By Robert Olson, Librarian, BA, MLIS

In his 1952 essay “The Myth of Sisyphus”, the French novelist and philosopher
Albert Camus wrote of the predicament of modern man and described him as an
“absurd hero”. Man is condemned - like Sisyphus in the Ancient Greek myth - to
a life of futility that is devoid of meaning. He must push a heavy stone uphill, only
for it to roll back down again once it reaches the top. This labour continues - up and
down, up and down - forever.
It makes one wonder why this man does not choose to end his suffering? How can
such a torturous life be endured?
Camus thinks that man has a noble soul, however, as one must possess a certain
amount of nobility to struggle against this absurdity of existence. The author
believes that life, no matter how seemingly bad it appears, can be lived with a full
“heart” and with dignity (Camus, 1955/1991).
For many people this kind of suffering is not mere allegory; it is as real as pushing a
rock. For them, the pain of living is too intolerable to endure, and the idea of suicide
is not an existential, philosophical question or an academic exercise. For these
people, suicide is the only answer.
“Deep emotional pain” is a recurring theme in suicide theory, and its debilitating
presence has been called the “most common theoretical reason for suicide” (Selby,
et al., 2014, p.297). The act of suicide is, however, far too complex to sum up in
three brief words. Suicides are also extremely rare, and explaining and predicting
them can be very difficult (Kastenbaum, 2003).
Theory, at its best, “is an important tool in transforming information into
knowledge” (Makinen, 2009, p.139). Theoretical information needs to both explain
a phenomenon and give practitioners the tools to work it into their practice. As
suicidologist Antoon Leenaars wrote, theory must have “sound clinical utility”
(1996, p.232). Both historical and modern day theories about why suicides happen
give us a much better overall perspective and understanding of suicidal behaviour.
In the past century, theories of suicide have emerged across the academic
spectrum, including, but not limited to, biology, medicine, social sciences, and the
humanities. Because of this, suicidology has become a multi-disciplinary area of
study. These different perspectives have allowed for different treatment strategies -
pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, and family therapy, to name a few - (Lester, 1994)
and they have also helped us “identify key targets for the treatment of suicidality”
(Selby, et al., 2014, p.297).
This issue of iE presents a brief review of suicidal theory, and focuses mostly
on those formulated from a psychological or sociological perspective. Although
this review is far from exhaustive, it will give the reader a glimpse of the various
interpretations of suicidal behaviour that have formed from the late 19th century to
the present day.

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Durkheim and Sociological Theory Hendin in the 1990s, for example, expanded on Freud’s
ideas about the attachment of aggression and suicide to
In 1897, Emile Durkheim - the founder of sociology - death in their respective work.
presented the first notable theory of suicide, which
focused on suicide at a societal level. The key variables he Baumeister and the Escape Theory of Suicide
identified were social integration and social regulation,
In 1990, Roy Baumeister proposed a psychological model
and he examined how these variables played out in relation
of suicide called the “escape theory”. It has been widely
to the four types of suicide that he identified. The first
influential, particularly in explaining adult male suicides.
type, Egoistic suicide, is seen in individuals who lack social
integration and are detached from traditional social bonds Baumeister explained suicide as a sequential process,
or society. These people are also often isolated and lack a involving the following six steps:
sense of belonging. Altruistic suicides - the second type - occur 1. Falling short of standards occurs when a person
when individuals are too fully socially integrated, and, thus, fails to meet unrealistically high life expectations or
they feel that their death would benefit society. Examples experiences negative life experiences or setbacks.
of altruistic suicides could include kamikaze pilots during
World War 2, or contemporary suicide bombers (Selby, et 2. Internalization of self-blame these failures are
al., 2014). The third type is Anomic suicides, which most internalized as being solely the individual’s fault and
often happen in societies where there is minimal social helps to cause low self-esteem.
regulation. This lack of social regulation results in a failure 3. Aversive sense of self is when a harshly negative
to instill a sense of meaning - or a failure to provide a view of self, versus a positive view of others, is firmly
moral framework - in the lives of its citizens and results in established.
a state of social and economic disorder. Camus’ “absurd
hero”, described above, would fit into this paradigm. The 4. Negative affect and/or negative consequences -
fourth and final type is Fatalistic suicides, which occur in these are the consequences of the previous step that
societies where social regulation is extreme and authority can manifest as depression, anxiety or anger.
is oppressive and controlling. Suicidal persons in these 5. Cognitive constriction is an escape of negative
situations would rather die than continue living in such consequences by either intentional or unintentional
stifling conditions (Durkheim, 1897/2006). Examples of this avoidance and rejection of “meaningful thought”.
type could include a prisoner who cannot tolerate prison The individual focuses on day-to-day needs at the
conditions, or an unwilling young woman in a patriarchal expense of forward thinking, and, thus, experiences
society who is forced into an arranged marriage. narrowed thinking or “tunnel vision”.
Durkheim’s influence was vast, and his was the first 6. Reckless behaviours, absence of emotion, and
theoretical attempt to examine suicide in non-moralistic or irrational thought comprise the last step of the
judgmental terms. Ultimately, he attempted to “specifically theory. These factors often surface as substance
identify types of suicide and ascribe reasons” (Selby, et al., abuse, self-harm, risky behaviours, and/or social
2014, p.290) for why they happen. withdrawal. The notion of suicide becomes less
fearsome. Sometimes this need to escape escalates to
Psychological Theories suicidality (Baumeister, 1990).
From the developing field of psychology at the beginning
of the 20th century came the first major theories of why Edwin Shneidman and Psychache
people die by suicide on the “individual” level. Freud Pioneering suicidologist Edwin Shneidman (1918-2009)
believed that an individual possesses a “death instinct” believed that the central factor in all suicides is the
which, in turn, is balanced by a life instinct, and is most presence of “psychache”, and the influence of psychache
often externalized as anger. When anger is culturally on theoretical thinking of suicidality has been enormous.
contained through societal mores and laws, its expression Psychache is defined as the “hurt, anguish, soreness,
toward others is repressed and turned inwards. In extreme and aching psychological pain in the mind” (Shneidman,
cases, this repression results in suicide – or self-murder. 1993, p.51). It is “the pain of shame or guilt, or
Freud’s ideas continued to have an influence on later humiliation, or loneliness, or fear, or angst, or dread of
suicidal theory. Karl Menninger in the 1930s and Herbert growing old” (Shneidman, 1993, p.51).

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Psychache results when an individual’s vital needs are • Indirect expressions ambivalent thoughts toward
not met or are frustrated. Shneidman believed that living, contradictory feelings
the majority of suicides were due to frustrated needs • Inadequate adjustment cannot cope with problems,
experienced in the following four ways: losses and weakened ego
1. Thwarted love, acceptance or belonging; Interpersonal
2. Excessive helplessness or the feeling that one has • Interpersonal relations frustrated relationships
no control;
3. Damaged self-image invokes feelings of avoidance, • Rejection/aggression loss or abandonment,
shame, defeat, and humiliation; and aggression turned inward

4. Damaged relationships, accompanied by • Identification/egression strong attachment to another

subsequent feelings of grief. that is not met, need to escape (Leenaars, 1996).

It is important to note that each person has a different For Leenaars, suicide is a “multidimensional malaise”, or
threshold for enduring psychache. When that threshold a combination of “biological, psychological, intrapsychic,
is reached, or when the individual deems the psychache interpersonal, social, cultural and philosophical”
to be unbearable and overwhelming, the most drastic elements, as opposed to the simple escape from
effort to reduce it - suicide – emerges as the answer. pain(Leenaars, 1996, p.221). In his view, a penetrating
investigation into the person’s lived experiences gives
Shneidman’s theory stresses that suicide is not us much more of the “why” someone died by suicide
necessarily the wish to die but is rather a means to (Leenaars, 1996).
ending the psychological pain (Shneidman, 1993).
Joiner’s Interpersonal Theory of Suicide
Leenaars and the Multidimensional Model of Suicide A popular contemporary theory of suicidal behaviour is
Antoon Leenaars is a leading proponent of multi- Thomas Joiner’s Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (2005),
dimensional, evidence-based models of suicide. They are which has been especially useful in explaining the
also sometimes referred to as “ecological models”. prevalence of suicide in older adults and - in particular -
older adult males.
Leenaars, along with Shneidman before him, is a leading
researcher of psychological autopsies – a term that
Shneidman first coined. He is also a leading authority on This theory was examined at length in iE16 iE16 Social
the analysis of suicide notes. These investigations are Connectedness and Suicide Prevention (link) but I will
extremely effective in understanding, retrospectively, summarize it here. There are 3 factors which need to be
why someone has taken his or her life. present for a suicide:

When Leenaars undertakes a suicidal analysis, he 1. Thwarted Belongingness: an absence of

employs idiographic (specific) and nomothetic meaningful connections to others or a strain of a loss
(general) elements. This is essential to capture a of previously strong relationships.
more complete illustration of the lost life. He draws on
2. Perceived Burdensomeness: a perception that
resources such as personal documents, interviews with
survivors, official government reports, suicide notes, and someone feels that he or she is a burden on
any other available sources. others. They believe that they fail to make meaningful
contributions to society and that they are a liability.
He interprets both intrapsychic and interpersonal features
These 2 combined factors create the desire for suicide.
to decipher what drives an individual to suicide:
Intrapsychic 3. Acquired Capability for Suicide: the degree to
which an individual is able to initiate a suicide
• Unbearable psychological pain
attempt. A habituation to fear and pain is a
• Cognitive construction rigid thinking, tunnel vision prerequisite for serious suicidal behaviour. A person

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 can become desensitized to the formidable notion of manifest as self-injury, and in extreme cases suicide can
suicide by repeated exposure to painful events and result.
behaviours such as self-injury.
Linehan developed Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) to
Beck and Hopelessness Theory help patients treat their emotional dysregulation. In this
treatment, behavioural skill deficits are taught within a
Aaron Beck posited the Hopelessness Theory of suicide problem-solving and skills-training framework, and there is
in the 1970s. He asked what possible force could an emphasis on skill building and behavioural change. Self-
drive a person to violate and override the “survival” validation and hopefulness are the desired outcomes.
instinct to kill him or herself. That force turned out to
be hopelessness-- the “catalytic agent” that drives the DBT has been touted as the “strongest single treatment
suicidal desire. He found that hopelessness is a stronger targeting suicidality” (Rudd, et al., p.161).
indicator of suicidal intent than depression.
Conclusion
The individual has a stored reservoir of negative models
which determine how they will perceive and interpret Although several theories of suicide are surveyed here,
new information. In the case of suicidal thoughts, these there are many more left unmentioned. These include
models exacerbate feelings of hopelessness at the theories stemming from research in other disciplines. For
expense of positive, productive information. example, huge advances have been made in the study
of the brain in the neurosciences in the last 20 years. We
Beck has been pivotal in devising measurements to aid have a better understanding of how the brain works and
clinicians in assessing mental illness and suicidality. consequently how chemicals in the brain influence how we
Some of these include: The Beck Depression Inventory think and behave. This is positive because we now have a
(BDI), the Suicide Intent Scale (SIS), and the Beck better idea of how suicidal thoughts are formed, and how
Hopelessness Scale (BHS). these thoughts result in suicidal behaviours.
Beck believes that cognitive change, in addition to It is important to note that no single theory can explain the
behavioural change, is crucial to effective treatment. complexities of suicide or suicidal behaviour, regardless of
This is evident in the practice of Cognitive Behavioural whether the theory is rooted in sociology, psychology, or
Therapy(CBT), which he helped develop. He also feels even medicine. It is also unfeasible to conclude that every
that clinicians should target a patient’s feelings of theory can be used effectively to treat suicidality.
hopelessness for more positive treatment outcomes
(Beck, et al., 1974). Particular theories may influence newer ones or may fall
out of favour altogether. What remains constant is the
Linehan and Emotion Dysregulation Theory evolving understanding of why people take their own lives.
We get this understanding from the tireless research that
Marsha Linehan’s theory of Emotion Dysregulation is goes into formulating theory and its practical application.
often referred to as a “bio-social” theory, as biological
and physiological elements figure prominently in an As theoretical efforts in suicide prevention continue and our
individual’s responses to stress and emotion regulation. practical treatment of suicidal individuals improves, more
An afflicted person is characterized as experiencing people who are suffering will hopefully begin to experience
intense emotions and an increase in sensitivity - even lives that are not quite as painful and intolerable. When
hypersensitivity - in upsetting situations. this happens, they may no longer feel like Sisyphus,
endlessly pushing the rock, rather, they can be, as Camus
These extreme emotional states are intense and aversive. imagines Sisyphus, content and happy to be alive (Camus,
Sufferers desperately attempt to manage their symptoms. 1955/1991).
Sometimes these efforts to cope or regulate the pain
We encourage your feedback and participation
in the conversation of this topic.
Visit www.suicideinfo.ca to leave your comment

© Centre for Suicide Prevention, 2014 InfoExchange 17: Why do People Kill Themselves 4
References

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90-113.

Beck, A., Kovacs, M. and Weismann, A. (1974). The measurement of pessimism:

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Camus, A. (1991). The myth of Sisyphus and other essays. (J. O’Brien, Trans.).
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Durkheim, E. (2006). On suicide. (R. Buss, Trans.). New York: Penguin Books.
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Houle, J. and Marcoux, I. (2003). Suicide types: Theories of suicide. In Kastenbaum

(Ed.), Macmillan encyclopedia of death and dying (856-859). New York: Macmillan
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Joiner, T. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University
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Makinen, I. (2009). Social theories of suicide. In Wasseman, D. and Wasserman,

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