact agreed with is that education is aimed at the development of certain qualities of individual
which are essential in the development of his community and the nation at large.

Sociology of Education
Sociology of education developed out of the discipline of Sociology just like other sub-
disciplines in Sociology like Sociology of politics, Sociology of law, Rural Sociology, Urban
Sociology, Sociology of Mathematics, Sociology of Religion, Political Sociology etc. If sociologists
are concerned with the scientific study of the society, then sociologists of education are
concerned with the scientific study of education as one of the social institutions in the society.
Sociologists try to establish the sociological position and show its appreciation to education.
Manheim & Stewart (1980) maintained that: “Sociologists do not regard education solely as a
means of realizing abstract ideals of culture such as humanism or technical specialization but as
part of the process of influencing human. Education can only be understood when we know
purpose and societal expectations of education.

Sociology of education can therefore be defined as the study of educational structures,

processes and practices from sociological perspective. This means that the theories, methods
and the appropriate sociological questions are used to better understand the relationship
between educational institution and society, both at the micro and macro levels. Banks (1968)
endorsed that Sociology of education like Sociology of the family or sociology of politics is no
more but at the same time no less than the application of sociological perspectives to one of
the major institutions of the society and for this reason needs no special justification as the
subject matter of a text to students. In addition, Swift (1969) defined Sociology of education as
the application of sociological knowledge, techniques of thinking and methods of data
collection in the examination of the range of special phenomenon termed education. Similarly
Mahuta (2007) observed that Sociology of education can be described as the application of
sociological paradigms or perspectives to the education process.
Differences between Sociology and Sociology of Education
The word Sociology of Education emanated out of Educational sociology, the two which are
interchangeably used to particularize the discipline. Stewart (1950) used the term sociological
approach to education; educational sociology; and sociology of education. At first, there was a
tendency in the university’s faculty of education to refer to the discipline as educational
sociology; but this day it is termed sociology of education.

According to Kobiowu (2012) educational sociology would imply an emphasis upon education
and social questions, while sociology of education would emphasis sociological problems.

Sociology is the study of society. The sociology of education is a topic within this field of study.
Sociology is interested in society as a whole; the sociology of Education is only interested in the
relationship between education and society. Sociology of education as a field is devoted to
understanding educational systems, the subject matter ranges from teacher and students’
interactions to large educational systems of countries. Ballantinex and Hammack (2017) by
studying educational systems are guided by sociological theories and studies using sociological
methods. Although, sociology provides a unique and powerful set of tools to objectively explore
the educational systems of societies.

Scope of Sociology of Education

Sociologists of education focus is society. In this regard, the scope of Sociology of education
includes but not limited to the following: Sociology of education deals with the relationship
between the institutions of education and society as well as other social institutions in the
society. On one hand, Sociology of education examines the influence of education on other
social institutions, such as political, economic, religious, and family. On the other hand,
Sociology of education examines how social institutions influence the institution of education.
Sociology of education has special interest in school as a social institution with emphasis on the
pattern of social interaction taking place therein. Different dimensions of social interaction
occur in school through which children are socialized and the social values, norms, cultural
heritage are transmitted and internalized. In school, there is formal form of social interaction of
teacher-learner which is taking place in the classroom guided by official school manual or
curriculum. There is also informal social interaction guided by hidden curriculum, where
socialisation occurs unconsciously. Indeed, Sociologists have so much interest in hidden
curriculum.
Precisely, sociology of education is concerned with the implication of all socially relevant
concepts to education. Such socially relevant concepts include community, culture, social
stratification, social change, social class, social mobility, social groups, gender, minority and
majority groups, social organization among others. In relation to socially relevant concepts,
Sociology of Education raises issues such as, namely:
1. School and community relationship.
2. Social stratification and educational life chances or who gets what?
3. Gender differences in education.
4. Social change and education.
5. The plight of educationally disadvantaged groups.
6. The education of minority groups in society.
In sociology, social stratification occurs when differences lead to greater status, power, or
privilege for some groups over others. Stratification is the act of sorting members in a society
into distinct groups such that each group can be recognized with ease. Also, it is a system by
which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. Members of society are socially
stratified to/on many levels, including socio-economic status, race, class, ethnicity, religion,
ability status, and gender. Gender stratification occurs when gender differences give men greater
privilege and power over women, transgender, and gender non-conforming people.

Relevance of Sociology of Education.

Since Sociology of education deals with the application of sociological concepts or socially
relevant concepts for the betterment of education, the relevance of the discipline to Teacher
Education Programme in Nigeria cannot be over-emphasized. Teachers whether undergoing pre
or in-services programme in Teacher education need to acquire knowledge of Sociology of
Education for numerous purposes namely:

i. Sociology of education enables teachers to help pupils to enhance their academic

performance. Sociology of education deals with all those social conditions that
determine the success or otherwise of pupils’ academic performance. The study of
the discipline will enable teacher to know how to handle social conditions like socio-
economic status, gender, variation of cultural background, and so on.
ii. Sociology of Education enables us to think critically about human social life and to
ask fundamental questions concerning sociological issues in education.
iii. Sociology of education is seen as a fundamentally optimistic human endeavor
characterized by aspirations for progress and betterment. It is perceived by many to
be a means of overcoming handicaps achieving greater equality.
iv. The study of the implication of sociological perspectives to education will keep
teachers abreast with sociological theories on the dynamic nature of teacher-pupils’
classroom interaction. Findings of theories like labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy, self-
theory, looking-glass-self, are crucial for any successful teaching and learning
interaction involving teacher and pupils.
v. Sociology of education is concerned with those aspects of school life which prepare
the learner for meaningful social living. This way, the teacher understands that his
profession entails simulation of learning in his learners and preparing them for life
after school.
vi. The study of Sociology of education helps teacher to appreciate his human worth
both as educator and member of the society. It helps him to appreciate his social
and professional roles better and appreciate those of other people well.
 vii. Sociology of education makes use of scientific method of arriving at information or
investigating and that makes the discipline objective. This therefore helps
teacher/researcher to be objective in both his roles in the classroom as well as issues
relating to school organizations and administration.
viii. It enables one to understudy the social political and cultural background of the
environment and adjust to the needs of the society.
ix. It helps in addressing the issues of gender that may arise in educational programme
as various social institutions (family economy, politics, religion) relates with each
other.
x. Sociology of education takes into consideration how social changes affects
educational institutions (Schools and individual experiences affect education and its
possible outcomes), this enables the teacher to adopt the appropriate pedagogy.

CULTURE

Introduction
Man is a social being and at the same time he is a cultural animal. Culture is one of the most
important achievements of man. To be human is to have culture, it is culture that makes human
meaningful. Human beings are born and brought up in a cultural environment while culture
distinguishes man from animal.
Concept of culture

There have been many attempts to conceptualize culture, the most common definition
describes culture as the way of life of a particular society, the behaviours, beliefs, values, and
symbols that they accept generally as they are passed along by communication and invitation
from generation to generation.
Culture is a complex concept which imparts virtually all aspect of human lives both consciously
and subconsciously. On the other hand, culture influences the way we greet each other, the
food we eat, the type of clothes we wear, types of hair do, naming ceremonies and burial
system. According to Kobiowu (2012), Human beings are unique, in that their behaviours are
not instinctual. In that same vein, he likens culture to the accumulated deposit of knowledge,
experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, religion, notions of time roles, spatial relations, concepts
of the universe and material objects acquired by a group of people over generations through
individual and group striving.
Hammond (2005) defined culture as that element in human behaviour, which enables man to
make the most of his physical capabilities and adapt to different environments without
employing the use of highly specialized equipment. Ogunbameru (2009) opined that culture
could be learned ways of behaving, which is acquired through socialization; that is the process
of social interaction in which the individual acquires those characteristic ways of thinking,
feeling, and acting that are essential for effective participation within society.
There is a misconception that some members of a society are cultured, while others are
uncultured. Sociologically, all human beings have culture. On that premises, culture maybe
described as the sum of the learned behaviour, traits, and beliefs characteristic of the members
of a particular society.
Culture is employed to describe the shared standards (or acceptable behaviours) and values
among a group of people. Culture is also the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that
are part of the society. Culture can be understood to be a way of life in which people rely on
tradition and creatively utilize the present reality with new achievements and new values that
promote the human rights and freedom. These elements are divided into two (2) major
categories i.e.

I. Non-Material Culture: This includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that
define a society.

II. Material Culture: This includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools and
technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation.

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

i. Symbols: These are objects that stand for something else and that often evoke

ii. Language

iii. Norms

iv. Values

v. Artifacts

Cultural institutions in modern day society are museums, libraries and archives, churches, art
galleries,

Characteristic Classification of Culture

Culture is characteristically classified into two, material and non-material culture.
Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to
describe their culture, it includes homes, neighborhood, cities, schools, churches, mosques,
offices, factories, plants, tools, means of productions, goods and products, stores and so on.
This physical aspect of culture help describes its members attitudes and perceptions.
Non-Material Culture are the non-physical ideas that people have about culture, such as
beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, languages, organizations, and institutions. For example,
the non-material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God,
worships, moral and ethics. The beliefs determine how culture responds to its religious topics,
issues, and events. Considering non-material culture, sociologists, refer to several processes
that a culture uses to shape its members’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Some of them are
symbols, languages, values, and norms.
Types of culture
There are different types of culture depending on the context and the perception at which it is
considered. Examples of such culture are global culture, popular culture, mass culture, folk
culture, high culture, Islamic culture, subculture and so on.
Global culture
Global culture could sometimes be referred to as cultural globalization. It is that type of culture
that transcendent national borders and exist in many different places around the world. It could
equally be considered as process of transmitting ideas, meanings, and values around the globe
in such a way as to expand and intensify social relations. This method is made possible by the
common utilization of cultures that have been diffused by the internet, popular culture, media
and tourism and international travel. This continues to promote the processes of commodity
exchange and colonization which have a longer history of carrying cultural meaning around the
globe. The distribution of cultures enables individuals to take part in extended social relations
that cross national and regional borders.
High culture
High culture is a term used in different ways in academics. It encompasses the cultural objects
of aesthetic value, which a society collectively esteems as exemplary art. It connotes
intellectual works considered to be of great philosophical, historical, or literary values as well as
the education which cultivates such aesthetic and intellectual pursuits. The term high culture
identifies the culture of an upper class (an aristocracy) or of a status class. It identifies society’s
common repository of broad-range, knowledge and custom that transcends the social class
system of the society. High culture is contrasted with the term low culture, the forms of popular
culture characteristics of the less-educated social classes.
Subculture
A subculture is a cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests of
variance with those of the larger culture. It is a group of people within a culture that
differentiates itself from the parent culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its
founding principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values regarding cultural,
political, and sexual matters. Subculture as part of the society, keep their specific characteristic
very intact and cherish it.
Cultural Norms
Cultural norms are the established rules and regulations that guide the behaviour of its member
in any given situation. Cultural norms are learned and reinforced from the parents, friends,
teachers, pastors, and others as we grow up in the society.
There are four basic types of cultural norms which are Folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
(i) Folkways are conventions, customs, standard of behaviour that are socially approved,
may not be morally significant.
(ii) Mores are customs, traditions, habits, … carrying significant implications of right and
wrong. Mores are norms of morality that is why the mores of a society are often injected
into the legal system and religious teachings.
(iii) Laws are mores of specific importance formalized by the power of the state as rules.
Those who act contrary to these rules are treated as suspects and law breakers and are
sanctioned.
(iv) Taboos are those norms that culture absolutely forbids. Virtually all taboos, like child
abuse, sexual assault, treason, incest, murder, and a host of others are enacted into laws.
For a culture to exist and function effectively, members of such culture must conform to the
norms of the culture by obeying rules. The social norms and values must be internalized to
determine what is normal for the culture; therefore, they must socialize, teach the norms
and values to their children. Where socialization and internalization fail to produce
conformity, some forms of social control will be very necessary. Such social control may
consider fines, punishments and even confinement.
Enculturation
Parents teach their children how to eat, walk, greet, and respect elders. The child starts
interacting with his family members, particularly, initially the mother. This process of
teaching the child how to greet, to eat and others is referred to as cultural transmission.
Learning of the culture by the child is called enculturation. Enculturation refers to the
method of learning one’s own native culture while Acculturation is the process of learning
and adopting host cultural norms, values, and beliefs. Learning native cultural norms and
values of a specific society is essential for individual to function and reside in such a society
effectively. Enculturation and Acculturation are anthropological terms used for socialization,
both terms denote the process of learning through social interactions.
Cultural Change
Cultures are dynamics and notwithstanding, society are static, unwilling to renounce old
customs, traditions, values in place of new ones. Cultures do undergo some kind of changes
over a period. The approach and degree of change differ. Cultural change according to
Wikipedia means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society. Cultures change
when something new opens, new ways of living and new ideas involve. Cultural change
according to Varnum M.W. and Grossmann I., (2017) is the modification of society through
innovation, invention, discovery or contact with other societies. Kingsley Davis defined
cultural change as the embarrasses occurring in any branch of culture art, science,
technology, philosophy etc. as well as changes in the forms and rules of social organization.
Kobiowu (2012) opined that cultural change occurred whenever new traits and traits
complexes appear in a culture and this after the cultures content and structure.

Relevance of Culture to Education.

Fafunwa (1975) linked culture to education while asserting that education whether modern
or ancient aim at perpetrating the culture of the society. The child grows into the cultural
heritage of his people assimilate and imbibing it despite its traditional and informal nature.
As further supported by Aggarwal (1989) as people in a society evolve some set of habits or
norms, which become customary, conventional, and acceptable way of doing things and as
a way of life. The task of education therefore is to synthesize and transmit these cultural
values from one generation to another.
Postulations by Edward (1977) states that the role of culture in the socialization and
education is numerous and cannot be underestimated as this is reflected in the school
curriculum. Thus, since culture is education, it should have a bearing in the school
curriculum as indicated below.
a. Society must provide member to live under a socially acceptable condition. The need to
teach subject like History, Sociology, Social studies, and Anthropology became
necessary.
b. To behave in a morally acceptable manner, there is the need for religious education.
c. Society must regulate and control its members to maintain its continuous existence
through governance, this accounted for subjects like Government and Political Science.
d. Aesthetic value and beauty of nature must be appreciated and preserved. This
prompted the need for subjects like Fine Art, Theater Arts and Cultural and Creative
Arts, Fashion Designing, Home Management, etc.
e. Provision must be made for effective communication, this accounted for teaching of
languages in schools both foreign and local.
f. Having adequate knowledge of man’s physical environment to master and manipulate it
for good purpose created the need for the teaching of subjects like Geography and
Natural Sciences (Physics, Chemistry and Biology).
g. Society must provide shelter, improve and living in befitting physical environment,
created the need for subject like Building and Surveying.
 The above shows that culture is the fabric of human society and education, both are
strongly interrelated and are indispensable, necessary for the continued existence of each
other.

Socialization
Socialization Defined
Every society is faced with the necessity of making a responsible member out of each child born
into it. The child must learn the expectations of the society so that his behaviour can be relied
upon. He must acquire the group norms. At birth, the child is just a biological organism with
only animal needs and impulses. The infant knows nothing about the society or social
behaviour. The child has an innate capacity to learn and to communicate. Every society has its
peculiar values, norms and cultural prescriptions which must be transmitted from one
generation to another. Socialization can change individual behaviour so that it can be adapted
into cultural prescriptions of the society.
The process of learning to adapt and internalize the values and norms into itself or the mode of
learning to live in society is called the process of socialization. To adapt and internalize is to
imbibe so deeply that it becomes a part of the individual's behaviour and personality. Farayola
sees socialization as the business of adjusting people to the way of life of the community,
usually by way of initiation into its customs, beliefs, rituals, conventions, expectations and
demands combined with instructions and the setting of examples. Therefore, socialization is
basically the learning of socially desired values, norms, and roles by the members of a particular
group or society to improve social life and contribute towards societal growth and
development. Similarly, it may be defined more comprehensively as a life-long process of
learning and inculcation whereby an individual learns the principles, values, and symbols of
the social system in which he participates and the expression of those values and norms in
the roles one enacts for societal growth.

Characteristics of socialization
i) It is a lifelong process.
ii) It helps in the inculcation of principles, values, and symbols of a social system.
iii) It enables a person to enact certain roles.
iv) The roles that one enacts are in accordance with what he has learnt from the
process.
v) The roles a person enacts are the expressions of his social nature.
vi) The development of the social nature enables the person to participate in social life.
vii) The nature of what one communicates in society is determined by the influence of
one's interaction with the society.
 viii) Most human behaviour is learned, not instinctive. The capacity of the child to learn
and to internalize is called the plasticity of human nature.

Due to the continuous nature, socialization is a life-long process it does not cease even
when a child becomes an adult. Socialization does not cease when a child becomes an adult,
internalization of culture continues from generation to generation. Society perpetuates
itself through the internalization of culture. Its members transmit culture to the next
generation and society continues to exist.
Types of Socialization
Notably, socialization occurs during childhood and adolescence, it also continues in middle and
adult age socialization of adults differs from childhood socialization. In this context it can be
said that there are various types of socialization.
i Primary Socialization
Inculcation of norms and values within the family is called primary socialization. Primary
socialization takes place in infancy and childhood. This is the most crucial stage of socialization
as the child learns basic behaviour pattern at this stage. It refers to socialization of the infant in
the primary or earliest years of his life. It is a process by which the infant learns language and
cognitive skills, internalises norms and values. The infant learns the ways of a given grouping
and is moulded into an effective social participant of that group. The norms of society become
part of the personality of the individual. The child does not have a sense of wrong and right. By
direct and indirect observation and experience, he gradually learns the norms relating to wrong
and right things. The primary socialization takes place in the family.
ii. Secondary Socialization
Generally secondary socialization starts from the later stage of childhood and goes up to
maturity. However the process of socialization never stops in life. The school, peer groups and
other institutions in which a person is placed in life play the role of socializing agents. The
process can be seen at work outside the immediate family, in the ‘peer group’. The growing
child learns very important lessons in social conduct from his peers. He also learns lessons in
the school. Hence, socialization continues beyond and outside the family environment.
Secondary socialization generally refers to the social training received by the child in
institutional or formal settings and continues throughout the rest of his life.
iii. Adult Socialization
In the adult socialization, the individual (for example, becoming an employee, a husband or
wife) for which primary and secondary socialization may not have prepared them fully. Adult
socialization teaches people to take on new duties. The aim of adult socialization is to bring
change in the views of the individual. Adult socialization is more likely to change overt
behaviour, whereas child socialization moulds basic values.
iv. Anticipatory Socialization
Anticipatory socialization refers to a process by which men learn the culture of a group with the
anticipation of joining that group. As a person learns the proper beliefs, values and norms of a
status or group to which he aspires, he is learning how to act in his new role.
v. Re-socialization
Re-Socialization refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting
new ones as part of a transition in one’s life. Such re-socialization takes place mostly when a
social role is radically changed. It involves abandonment of one way of life for another which is
not only different from the former but incompatible with it. For example, when a criminal is
rehabilitated, he must change his role radically.
Education and Socialization
Education is a social process, which prepares individuals to lead a meaningful and dignified life.
Together with other social forces it plays an important role in shaping the structure of society.
Through education society imparts its knowledge, skill, values and behavioural patterns to its
younger generations. Thereby ensuring self-preservation and continuity. In this sense
education is a process of socialization. At the same time changes in society mould the education
system itself and it acquires complexity. Education in this sense is a process, which prepares the
members of the society to adapt to the constantly changing conditions of a society.
Two important statements emerge from the above discussion as regards Education and
Socialization
i) Education is a social process, and
ii) Education is a process of socialization.
Let us examine each one of them in detail. When education is regarded a social process it
implies:
i. Education occurs in a society and therefore influenced by the society in which it
takes place.
ii. The social milieu itself educates.
iii. School is one of the important social institutions that educate. Its role is influenced
by that of others. boo
iv. Education has a social role and is involved in moulding the future society.

To say that education is a process of socialization implies:

i) Education takes place through social interaction.
ii) It is much more than mere instruction.
iii) People receive a certain degree of education even if they never enter a school.
 iv) Formal education is socialization with a deliberate purpose and in a desired
direction.

Here it is worth mentioning that all learning is not socialization because some of what one
learns may not be relevant for participation in given social role. For example learning to take
drugs or smoke cigarette may be against the norms of participation in the given social roles
among certain social groups.
Agencies of Socialization
The survival of any society depends solidly on the sufficient degree of upholding its cultural
values by members. Socialization perpetuates and reinforces this cultural values by fixing in the
child from the beginning the essential similarities that collective life demands. However, every
society builds an institutional framework within which socialization of the child takes place.
These institutional framework known as agencies helps transmit societal cultural values
through the family, school, mosque/church, peer group, market, mass media and so forth.
The Family
The family plays an outstanding role in the socialization process. The family is one of the many
small face-to-face groups that are called primary groups saddled with the responsibility of giving
the offspring a qualitative and decent pattern of living. The family is expected to satisfy “sex needs”
(reproduction), economic needs feeding, clothing, shelter, medical provision, and so on. It is also
expected to transmit the cultural values and norms to the young generation in order to be fully
integrated into the society. The family has informal control over its members. Family being a mini
society acts as a transmission belt between the individual and society. It trains the younger
generation in such a way that it can take the adult roles in proper manner. As family is primary and
intimate group, it uses informal methods of social control to check the undesirable behaviour on
the part of its members. The parents use both reward and punishment to imbibe what is socially
required from a child. The child is trained in language, positive character traits, fundamental
intellectual knowledge, and vocational skills and so on, through the initiation by the adult members
of the family like father, mother and other siblings at home.
The School
In modem industrial society the school system has emerged as one of the most potent agencies of
socialization. After the home, the child is exposed to the school which also influences him. It
socializes the child, gives him the opportunity to manifest his qualities, potentialities, capabilities,
instincts, drives and motives and helps to develop his personality. Schools offer two contexts for
the students. The first is the formal context of the classroom, wherein the context of socialization is
decided by the prescribed curriculum. The second context is informal and can be perceived in the
interpersonal relationship of students with teachers and those among the students. Talcott Parsons
(1959) in his essay the 'School Class as a Social System' argues that school as a social system
performs four important functions simultaneously.
i) Emancipation of the child from family.
ii) Internalization of social values and norms, at a higher level than as available in the
family.
iii) Differentiation of the school class in term of actual achievement.
iv) The selection and allocation of human resources into the adult role system.

By going through this process the child acquires the values of industrial society like
achievement orientation, discipline, liberalism and rationality.
Peer Group
Children like to play and move about in group of their age peers or the same age bracket. This
group life is very important for them and has considerable influence on the development of
their self-concepts. Being in a group gives them confidence, a sense of security and self-
confidence. Particularly those who are popular learn to think positively of themselves. In
playing together children learn to cooperate. They learn to adjust their needs and desires to
the behaviour of peers. In a very real sense the child begins to develop a sense of self as
distinct from the family. Examples of peer groups are play groups (siblings, neighbours children,
school-mates) the cliques and age mates. In later years, however they become more formally
organized groups like clubs, societies, fighting gangs, character-building agencies like Boys
Scouts, Girls Guides and so on. Peer groups can have either negative or positive impact on a
child’s life. A child has to exercise care in the choice of the peer groups to belong.
Religion
Religion might be described as a reflection of man’s attempts to explain those aspects of his
environment which he cannot understand except in terms of the super natural. Religion plays a
very important role in socialization. Religion instills the fear of hell in the individual so that he
should refrain from bad and undesirable activities. Religion not only makes people religious but
socializes them into the secular order. People who share the same religious beliefs will also
hold the same attitudes and opinions, and will behave in the same way. Thus, religious
institutions help in the socialization process of its members. The religious leaders like Pastors or
Mallams are expected to demonstrate a high level of morality to serve as role models to their
followers. It is also worthwhile to preach the authentic facts in their written liturgies and not
the manipulations to suit their personal interest and desires.
Mass Media
Mass media as an agent of socialization are of two major types namely Print and Electronic.
The print is in the group of newspapers, magazines, periodicals, texts, bill boards and so on.
While the electronics are the Radio, Television, video, projectors handset digital devices and so
forth. The mass media of performs informative, educational and entertainment functions in the
society. Communication, particularly television, plays an important role in the process of
socialization. The mass media of communication transmit information and messages which
influence the personality of an individual to a great extent. In addition to this, communication
media has an important effect in encouraging individuals to support the existing norms and
values or oppose or change them. Children need to be guided in the usage of their leisure hours
in the patronage and utilization of mass media to discourage cultivation and learning of
negative ideas.

Social Stratification
Social Stratification Defined
The concept of social stratification could be related to the classic parable by George Orwell
which stipulates that “All Animals are equal but some are more equal than the others. In a
society, it is normal to have different categorization of people’s rank based on their wealth,
social status, power and income. The central focus of social stratification is on inequalities of
privilege on the part of the constituent groups of society which compares and ranks individuals
and groups. The term stratification is derived from the geological concept of ‘Strata’ which
means rock layers created by natural processes. Social Stratification is horizontal division of
society into ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ social units.” Every society is divided into more or less distinct
groups. In sociology, social stratification is a concept involving the "classification of people into
groups based on shared socio-economic conditions a relational set of inequalities with
economic, social, political and ideological dimensions." When differences lead to greater status,
power or privilege for some groups over the other it is called Social Stratification. There are five
basic points which gives clear idea about the causes of social stratification:
Inequality- Inequality exists because of natural differences in people’s abilities.
Conflict-Stratification occurs due to conflict between different classes, with the upper classes
using superior power to take a larger share of the social resources.
Power-Power influences one’s definition of self and the importance of ideas in defining social
situations.
Wealth-Difference in the wealth is also one of the causes of social stratification.
Instability – Instability in the society being the cause of social stratification enhances stability
and induces members of the society to work hard.
Types of Social Stratification
Sociologists generally distinguished and formulated four main types of social stratification
slavery, estate, caste and social class. It is a kind of social differentiation. Social differences or
contrast will turn into social stratification when people are ranked based on the bias of the
inequality like differences on some aspects and elements such as income, power, age, race,
occupation. A stratified kind of society is marked by unfairness by their own differences among
people that are evaluated by them as being higher or lower or equal. In every society some
men are regarded as superior or inferior. Some are rich and some are poor. And In every society
there are ruling classes which then constitutes the substance of social stratification.
It is further believed that a person’s social class has some consequences. Social class is defined
as the group of individuals or people in a stratified hierarchy based on wealth, income,
education, and occupation. One’s position in the social class may impact, for example, health,
family life, education, religion, political participation, and experience with the criminal justice
system. This is a controversial issue, with social scientists disagreeing over models, definitions,
and even the basic question of whether or not different distinct classes exist. Socioeconomic
status refers to a person’s position in the society and is determined by their income, wealth,
occupational prestige, and educational attainment.
Social Stratification and School Achievement
The children are not open to equal educational opportunity even with the compulsory and free
education provided for them. Some children from low socio-economic class with natural
endowment do not have equal access to qualitative education but rural and ill equipped
schools. The public schools which are free are not properly funded to reflect the right standard
to deliver the right tutelage to the students. Many of the students from this low social
economic class are undermined with poor health and malformed physique due to poor feeding,
ignorance and carelessness which may invariably give rise to poor performance academically.
The children from rich home enjoy qualitative education based on their parent’s wealth. The
rich parents has higher expectations and give their children the best qualitative education so
that their children can maintain the upper class status quo. Parents’ social status,
infrastructural facilities in schools, teachers’ attitude towards work, pupils’ attitude towards
study and so forth. All these demonstrate educational implications for stratification. People in
the upper class are believed to be the members that belong to the elite social networks, which
means that they have more access and connection to people who have powerful positions.
They claim the existence of a three-class model that includes the rich or upper class, average or
the middle class, and the poor or the lower class.
There is a great deal of evidence that socio-economic status has a considerable effect on
academic achievement. Thus, there is a strong positive correlation between a child's socio-
economic status and his academic achievement at school. The family provides a certain
material environment depending on the income and wealth with which it is associated. Since
school education demands money, the family with high income is more likely to meet this
demand than one with low income. It can better provide the material needs of the child,
sending the children to day care centres and providing them with superior opportunities for
learning at the primary and secondary education levels.
Thus, the material wealth of the family can in many ways assist the education of the child.
Children from extreme social groups (extreme poverty and extreme wealth) within societies are
exposed from an early age to separate and distinct patterns of learning before their formal
education begins. These patterns are progressively reinforced as the child develops. Children
whose homes provide a stimulating environment, full of physical objects and learning materials,
consistently learn more quickly in school than children from more deprived backgrounds. The
effect of family background on school achievement is most pronounced in subjects that are
familiar or linked to parental knowledge. School education involves financial expenditure by
way of fees, textbooks, and other equipment, so a home that is able to provide these
requirements is more likely to prepare its child for school. Parents with a high socio-economic
status are expected to have a home library and purchase children's books for their children.
Thus, the environment in which a child from a high socio-economic status is raised can be
described as enriched, while the environment in which a child from a low socio-economic status
is raised can be referred to as disadvantaged or a deprived environment. Hence, it can be said
that while enriched environments motivate and increase the probability of success at school
deprived environments do not.