1.

Critical review of Tunneling in Nepal based on

opportunities and challenges. (10)
Tunnel:
 It is an underground or underwater passageway, dug through the
surrounding soil/earth/rock.
 They could be used for carrying freights and passengers, water,
sewage, etc.
 A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for
a canal.
 Secret tunnels are built for military purposes.
 Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife
to cross human- made barriers safely.
 The methods involved are underground operations
Tunneling
 Tunnels are artificial underground passages opened at both ends
constructed for different purposes.
 Required for highways, railways, sewerage, water supply, public
utilities and canals.
 Necessitated when open excavation of strata becomes uneconomical,
not only construction cost but for maintenance as well.
Opportunities of Tunneling in Nepal
There are several specific ways in which road tunnels can be an
opportunity for transportation in Nepal:
1. Connecting isolated areas:
Nepal is a mountainous country with steep terrain, which can make it
difficult to build and maintain roads. Tunnels can provide a way to
connect isolated areas that would otherwise be inaccessible due to
geography. This can be especially important in rural areas, where access
to transportation can be limited.
2. Reducing the impact of extreme weather:
Nepal can experience extreme weather conditions, including heavy
snowfall and landslides, which can disrupt road travel. Road tunnels can
provide a more reliable transportation option by offering protection from
these weather events. Tunnels can also be more resistant to damage from
earthquakes, which are common in Nepal.
 Reducing traffic congestion:
In urban areas of Nepal, road tunnels can help reduce traffic congestion
by providing an alternate route for vehicles. This can improve the flow of
traffic and reduce travel time for commuters.
3. Improving road safety:
Road tunnels can improve road safety by separating vehicles from
pedestrians and reducing the risk of accidents. Tunnels can also provide a
safer route for vehicles to travel through, as they can be designed with
features such as lighting and ventilation to improve visibility and air
quality.
4. Ground conditions:
The geology of Nepal is complex, with a mix of sedimentary,
metamorphic, and igneous rock formations. The ground conditions can
vary widely depending on the location and depth of the tunnel. It is
important to carefully assess the ground conditions before starting
construction to ensure the stability of the tunnel.
5. Seismic activity:
Nepal is located in a seismically active region, and earthquakes are a
common occurrence. Tunnel construction in Nepal must take into account
the potential for seismic activity and design the tunnel to withstand
earthquakes. This may include measures such as reinforcing the tunnel
walls and ceiling with steel or concrete.
6. Altitude:
Many parts of Nepal are located at high altitudes, which can present
additional challenges for tunnel construction. For example, the thin air at
high altitudes can make it difficult to operate heavy machinery and may
require special adjustments to construction techniques.
Road tunnels can be an opportunities transportation solution in Nepal. Careful
planning and design can help mitigate the potential impacts of geology and
other factors, and tunnels can offer many benefits, including the ability to
connect isolated areas, reduce the impact of extreme weather, reduce traffic
congestion, and improve road safety.
Challenges of Tunneling in Nepal
 For economically viable tunneling a method characterized by cost
effectiveness and flexibility to adopt changing ground conditions and
accuracy required in the prediction of rock mass quality during planning are
crucial.
 The design phase decision in selecting tunnel alignment and predicting the
rock mass quality and rock support requirement have direct influence on the
overall cost and time required to any tunneling projects
 However, the past tunneling experience in Nepal shows that the accuracy of
planning phase geological investigations for underground works have often
been rather poor.
 In addition, as discussed in section 3, the active tectonic movement in the
Himalaya has made rock mass highly folded, faulted, sheared, fractured and
deeply weathered.
 This complex geological setting thus has posed considerable stability
problems in tunneling and is a great challenge for the successful tunneling in
Nepal.
 The majority of tunneling carried out in the Himalaya have suffered severe
stability problems, resulting in delayed completion and cost overruns.
Principally, these stability problems in tunneling in Nepal may be related to
two major factors; non-geological and geological.
 The non-geological factor is related to the level of skills and expertise gained
in tunneling in relation to the interpretation and decision making skills
during planning and construction phase of tunneling projects.
 The ability to analyze, evaluate and tackle the stability issues during
planning and construction and the tools, methods and technology used in that
process have off course great significance, since erroneous interpretation
may result in loss of millions.
 The geological factor is related to complex geology of the region. This
complex geology has influenced to the rock mass in four engineering
geological arena due to which major stability problems have been the result
in tunneling in Nepal. These are;
a) weak rock mass quality
b) high degree of weathering and fracturing
c) rock stresses and
d) groundwater effect.
2. Write down the steps on selection of site for appropriate
excavation in tunneling process. Derive the expression
for radial and circumferential stress developed in the
circular excavation. (10)
Answer:
 First Part: -Steps on selection of site for appropriate excavation in
tunneling process
1. Selection of tunnel alignment-
 Although many alternate alignments might be chosen the final choice
would be greatly dependent on the geological conditions along and
around different alternative: the alignment having least geologically
negative factors would be considered to be the various terms.
2.Selection of excavation Method
 Tunneling is a complicated process in any situation and involves a huge
cost. Moreover, the excavation methods are intimately linked with the
type of rocks to be excavated. Choice of the right method will be possible
only when the nature of the rocks and ground all along the alignment is
fully known. This is one of the most important aim and object geological
investigations.
3.Selection of design for the tunnel
 The ultimate dimensions and design parameters of a proposed tunnel are
controlled. Besides other factors, by geological constitution of the area
along the alignment.
 The shape of the tunnel (D shape, Horse shoe shape, Rectangular or
combined of one or more of these outlines.) is more often suggested by
the geology along the alignment than by any other single factor.
 Thus in self-supporting and strong rocks, either horse shoe or D-shaped
may be continently adopted but these steps would be practically
unsuitable in soft ground or even in weak rocks with unequal lateral
pressure. In these cases, Circular outline may be the first choice.
4. Assessment of cost and stability-
 These facts are closely interlinked with the first three considerations,
since geological investigations will determine the line of actual
excavations, the method of excavation and the dimensions of excavation
as also the supporting system i.e. lining of the excavation, all the
estimates about the cost of the project would depend on the geological
details.
 Similarly, tunnels passing through hard and massive rocks, even when
left unsupported, may be regarded as stable. However, those passing
through difficult grounds might still collapse or bulge at places or even
completely fail, if geological situation is not perceived properly.
5.Assessment of Environmental hazards-
  The processes of tunneling, whether through rocks or soft ground
involves disturbing the environment of an area more than one way. The
Tunneling methods might involve vibrations induced through blasting or
ground cutting and drilling, producing abnormal quantities of dust and
interference with water supply system of the nearby areas.
Second Part: - Expression for radial and circumferential stress developed
in the circular excavation
STRESSES AROUND UNDERGROUND OPENING
These 3D problem can be reduced to a 2D if the stresses on the periphery of
a long tunnel are studied by the sectional analysis. The problem is reduced
to the study of the stresses, on the periphery of an opening in a thin sheet of
elastic or elasto-plastic medium. The mathematical difficulties in the theory
of elasticity are reduced, if the boundaries of the bodies coincide with the
co-ordinate system used. Thus the problems involving spheres or
spherical/circular openings in an in-finite medium can be solved more easily
if spherical coordinate system is used with the center of the co-ordinate
system at the center of the sphere.

Figure 6.2: Sectional view of a long tunnel

Figure 6.3: Elemental stress state in polar co-ordinate system

To transform the stresses from rectangular co-ordinate system to polar co-
ordinate system the following transformation equations are used.
σ x + σ y σ x −σ y
σ r= - cos 2 ϴ. sin 2 ϴ+ ɽ xy sin 2ϴ
2 2
σ x+ σ y σ −σ
σ ϴ= + x y cos 2 ϴ. sin 2 ϴ- ɽ xy sin 2ϴ
2 2
σ x −σ y
ɽ rϴ=ɽ xy.cos 2 ϴ .- .sin 2 ϴ
2

The back formulations of horizontal and vertical stresses are given by,

σ ϴ + σ r σ ϴ −σ r
σ x= - cos 2 ϴ - ɽ xy sin 2ϴ
2 2
σ ϴ + σ r σ ϴ −σ r
σ y= + cos 2 ϴ + ɽ xy sin 2ϴ
2 2
σ ϴ −σ r
ɽ xy=ɽ rϴ.cos 2 ϴ - sin 2ϴ
2

Figure 6.4: Stresses around circular tunnel in plain strain

Problem of a hole in an infinite plate is of special interest in the rock

mechanics field because it corresponds to the problem of a long horizontal
tunnel at depth in a uniform rock formation. Considering an infinite plate of
thickness 't' with a circular hole of radius 'a' at the origin. If the applied stresses
in the horizontal (x) and vertical (z) directions are σ x & σz respectively, the
stress components are (G. Kirsch, 1898),
2 4
1 a 1 3a
σ ϴ= (σ x + σ z )(1+ 2 ¿ - (σ x −σ z) (1+ 4 ¿ cos 2 ϴ
2 r 2 r
2 4 4
1 a 1 3a 4 a
σ r= (σ x + σ z )(1+ 2 ¿ + (σ x −σ z) (1+ 4 − 4 ¿ cos 2 ϴ
2 r 2 r r
4 4
−1 3a 2a
ɽ rϴ= (σ x −σ z) (1- 4 − 4 ¿ sin 2ϴ
2 r r
a = radius of the circular opening
θ = central angle with x-axis
r = radial distance of the element from the center of the opening
For σ x = 0, the maximum tangential stress is three times the applied stress the

applied stress and occurs at the boundary on the X-axis, that is θ = 0 or π . θ

= π/2 or 3π/2, the tangential stress at the boundary of the opening is equal to
the applied stress but is of opposite in sign.
Case 1: Hydrostatic case
When, σx = σz = p (compressive), i.e. for the case of hydrostatic loading:
2
a
σ r= p(1- 2)
r
2
a
σ ϴ= p(1+ 2 )
r
ɽ rϴ=0

Figure 6.5: Circular opening in hydrostatic stress field

If σx = σz, the maximum tangential stress occurs at the boundary of circular
opening and is equal to two times the applied stress. The radial stress at the
boundary is equal to the two times of applied stress and occurs on a plane at
45o to the boundary.
Thick wall cylinder subjected external pressure
This problem corresponds to the problem of a tunnel or shaft lining (with a
internal and external radius 'a' and 'b' respectively) in a rock formation
having a hydrostatic stress field (P).
Figure 6.6: Tunnel linings in plain strain with internal radious 'a' and external
radious 'b' in hydrostatic stress field
This problem corresponds to the problem of a tunnel or shaft lining in a rock
formation having a hydrostatic stress field. The radial, tangential and shear
stresses corresponding to lining with internal radious 'a' and external radious 'b'.
2 2
b ∗Po a
σ r= - 2 2 (1- 2)
b −a r
2 2
b ∗Po a
σ ϴ= - 2 2 (1+ 2 )
b −a r
ɽ rϴ=0
If one takes a limit for b → infinity, it can be seen that , the results are same

as circular opening in hydrostatic stress field.

CASE 2: When σ x = 0
For σ x = 0 , the maximum tangential stress is three times the applied stress and
occurs at the boundary on the X-axis that is θ = 0 or π. When θ = π/2 and 3π/2,
the tangential stress at the boundary of the opening is equal to the applied stress
but is of opposite in sign.

Figure 6.7. Tangential and radial stresses around circular openings

when σx=0
Figure 6.8. Tangential stresses around the periphery of the circular
openings when σx=0

3. What are the various methods of tunneling? Explain in

detail. Describe the method of shield tunneling in soft
ground? (10)
Answer:
First Part: Methods of Tunnel Construction
There are various types of construction techniques developed for
construction of tunnels which are discussed below:
a. Cut and cover method
b. Bored tunnel method
c. Clay kicking method
d. Shaft method
e. Pipe jacking method
f. Box jacking method
g. Underwater tunnels
a) Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction
Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is generally used to build
shallow tunnels. In this method, a trench is cut in the soil and it is
covered by some support which can be capable of bearing load on it.
The cutting can be done by two methods. One is bottom up method in
which a tunnel is excavated under the surface using ground support.
Another method is top-down method in which side support walls are
constructed first by slurry walling method or contiguous bored piling.
Then roof is located on the top of the walls and excavation is carried
out. Finally, base slab is constructed. Most of the Underground metro
rail stations are constructed using cut and cover method.

b) Bored Tunnel Method

Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this case, tunnel boring
machines are used which automatically work and makes the entire
 tunneling process easier. It is also quicker process and good method to
build tunnel in high traffic areas. Tunnels boring machines (TBM’s)
are available in different types suitable for different ground
conditions. These machines can be used in difficult conditions such as
below the water table etc. A special pressurized compartment is
provided for TBM to work in below water table conditions. The
workers should not enter that compartment except for repair works.
Care should be taken while TBM is in working conditions. The only
difficulty with this TBM is its heavy weight. So, transportation is
difficult and costlier.

c) lay Kicking Method of Tunnel Construction

This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old
method and used for small works like sewage pipes installations etc.
In this method, a hole is excavated
into the ground and after some depth tunnel is excavated which is
done by the clay kicker which lies 0n a plank at 45 o angle. An
excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated
using that tool is collected by other workers. This is well famous
because it is the method used by Englishmen to put mines under the
German empire during First World

War.
d) Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction
this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground
surface. The shaft is built up to the depth where tunnel is
required. Shaft is a permanent structure which is like well with
concrete walls. At required depth, tunnels are excavated using TBM’s.
Shafts are provided at both inlet and outlet of tunnels. Intermediate
shafts are also provided if tunnel is too long. After the construction
process, these shafts can also be used for ventilation purpose as well
as emergency exits.

e) Pipe Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing
structures like road ways, railways etc. In this method, specially made
pipes are driven into underground using hydraulic jacks. Maximum
size of 3.2-meter diameter is allowed for Tunnels.

.
f) Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction
Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead
of pipes, specially made boxes are driven into the soil. A cutting head
is provided at the front side of the box. Excavated matter is collected
within the box. Larger size tunnels can be excavated using box jacks
up to 20 meters.
 g) Underwater Tunnel Construction
 An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make
a way through it. If construction of bridge is not possible then under
water tunnel is good choice.
 Under water tunneling is costly process but have advantages over
bridge or ferry links. Immersed tubes or bored tunnel are two most
common methods which are used to construct under water tunnel.

Second Part: The method of shield tunneling in soft ground

 The shield tunneling method is a boring technique that consists of a
shield (a protective metal cylinder) and trailing support mechanisms.
During this trenchless method, a rotating cutting head is positioned at the
front of the shield.
 The shield tunneling method is a boring technique that consists of a
shield (a protective metal cylinder) and trailing support mechanisms.
During this trenchless method, a rotating cutting head is positioned at the
front of the shield.
 The shield acts as a temporary support structure that prevents the
surrounding soil from becoming unstable. This is especially critical in
large tunnels, where extreme ground pressures can result in cave-ins and
other safety hazards.
 The cutting head advances the boring machine through the soil for a short
distance until the tunnel can be lined with a stable support structure
(typically concrete lining segments). Once the permanent support
 structure is in place, the machine pushes itself off the lining segment via
hydraulic jacks to drill further into the soil.
 In addition to supporting the surrounding soil, the shield also houses
several mechanisms, including soil removal systems, slurry pipelines,
control rooms, and rails for transporting the lining segments.
 The shield tunneling method may be done with drilling slurry (slurry
tunnel boring machine) or without (earth pressure balance or EPB shield).
Similar to other trenchless drilling methods, systems are in place during
shield tunneling to remove the soil from the borehole to the ground
surface.

4. What are different types of supports in tunnel

excavation? Discuss about the use of rock bolting and its
effects in entire tunneling Process. (10)
Solution:
First part: - different types of supports in tunnel excavation
1. Wooden boards, points and trusses. Boards, struts and trusses are used as
temporary shoring in traditional excavation methods. ...
2. Metal trusses. ...
3. Bolts and anchors. ...
4. Shotcrete or gunite.
Second Part: - use of rock bolting and its effects in entire tunneling
Process
Types of Rock Bolt and Their Uses
 i. Fully Grouted
Fully grouted involve inserting the rod into a pre-drilled hole and
then filling the entire cavity with grout material or cement to
anchor it securely in place. This type of system provides
increased strength but requires more time for installation due to
the need for drilling and filling each hole with grout prior to
insertion.
ii. Partially Grouted
Partially grouted systems involve inserting the rod into a pre-
drilled hole but only partially filling it with grout material or
cement before inserting it into place. This type of system
provides less strength but can be installed quickly due to not
needing to fill each hole with grout prior to insertion.
iii. Fully Encapsulated Bolt
A fully encapsulated bolt type of rock bolt is the most commonly
used type of rock bolt and is used to strengthen surfaces and
foundations in the mining and civil construction industries. Rock
bolts are specifically designed for geotechnical applications
employed to stabilize tunnels, excavations, walls, and other
structures built in expansive soils, fractured rocks and during
seismic activities. The fully encapsulated bolt is an improved
design offering superior fastening for a variety of applications
requiring high levels of performance. To ensure safety and
reliability, these bolts offer full encapsulation around the
exposed structural elements so that any deformation or corrosion
can be avoided. Their ability to resist external loads makes them
ideal for stabilizing surface areas where hydrochemical stresses
may be present. Using a fully encapsulated rock bolt type
increases structural integrity over time, providing engineering
solutions that endure through today’s toughest conditions.
iv. D-Bolt
 The D-Bolt type of rock bolt is a highly safe and secure solution
for securing construction in a variety of rocky environments. Not
only can it be installed quickly and conveniently, but it also
offers superior performance when compared to other fastening
systems. The unique shape of the bolt increases its capacity to
resist lateral and torsional loads, making it one of the strongest
and most reliable anchors available on the market. What’s more,
an added corrosion-resistant coating prevents any degradation of
its structural integrity, ensuring it will stay an effective solution
far into the future. With the ability to keep any rock-secured
structure perfectly steady even during seismic events, the D-Bolt
truly stands out as a superior choice for any project needing
fastened reinforcement.
v. Inflatable Rock Bolt
An inflatable rock bolt is an innovative tool for stabilizing and
reinforcing unstable or damaged surfaces or slopes. They provide
a secure grip that can also be adjusted to produce maximum hold
for a variety of materials, from soil to hard rock. Unlike
traditional bolts and anchors, an inflatable version won’t cause
vibrations that could cause further damage to unstable ground.
This makes them ideal for use in areas prone to earthquakes,
mudslides, landslides, river erosion, and other extreme
conditions. Inflatable rock bolts are becoming increasingly
popular among construction professionals who need reliable
solutions for securing their structures in any environment

5. What are the different types of shotcreting techniques in

tunneling? Discuss the importance of ground reaction
curve in shotcreting process. (10)
Answer:
First Part: Different types of shotcreting techniques in tunneling
 Shotcrete is another process that sprays/injects concrete/mortar with high
pneumatic velocity through the nozzle of a hosepipe onto the loose
fractured surface.
 types
1. Dry Mix Shotcrete (DMS)
 2. Wet Mix Shotcrete (WMS)
Second Part: - importance of ground reaction curve in
shotcreting process
Ground reaction curve:
The ground reaction curve (GRC) is the relationship between this internal
pressure and the deformation of the walls (or tunnel convergence). Figure 1.
Assumed support pressure pi at different positions relative to the advancing
tunnel face.

Importance of Ground Reaction curve:

6. Classification of tunnel
A. Classification based on the purpose
Based on purpose tunnels are classified as:
a) Traffic Tunnels: Traffic tunnels are of following types
i. Highway tunnels
ii. Railway tunnels
iii. Navigation tunnels
iv. Pedestrian tunnels
v. Subway tunnels
b) Conveyance Tunnels Conveyance tunnels are of following types
i. Water supply tunnels
ii. Hydroelectric power tunnel
iii. Sewer tunnels
iv. Transporting tunnels in industrial plant
B. Classification based on type of material
 Based on type of material through which they pass, tunnels are
classified as
a) Tunnels in hard rock
b) Tunnels in soft rock
c) Tunnels in loose sand
d) Tunnels in quick sand
e) Open-cut tunnels
f) Tunnels in river bed
C. Classification based on position or alignment
Based on position or alignment, tunnels are classified as
a) Spiral Tunnels:
Spiral tunnels are the tunnels in which the additional length for
minimum permissible radius is obtained by forming a loop into the
interior of mountain. These are provided in narrow valleys
b) Saddle and Base Tunnels:
Saddle and base tunnels are tunnels in which the track is led through
valleys as long as natural stope of valley does not become steeper than
ruling gradient
c) Of-Spur Tunnels:
They are short length tunnels and are made to shortcut
minor local obstacles
7. Geological Survey for Tunneling
 A geological survey is the systematic investigation of the subsurface
and surface of a given piece of ground for the purpose of creating a
geological map, model and feasibility studies.
 A geological survey employs techniques from the traditional walk-
over survey, studying outcrops and landforms, to intrusive methods,
such as hand auguring and machine driven boreholes, use of
geophysical techniques and remote sensing methods, such as aerial
photography and satellite imagery etc.
 Types of Geological Survey: Mainly geological surveys are classified
into two types:
a. Surface Geological Survey
b. Subsurface Geological Survey
a. Surface Geological Survey:
 includes on land geology and geological structures, landforms,
hydrology, outcrop pattern engineering properties etc.
  Geological profile is prepared a long line of tunnel.
 Geological observations are done along this profile like
engineering properties of rock/soil, geological structures like
fold, faults, joints, spring stream, river alignment and any
seepage etc.
 Trial boring plan is prepared along the tunnel line.
b. Subsurface Geological Survey:
 includes on underground geology and geological structures,
Geo-hydrogeology, subsurface rock or soil pattern etc.
 Trial boring is done along the tunnel line.
 Different rock and soil samples are collected from subsurface
and their physical and chemical properties are observed.
 Some samples are sent to laboratory for determination of
engineering properties like shearing strength, permeability
porosity compressive strength, and other test are performed.
 GWT (Ground Water Table) is noted and water bearing strata is
marked in geological profile.
 Different geophysical surveys like refraction, resistivity,
GPR(Ground Penetrating Radar) and bore hole logging etc. are
also done.
 In situ testing like Packer-testing, hydro fracturing, load-testing
etc are performed.
 A geological/feasibility report comprising all information,
photographs, profile and others necessary data are presented for
final tunnel design and construction.
8. Support System in Tunneling
• A variety of methods or support systems are available for improving the
quality of rock mass.
• The objective o support is to mobilize and conserve the inherent or
available strength of rock mass so that it becomes self-supporting
• Support has two dual functions i.e. It has to support as well as reinforce
the rock mass.
• Two types of support system exist in tunneling
a) Active Support System
b) Passive Support System
a) Active Supports:
 • Exert certain predetermined load to the rock mass at the time of their
installation
• Internal rock reinforcing elements
• They are first inserted into the rock mass and are tensioned thus they
i. Increase the rock strength by compressing it
ii. They take up rock loads by mobilizing friction between them and
rock mass
iii. Take up loads from moment they are installed
iv. Work in conjunction with rock mass
v. Interaction takes place in form of stress transference from rock
mass to reinforcing elements which is time dependent process
• Eg: Tensioned rock bolts, cables, anchors, fore poles etc.
b) Passive Supports
 These are external supports and are applied at the boundary of
excavation. i.e. They support rock mass from outside of rock mass and
include steel, timbered sets, composite packs etc.
 These supports don’t impose loads on the rock surface initially but
develops loads on them as the rock mass deforms.
 Don’t directly increase he intrinsic strength of rock mass
 They don’t take up rock loads until rock load is imposed to them
 Interaction is best described by the movement of ground with respect to
that of support itself.
 Eg: Un-tensioned grouted bolts, reinforcing bars, friction dowels, split set
stabilizers and rock mass
9. Rock Bolts
• Rock bolts are a type of reinforcement used in tunneling and other forms
of underground excavation to help support the rock or soil surrounding
the excavation.
• These bolts are typically made of steel and are inserted into holes drilled
into the rock or soil. Once in place, the bolts are anchored to the rock or
soil using grout or resin.
• The primary function of rock bolts in tunneling is to provide additional
support to the surrounding rock or soil, helping to prevent collapse or
other types of failure.
• The bolts can help distribute the load of the overlying rock or soil,
reducing the stress on any single point and helping to stabilize the
surrounding area.
• Rock bolts can also be used to improve the overall stability of the tunnel
or excavation by reducing the likelihood of rock movement or slippage.
This can be especially important in areas with high levels of seismic
activity or in situations where the surrounding rock or soil is unstable.
• In addition to providing support and stability, rock bolts can also be used
to control water inflow in underground excavations. By sealing off cracks
or fissures in the rock or soil with grout or resin, the bolts can help
prevent water from entering the tunnel or excavation.
• Overall, rock bolts are a critical component of tunneling and other forms
of underground excavation, helping to ensure the safety and stability of
the excavation and the surrounding area.
• Rock bolting is the systematic reinforcement and/or anchorage of rock
slopes by the insertion and grouting of steel bars into holes predrilled into
the more or less fractured rock mass, improving its stability. The
deformed steel bars are typically 25 to 50 mm in diameter and up to 12 to
15 m in length. Long bolts are typically formed by joining shorter
threaded bars using special couplers, to facilitate handling. For
convenience of installation, strand anchors are normally used where
longer bolts are required. Bolts are installed across the discontinuities or
the potential failure surfaces at a dip angle flatter than the normal and
typically work mainly in tension and only subordinately in shear and
bending
Rock bolting is a common technique used in tunneling to stabilize the
rock mass and prevent it from collapsing. There are several types of rock
bolting methods used in tunneling, including:
• Point anchorage rock bolts: These are commonly used for temporary
support in tunnels. They consist of a single bolt with a cone-shaped
anchor at one end and a nut and plate at the other end. The bolt is inserted
into a pre-drilled hole and the anchor end expands against the rock to
hold it in place.
• Resin anchorage rock bolts: These bolts are similar to point anchorage
bolts, but they use a resin to anchor the bolt into the rock. A hole is
drilled into the rock, a bolt is inserted, and resin is injected into the hole
to anchor the bolt in place.
• Grouted rock bolts: These bolts consist of a steel rod or cable that is
inserted into a pre-drilled hole and then grouted in place with cement or
 other material. The grout provides additional support to the bolt and helps
to transfer the load to the surrounding rock.
• Cable bolts: These are used in areas with high stress concentrations, and
are typically installed in a fan or mesh pattern. They consist of a steel
cable with a grout tube attached, which is inserted into a pre-drilled hole.
The cable is then tensioned and grouted in place, providing additional
support to the rock mass.
• Swellex rock bolts: These are expandable bolts that are used in tunnels
with unstable or loose rock formations. They consist of a tube with a
series of wedge-shaped segments that can be expanded by turning a bolt
at the end. The expanded segments provide additional support to the
surrounding rock.

1. Anchor bolts
2. Swellex bolts

3. Grouted Rock bolts

10. Effects of Rock bolting

Ground suspension support

• Ground suspension support involves using a combination of rock bolts,
wire mesh, and shotcrete to provide a flexible and self-supporting ground
system. This technique is particularly useful in weak or unstable ground
conditions where traditional support methods such as steel ribs or
concrete lining are not feasible. The ground suspension support system
typically consists of a primary layer of rock bolts installed in a systematic
grid pattern, followed by a layer of wire mesh that is attached to the bolts.
The wire mesh is then covered with a layer of shotcrete, which provides
additional support and helps to distribute the load evenly across the
ground surface.
Reinforcing bedded ground
• Reinforcing bedded ground involves using a combination of rock bolts
and grouted dowels to provide support and reinforcement to the bedding
planes of the rock formation. This technique is particularly useful in
layered or bedded ground conditions where the rock mass is prone to
slippage or separation along the bedding planes. The reinforcing bedded
ground system typically consists of a series of closely spaced rock bolts
installed perpendicular to the bedding planes, followed by a series of
grouted dowels installed parallel to the bedding planes. The grouted
dowels provide additional reinforcement by bonding the layers of rock
together, reducing the risk of slippage or separation.