Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant

Phan Thi Khanh Van

E-mail: [email protected]

August 31, 2024

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 1 / 52
Table of contents

1 Matrices

2 Elementary row (column) operations of a matrix

3 Rank of matrices

4 System of linear equations

5 Homogeneous systems of linear equations

6 Operations with matrices

7 Inverse of a matrix

8 Determinant

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 2 / 52
Example

Example
Consider a system of linear equations

 x + 3y − z = 5
 
 1 3 −1 5
3x − 4y + 2z = −3 →  3 −4 2 −3 
2 1 0 2

2x + y =2


(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 3 / 52
Matrix
A matrix A of order m × n (A is m by n) is a rectangular array of numbers
and/or variables with m rows and n columns.
a11 a12 . . . a1j ... a1n
 
 a21 a22 . . . a2j ... a2n 
 . .. .. .. .. 
 . ..
 . . . . . . 

A=
a a . . . a . . . ain 

 i1 i2 ij
 . .. .. .. .. .. 
 .. . . . . . 
am1 am2 . . . amj . . . amn
Denote: A = (aij )m×n .
aij is called the (i, j) entry of A - the entry that lies in the i − th row
and the j − th column.
The set of all m × n matrices over the field K (R or C) is denoted by
Mm×n [K]

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 4 / 52
Examples
 
1 −2 3
1 - 2 × 3 matrix
2 −1 1
 
1 −i + 1 4
2 −3 1 1 - 3 × 3 matrix
2 1 i
 
3 1 1 4 1 -1 × 4 matrix - row matrix (row vector)
 
1
4 −3 - 3 × 1 matrix - column matrix (column vector)
2

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 5 / 52
Zero matrix
is the matrix whose all entries are 0: (aij = 0), ∀1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
Denote 0m×n
 
0 0 0
02×3 =
0 0 0
Transpose of a matrix
The transpose AT of a matrix A is an operator which switches the row
and column indices of the matrix: [AT ]ij = aji . If A is m × n, then AT is
n × m.
 
  2 −3
2 1 4
A= ⇒ AT = 1 1 
−3 1 1
4 1
Square matrix
A square matrix is a matrix with the same number of rows and columns
m = n. An n-by-n matrix is known as a square matrix of order n. The set
of all square matrices of order n over the field K is denoted by Mn [K]
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 6 / 52
Main diagonal and trace of a square matrix
The entries aii form the main diagonal of a square matrix. The sum of
the main diagonal a11 + a22 + .. + ann is called the trace of A, denoted by
trace(A).
 
2 1 4
A = −3 1 1  - a square matrix of order 3.
2 1 1
trace(A) = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4.
Upper triangular matrix
A square matrix is called an upper triangular matrix if all the entries
below the main diagonal are zeros.
 
2 1 4
A = 0 1 1
0 0 1

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 7 / 52
Lower triangular matrix
A square matrix is called an lower triangular matrix if all the entries
above the main diagonal are zeros. A triangular matrix is one that is
either lower triangular or upper triangular.
 
2 0 0
A =  3 −1 0
−2 0 1

Diagonal matrix
A matrix that is both upper and lower triangular is called a diagonal
matrix: aij = 0, ∀i 6= j.
 
2 0 0
A = 0 −1 0
0 0 1

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 8 / 52
Identity matrix (unit matrix)
The identity matrix of size n is the n × n square matrix with ones on the
main diagonal and zeros elsewhere: aij = 0, ∀i 6= j, aii = 1, ∀i.
 
1 0 0
I3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Symmetric matrices
A symmetric matrix is a square matrix that is equal to its transpose:
A = AT .

Skew-symmetric matrices
A skew-symmetric matrix is a square matrix whose transpose equals its
negative: A = −AT .
   
2 −3 4 0 3 −4
A = −3 −1 0 - symetric A = −3 0 1  - skew
4 0 1 4 −1 0
symmetric
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 9 / 52
Echelon form
A matrix is said to be in row echelon form if:
All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
Each leading entry (the first non-zero number from the left, also
called the pivot) of a row is in a column to the right of the leading
entry of the row above it.

Example
   
1 0 0 2 4 4 1 −2
1 0 0 0 1  - not in 2
0
 0 1 −3 - in echelon
0 0 2 −2 0 0 0 2
echelon form 0 0 0 0
form

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 10 / 52
Reduced row echelon form (row canonical form)
A matrix is in reduced row echelon form if:
It is in row echelon form.
The leading entry in each nonzero row is 1 and is the unique nonzero
entry in its column.
 
1 4 0 0
0 0 1 0
A= 0 0 0 1


0 0 0 0

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 11 / 52
Elementary row (column) operations of a matrix
1 (Interchange) Interchange two rows (columns): ri ↔ rj
2 (Scaling) Multiply all entries in a row (column) by a nonzero constant:
ri → α.ri , α 6= 0
3 (Replacement) Replace one row (column) by the sum of itself and a
multiple of another row (column) ri → ri + α.rj , ∀α

Row equivalent
Two matrices A and B are called row equivalent: A ∼ B (A is row
equivalent to B) if B can be obtained from A after a finite number of
elementary row operations.

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 12 / 52
Theorem
Any matrix can be transformed into its row echelon forms, using a series of
elementary row operations.

Find the pivot, the first non-zero entry in the first column of the matrix.
Interchange rows, moving the pivot row to the first row. Multiply each
element in the pivot row by the inverse of the pivot, so the pivot equals
1.
Add multiples of the pivot row to each of the lower rows, so every
element in the pivot column of the lower rows equals 0.
Repeat the procedure

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 13 / 52
Reduce the matrix to the echelon form
   
0 2 3 −8 2 −1 −3 −4 3 2
2 1 4 1 0  0 -5 −4 7 4
−3 −6 −11 10 0 →  0
   
3 1 1 −6
-1 −3 −4 3 2 0 2 3 −8 2
   
−1 −3 −4 3 2 −1 −3 −4 3 2
 0 −5 −4 7 4  −5 −4
→ 0 7 4

→  - the
0 0 -7 26 −18  0 0 7 −26 18
0 0 7 −26 18 0 0 0 0 0
50 −26
 
1 0 0 7 7
0 1 0 11 −20 
echelon form. →  7
0 0 1 −26 18  -
7  the reduced echelon form.
7 7
0 0 0 0 0

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 14 / 52
Remarks
1 The echelon form that results from a series of elementary operations is
not unique. However, the reduced row echelon form is unique.
2 The number of non-zero rows of any echelon matrix equals that of the
reduced echelon matrix.

Rank of matrices
The number of non-zero rows of the reduced row echelon form E of a
matrix A is called the rank of A, denoted by rank(A), or r (A)

Remark
rank(A) is equal to the number of nonzero rows of any echelon form of A.

Properties
1 A = 0 ⇔ r (A) = 0
2 r (A) = r (AT )
3 Am×n ⇒ r (A) ≤ m, n
Elem. operations
4 If A −−−−−−−−−−→ B (A ∼ B), then r (A) = r (B)
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 15 / 52
Find the rank of
   
2 −1 0 4 r2 → 2r2 − 3r1 2 −1 0 4
A= 3
 1 1 2 r3 → r3 − r1  0 5 2 −8
2 1 −4 5 −→ 0 2 −4 1
 
2 −1 0 4
r3 → 5r3 − 2r2 
0 5 2 −8
−→
0 0 −24 21
Therefore, r (A) = 3 (the maximal rank of a 3 × 4 matrix). The matrix A
is called a full rank matrix.

Exercises
Find the rank of A.
   
2 −1 0 1 1 m 1 1
1 1 1 2 −2 2 A = 1 m 1
1 A=
3 0 1 3 −1

1 1 m
4 1 2 5 7

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 16 / 52
Analysis of an Electrical Network
Kirchhoff’s Laws
1 (Current Law) The current flow
into a node equals the current
flow out of the node.

(Voltage Law) The sum of the

2

RI voltage drops in one

direction around a loop equals
the sum of the voltage sources
in the same direction.

I1 − I2 + I3 = 0

Applying Kirchhoff’s first and second laws, we have 3I1 + 2I2 = 7

2I2 + 4I3 = 8


(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 17 / 52
The flow of traffic through a network of streets
Find the traffic flows x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 We
 have the system
and x5 
x1 − x2 = 400

x + x + x = 300
2 3 5

x1 + x 3 − x 4 = 600

x4 + x5 = 100


(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 18 / 52
System of linear equations
A
 system of m linear equations with n unknowns (variables) is defined as

 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a x + a x + · · · + a x = b
21 1 22 2 2n n 2
,
. . .


am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm

where x1 , x2 , ..., xn are called unknowns, aij are called coefficients of the
system.
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n b1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n b2 
(A|b) =   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  - augmented matrix.


am1 am2 . . . amn bm

A - coefficient matrix.
If m = n, then the system is called a square system.

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 19 / 52
Gaussian elimination & back substitution
We solve a linear system in 2 steps:
1 (A|b) elem. row operations echelon form.
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
2 echelon form → reduced echelon form (using back substitution) and
find the general solution.

Kronecker-Capelli theorem
The system of linear equations Ax = b, A ∈ Mm×n is compatible if and only
if r (A) = r (A|b).
r (A) < r (A|b): there is no solution.
r (A) = r (A|b) = n: the solution is unique.
r (A) = r (A|b) = r < n: there is an infinite number of solutions,
depending on n − r free parameters.

A system that has at least one solution is called a consistent system.

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 20 / 52
The flow of traffic through a network of streets

x1 − x2 = 400
 


 1 −1 0 0 0 400
x + x + x = 300  0
2 3 5 1 1 0 1 300 
↔ 

x1 + x3 − x4 = 600  1 0 1 −1 0 600 
0 0 0 1 1 100

x4 + x5 = 100

 
1 −1 0 0 0 400
 0 1 1 0 1 300 
↔ 0 1 1 −1

0 200 
0 0 0 1 1 100

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 21 / 52
 
  
x1 = 700 − α − β
1 −1 0 0 0 400

= 300 − α − β

x2


 0 1 1 0 1 300 
↔  ⇔ x3 =α , ∀α, β
 0 0 0 1 1 100  
x4 = 100 − β

0 0 0 0 0 0




x =β
5
- general solution of the system
The unknowns x1 , x2 , x4 corresponding to pivot columns in the matrix
are called basic unknowns.
The other variables: x3 , x5 are called free unknowns (they can have
arbitrary values).
The number of free unknowns = n − rank(A). (n - the number of
unknowns, rank(A) - the number of equations after reducing).
The system has infinitely many solutions depending on 2 free parameters
α, β ∈ R.

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 22 / 52
Exercises
Solve the following systems
 
x1 + x2 − 3x3 = 3
 


2x1 + x2 − 3x3 + x4 = 3
1 x1 − x2 + x3 = −1 3
x − x + x + x = −1
1 2 3 4

3x1 − x2 − x3 = 5 −2x + x = 0
 

 2 4

4x1 − x2 − x3 + 3x4 = 1


 x1 − x2 − 2x3 = 1

x − x + x = −1
2
1 2 3

 x1 − 2x 2 + x3 = 2

3x1 − 3x2 = 2


4 Find m such that the 3 following planes in R3 have only one common
point: x − y + 3z = 5; 3x + 4y − 4z = 6; x + my − 4z = 2.

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 23 / 52
Homogeneous systems of linear equations
A homogeneous linear system is a linear system, where the right hand side
is a zero column.
AX = 0.

Remark
Such a homogeneous system AX = 0 always has at least 1 solution (is
consistent), namely, the trivial solution X = (0, 0...0)T .
If r (A) = n: The trivial solution X = (0, 0...0) is the unique solution
If r (A) < n: There is an infinite number of solutions (there are non
trivial solutions).

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 24 / 52
Example

x1 − x2 − 2x3 + x4 = 0

Solve the system 2x1 − 2x2 + x3 − x4 = 0

4x1 − 4x2 − 3x3 + x4 = 0

   
1 −1 −2 1 0 1 −1 −2 1 0
 2 −2 1 −1 0  →  0 0 5 −3 0 
4 −4 −3 1 0 0 0 5 −3 0
 
1 −1 −2 1 0
→ 0 0 5 −3 0 
0 0 0 0 0
(
x2 = α
There is an infinite number of solutions, we choose
x4 = β
(
3β
x3 = 5
⇒
x1 = α + β5

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 25 / 52
Example

x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 0

Find m such that the system has a unique solution: mx1 − x2 + x3 = 0

x2 − mx3 = 0

 
1 2 −1
A = m −1 1 .
0 1 −m
The system
 has a unique solution
 ⇔ rank(A) = 3
1 2 −1 1 2 −1
A ↔ 0 −1 − 2m 1 + m ↔ 0 1 −m 
0 1 −m 0 0 2m2 − 1
√
rank(A) = 3 ⇔ m 6= ±1/ 2

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 26 / 52
2 equal matrices
Two matrices A and B are equal if they have the same size and all of their
corresponding entries are equal: Am×n = Bm×n ⇔ aij = bij , ∀i, j

Addition, subtraction
Matrices of the same size can be added or subtracted by adding or
subtracting the corresponding entries.
The sum of A and B is denoted as A + B, and is defined by
(A + B)ij = aij + bij , ∀i, j
Their difference is denoted as A − B, and is defined by
(A − B)ij = aij − bij , ∀i, j
   
1 2 3 3 −2 1
A= ,B=
-1 1 4 4 1 0
   
4 0 4 −2 4 2
A+B = , A−B =
3 2 4 -5 0 4

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 27 / 52
Scalar multiplication
A matrix A can be multiplied by a scalar α to obtain the matrix αA by
multiplying each entry of A by α: (α.A)ij = α.Aij .
   
1 2 3 2 4 6
Example: A = ⇒ 2A =
-1 1 4 -2 2 8

Properties
1 A+B =B +A 4 α(A + B) = αA + αB
2 A + (B + C ) = (A + B) + C 5 α(βA) = (αβ)A
3 A+0=A 6 (α + β)A = αA + βA

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 28 / 52
Matrix multiplication
If the number of columns of Am×n equals the number of rows of Bn×p ,
then the product AB is defined by
(AB)ij = ai1 .b1j + ai2
.b2j + ai3 .b3j+ ... + ain .bnj
  × b1j ×  
× × . . . × × b2j × × × ×
ai1 ai2 . . . ain . ..  = × cij ×

 .. ..
× × ... ×  . . .  × × ×
× bnj ×
 
  1 2  
1 −2 0  1.1 + (−2)(−1) + 0 1.2 + (−2).2 + 0
. −1 2 =
−3 2 0 −3.1 + 2.(−1) + 0 (−3).2 + 2.2 + 0.0
3 0

Properties
1 (A.B)C = A.(B.C ) 4 (AB)T = B T .AT
2 A(B + C ) = AB + AC 5 Im .A = A = A.In
3 (B + C )A = BA + CA 6 α(AB) = (αA)B = A(αB)

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 29 / 52
Example
   
1 A = 1 −2 0 , B = −3 1 1 : AB, BA − @
 
  0 −2
1 −2 0
2 A= , B = 0 −1
−1 2 0
1 1
 
  2 −4 0
0 0
AB = BA = 1 −2 0
0 0
0 0 0

Remarks
AB 6= BA
W
AB = 0 ; A = 0 B = 0
W
AC = BC ; A = B C = 0
ri (A) × cj (B) = (AB)ij
ri (A) × B = ri (AB)
A × cj (B) = cj (AB)

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 30 / 52
Matrix power
Let A be a square matrix. The power Am for a nonnegative integer m is
the matrix product of m copies of A: Am = A.A...A (m times), A0 = In .

Let f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial, then

f (A) = an An + an−1 An−1 + ... + a1 A + a0 In
Example
 
1 1
Given A = , f (x) = x 2 − 2x + 3. Find f (A).
0 1
        
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 0
f (A) = −2 +3 =
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2

Example
 
1 1
Given A = . Find An
0 1
         
2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 3
A = = , A = =
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
 
1 n
Using induction, we can prove that: An =
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) 0 1
Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 31 / 52
Example of matrix multiplication

A store sells commodities c1 , c2 , c3 in two its branches B1 , B2 . The

quantities of commodities sold in B1 , B2 in a week are given in Table 1, the
individual prices of commodities are given in Table 2, the costs to the store
are given in Table 3. Find the store’s profit for a week

Table: Quantities of Table: Selling prices Table: Costs

commodities
c1 2 c1 1.5
c2 4 c2 3
c1 c2 c3 c3 4
c3 5
B1 200 350 100
B2 250 400 150

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 32 / 52
The quantities Q, the selling 
prices
 P, the costs
 C of commodities
  2 1.5
200 350 100
Q= , P = 4, C =  3 .
250 400 150
5 4
 
2300
The total revenue: TR = QP = , the total cost:
2850
 
1750
TC = QC = . Then, the profit of the store:
2175
     
2300 1750 550
Π = TR − TC = − =
2850 2175 675

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 33 / 52
Leslie model

Example
A population of rabbits raised in a research laboratory has the
characteristics listed below.
(a) Half of the rabbits survive their first year. Of those, half survive their
second year. The maximum life span is 3 years.
(b) During the first year, the rabbits produce no offspring. The average
number of offspring is 6 during the second year and 8 during the third year.
The laboratory population now consists of 24 rabbits in the first age class,
24 in the second, and 20 in the third. How many rabbits will be in each
age class in 1 year, 2 years?

Because the maximum life span is 3 years, we divide the population into 3
age classes:  ≤1, 1 < age ≤ 2, 2 < age ≤ 3.
 0< age
x0 24
Let X0 = y0  = 24 be the numbers of rabbits in each age class at this
z0 20
moment.
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 34 / 52
  
x1
Let X1 = y1  be the numbers of rabbits in each age class after one year.
z1
We
 have that
x1 = 6y0 + 8z0
     
 x1 0 6 8 x0
y1 = x0 /2 ⇔ y1  = 0.5 0 0 . y0 .
z1 0 0.5 0 z0

z1 = y0 /2

 
0 6 8
The matrix A = 0.5 0 0 is called the transition matrix of the
0 0.5 0
Leslie model.  
304
Therefore, after 1 year, we have X1 = A.X0 =  12 .
12
    
0 6 8 304 168
After 2 years: X2 = A.X1 = 0.5 0 0  12  = 152 = A2 X0
0 0.5 0 12 6

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 35 / 52
Markov chain

Example
In a city with 1000 householders there are 3 supermarkets A, B and C . At
this month, there are 200, 500 and 300 householders that go to the
supermarkets A, B and C , respectively. After each month, there are 10%
of customers of A change to B, 10% of those change to C ; 7% of
customers of B change to A, 3% of those change to C ; 8.3% of customers
of C change to A, 6.7% of those change to B. Find the numbers of
customers of each supermarket after 1 month, 2 months.
 
200
The numbers of customers of A, B and C at this month X0 = 500.

300
 
0.8 0.07 0.083
The transition matrix: A = 0.1 0.9 0.067
0.1 0.03 0.85

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 36 / 52
The numbers  of customers
 of each supermarket after 1 month:
220
X1 = A.X0 ≈ 490
290
 
234
After 2 months: X2 = A2 .X0 ≈ 483.
283
In general, after n months: Xn = An X0 .
Steady state (equilibrium state) of a Markov model
The steady state vector is a state vector that doesn’t change from one time
step to the next: A.X ∗ = X ∗ .

To find the steady state, you have to find X ∗ = (x ∗ , y ∗ , z ∗ )T where

x ∗ + y ∗ + z ∗ = 1000 and A.X ∗ = X ∗ . Try to find it!

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 37 / 52
Inverse of a matrix
A square matrix A of order n is called invertible if there exists a square
matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = In . B is called the inverse of A.
Denote: A−1 . A square matrix that is not invertible is called singular or
degenerate. Remark: If AB = In , then BA = In .

Example
   
1 −1 2 1
Let A = . Prove that B = is the inverse of A.
−1 2 1 1
     
1 −1 2 1 1 0
Because AB = . =
−1 2 1 1 0 1

Properties
If A, B are 2 invertible matrices of order n, then

A−1 , B −1 are unique. (AT )−1 = (A−1 )T

(A−1 )−1 = A ∃AB and (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 38 / 52
The method to find A−1
 row elementary operations 
A|I −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ I |A−1
 
   
2 1 3   2 1 3 1 0 0
Find the inverse of A 1 −1 4 . A|I =  1 −1 4 0 1 0 
3 4 −1 3 4 −1 0 0 1
   
1 −1 4 0 1 0 1 −1 4 0 1 0
→ 2 1 3 1 0 0 → 0 3 −5 1 −2 0 
3 4 −1 0 0 1 0 7 −13 0 −3 1
   
1 −1 4 0 1 0 1 −1 0 −7 6 3
→  0 3 −5 1 −2 0  →  0 12 0 39 −33 −15 
0 0 -4 −7 5 3 0 0 −4 −7 5 3
−15 13 7
   
12 0 0 −45 39 21 1 0 0 4 4 4
−11 −5 
→  0 12 0 39 −33 −15  →  0 1 0 13 4 4 4
0 0 −4 −7 5 3 7 −5 −3
0 0 1 4 4 4
 −15 13 7

4 4 4
−5 
⇒ A−1 =  13
4 − 11
4 4
7 −5 −3
4 4 4
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 39 / 52
Existence of A−1
A is a square matrix of order n. The following statements are equivalent
A is invertible
r (A) = n
elementary operations
A −−−−−−−−−−−−−→ I : i.e. A ∼ I

Application in cryptography
We need to encrypt the series of characters R U CRAZY
Choose a rule of cryptography, for ex., transform the characters A → Z
into the numbers 1 → 26, respectively, the white space is 27:
A=1 B=2 C =3 D=4 E =5 F =6 G =7 H=8 I =9 J = 10
K = 11 L = 12 M = 13 N = 14 O = 15 P = 16 Q = 17 R = 18 S = 19 T = 20
U = 21 V = 22 W = 23 X = 24 Y = 25 Z = 26 x= 27
The message becomes
R U C R A Z Y
18 27 21 27 3 18 1 26 25  
18 27 1
Rearrange the series into a 3 × m matrix : A = 27 3 26
21 18 25
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 40 / 52
Application of matrix in cryptography
Chose a square matrix of order 3: 
K as the 
”symmetric key” and then
1 0 1
multiply it to the left of A: K = 2 1 0
0 0 1
    
1 0 1 18 27 1 39 45 26
⇒ B = K .A = 2 1 0 27 3 26 = 63 57 28
0 0 1 21 18 25 21 18 25
We have the encrypted series of numbers
39 63 21 45 57 18 26 28 25
We can recover A from B by: A = K −1 B

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 41 / 52
Input output Leontief model

Example
Consider a very simple economy that runs on 3 different types of output:
raw materials, services, and manufacturing. Raw materials include the
output of many different industries, agriculture and mining... Services
include retailing, advertising, transportation, etc. The raw materials
industry needs some of the output from the other two industries to do its
job. For example, it needs trucking to get its goods to market, and it uses
some manufactured goods (machines.) The raw materials industry even
needs some of its own output to produce its own output - iron ore to make
the steel to build the rails that carry ore from the mines, for example. Each
industry requires some amount of output from each of the three to do its
job. All of these requirements can be summarized in the following table:
Industry Raw materials Services Manufacturing
Raw materials 0.02 0.04 0.04
Services 0.05 0.03 0.01
Manufacturing 0.2 0.01 0.1
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 42 / 52
The numbers in the table tell how much output from each industry a given
industry requires in order to produce one dollar of its own output. For
example, to provide 1$ worth of service, the service sector requires 0.04$
worth of raw materials, 0.03$ worth of services, and 0.01$ worth of
manufactured goods. The demand matrix D tells how much ( in billions
of dollars) of each type of  output
 is demanded
 by consumers and others
400 0.02 0.04 0.04
outside the economy D = 200, A = 0.05 0.03 0.01. Let
600 0.2 0.01 0.1
T
X = (x, y , z) denote the production matrix. It represents the amounts
(in billions of dollars of value) produced by each of the three industries.

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 43 / 52
We have the equation:
Internal demand + External demand = Total production.
For ex.:
+ The amount of money needed in Raw materials industry to produce $x
of Raw materials, $y of Services and $z of Manufacturing:
0.02x + 0.04y + 0.04z.
+ The external demand of Raw materials industry: 400.
⇒ 0.02x + 0.04y + 0.04z + 400 = x.
Hence, we have AX + D = X .
Therefore,  −1    
0.98 −0.04 −0.04 400 449.24
X = (I − A)−1 D = −0.05 0.97 −0.01 200 = 237.27
−0.2 −0.01 0.9 600 769.13

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 44 / 52
Determinant

Determinant
Every square matrix A can be associated with a number called its
determinant. Denote: |A| (or det(A)). We give the definition of
determinants using induction:
 
1 n = 1 : A = a11 ⇒ |A| = a11
 
a11 a12
2 n=2: A= ⇒ |A| = a11 .a22 − a21 .a12
a21 a22

Example
1 5 =5
3+i 1
2 = (3 + i).4 − 1(−2 − i) = 14 + 5i
−2 − i 4

What if n ≥ 3?

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 45 / 52
Determinant

(i, j) minor of a matrix

The (i, j) minor of A, denoted by Mij , is the determinant of the
(n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix that results from deleting the i−th row and the
j−th column of A).
 
1 2 3
1 2
A = 2 4 6 . The (2, 3) minor M23 = = 1.3 − 1.2 = 1
1 3
1 3 5
(i, j) cofactor of a matrix
The (i, j) cofactor of A, denoted by Aij is Aij = (−1)i+j .Mij .

A23 = (−1)2+3 M23 = −1.

Determinant of an n × n matrix A
Let A be an n × n matrix. det(A) is defined using the expansion of a row i
or a column j as follows: |A| = ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + ai3 Ai3 + ... + ain Ain ,
or |A| = a1j A1j + a2j A2j + a3j A3j + ... + anj Anj
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 46 / 52
Example
1 2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 4 6 = 1.(−1)3+1 . + 3(−1)3+2 . + 5(−1)3+3 .
4 6 2 6 2 4
1 3 5
=0
21 −4 0 −1
12 1 0 1
2 =0
11 15 0 64
−11 4 0 26
2 4 0 −1
4 0 −1
1 1 −2 1 1+3
3 = (1) . 1 −2 1 = −11
1 0 0 0
0 −1 2
−1 0 −1 2
2 0 0
4 0
4 2 4 0 = 2. = 2.4.(−2) = −16
1 −2
1 1 −2

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 47 / 52
Remarks
1 If A has at least 2 proportional rows (columns), then |A| = 0.
2 If A has at least one zero row (column), then |A| = 0
3 The determinant of a triangular matrix equals the product of diagonal
entries.

Effects of Elementary Row Operations on Determinants

i r →αr
i
1 A −− −−→ B ⇒ |B| = α|A|
ri →ri +αrj
2 A −−−−−−→ B ⇒ |B| = |A|
ri ↔rj
3 A −−−→ B ⇒ |B| = −|A|

Example
Let A be a square matrix. Applying the following operations:
r ↔r r →2r r →r +2r r4 → 1 r4 +r1
A −2−−→
1 2
B1 −− 2
−−→ 3
B2 −− −−3−−→
2 3
B3 −−−− −−→ B4 and given that
det(B4 ) = 120. Find det(A).

|A| = −|B1 | = − 21 |B2 | = − 12 |B3 | = − 21 .3.|B4 | = −180.

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 48 / 52
Example: Using row operations to find the determinant of A
2 1 4 1 1 −2 0 4 r2 → r2 − 2r1
1 −2 0 4 2 1 4 1 r3 → r3 + 3r1
|A| = =−
−3 1 1 −1 −3 1 1 −1 r4 → r4 + r1
−1 −5 −4 2 −1 −5 −4 2 =
1 −2 0 4
5 4 −7
0 5 4 −7
− = − −5 1 11
0 −5 1 11
−7 −4 6
0 −7 −4 6
5 4 −7
r2 → r2 + r1
= − 15 0 5 4 = 127
r3 → 5r3 + 7r1
0 8 −19

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 49 / 52
Properties of the determinant
1 |In | = 1
2 |AT | = |A|
3 |AB| = |A|.|B|
4 |An | = |A|n
5 |αA| = αn |A|
6 In general, |A + B| =
6 |A| + |B|
1
7 |A−1 | =
|A|
8 A is invertible ⇔ rank(A) = n ⇔ |A| =
6 0

Example
Let A and B be 3 × 3 matrices such that |A| = 3, |B| = 2. Find
|2A2019 B −1 |.

|2A2019 B −1 | = 23 .|A2019 ||B −1 | (Because A.B are 3 × 3 matrices)

1
= 23 .|A|2019 . |B| = 23 .32019 12 = 4.32019 .
(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 50 / 52
Example
Find m such
 that the following system of linear equations has unique
x + 2y + z = 4

solution 2x − 3y + mz = 3 (∗)

4x − 2y + z = 5


(∗) is a square system: 3 equations with 3 variable, it has unique solution

1 2 1
⇔ rank(A) = rank(A|b) = 3 ⇔ |A| = 6 0 ⇔ 2 −3 m 6= 0
4 −2 1
1
⇔ 10m + 1 6= 0 ⇔ m 6= − 10

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 51 / 52
 Thank you for your attention!

(Phan Thi Khanh Van) Chapter 1: Matrix, linear systems, determinant August 31, 2024 52 / 52