WAVES

I) Definitions:
A wave is a means of transfer of energy by a vibrating medium
OR
Waves are due to vibrations resulting in movement of energy which is transferred from its source to
places around it.
II) CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES
Waves can be classified as mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.
Mechanical waves
These are wave which require a material medium for transmission. Mechanical waves include: Sound
waves, water waves, waves on strings etc.
Electromagnetic waves
These are wave which do not require a material medium for transmission. Electromagnetic waves include:
light waves, radio waves, X-ray, ultraviolet etc.

Differences between mechanical and electromagnetic waves

Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves
Need a medium for transmission Do not need a medium for transmission
Cannot travel through a vacuum Can travel through a medium
Relatively slow Very fast

III) KINDS OF WAVES

There are two kinds of waves namely:
(i) Longitudinal waves.
(ii) Transverse waves.
Longitudinal waves
A longitudinal wave is one in which particles vibrate in direction parallel to wave motion.
Examples of longitudinal waves are sound waves, waves produced by pipes and string instruments.
A longitudinal wave has two regions namely: compression and rare faction regions.
Diagram showing motion of particles for longitudinal waves.

C is compression region, R is rare faction region.

Compression region
Compression region is a region in the longitudinal wave where the vibrating particles are very close
together. A particle at the centre of compression region moves from the rest position in same direction as the
wave.
Rare-faction region
Rare-faction region is a region in the longitudinal wave where the vibrating particles are further apart. A
particle at the centre of rare-faction moves from rest position in the opposite direction to that of the wave.
Transverse waves
A Transverse wave is one in which particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.
Examples: Water waves, light waves, all Electromagnetic waves.
A transverse wave has two main regions namely: Crest and Trough.

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Crest is a region of maximum upward displacement of particles in a transverse wave.
Trough is a region of maximum downward displacement of particles in a transverse wave.

General presentation of a wave

IV) DEFINITION OF TERMS

.1. Amplitude
Amplitude is a maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position on a wave.
S.I unit of amplitude is metre (m).
All diagram amplitude to be drawn

Amplitude = a-0 = a or Amplitude = 0-(-a) = a

Example 1: Find the amplitude of the wave below

Amplitude = 5 -0
= 5m
Example 2 Find amplitude of the wave below

Amplitude = 6 - 4=2m
2. Cycle of a wave
Cycle is one complete to and from motion of a wave

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For each of the following find the number of cycles
(a)

1 ½ cycle
(b)

(c)

3. Wave length (λ)

Wave length is the distance between successive particles of the medium that are in phase.
For transverse waves, wave length is the distance between two successive crests or troughs.
For longitudinal waves, wave length is the distance between two successive compressions or rare-factions.
The S.I unit of wave length is metre (m)

The Period
A Period of a wave is the time to taken to complete one cycle of wave or time taken for a wave to travel a
distance of wave length. S. I unit is seconds.
In general for n cycles completed in time t
Period T = 𝐭/𝐧
Example 3: Find the period of a wave which makes 10cycles in 40s
Solution:
n = 10cycles
t = 40s
T= 𝐭/𝐧
T= 40/10 =4𝑠
Example 4: Find the amplitude and period of wave below

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Amplitude = 9 – 3 = 3cm
Period = 1.0cm
4. Frequency
Frequency is the number of vibrations per second.
Frequency is also the number of complete cycles made by a wave in 1 second.
Frequency is also the number of wave length that passes a fixed point per second.
The S.I unit for frequency is Hertz (Hz).
Hertz is one complete oscillation per second e.g. 60Hertz means 60 oscillations per second or 60 vibrations
per second.
Note: 1Hz = 1s-1
Bigger units
1 kHz = 1000 Hz
E.g. 4 kHz = 4 x 1000 = 4000Hz
1 MHz = 106 = 1000000Hz
In general for calculation
Frequency (f) = 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐬𝐜𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐧)
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 (𝐭)
Where n is the number of oscillation or cycles or vibrations made in time t.
Example 5: A vibrator produces 10 vibrations in 4 seconds, find the frequency
n= 10 oscillations
t = 4s
f = 𝑛/𝑡 = 10/4 = 2.5Hz
Example 6: A vibrator vibrating at 10Hz for 4s, find the no of vibrations made
f = 𝐧/𝐭 →f = 10 Hz, t = 4s
→10 = 𝐧/𝟒
n= 40 vibrations
Example 7: The figure below shows a wave profile of a radio wave

(i) Determine the amplitude of the wave

5 -0 = 5cm
(ii) Find the frequency of the wave
0.8 seconds are required for 1wave cycle
1.0 second are equal to 1.0/0.8 = 1.25Hz
5. Wave velocity (V)
Wave velocity is the distance a wave travels in 1 second.
Or
Velocity, v = wavelength in meters x number of cycles per second
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 = wavelength in meters x frequency of a wave
= fλ
S.I unit of v is ms-1
For calculations
If a wave covers a distance X in time t, then wave velocity V = 𝐱/𝐭
Example 8: A vibrator produces wave which travels a distance of 35m in 2 seconds
Calculate the wave velocity
X = 35m, t = 2s
V=𝐱/𝐭= 35/2= 17.5ms-1
Example 9: A vibrator produces waves which travel 60m in 0.1minutes if the frequency of vibration is 5
vibrations per second. Find the wave length
X = 60m
t= 0.1 minute = 0.1 x 60 = 6s
f = 5 vibrations per second = 5Hz
V = 𝐱/𝐭 = 60/6= 10ms-1
But, V= λf
→10 = λ x 5
→λ = 10/5= 2m
Example 10: A wave of wave length 0.5m moves at 5ms-1. Find
(i) Frequency
Frequency, f= 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦/𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ= 50/0.5=10𝐻𝑧
(ii) Period
T= 𝐈/𝐟= 1/10 = 0.1s
Example 11: A wave vibrating at 10Hz makes 4cycles covering 20cm. calculate a wave velocity.
f = 10Hzn= 4 cycles, X = 20m
λ= 𝐱/𝐧= 20/4= 5m
V= λf=5x10 = 50ms-1

Note: For electromagnetic waves which include Gamma rays, x-rays, light, radio waves all move at a speed
of 3 x 108ms-1. When handling calculations involving electromagnetic waves, speed of 3 x 108ms-1 should
be used.
Example 12: The wavelength of electromagnetic wave is 10m. Calculate frequency and period.
V = 3 x 108ms-1 λ= 10m
(i) V = λf

3 x 108 = 10 x f
𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎 x f
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
f= 3 x 107Hz
(ii). Period T = 𝟏= 1 ≅ 3.3 x 10-8s
𝐟 3 𝑥 107
V) PROPERTIES OF WAVES

All kinds of waves have the same fundamental properties. These properties are:

 Reflection
 Refraction
 Diffraction
 Interference
a) Reflection:
This is the bouncing back of waves from an obstacle.
Common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves.
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 Laws of Reflection of waves
1. The angle of incidence of waves is equal to the angle of reflection of the wave.
2. The incidence wave, reflected wave and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.

i = Angle of incidence
r = Angle of reflection
i=r
Characteristics of Reflection of waves
 It obeys the laws of reflection
 The wavelength, λ, of the reflected waves is the same as that of the incident waves.
 The frequency, ƒ, of the reflected waves is the same as that of the incident waves
 Therefore, the speed, v, of the reflected waves is the same as that of the incident waves
b) Refraction of waves:
Refraction is the change in direction of propagation of a wave due to a change in its transmission
medium.
Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but any type of wave can refract when
it interacts with a medium, for example when sound waves pass from one medium into another or when
water waves move into water of a different depth (e.g from shallow water to deep water and vice versa).
Generally refraction takes place when waves move from a less dense medium to a denser medium and
vice versa.

Characteristics of refraction of waves

 The direction of the wave when it strikes shallow water at a right angle does not change.
 The wave speed is reduced in shallow water hence wavelength decreases. So when drawing the
refracted waves are closely spaced
 The frequency of the wave motion does not change.

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 Since speed “V” = fλ. In shallow water the wavelength decreases yet the frequency remains constant, so
the speed of the wave decreases in shallow water. The wave travels faster in deep water because the wave
length increase yet the frequency remains constant.
Refraction results in a wave slowing down the speed and changing direction as the wave enters shallow
water.
c) Diffraction of waves
Diffraction is the spreading of waves when they pass through apertures (openings) or around obstacles.
For diffraction to occur the dimension/size of aperture or obstacle must be of the order of the wavelength
of the wave; i.e. the width of the aperture must be of the same order as the diffracted wave.
The diffraction of Plane waves through a narrow and wide aperture is illustrated below

Characteristics of Diffraction of waves

1. Generally, the smaller the width of the aperture in relation to the wavelength, the greater is the
spreading or diffraction of the waves
2. Secondly, the longer the wavelength of the wave to be diffracted the greater the diffraction or
spreading.
Light waves have very short wavelengths that diffraction around obstacles of normal size is
negligible that we unable to see around corners while sound waves of longer wavelength are reasonably
diffracted that we are able to hear around corner.
d) Interference of waves
Interference is when two identical waves moving in the same direction are superposed on one
another.
Waves are superposed when one wave is placed on top of the other. For this to occur the amplitudes
and frequencies of the two waves should be the same.
There are two types of interferences: constructive and destructive interferences.
Where the two waves are superposed in the same phase e.g. crests of one wave fall on the crests of
another a constructive interference occurs.
Where the two waves are superposed such that they are exactly out of phase e.g. crests of one wave
are superposed on the troughs of the other identical wave, no disturbance is obtained. These positions are
called destructive interference.

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STATIONARY WAVES
A stationary or standing wave is defined as a wave formed by a combination of two progressive waves
having equal amplitude and frequency travelling with the same speed in opposite directions. It is thus
formed by interference.
For example, if two people shake a jump rope, the pattern of waves it forms is quite similar to standing or
stationary waves.
Each standing wave pattern has points along with the medium that appears to be standing still. Such points
are known as nodes. There are also certain points along with the medium which undergoes maximum
displacement during every vibrational cycle of the standing wave. Such points are called antinodes.

Stationary wave profile

Characteristics of stationary waves
1. Amplitude:
Amplitude is different for different particles of the medium but is zero at a node and maximum at the
antinode.
2. Phase:
All particles in a loop are in the same phase and they are in opposite phase (anti phase) with respect
to the adjacent loop.
3. Energy:
There is no flow of energy. That is, energy is stored in the medium or energy is not transmitted
through the medium from the source of wave.
4. Waveform:
A stationary wave does not move in any direction.
5. Wavelength:
The wavelength of a stationary wave is twice the distance between two adjacent nodes or antinodes.
That is, it is twice the length of a loop.
This means; NN = λ/2 or AA = λ/2 and therefore, AN = λ/4
6. Frequency:
The frequency of vibration of a particle in both the stationary wave and progressive waves is the
same as that of the source of wave. That is, all particles vibrate in simple harmonic motion with the
same frequency.

The Ripple Tank

The ripple tank can be used to demonstrate the properties of waves easily in the laboratory.
The ripple tank consists of a pool of water in a shallow tray with a transparent base which enables images of
waves on the screen placed below it. The tray is leveled such that it is perfectly horizontal. The edges of the
tank are lined with foam rubber or perforated metal to prevent the reflection of waves from the sides which
would obscure the pattern being studied. A motor-driven vibrator at one side of the tank produces the water
ripples. The frequency of the waves can be varied by varying the speed of the motor.

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 A lamp fixed right above the water surface illuminates it. The wave pattern is projected onto a white
screen where the crests and troughs show up as bright and dark bands. The waves often travel too fast to be
measured and so a stroboscope can be used to freeze the wave pattern on the screen.

The Ripple Tank

Wave fronts formed by a ripple tank
A wave front produced by a ripple tank may be circular or plane (straight) waves.
a) Circular waves

b) Plane waves

The distance between two consecutive wave fronts equal to one wave length.
For “n” crest or troughs covering a distance X
Then wave length λ can be calculated from

λ= x
n−1
Example 13
Calculate the wavelength if the distance between 6 successive crests is 20cm
Solution
λ = ? ; n = 6 crests; x = 20cm
λ = x/n−1
= 20(6−1) = 20/5 = 4cm.
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If the frequency of the vibrator is 5Hz, Calculate the velocity of the wave.
λ= 4cm or 0.04m; f = 5Hz
but V= λf
= 0.04 x 5 = 0.20m/s

Assignment
A vibrator in a ripple tank vibrates at 5Hz. If the distance between 10 successive crests is 37.8 cm
Calculate:
i) The wave length of the waves
(ii) The velocity of the waves

Uses of the Ripple Tank

Stroboscope
This is used in the making of waves to appear stationary so that they can be studied. Stroboscope is a disc
with equally spaced slits.
How the Stroboscope is used to freeze or slow down movement of water waves set up in the ripple tank
This is done by varying the speed of rotation of the Stroboscope until the waves appear to be stationary
when viewed on the screen through the discs of the stroboscope.
How frequency may be measured by ripple tank?
In short the frequency can be measured by the following ways:
i) Varying speed of rotation
The speed of rotation of the Stroboscope is varied until the waves appear stationary on viewing through the
slits of the Stroboscope.
ii) Measuring the periodic, T
When the waves appear stationary, the time taken for successive slits to cross the line of sight is measured.
This is the period "T" of the wave. So frequency f = 1/T
How the wave length may be measured from ripple tank experiment?
i) Varying the speed of rotation
The speed of rotation of the stroboscope is varied until the waves appear stationary on viewing through the
slits.
ii) Casting the shadow
Then the lamp above casts the shadow of the waves on the white screen below the tray. The wavelength is
measured directly.

Harmonics and Overtones

Harmonics are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency, or the lowest frequency of
vibration.
An overtone is the name given to any resonant frequency above the fundamental frequency or
fundamental tone. A resonant frequency is a natural frequency of vibration of an object.

Differences between Harmonics and Overtones

Harmonics Overtones
1. The first harmonic is the natural frequency of The first overtone is the next higher frequency
vibration of vibration
2. Harmonics are simply integral multiples of the Overtones are not necessarily integral multiples
fundamental frequency of the fundamental frequency. They are
frequencies other than fundamental frequency.
3. All harmonics may or may not be present in All overtones are always present in the
vibration vibration.

For a vibrating string of length , L, with a natural frequency, f1, other harmonics are given as
Fn = nf1, where n=1,2,3,4 etc
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And wavelength, λ = 2L
n

SOUND WAVES
a) Nature of sound waves: Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating objects. It travels as a
longitudinal wave through a material medium.
b) Production of sound waves: Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Vibrating objects cause nearby
surrounding air molecules to vibrate. When these vibrating air molecules reach our ear, sensation of
sound is produced.
c) Propagation of sound: Sound waves need a material medium for transmission so that the vibrating
objects cause the nearby molecules of the medium to vibrate.
As longitudinal waves they are recognized by their compressions and rarefactions regions along the
wave. Sound waves can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, interfered and not polarized.
d) Range of audible sound: The average range of audible frequencies to which the human ear responds
is usually between 20Hz to 20,000Hz. The safe range of audible sound is 0-120Db (Db = decibel
→unit for expressing the ratio for measuring the relative loudness of sounds).
e) Experiment to show that sound needs a material medium for transmission or that sound waves
cannot travel through a vacuum (continuation)
Procedure

Sound waves require a transmitting medium

The switch is closed and the electrical connection make the bell to ring producing a clearly audible
sound transmitted through the air. The vacuum pump is then switched on to remove the air gradually. As
more and more air is pumped out from the bell jar, the sound of the bell becomes fainter and fainter though
the clapper or hammer is still seen to be striking the bell. No sound is heard when all the air has been
pumped out leaving a vacuum in the bell jar. The clapper is still to be vibrating and striking the bell even
though no sound is heard. This shows that sound waves cannot travel through the vacuum. The sound wave
is heard again when air is re-introduced into the bell jar.
Conclusion:
This shows that sound waves need material (transmitting) medium like air, liquid or solid for
transmission. It equally shows that light waves can travel through a vacuum.
f) Speed of sound in various media
The speed of sound waves depends on:
- Temperature
- Density and elasticity of the medium
- Wind in the case of air

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i) Density:-The speed of sound waves is higher in denser medium than in less dense medium in that the
speed is higher in solids than in liquids and gases because solids are generally more denser. Hence, the
speed of sound in solids, liquids and gases (air included) is in the order: solid > liquid > gas. In a steel
rod the speed of sound is about 5000m/s yet in water the speed of sound is 1500m/s because steel is
denser than water.
In daily life, an approaching train can easily be detected by human ears positioned close to the rails
than in air. This is explained from the fact that sound waves travel faster through solids than through air
as solids are generally denser than air. So sound waves from an approaching train travel faster and over
longer distances before dying away in solids like rails than air.
ii) Temperature:- Increasing the temperature, increases the speed of sound in air greatly because the speed
of vibrating air molecules increases with temperature.
However, in solids and liquids, increasing the temperature, decreases the speed of sound waves because
solids and liquids become less dense.
iii) Wind in the case of air:- The speed of sound waves increases if the direction of sound waves travels in
the same direction as that of the wind. If the direction of sound waves travels in opposite direction that of
wind, the speed of sound decreases.
Note:
Pressure change in air (gases) does not affect the speed of sound wave because density of air is not
affected by change in pressure.
g) An Experiment to measure the speed of sound [The Echo method].
Two people stand at a known distance (≥ 30m) from a high wall. One claps and the other records the time.
The time taken for the sound wave to travel to and from the wall is recorded.
The exercise is repeated many times so that the average time is obtained.
Speed of sound = 2 x distance
Average time
Examples:
1. A man stands at a distance of 990m away from a tall building and makes a loud sound. He hears the echo
after 6 seconds. Calculate the speed of sound.
Solution:
For echo;; Speed = 2xdistance = 2 x 990m = 330m/s
Time taken 6s
2. A sound of frequency 150Hz is produced 45m away from a cliff. Calculate :
a) the wavelength
b) the time it takes the sound wave to travel to and from the cliff. [speed of sound in air is 330m/s]
Solution:
a) From ; v =ƒλ
λ= v/ƒ =330m/s = 2.2m
150Hz
b) Time = distance to and fro = 45 x 2 = 0.27s
Speed 330
h) Characteristics of sound waves or Notes
Characteristics of sound waves are: loudness or intensity, pitch and quality (tone or timbre).
i) Pitch: A pitch is the sharpness or mildness of the soft musical note. A pitch is directly proportional to the
frequency. High frequency gives high pitch (sharper note). A high pitched note has high frequency and
short wavelength.

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 A pitch produced by a string instrument depends on the nature of the string, length and tension acting
on the string. Shorter and high tension strings produce sound of higher frequency than long strings of
low tension.
ii) Loudness and Intensity:
Loudness is the magnitude of the sensation produced when a sound reaches the ear.
Loudness of sound depends on:
- The varying pressure exerted on the eardrum by the sound.
- The sensitivity of the ear to the different frequencies.
- The sound intensity (louder sounds are more intense).
The intensity (I) of sound is the rate of energy per unit area perpendicular to the direction of sound.
Intensity is proportional to:
- the square of the amplitude; (I α a2)
- the square of the frequency; (I α ƒ2)
- the density of the medium.
iii) Quality or timbre (tone) of sound.
Quality is the characteristic note of a musical instrument which distinguishes it from another note of the
same pitch and loudness produced by another instrument. The same note on different instrument sounds
different, the notes are said to differ in quality or timbre. The difference arises because no instruments
except a tuning fork and single generator can emit pure note i.e of one frequency but they produced notes
consisting of main or fundamental frequency mixed with overtones.
An overtone is a sound note whose resonance frequency is higher than the fundamental frequency that
is actually produced by an instrument. Overtones have frequencies that are exact multiples of the
fundamental frequency. The number and strength of overtones determine the quality of a note.
i) Reflection of sound waves
Sound waves obey the laws of reflection:
1. Incident sound waves, reflected sound wave and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.
2. The angle of incidence of sound waves is equal to the angle of reflection of sound waves.

Experiment to show reflection of sound waves

a) Producing sound waves
Sound waves produced by the clock at the end of tube A are reflected at the hard surface
reflector.
b) Moving tube B.
The ear is put at the end of tube B the tube is moved until the ticks of the clock are loudest. This
is the direction of reflected sound wave.

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NOTE: Hard surfaces reflect sound waves while soft surfaces absorb sound waves.

ECHOES
An Echo is defined as a reflected sound wave from a hard plane surface. Echoes are produced by
the reflection of sound from a hard surface. Echoes are often heard in the neighbourhoods of large
houses (churches, halls), high walls, cliffs etc.
Echoes are not heard in a small room or classroom because the reflected sound wave returns very
quickly and mix up with the original sound waves.
Echoes are troublesome in lecture halls, Cinema halls etc. To reduce echoes in such places, the walls
are covered with soft thick porous materials.
Furniture and people in halls also reduce echoes. So many echoes are produced in empty halls
compared to one filled with people because bodies of people are soft so they absorb some of the sound.
REVERBERATION.
If the reflecting surface is nearer, the echo joins the original sound which then seems to become prolonged.
This is called reverberation.
To some degree, reverberation is desirable in concert halls to stop the hall sounding dead so that hearing in
such places is improved. However, too much reverberation causes confusion.
Applications of Echoes
1. To determine the speed of sound in air.
2. To determine the depth of a sea-bed from a ship or submarine by using echo sounding technique.
3. To explore gas and oil by geophysicists below the earth surface.
4. To detect submarine by using an underwater sound systems called sonar to locate objects underwater
and enemy submarine in war. Fishermen use the sonar in fishing boats to locate schools of fish.
5. In endoscopy using ultrasonic scanning to examine the human heart and unborn babies without risk.
Differences between a musical Note and Noise
A musical note is produced by vibrations of regular or constant frequency. On the other hand, Noise is
produced by vibrations of irregular or random frequency.
j) REFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES
Refraction of sound waves occurs when the speed of the wave changes as it moves from one medium to
another of different density. The speed of sound waves in air is affected by the air temperature. When sound
waves pass through layers of air at different temperature they are refracted i.e. turned into another direction.
On a hot day sound waved are bent upwards away from the earth where they otherwise travel faster.

In the evening when the air near the ground becomes cool, refraction of sound is towards the earth, making
it easier to hear distant sound as the range of sound is more.
Radios are clearer at night than during day because at night the sound waves are bent down towards the
cool earth making the range of sound more.
k) DIFFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES
Diffraction involves a change in directions of waves as they pass through an opening or a round barrier in
their path.

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 Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around corners, or
through door openings allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from adjacent rooms.
Scientists have learned that elephants emit infrasonic waves (sound waves inaudible to humans) of very
low frequency to communicate over long distances to each other due to sound diffraction.
l) INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES
Overlapping sound waves produce regions of louder sound by constructive interference and regions of
quiet sound by destructive interference.
If two loud speakers are connected to the same audio frequency generator, they produce sound waves of
identical frequency and similar amplitude.
A louder sound is produced when the waves from the two speakers arrive in phase and interfere
constructively.
A quiet sound is produced when destructive interference occurs.
If the speakers are moved closer together, the distance between the places where loud sound is heard is
increased.
m) Frequency and audio frequency range.
The human ear has a range of sound frequencies which it can hear. The lowest limit of audibility is about
30Hz and the upper limit audibility for most people is between 20 kHz and 30 kHz.
In daily life, a dog is more able than a human being to detect the presence of a thief tiptoeing at night. A
thief tiptoeing at night produces sound of low frequency that can only be detected by dog ears not human
being ears because the dog has wider ears than human being ears.

VIBRATIONS IN STRINGS
When a wire under tension fixed at both ends is plucked, waves are send down the string at a certain
frequency, they reach the end of the string and reflect back at the same frequency. On their way back the two
waves travelling in opposite direction superpose to form a standing wave made up of nodes and antinodes.
Nodes are positions on a standing wave which do not vibrate. The waves combine to give zero
displacement. Antinodes are positions on a standing wave where there is a maximum displacement.
A stationary wave can be set up in a string which has both ends fixed.
l

What we are saying is that:

For f1 , l=λ/2
For f2 , l=λ and
For f3, l=3λ/2 ; where l=length of string

Differences between stationary and Progressive waves

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Factors affecting the frequency of a wave in a vibrating string
The frequency of a wave in a stretched vibrating string depends on three factors:
-Length of the string.
-Tension in the string.
-Mass per unit length of the string.
i. Length of the string
The frequency of a stretched vibrating spring is inversely proportional to the length of the string.
That is, f α 1/L
ii Tension in the string
The frequency of a stretched vibrating spring of constant length is proportional to the square root of the
Tension, T. That is,

iii Mass per unit length

the thicker and heavier a string is, the lower is its frequency for a given length and tension. Hence, the
frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit length, m.

Forced vibrations
When a vibrating tuning fork is held close to the ear the sound is heard quite loudly, but the loudness falls
off rapidly as the fork is moved away. Since the prongs are of very small area, we may regard the fork as an
approximately point source of energy, an allowing for attenuation (absorption of wave energy), the loudness
of sound is inversely proportional to square of the distance from the source.
If however, the stem of the fork is pressed against a table top the sound can be heard clearly all over the
room. Under these conditions the table is set into forced vibration and then acts as a large or extended
source. It may thus be considered as equivalent to a large number of point sources, all of which contribute to
the loudness of the sound at any point in the room.
It is also noticed that although the sound is louder, it does not last so long. The amplitude of the table top
is very much less than that of the fork, but its large area transfers energy to the air at a much less than the
small area of the prongs.
Resonance
Resonance occurs when a body or system is set into vibrations with its own natural frequency by a nearby
body or system vibrating with the same frequency.
The frequency at which this occurs is called resonant frequency, f0.
Examples (Applications) of Resonance
1. Soldiers marching across a bridge must break steps so that their regular footsteps cannot build up a
large amplitude vibration by resonance. This is because if they are marching at regular footsteps,
the bridge may force to vibrate at its natural frequency and may collapse. (disadvantage of
resonance).
2. In a washing machine, the vibrations from an external source or engine at a certain frequency may
set the dirt to vibrate at its natural frequency with a large amplitude and fall off (advantage of
resonance).
3. A tall cooling tower or factory chimney may be forced by wind moving at a certain speed to vibrate
at its natural frequency with a large amplitude and collapse (disadvantage).
4. In a resonance tube experiment, an external vibrating tuning fork sets or forces a certain length of
air column to vibrate at its natural frequency and a loud sound is produced or heard (advantage)

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 Exercises
1. A vibrator produces waves which travel a distance of 12m in 4s. If the frequency of the
vibrator is 2Hz, what is the wave length of the wave?
A. 1.5m B. 3m C. 6m D. 24

2. Which of the following statement is true?

A. Light wave, radio waves and sound waves will all travel through a vacuum.
B. Light waves and radio waves will travel through vacuum, sound waves will not.
C. Light waves and sound waves will travel through vacuum, radio waves will not
D. Sound waves and radio waves will travel through vacuum, light waves will not

3. Sound waves
A. Do not pass through vacuum
B. Travel through solids at lower speed than in air
C. Do not travel through liquids
D. Travel in at the highest speed in air

4. Which one of the following does not change when waves travel from deep to shallow
water?
A. Frequency
B. Amplitude
C. Velocity
D. Wavelength

5. Which of the following statements is true about the wave travelling from one medium
to another
(i)..Its frequency and wavelength change
(ii) Its frequency and velocity change
(iii) Its velocity and wavelength change
(iv) Only its frequency remain unchanged
A. (i) only B. (i) and (ii)only C. (i), (ii), (iii) only D. (iii) and (iv) only

6. Which of the following statements is true about sound waves?

(i) They are longitudinal
(ii) They are transverse
(iii) They are produced by vibration
(iv) They can travel in empty space
A. (ii) and (iv) only B. (i) and (iii) only C. (i), (ii) and (iii) only D. (iv) only

7. The figure below shows a circular waves incident on plane reflector. Which of the
following represents reflected wave?

8. Which of the following are not electromagnetic waves?

A. X-ray
B. Radar waves
C. Microwaves
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D. Sound waves

9. Which of the following are transverse waves only?

A. Radio waves, sound waves, ultraviolet
B. Ultra violet, x-ray, water
C. Infrared, sound and gamma
D. Sound waves, ultraviolet, x-ray

10. A boy standing 150m from a vertical cliff claps his hand and hears an echo 0.85 seconds
later. Find the speed of sound in air.
A. 128ms-1
B. 176ms-1
C. 255ms-1
D. 353ms-1

11. In sound waves the particles of the medium

A. Are stationary
B. Move along with the wave
C. Vibrate in the same direction as the wave
D. Vibrate at right angle to the direction of a wave

12. What would occur when a body is made to vibrate with its natural frequency due to
external vibration?
A. Echo
B. Resonance
C. Refraction
D. reverberation

13. A man standing 85m from a tall walls fires a gun and hears and echo from the wall after
0.5s. calculate the speed of sound in the air
A. 340ms-1
B. 170ms-1
C. 85ms-1
D. 43ms-1

14. A source produces waves which travel a distance of 140cm in 0.08s, if the distance
between successive crests is 20cm, find the frequency of the source.
A. 0.875Hz B. 8.750Hz C. 87.500Hz D. 8750Hz

15. A man sees the flash from a gun fired 1020m away and then later hears a bang. How
long does the bang take to reach him? (Take the speed of sound as 340ms-1)
A 1020s
340x10
B. 340s
1020
C. 1020s
340
D. (340 x 1020)s

16. The velocity of sound in air at constant pressure

A. increases with loudness
B. Decreases with loudness
C. Increases with temperature
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D. Decreases with temperature

17. Points on stationary line which are permanently at rest are called
A. Node
B. Crest
C. Trough
D. antinode

18. Sound is produced by a source vibrator at a frequency of 50Hz. Given that the speed is
330ms-1in air, its wavelength is
A. 0.15m B. 6.6m C. 380m D. 16500m

19. In force vibration, resonance occurs

A. Frequency is equal to the natural velocity
B. Velocity is equal to natural velocity
C. Frequency is equal to natural frequency
D. Frequency exceeds natural frequency

20. A man standing in front of a tall wall makes a loud sound and hears the echo after 1 ½ s. How far is he
from the wall if the velocity of sound in air is 330ms-1?
A. 110m B. 247.5m C. 440m D 990m

21. The number of vibrations a wave makes per second is the

A. frequency B. wavelength C. period D. amplitude

22. The figure shows a wave produced in a string. If the frequency is 2Hz, at what speed do waves travel
along the string

A. 0.5ms-1 B. 1.0ms-1 C. 2.0ms-1 D. 4.0ms-1

23. A vibrator produces a sound that travels 900m in 3 seconds. If the wavelength of the
wave is 10m, find the frequency of vibrator.
A. 30Hz B. 270Hz C. 300Hz D. 3000Hz

24. A longitudinal wave is one in which the

A. Direction of propagation is parallel to that of vibration producing it
B. Particles of a medium through which it travels move in opposite direction to the
direction of propagation
C. Direction of propagation is perpendicular to that of vibration producing it.
D. Particles of the medium through which it travels move together with it.

25. The basic difference between transverse and longitudinal waves is in

A. Amplitude
B. Wavelength
C. Direction of vibration
D. Medium through which the waves travel

26. The sound waves produced by a vibrating tuning fork is longitudinal because the air
vibrates
A. The same direction as that in which the prongs vibrate
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B. A direction opposite to that in which the wave is travelling
C. The same direction as that in which the wave is travelling
D. The opposite direction to that in which the prongs vibrate

27. An echo sounder in a boat emits a pulse of sound which returns 0.2s later after
reflection from the sea bed. If sound travels at 1500ms-1is sea water, how deep is water?
A. 7500m B. 600m C. 300m D. 150m

28. All electromagnetic waves

A. Highly penetrate matter
B. Produce ionization in gases
C. Cause heating effect when absorbed by matter
D. Do not require any material medium for transmission.

29.

The above figure shows a transverse wave. What is the wave length?
A. 4cm B. 3cm C. 2cm D. 1cm

30. Which of the following affects the frequency of vibrating string?

A. Tension and length
B. Length and mass of the string
C. Mass per length of string and temperature
D. Tension and velocity of sound

31. Sound waves travel a distance of 48cm in 8s. If the separation between successive
compressions is 3.0cm, find the frequency of the waves.
A. 0.5Hz B. 2.0Hz C. 18.0Hz D. 128.0Hz

SECTION B
32.

The diagram above shows a section of a transverse wave of wavelength 4.0cm

Find its
(i) Frequency
(ii) Amplitude
(iii) Velocity

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