- By Ayesha

Introduction to Psychology
1.Methods Of Introspection in Psychology :
Introspection Method:-
It means looking within or to look into one’s self, i.e. one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences at the
time of living through the experiment in a given situation at the given time and to a given stimulus.
But unfortunately, one cannot look into one’s self and live through his experiences simultaneously.
E.g.- When an individual is laughing at a joke if an attempt is made by him to observe one’s own
experiences, laughter disappears. So the subject has to look back to know the experiences he had.
In that case, this method can be called as
Retrospection. But this method is very useful; several valuable principles regarding the working of
the human mind have been discovered through this method.
Limitations :
• Can’t be used for children/animal
• Needs memory power
• All the experiences can’t be recalled again.
2.Discuss experimental method and observation method of psychology.
Ans. Experimental Method
In this method, the experimenter:
• changes or varies the events which are hypothesized to have an effect
• keeps other conditions constant
• looks for an effect of the change or variation.
An experimental method is a research method where the investigator systematically alters one or
more variables to determine whether such changes will influence some aspects of behavior.
Types of Experimental Method
There are two types of the experimental method, which are as follows:
• Laboratory experiment
• Field experiment
Laboratory experiment:
Laboratory experiment contains following components:
• Hypothesis
• Variables
• Control
For example—An experiment seeking to discover the relationship between learning ability and age.
Hypothesis → the above-said example
Variables → Age and learning ability
• Hypothesis: Hypothesis is a statement of a particular situation.
• Variable: It is an event or condition, which can have different values.
• Dependent variable: It is the behavior of the person or animal in the experiment
• Independent variable: It is a condition set by an experimenter.
 - By Ayesha

• Control: It is a very important characteristic of the experimental method. Only specified independent
variables are allowed to change. Factors other than the independent variable, which might affect the
dependent variable, must be held constant.
In the above example of the subject, the number of hours, books are given, etc. to the subject is
controlled by the experimenter.
Sometimes the experimenter may focus only on the
influence of a single condition, which can be, either present or absent. This method is called the
Control-group design method. In this method one group with the independent variable and the other
group without the independent variable.
Control group:
Subject → No independent variable → Behaviour measured
Experimental group:
Subject → Independent variable → Behaviour measured
And Finally a comparison of the behavior of the control and experimental groups.
E.g.—Experiment conducted to find out the beneficial effect of computers in learning.
Field experiment: These experiments are performed in natural settings, in the field to avoid
artificiality and demand characteristics. In this dependent variables are measured
usually without the subject’s knowledge about their participation.
• Limitation:
• Bias due to the demand characteristics of the experimental situation
(increased motivation)
• Bias due to the unintentional influence of the experimenter
• It cannot always be used if the experiment might be dangerous to the subject
• It uses an artificial experimental situation
• Advantages:
• Replication (It can be repeated and checked by anybody) or check-up ability.
Observation Method :
It is a research method in which various aspects of behavior are carefully observed in the settings
where such behavior naturally occurs. It studies people’s reactions to naturally occurring events in
natural settings.
Types of Observation Method:-
There are two types of observation method, which are as follows:
• Indirect observation
• Direct observation
 - By Ayesha

• Indirect observation: Motion pictures, verbal reports, and most sophisticated video pictures and
audio recordings can be validated and compared with actual behavior through observation.
E.g.—Motion pictures of newborn babies reveal the details of movement patterns.
• Direct observation: It can be of three types, which are as follows:
• Laboratory observation
• Naturalistic observation
• Participation observation
• Laboratory observation: Behavioural scientist creates a standard-setting, which stimulates behavior
of interest, and allows exact unbiased measurements to be made. Because subjects are exposed to
the same. In this situation, it is relatively easy to compare their responses. Participants or subjects
may know the presence but they rarely know precisely why they are being studied. E.g.- Mother’s
behavior towards the first and later-born children.
• Naturalistic observation: Viewing behavior in a natural setting. E.g.—the observer sitting on a park
bench pretending to be absorbed in a book can observe people's reactions to a beggar requesting
money.
• Participant observation:
In this, they join the activities that are being watched and consequently being mistaken by the
subjects as a member of their group.
Advantage:
• Close contact with the subjects.
Disadvantage:
• Observers may unknowingly influence the subject’s
behavior.
Limitation:
• Anecdotes may take the place of observers.
• Interpretation may substitute description.
• The data obtained are relatively informal, subjective, biased, or prejudiced and can reduce scientific
value.
• Data collected may be inadequate and incomplete.
• The observer has to wait for a long time.
• It is impossible to control all the variables, which determine the behavior understudy

3.Nature v/s Nurture Controversy :

Ans. The nature vs nurture definition is broad, but if we speak about a debate essay, a student
should focus on the environmental factors that influence the way people behave and act. The nature
vs nurture essay is about the gist of the eternal conflict of generations.
Nature:-
Nature has given us many things in life and one of them is talents. Either we are born as the only
individual in our family or it is in our genes. Furthermore, nature plays a vital role in deciding the
future of a child. Many singers in this era are born with beautiful voices. They did not need any
nurturing. Their talent took them to heights they couldn’t even imagine.

For instance, some of the great legends like Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Kishor Kumar had
soulful voices. Also, they were the ones who sang from their childhood days. They started their
 - By Ayesha

careers and became successful at a very early age. Moreover, they did not get much teaching but
still are the legends of all time.

Apart from singing, there are other talents that nature has given us. Various scientists like Albert
Einstein, Isaac Newton, Galileo Galilei, started their work in their teenage years. They had amazing
intellectualism, because of which they got recognition in their entire world. Furthermore, these
scientists did not get any mentoring. They did everything on their own. Because they had
extraordinary intelligence and ambition in life.
Nurture:-
On the other hand, the nurturing of a person is important. Because hard work beats talent. With
proper mentoring and practice, a person can achieve success in life. If a person has an environment
in which everybody is in the same profession and is successful in it.

Then there is a great chance that the person will land up in the same profession and will achieve
heights. Because in that environment he will get proper nurturing.

Furthermore, he will also be able to perform better over the years. “Hard work always pays off”. This
idiom is always true and nobody can deny that. If a person has true dedication then it can beat
talent. Various singers, dancers, musicians, businessmen, entrepreneurs did work hard for years.

And because of that, they got recognition in the entire world. In these categories, musicians are
those who achieved heights only with their hard work and constant practice.

There are indeed no shortcuts to success. Various known legends like Bob Dylon. Lou Reed, Elvis
Persley, Michael Jackson worked hard throughout their lives. As a result, they were some of the
great personalities in the entire world.
4. Heredity and Environment in developmental psychology :
Ans. Heredity
Heredity is the transmission of characteristics through genes from parents to offspring. These are
both mental and physical characteristics, which include intelligence, personality, etc.
At the time of conception, 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 chromosomes from the mother
are transmitted to the offsprings.
• Male (22 autosomes + XY)
• Female (22 autosomes + XX)
If the offspring gets XX chromosome pair, that will be female and if it is XY then it will be male. These
chromosomes carry genes, which in turn carry the hereditary characteristics. The offspring gets
physical characteristics such as height, weight, skin texture, vision, hair, and mental characteristics
such as intelligence, temperament, and so on.
Within each chromosome are about 1000 genes. These genes contain two chemical substances,
named DNA and RNA, which are said to be responsible for carrying out the genetic code message
from parent to offspring.
Transference of Traits -
According to Gregor Mendel, some genes are dominant and others recessive. Like chromosomes,
genes also occur in pairs. Each of the pairs is donated by one of the parents.
 - By Ayesha

Forms of gene pair -

• A dominant gene from one parent and recessive gene from the other
• Dominant genes from both parents
• Recessive genes from both parents.
Determination of Sex

Twins Mechanism
Life is the result of a union of two cells-male and female. Normally when a single ovum is fertilized by
the sperm cell of the male, it results in the birth of a single offspring. However, in some cases, this
normal function is disturbed and there are cases of multiple births (birth of two or more offspring at a
time).

• Identical Twins: During the process of fertilization of the ovum by the sperm the ovum is made to
split into two parts but unite later. If this fails, that grows separately and leads to twins. These are
called identical twins because of the genetic material (same chromosomes and genes). They are
found to possess almost the same somatic structure and characteristics and are definitely of the
same sex.
• Fraternal twins: In an exceptional case, two ova may be produced simultaneously and be fertilized
at the same time by two different sperms. So two individuals may be growing simultaneously in the
womb of the mother. They are known as fraternal twins. They have different combinations of
chromosomes and genes, so they are sure to differ in many traits. They may have similar or opposite
sex.
Environment
According to Woodworth, the Environment covers all the outside factors that have acted on the
individual since he began life. The hereditary plays its game only at the time of conception.
Afterward, the environment affects the individual, his bodily structure, and all of his personality
make-up and behavior.
Types of Environment
There are two types of environment, which are as follows:
• External environment (Afterbirth)
• Internal environment (Conception to till birth—9 months)
Internal environment:
The embryo receives nutrition through the bloodstream of its mother. The physical and mental health
of the mother including her habits, attitudes, and interest, etc. all constitute the inner surroundings
that affect the growth and development of the individual.
External environment:
The external environment has two components, which are as follows:
• Physical environment—Earth, rivers, mountains, wealth, food, water, etc.
• Social or cultural environment—Parents, family members, friends, classmates, neighbors, teachers,
communication, recreation, religious places, clubs, libraries.
 - By Ayesha

5. Role of heredity and Environment on Personality Intelligence and

Behaviour:-
Ans. The role of nature has been extensively searched in the form of twins and family studies and
experiments on selective breeding (Copulating of males with particular traits to females with the
same traits to study the offspring). The results of all studies have failed to establish a clear-cut role of
either heredity or environment in explaining the presence of particular behavior or trait in an
individual. What behaviors are learned and what is inherited is a controversial question. So the
development of a personality trait is always a result of the interaction of the environmental forces on
the genetically inherited characteristics.
Curt Stern gave a rubber band analogy. He compared
genetic endowment for any particular trait to the amount of stretch that is possible in a rubber band.
Some bands have a great deal of potential stretch built into them, others have relatively little.
The amount of stretch a particular band shows will depend upon both its basic stretchability and the
amount of pressure exerted by the people in its environment. Similarly, the amount of any particular
trait that a person’s inborn potential for the trait and the degree to which the person’s environment
pulls for the development of that trait.
Passivity vs Activity
As we grow, we interact with our environment. John
B.Watson describes the child as raw material waiting to be shaped by parents and others. And B.F.
Skinner describes human behavior and development as a process of responding to rewards and
punishment in the environment (Passivity).On the other Piaget argued that we actively manipulate
the objects and events around us. We construct our ways of understanding the world.
Heredity on Personality
Psychologists are still trying to learn how many genes influence personality.
Studies on Temperament-
Temperament includes mood, activity level, emotion, and variability of each. Studies with animals
have shown that selective breeding can heighten or diminish characteristics like emotionality, over
successive generations. Twin studies with human beings also seem to show a genetic influence.
In one of the studies, mothers of (monozygotic) identical twins and (dizygotic) fraternal twins were
asked to fill out temperament questionnaires about their children.
Each mother rated child on four dimensions such as:
• Emotionality
• Activity
• Sociability
• Impulsivity
On all four dimensions, the correlation was higher for identical twins than fraternal twins. Since
identical twins have 100 % identical genes while fraternal twins have only 50 %. So this study
supports the notion of genetic influence.
Traits, Types, and Chromosomes
These are evidence to contribute that a large number of adult traits have a genetic influence.
Eysenck H.J. proposed that the traits related to introversion, extroversion type, dimensions are
linked to a reticular formation that is of the part of the brain that influences an individual’s level of
arousal. Tests of extroversion and introversion have shown fairly strong evidence of heritability.
Conclusion
 - By Ayesha

The genetic potentials can only be expressed by interacting with the environment or nurture. So the
human behavior observed results from the interaction of nature and nurture.

6. Discuss the Trial and Error Theory of Learning.

Ans. Trial and Error Method :
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949), the American Psychologist conducted a series of experiments
(1911) on trial and error methods of learning by animals (monkeys, dogs, hens, cats, and rats were
used).
Experiment
1. A hungry cat was kept inside a puzzle box and a piece of food outside the cage. A string from the
door went over a pulley to a wire loop hanging in the box. Whenever the cat clawed at the loop, the
door would open and the cat could escape from the box and eat. When the cat was placed inside the
cage, it was restless. Eventually, in its random movement around the cage, the cat happened to pull
the loop, the door opened. Thorndike then put the cat in the cage for several trials. As the trial
increased, the cat took less time to open the door. It showed that the cat learned to open the door.
This can be shown on a graph to show how the time reduced as the trial increased.
2. A hungry rat was set free at the entrance of a wooden maze, which contained many pathways
from the entrance to the center. But all the ways except one were blocked somewhere in the middle.
A piece of bread was placed in the center. Seeing the bread the rat was rushing to get it. It went on
the wrong pathways, after several trials it got the correct way and the bread. The experiment was
repeated several times until the rat identified the right path at the first glance.
From the above experiment Thorndike has mentioned the following salient feature of animal
learning:
• From trial to trial, the useless movement gradually reduced
• The random movements become more specific
• Finally the animal learns the method
This is known as trial and error learning.
Thorndike had suggested three law of learning from this study:
• Law of Effect
• Law of Frequency
• Law of Recency
•Law of effect: Any response followed by a reward (food) will be strengthened. Any unsuccessful
response will be weakened.
•Law of frequency: There is a direct relationship between repetition and the strength of the
stimulus-response bond. The Law of frequency or exercise is based on the law of use or disuse.
• Law of use: Repeated task shows a tendency for the strengthening of the S-R bond.
• Law of disuse: Unrepeated shows a tendency for the weakening of the S-R bond.
•Law of recency: Any activity, which is learned, recently has the advantage of being repeated once
again because of fresh experience.
7.Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning :
Ans. Classical conditioning:
Classical conditioning is also known as Respondent conditioning, Pavlovian conditioning, or
Associative learning.
 - By Ayesha

The study began in the early years of the 20th century when Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who
had already won the Nobel Prize (1904) for research on digestion, turned his attention to learning.
He noticed that a dog began to salivate at the mere sight of the food dish. Pavlov decided to see
whether a dog could be taught to associate food with other things such as light or a tone.
• Experiment: Pavlov first attached a capsule to the dog’s gland to measure salivary flow. A bell was
rung, every time the dog was given the meat powder. This was repeated several times. Later Pavlov
observed that the dog salivated at the mere sound of the bell without the meat powder being
followed. Thus, the dog had been conditioned to respond to a new stimulus, which was previously an
unconditioned response.
Here the food or meat powder was an unconditioned stimulus and the bell was a conditioned
stimulus and the salivation was the unconditioned response. The conditioned stimulus evokes a
conditioned response.
• Before conditioning:
CS (Bell sound)—No response or irrelevant response
US (Food)—UR (Salivation)
• During conditioning:
CS (Bell)—No response
CS (Bell) and US (Food)—UR (Salivation)
• After conditioning:
CS (Bell)—CR (Salivation)
Laws of Classical Conditioning:
• Extinction: When a CS is presented alone without the UCS for some trials, the strength of the CR
gradually decreases and this process is called Extinction,i.e. repetition of the response without
reinforcement will lead to extinction. This is not permanent.
[The following of the conditioned stimulus by the unconditioned stimulus is known as reinforcement.]
• Spontaneous recovery: Given a rest period after a series of presentations of the CS alone, the
organization will once again emit the CR, when the CS is presented. This is known as Spontaneous
recovery or reconditioning.
• Generalisation: It is that phenomenon by which other stimuli, which are in some ways similar to the
conditioned stimuli, can evoke the same conditioned response.
E.g. A child who is attacked by a dog can develop a fear of furred animals.
• Discrimination: It is the exact complementary aspect of generalization. It is the reaction to
differences where generalization is the reaction to similarities. Conditioned discrimination is brought
through selective reinforcement and extinction, e.g. dog experiments with S1 and S2 lights or tones.
Uses:
• Used to develop good habits
• Breaking bad habits and elimination
• To train animals
• Used in psychotherapy
• Used to develop an attitude
8. Discuss Instrumental Conditioning Theory of Learning.
Ans. Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning):
 - By Ayesha

The term operant conditioning was coined by B.F. Skinner indicates that when a response operates
on the environment, it may have consequences that can affect the likelihood that the response will
occur again.
It operates on the law of effect proposed by Thorndike. If the behavior is rewarded, it persists, if it is
punished it stops. The respondent behavior is directly under the control of a stimulus or in classical
conditioning, whereas operant behavior is not evoked, but emitted. It is spontaneous and
not a response to a specific stimulus. It is voluntary.
• Experiment: Skinner placed a rat inside a glass box containing a lever and food tray. The animal
was free to explore the box. Whenever the lever in the box was pressed, a pellet of food was
automatically dropped on the tray. A mechanical device recorded the number of times the rat
pressed the lever.
Pressing the lever—The operant response
The food—Stimulus consequence
The rate of presses increased notably with rewarding the rat with food each time he pressed the
lever by reinforcement the rat learned the instrumental or operant response. The reinforcement can
be positive or negative/reward or punishment. In instrumental conditioning, the learner has some
control over his circumstances. This is very useful in:
• Shaping and modification of behavior
• Used in psychotherapy
• Used in learning
9. Discuss Insightful Conditioning Theory of Learning.
Ans. This theory is also called the Gestalt Theory of Learning. An explanation of Gestalt School of
Psychology. The word Gestalt in the German language means ‘whole’, ‘total pattern’, or
‘configuration’. This school believes that the whole is more important than the parts. So learning also
takes place as a whole. In this respect, Kohlar performed several experiments on monkeys and
arrived at the result that the highest types of learning are through insight.
Learning by insight means sudden grasping of the solution, a flash of understanding, without any
process of trial and error. All discoveries and inventions have taken place through insight. Of course,
the discoverer possessed a complete knowledge of the whole situation in peace-meal.
The Gestalt psychologists dismiss the theory of ‘trial and error’, hit and miss’ strive and succeed’.
Another modern psychologist E.C. Tolman also rejects the trial and error theory and approaches the
insight theory.
According to Tolman, in all learning, some intelligence is at work. It is the learner who actively
participates in the act of getting new experiences. He organizes his perceptions and observations
and gives meaning to them. It is his whole mind that perceives, constructs, and reconstructs
experience. I gave an indicated theory of learning’, he explains the behavior of rats in teaching the
goal through many trials as a result of ‘insight’ or ‘making cognitive map’ of the maze.
Experiments of Theory of Learning by Insight:
(i) Kohler s experiment on Sultan (Experiment with boxKohlerhlar kept a monkey (named Sultan)
hungry for some time, and then shut him in a large cage. He hung bananas from the ceiling, and
kept a box on the floor of the cage, fast beneath. The monkey could not reach the banana. Another
box was put in a corner of the cage.
But Sultan could not get the idea of placing one box on the other and thus reaching the banana.
Ultimately Kohlar gives a demonstration of putting one box on the other. The Sultan could now learn
 - By Ayesha

the whole situation. He used his intelligence and insight to put the two boxes one upon the other,
stand on these, and then reach the bananas.
(ii) Experiment with two sticks:
In another experiment, Kohler kept two sticks in the cage. One end of the shorter sticks could be
fitted in the one end of the longer sticks to indicate hallmark make them longer. The monkey did not
get the idea of forming the two sticks through trial and error. When Kohlar gave a hint by putting his
finger in the whole of the bigger stick, the monkey viewed the whole situation and performed the right
task through understanding the insight.
Criterion or Essentials of Learning by Insight:
1. Comprehension as a whole: Learning by insight requires full comprehension of the situation as a
whole.
2. Clear goal:The goal must be quite clear, to begin with.
3. Power of generalization: The learner must possess the power of generalization along with those of
differentiation.
4. Suddenness of solution: The suddenness of the solution is the hallmark of learning by insight i.e.,
the solution flashes suddenly to the learner. No lengthy reasoning is involved.
5. New forms of objects: As a result of insight into the problem or situation objects appear in new
forms and patterns.
6. Transfer:Transfer of learning occurs as a result of insight. The principles learned in one situation
are applied to the other situation.
7. Behavior change: Insight changes our behavior to the extent which we have learned through
insight.
Laws of Insight Formation:
1. Capacities:
Insight depends upon the capacity of the organism. Individuals offer in their capacities. The more
developed is the individual, the more will be the capacity to develop insight.
2. Previous experience:
Insight depends upon relevant previous experience and maturation. Some practice, trial, and error,
and maturation up to the level are essential before insight develops. A child of five years cannot
develop mathematical insight since he has not done sufficient practice in it.
3. Experimental arrangement: Development of insight depends upon experimental arrangement also.
4. Fumbling and search:
Insight follows a period of fumbling and search
.5. Readily repeated:Insightful solutions can be readily repeated.
6. Use in a new situation: Insight once achieved can be used in a new situation.
7. Wholesome experience: Experience of insight is always wholesome. The whole is just not equal to
its parts.
Limitations of Theory of Learning by Insight:
The method of learning by insight has some limitations also. Small children and dull children learn
more through trial and error than through insight which they lack.
Even for insight trial and error is ruled out. Insight is the final stage of trial and error.
Some difficult problems may be solved by insight. But intricate and complex problems may be
beyond normal understanding and insight.
 - By Ayesha

Despite the above limitations, learning by insight needs to be encouraged in the ordinary
instructional program of the school. The teacher can adapt the Heuristic Method of teaching. In this
way, he will develop the pupil’s reasoning power and put him in the capacity of a discoverer of new
faces.
10. Discuss steps of memory.
Ans. Memory is the term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and
subsequent retrieval of information.
Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of the past, we cannot operate in the present
or think about the future. We would not be able to remember what we did yesterday, what we have
done today, or what we plan to do tomorrow. Without memory, we could not learn anything.Memory
is involved in processing vast amounts of information. This information takes many different forms,
e.g. images, sounds, or meaning.
For psychologists the term memory covers three important aspects of information processing:
1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
1.Memory Encoding:
When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to be changed into a
form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored.
Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different currency when you travel from one
country to another. For example, a word that is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is changed
(encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e. semantic processing).
There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed)
● Visual (picture)
● Acoustic (sound)
● Semantic (meaning)
For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have looked up in the phone book? If
you can see it then you are using visual coding, but if you are repeating it to yourself you are using
acoustic coding (by sound).
Evidence suggests that this is the principle coding system in short-term memory (STM) is acoustic
coding. When a person is presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to hold them in
STM by rehearsing them (verbally).
Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of items is presented acoustically
(someone reads them out), or visually (on a sheet of paper).
The principle encoding system in long-term memory (LTM) appears to be semantic coding (by
meaning). However, information in LTM can also be coded both visually and acoustically.
2. Memory Storage:
This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e., where the information is stored, how long the
memory lasts for (duration), how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of
information is held.
The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. There has been a significant amount of
research regarding the differences between Short Term Memory (STM ) and Long Term Memory
(LTM). Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. Miller (1956) put
this idea forward and he called it the magic number 7. He thought that short-term memory capacity
 - By Ayesha

was 7 (plus or minus 2) items because it only had a certain number of “slots” in which items could be
stored. However, Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in each slot.
Indeed, if we can “chunk” information together we can store a lot more information in our short-term
memory. In contrast, the capacity of LTM is thought to be unlimited.
Information can only be stored for a brief duration in STM (0-30 seconds), but LTM can last a
lifetime.
3. Memory Retrieval:
This refers to getting information out of storage. If we can’t remember something, it may be because
we are unable to retrieve it. When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences
between STM and LTM become very clear.
STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example, if a group of participants is given a list of
words to remember, and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go through the
list in the order they heard it to retrieve the information.
LTM is stored and retrieved by association. This is why you can remember what you went upstairs
for if you go back to the room where you first thought about it.
Organizing information can help aid retrieval. You can organize information in sequences (such as
alphabetically, by size, or by time). Imagine a patient being discharged from a hospital whose
treatment involved taking various pills at various times, changing their dressing, and doing exercises.
If the doctor gives these instructions in the order which they must be carried out throughout the day
(i.e., in the sequence of time), this will help the patient remember them.
11.Causes of Forgetting:
Munn (1967) defines forgetting as the loss, permanent or temporary, of the ability to recall or
recognize something learned earlier. Sometimes what we think is forgotten in reality is learned
earlier. This is mainly due to the lack of attention. Some information does not reach STM from the
sensory register or due to inadequate encoding and rehearsal, the information may not have been
transferred from STM to LTM.
Causes of Forgetting:
Faulty Memory Process:
Many times we forget as memory does not match events that had occurred. This happens due to the
constructive processes, i.e. certain materials may be simplified or changed during encoding. We
remember the gist or meaning of what we have read or heard, but not the actual words themselves.
Interference
Learning new things interferes with the memory of what is learned earlier and prior learning
interferes with the memory of things learned later.
a.Retroactive Inhibition:
This is a technical name of new learning interfering with material previously learned. This is a
backward effect For example, you may learn one chapter of physiology in activity 1, then learn one
chapter of anatomy in activity 2, then try to recall what you have learned in physiology. The amount
of information you forgot would be due to retroactive inhibition caused by learning anatomy. This
control group learns the same chapter of physiology, rests for some time, and afterward finds the
recall much better as there is no retroactive inhibition.
b.Proactive Inhibition:
When prior learning interferes with learning and recall of new material, it is proactive inhibition. This
is a forward process.
 - By Ayesha

Suppose you learn English, then French you would find that the study of English interferes with
your recall of French due to proactive inhibition, i.e. interference with subsequent memory.
In both types of interference, it has been found that the effect of interference is less with
meaningful material and after attaining some mastery in the subject. Timetabling of lessons in
various educational settings is designed to reduce forgetting due to interference. Very dissimilar
subjects follow each other. One should always try to allot different study times to similar objects to
avoid interference.
Other Types of Interference:
Forgetting occurs owing to several other types of interference like items in the STM interfere with
each other thus are continually forgotten. One tends to remember items at the start of a list (primary
effect) and the end of a list (recency effect) better than items in the middle (serial position effect).
Items in the LTM interact with each other, old items can be distorted or changed by the new
inputs. Some inputs are rejected by the lower centers of the brain because they are meaningless or
unimportant while other inputs are deliberately repressed.
Encoding, Organization, and Retrieval Problems:
If the stored information is not encoded well or organized at the time of learning, it is forgotten.
Retrieval cues are important in memory as we may not be able to recall a piece of information in one
situation but may spontaneously remember in another situation.
Retrieval is facilitated by the organization of the stored material and the presence of retrieval cues
that can guide our search through LTM for stored information. In the absence of proper retrieval
cues, the desired items stored with LTM will not be found.
Motivated Forgetting:
Many lapses of memory in daily life are due to motivated forgetting. We may forget the names of
people whom we hate. Repression theory holds that we forget because the retrieval of memories
would be painful or unacceptable in some way.
Emotional factors also play an important role in forgetting. If we encode while in an emotional state
and try to recall in another state, our recall suffers. Anxiety or guilt-producing material is more often
forgotten than pleasant experiences. Psychologists have also found that some persons cannot forget
unpleasant experiences easily and this is related to personality.
Amnesia-Forgetting during Sickness:
Amnesia refers to loss of memory due to disease. The person may forget his past experiences or
may have impaired ability to encode, store and retrieve making new memories difficult.
Amnesias are classified into two types: Biological and Psychological
a. Biological Amnesias:
These are caused by brain malfunctions. Examples are transient global amnesia, alcohol-induced
amnesia caused by certain diseases of the brain.
Transient global amnesia is a short-lived amnesia attack characterized by retrograde and
anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde amnesia and some loss of remote memory characterize many problems of this
syndrome. Senile dementia and primary degenerative dementia, of which Alzheimer’s disease is an
example are instances of brain diseases that have amnesia as a major symptom.
High doses of alcohol result in amnesia for the events that occurred while drunk. In addition, heavy
drinking for years can produce brain damage and a pattern of symptoms known as the Korsakoff
syndrome.
 - By Ayesha

b. Psychological Amnesia:
I. Childhood Amnesia-
It is due to the differences in the ways young children and older people encode and store
information.
As adults, much of our memory is encoded verbally and tied into networks or schemata that are
language-based. But the young child without language encodes memories in a non-verbal form,
perhaps storing information like images or feelings.
Our language-dominated memories don't have retrieval cues appropriate for gaining access to the
image and feeling memories of early childhood.
Language ability and memory develop together because both depend on my brain maturation.
Repression is another explanation given for childhood and dream amnesias.
II. Dream Amnesia-
In dream amnesia, the difference between the symbol system in dreams and in waking retrieval of
any information encoded during dreaming is difficult.
While usually considered to be psychological, childhood dream amnesia has a biological basis - the
immaturity of the brain in childhood amnesia and the difference between the brain states in dreaming
and in waking for dream amnesia. The forgetting of defensive amnesia protects the amnesiac from
the guilt or anxiety that can accompany intense, intolerable life situations and conflicts.
12. STM and LTM :
Ans. Short-term Memory (STM)
• Holds information received from the sensory register for up to about 30 seconds, the length of the
retention depends on the number of other factors.
• Holds a relatively small amount of information, about 7
items or chunks
• Type of information stored: Sounds, images, words, and sentences.
• Information lost from STM by being displaced by new inputs.
• Before it is lost some of the items can be retrieved and used by a rapid scanning process.
• Rapid scanning process is an exhaustive process.
• Some of the items neither lost nor retrieved, passed
through along to LTM by rehearsal.
• Rehearsal:
• Maintenance rehearsal: Just going over and over to
remember items (repetition) to LTM.
• Elaborative rehearsal: By giving meaning and organization to LTM.
Long-term Memory (LTM)
• It may last for days, months, years, or even a lifetime.
• No limit for storage capacity
• It consists of words, sentences, ideas, concepts, and life experiences.
• Two LTM stores:
● Semantic memory: Contains meaning of words and concepts and rules for using them in
language and thinking, e.g. reinforcement is critical in operant conditioning.
● Episodic memory: Memory of specific things that have happened to a person, e.g. when I
was 21 years old, I completed BPT.
 - By Ayesha

• Information may be lost or not retrieved because of difficulties in the search process or interference
by other memories.
13. Structural and Functional factors in Perception:
Ans. In the opinion of Gestalt psychologists, there are certain other principles or factors which
determine or influence perceptual organization.
(a) Structural Factors
(b) Functional Factors
Structural Factors:
The structural factors are otherwise known as Gestalt or objective factors. Gestalt means whole,
configuration, or form.
i. Similarity: In a group of dots, triangles, and circles that are similar will be perceived each as a unit
or group than the dissimilar ones. The greater the similarity, the higher chance to perceive it as a part
of a group.
ii. Proximity: Proximity here defines nearness in space. Those stimuli which are nearer to each other
are likely to be perceived as one whole pattern from other stimuli which have a distance between
each other.
iii. Inclusiveness: A pattern will have the advantage of being perceived as a whole if it can be
formulated by combining all the elements present in the field. The meaning or name attached to the
pattern would depend upon one’s experience and learning.
iv. Continuity or Common Direction: Those stimuli which have continuity or common direction tend to
be grouped than a pattern that does not have any continuity. In such cases, the sequence of the
pattern must be continuous.
v. Good Figure: Just as every individual has an unconscious tendency to give meaning to an erratic,
haphazard dream, to form a story out of irrelevant ideas, similarly each perceiver tends to give a
good shape or good figure to an erratic, haphazard percept.
vi. Familiarity: Familiarity or experience plays a significant role in the organization of perception. If
the pattern appears familiar to us, such as the figure of an animal, tree, or human being, it will be
very easily organized to form one unit. If a person, for instance, has seen a telephone earlier, he can
observe it as a telephone as one from a mass of other stimuli which have no meaning for him.
Functional Factors in Perception:
The functional factors like need, value, past experiences, and mental set, culture, etc. play a major
role in our perceptual processes. The functional factors lie within the individual and hence are also
known as the personal or subjective determinants of perception.
According to Sinha (1952), “The influence of social factors can be seen in the difference in human
behavior. Biological needs and drives are the primary modes of action. But they are channeled and
regulated to a large extent by customs, laws, tradition, and social standards. ….. . The individual has
not only to learn which food to eat, but he has also to learn which food to enjoy”.
i. Past Experience: An experience that is occasioned by a stimulus is influenced not by the
immediate stimulus alone, but also by the effects of the previous stimuli. A stimulus creates a chain
of associations, memories, images, etc. The perception of the present stimulus doesn’t come out of
the blue. It depends upon the pre-existing experience which determines in which way and how the
stimulus is perceived.
 - By Ayesha

Perception is also defined as the interpretation of sensation in the light of past experiences.
Keeping other factors constant, the same stimulus may be perceived differently by different persons
because of the differences in their past experiences.
ii. Needs, Values, and Motives: Perception may not simply be the function of an individual’s organic
makeup alone, but be related to his needs, values, and motives. It is a fact that each one of us
perceives the environment around us in terms of our personal needs. So there is a fundamental
difference in perceiving, particularly the social situations and the vague objects.
Osgood's experiment on hungry subjects further proves the effect of hunger needs on
perception. He took some hungry subjects and asked them to perceive GOOD. They perceived it as
FOOD. Thus, he concluded that our perception is influenced by the immediate needs and motives of
the individual. Need and value play an important role in the
organization of our perception. Often our perception depends upon the current motive.
In the words of Murphy "Whenever our needs differ, we see differently. Much of the process of an
individual's perception depends upon past wants, the needs to disentangle and restructure in terms
of the situation, in which needs play just an important role in guiding the structure of our motor
habits."
iii. Mental set and Attitude: Set refers to readiness or alertness to observe a particular stimulus or
make a specific response to a stimulus. Perception is greatly determined by the set or attitude that
the person has at the time of perceiving. Certain sets may be habitual while others are determined
by the immediate environment.
The influence of instrumental sets has been examined in several laboratory experiments. Positive,
negative, and neutral sets are found to have different influences upon perception. A positive set
always facilitates while a negative set hinders perception
and learning.
These facts and experimental evidence lead to conclude that differential perception is due to the
difference in mental sets. Needs, values, and mental sets play a free role especially when the object
is more ambiguous, unclear, and vague.
iv. Moods and Emotions: Very often in our day-to-day life we become the prey of moods and
emotions. Our moods and emotions change under changing circumstances. Accordingly, our
perception is also influenced by our mood. In a pleasant mood, the food was delicious. But appears
to be the same food taken in an unhappy state may not be appreciated or enjoyed.
The sun may be perceived as pale, beneficent, moonlit romantic and the same morning star may
have different significances depending upon one's mood, mental state, and emotional condition.
v. Cultural Factor: Perception may not simply be the function of an individual's organic makeup or
need, value, set, and experience. It may also involve different cultures related to his group
membership and thus factors. It becomes a culture that molds or important to consider the
ingredients to determine the behavior of the perceiver at interaction.
Bruner and Goodman have pointed out that cultural groups may differ from another one in their
perceptual behavior because of the fundamental differences in way of perceiving social situations. In
course of interaction, the human personality has to develop and grow in his urge. Through
socialization, he learns to perceive things in the context and reference of his own culture. Thus, the
same thing is perceived differently in different cultures.
 - By Ayesha

14. Illusion and Hallucination:

Ans. Illusion
It is a wrong or false perception because of the wrong interpretation of stimuli. For example,
1. A rope in the dark is perceived as a snake.
2. A moving dry leaf in the dark is perceived as a moving insect.
3. Illusion of motion pictures on the screen.
4. Judging the taste of lemon juice like that of orange juice is a gustatory illusion.
•Horizontal-Vertical illusion: The vertical line is drawn from the midpoint to the horizontal line. Though
the two lines are equal in length, the vertical line looks longer than the horizontal line. This is
because of the movement of the eyes along the vertical line.

•Muller-Lyre illusion: The line X looks longer than line Y. This is because the line Y has an arrowhead
that is enclosed whereas X is with a featherhead that looks more open.

This is called the Muller-Lyer illusion, which emphasizes that the open figure looks longer or larger
than the enclosed area.
•Illusion of movement (Phi-phenomenon): What we see in cinema is not the real movement. But a
series of still pictures projected on the screen at a particular speed, i.e. 20-25 pictures per second.
This perception of apparent movement is due to the primitive organization of perception.
Phi-phenomenon apparatus in the laboratory can demonstrate this illusion of movement. The
apparatus has 2 lights. The distance between them can be adjusted as required. In front of the light,
there is a milky glass screen. The rate of on and off
lengths can be regulated. They can be made to go on and off alternatively at a particular speed. We
perceive it as one light moving.
Hallucination
This is an extreme form of an inaccurate, abnormal false perception of the stimulus, which does not
exist in the environment. For example,
1. Perceiving a snake in the absence of a rope
2. Seeing ghost in the dark
3. Seeing god
• Only those who are mentally sick or emotionally maladjusted feel hallucination.
• It takes place because of inner fear, anxiety, that or conflict.
• It uses images instead of stimulus.
• Hallucination can be visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, and cutaneous.
15. Theories of Emotion:
Ans. These are ideas or principles used to guide us in thinking about emotion. They try to:
• Relate the bodily changes and the emotion they feel
• Classify and describe the experience.
James-Lange Theory:
According to this theory, emotion is the perception of bodily changes.
 - By Ayesha

• Presented by American psychologist Carl Lange in the 19th century.

• It states that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble.
Sequence-

According to this theory, emotion follows after bodily changes (internal and external).
Cannon-Bard Theory:
According to Cannon-Bard’s theory, emotions and bodily responses are independent events.
• By Walter Cannon and Philip Bard in the 1920s.
• Both bodily changes and felt emotion are triggered simultaneously.
• Bodily changes are not the basis for emotion.
• It strengthens the role of the hypothalamus in emotion.
Sequence-

Schachter-Singer Theory:
Emotion is the result of interpretation of bodily arousal or changes.
• In 1962, argued that the bodily changes are the same for most of the emotions we feel
(ambiguous).
• Perceiving the changes is difficult.
• Any number of emotions can be felt from a stirred-up bodily condition.
Sequence-

Cognitive-Appraisal Theory:
• By Richard Lazarus (1970, 1984).
• It emphasizes appraisal.
• It is the evaluations (cognition) of information coming from the environmental situation and from
within the body. In addition memories of past encounters with similar situations.
• According to this theory, different emotional reactions to the same stimulus may occur because of
differences in the subject’s appraisal. For example, If one of our friends wins a prize we may respond
with joy or jealousy.
Motivational Theories:
 - By Ayesha

Concerned with the relationship of emotion to motivation.

Leeper(1970): He says that emotions should be considered as motives, which keep the behavior
going and aimed at long-term goals.
Tomkins(1970,1981): He says that emotions provide energy for motives. They amplify the drives to
give them their strong motivational power.
Activation Theory:
• By Lindsley
• According to Lindsley, emotion-provoking stimuli activate the RAS in the brainstem, which in turn
sends impulses both upward toward the cortex and downward toward the musculature.
Plutchik’s Theory
It proposes that there are certain primary emotions derived from evolutionary processes and that
these primary emotions can be arranged in an orderly way to bring out relationships, similarities, and
differences among them.
15. Emotion, feelings, and Difference between them:-
Ans. EMOTION:
It is derived from the Latin word “emovere” which means to be stirred up. It is a stirred-up state of
mind. Emotion is a strong feeling. It is a disturbing glandular and muscular activity. It increases
energy mobilization.
Crow and Crow convey that an emotion “is an affective experience that accompanies generalized
inner adjustment and mental and physiological stirred-up states in the individual and that shows itself
in his overt behavior.”
Charles G. Morris defines emotion as “a
complex affective experience that involves diffuse physiological changes and can be expressed
overtly in characteristic behavior patterns.”
In our day-to-day life activity, we experience many feelings like pleasure, joy, disappointment, grief,
etc. The emotions may be in two types:
• Pleasant emotions—Joy, happiness, affection, etc.
• Unpleasant emotions—Fear, anger, jealousy, anxiety,
disgust, etc.
Emotion is a subjective response that is usually
accompanied by a physiological change and is associated with a behavior change.
FEELING:
Feeling, in psychology, the perception of events within the body, closely related to emotion. The term
feeling is a verbal noun denoting the action of the verb to feel, which derives etymologically from the
Middle English verb felen, “to perceive by touch, by palpation.” It soon came to mean, more
generally, to perceive through those senses that are not referred to any special organ. As the known
special organs of sense were the ones mediating the perception of the external world, the verb to
feel came also to mean the perception of events within the body. Psychologists disagree on the use
of the term feeling. The preceding definition accords with that of the American psychologist R.S.
Woodworth, who defines the problem of feeling and emotion as that of the individual’s “internal
state.” Many psychologists, however, still follow the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in equating
feelings to states of pleasantness and unpleasantness, known in psychology as an effect.
Difference between Feelings and Emotion:
 - By Ayesha

Many people use the terms “feeling” and “emotion” as synonyms, but they are not interchangeable.
While they have similar elements, there is a marked difference between feelings and emotions.
Feelings:- Both emotional experiences and physical sensations — such as hunger or pain — bring
about feelings, according to Psychology Today. Feelings are a conscious experience, although not
every conscious experience, such as seeing or believing, is a feeling, as explained in the article.
Emotions:- According to Psychology Today, an emotion “can only ever be felt…through the emotional
experiences it gives rise to, even though it might be discovered through its associated thoughts,
beliefs, desires, and actions.” Emotions are not conscious but instead manifest in the unconscious
mind. These emotions can be brought to the surface of the conscious state through extended
psychotherapy.
A fundamental difference between feelings and emotions is that feelings are experienced
consciously, while emotions manifest either consciously or subconsciously. Some people may spend
years, or even a lifetime, not understanding the depths of their emotions.

16. Physiological Changes during Emotion:

Ans. The psychological changes of emotions include:
• Confusion
• Blocking of memory
• Clouding of consciousness
Physiological changes of emotions can be of two types, which are as follows:
• Internal changes
• External changes
Internal changes: Intense emotions have physiological effects on the body. This is due to the
autonomic nervous system. It has two subdivisions, namely:
• Sympathetic division
• Parasympathetic division
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for emergency action during aroused states. It
causes a discharge of hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline. Adrenaline gets circulated to
different parts of the body through the blood and produces the following changes:
• Increased blood pressure and heart rate
• Changes in the rate of respiration
• Excitation—increased rate
• Depression—decreased rate
• Dilation of pupils
• Sweating
• Decreased secretion of saliva
• Increase in blood sugar
• Production of more energy
• Decreased mobility of the gastrointestinal tract
• Erect hair on the skin (goose pimples)
• Changes in the frequency of the brain waves
• Muscular tension and tremors
 - By Ayesha

Chronic sympathetic activity may cause psychosomatic disorders. An emotional tension state, which
is prolonged in life, may cause physical problems to the person. The role of parasympathetic is to
control all the above activities or bodily changes.
External changes:
• Change in the voice
• Change in facial expression
• Changes in the different parts of the body, e.g. stiffness of the body posture and gestures
• Non-verbal expressions, e.g.
1. Spitting at other persons means contempt or disgust in any culture
2. Throwing shoes at another person is a sign of extreme disgust.
17. Types of Motive :

Ans.
Biological Motivation and Homeostasis:
Biological motives are called physiological motives. These motives are essential for the survival of
the organism. Such motives are triggered when there is imbalancement in the body. The body
always tends to maintain a state of equilibrium called “Homeostasis”- in many of its internal
physiological processes.
This balance is very essential for a normal life. Homeostasis helps to maintain internal physiological
processes at optimal levels. The nutritional level, fluid level, temperature level, etc., are maintained
at certain optimal levels or homeostasis levels. When there is some variation in these levels the
individual is motivated for restoring the state of equilibrium.
I) Physiological Motives:
a. Hunger motive:
We eat to live. The food we take is digested and nutritional substances are absorbed. The
biochemical processes get their energy from the food to sustain life. When these substances are
exhausted, some imbalancement exists.
We develop hunger motives to maintain homeostasis. This is indicated by the contraction of stomach
muscles causing some pain or discomfort called hunger pangs. Psychologists have demonstrated
this phenomenon through experiments.
b. Thirst motive:
In our daily life regularly we take fluids in the form of water and other beverages. These fluids are
essential for our body tissues for normal functioning. When the water level in the body decreases we
develop a motive to drink water.
Usually, thirst motive is indicated by dryness of the mouth. Experiments by psychologists have
shown that just a dried mouth getting wet is not enough. We need to drink sufficient quantities of
water to satiate our thirst.
c. Need for oxygen:
Our body needs oxygen continuously. We get it through continuous respiration. Oxygen is necessary
for the purification of blood. We cannot survive without a regular supply of oxygen. Lack of oxygen
supply may lead to serious consequences like damage to the brain or death.
 - By Ayesha

d. Motive for regulation of body temperature:

Maintenance of normal body temperature (98.6°F or 37.0°C) is necessary. Rise or fall in the body
temperature causes many problems. There are some automatic mechanisms to regulate body
temperature, like sweating when the temperature rises above normal or, shivering when it falls below
normal.
These changes motivate us to take the necessary steps. For example, the opening of windows,
putting on fans, taking cool drinks, removing clothes, etc., when the temperature increases to above
normal level; and closing doors and windows, wearing sweaters, and taking hot beverages when the
temperature falls. In this way, we try to regulate the body temperature.
e. Need for sleep:
Sleep is an essential process for the normal functioning of the body and mind. When our body and
mind are tired they need rest for rejuvenation of energy. It is observed that there is an excess
accumulation of a toxin called ‘Lactic acid’ when tired.
After sleep, it disappears and the person becomes active. Sleep deprivation also leads to
psychological problems like confusion, inability to concentrate, droopy eyelids, muscle tremors, etc.
f. Need for the avoidance of pain:
No organism can continue to bear the pain. Whenever we experience pain we try to avoid it. We are
motivated to escape from painful stimuli. For example, when we are under hot sun we go-to shade.
When something is pinching we avoid it.
g. Drive for the elimination of waste:
Our body cannot bear anything excess or anything waste. Excess water is sent out in the form of
urine or sweat. So also digested food particles after absorption of nutritional substances is sent out
in the form of stools. We experience discomfort until these wastes are eliminated.
h. Sex motive:
This is a biological motive, arises in the organism as a result of the secretion of sex hormones-like
androgens and estrogens. Sex need is not essential for the survival of the individual, but it is
essential for the survival of the species. However, fulfillment of the sex need is not like satisfying
hunger or thirst.
Society and the law exercise certain codes of conduct. Human beings have to adhere to these rules.
Usually, this need is fulfilled through marriage.
i. Maternal drive:
This is an instinct or an inborn tendency. Every normal woman aspires to become a mother.
Psychologists have Motivation, Emotion and Attitudinal Processes learned from related studies that,
this is a most powerful drive. That is why in many cases the women who cannot bear children of their
own, will sublimate that motivation and satisfy it through socially acceptable ways, like working in
orphan schools, baby sittings, or adopting other’s children.

II) Social Motives:

Physiological motives discussed above pertain to both animals as well as human beings, but the
social motives are specific only to human beings. These are called social motives because they are
learned in social groups as a result of interaction with the family and society. That is why their
strength differs from one individual to another. Many social motives are recognized by psychologists.
Some of the common social motives are:
 - By Ayesha

a. Achievement motive:
Achievement motivation refers to a desire to achieve some goal. This motive is developed in the
individual who has seen some people in the society attaining high success, reaching high positions
and standards.
He/she develops a concern to do better, to improve performance. David C Mc Clelland who
conducted a longitudinal study on characteristics of high and low achievers found that the high
achievers choose and perform better at challenging tasks, prefer personal responsibility, seeks and
utilizes feedback about the performance standard, having innovative ideas to improve performance.
On the other hand, low achievers do not accept challenges, put on average standards, and accept
failures easily. Parents must try to inculcate leadership qualities in children for better achievement in
their future life.They must allow children to make decisions independently, and guide them for higher
achievement from childhood so that the children develop high achievement motivation.
b. Aggressive motive:
It is a motive to react aggressively when faced with frustrations. Frustration may occur when a
person is obstructed from reaching a goal or when he is insulted by others. Even in a fearful and
dangerous do-or-die situation, the individual may resort to aggressive behavior. Individuals express
such behavior to overcome opposition forcefully, which may be physical or verbal aggression.
c. Power motive:
People with power motives will be concerned with having an impact on others. They try to influence
people by their reputation. They expect people to bow their heads and obey their instructions.
Usually, people with a high power motive choose jobs, where they can exert their powers. They want
people as followers. They expect high prestige and recognition from others. For example, a person
may aspire to go for jobs like Police Officer, Politician, Deputy Commissioner, etc.
d. Acquisitive motive:
This motive directs the individual for the acquisition of material property. It may be money or other
property. This motive arises as we come across different people who have earned a lot of money
and are leading a good life. It is a human tendency to acquire all those things which appear attractive
to him.
e. Curiosity motive:
This is otherwise called a stimulus and exploration motive. Curiosity is a tendency to explore and
know new things. We see people indulge in traveling to look at new places, new things, and new
developments taking place outside their environment.
People want to extend their knowledge and experiences by exploring new things. Curiosity’s motive
will be very powerful during childhood. That is why they do not accept any toy or other articles unless
they examine them from different angles, even at the cost of spoiling or breaking the objects.
f. Gregariousness:
This is also known as affiliation need. Gregariousness is a tendency to associate oneself with other
members of the group or same species. The individual will be interested in establishing, maintaining,
and repairing friendly relationships and will be interested in participating in group activities.
Individuals will conform to social norms, mores, and other ethical codes of the groups in which
he/she is interested. To the greater extent gregariousness is developed because many of the needs
like basic needs, safety, and security needs are fulfilled.In addition to the above, there are some
 - By Ayesha

other social motives like the need for self-esteem, social approval, self-actualization, autonomy,
master motive, combat, defense, abasement, etc.

III) Personal Motives:

In addition to the above said physiological and social motives, some other motives are allied with
both of the above-said motives. These are highly personalized and very many individualized
motives. The most important among them are:
a. Force of habits:
We see different people having formed different habits like chewing tobacco, smoking, alcohol
consumption, etc. There may be good habits also like regular exercising, reading newspapers,
prayers, meditations, etc. Once these habits are formed, they act as drivers and compel the person
to perform the act. The specialty of habits is that they motivate the individual to indulge in that action
automatically.
b. Goals of life:
Every normal individual will have some goals in life. They may be related to education, occupation,
income, sports, acquisition of property, public service, social service, etc. Once a goal is set, he will
be motivated to fulfill that goal. The goals people set, depending upon various factors like
knowledge, information, guidance, support, personality, facilities available, aspirations, family and
social background, etc.
c. Levels of aspirations:
Aspiration is aspiring to achieve or to get something or a goal. But such achievement depends upon
the level of motivation the individual has. Every individual will have a goal in his life and strive to
reach that goal. But the effort to attain that goal varies from one individual to another. The amount of
satisfaction he gains depends upon his level of aspiration.
For example, if a student is expecting 80% of marks in the examination, gets only 75%, he may be
unhappy. On the other hand, a student expecting failure may feel very happy if he gets just 35%
passing marks, because, the student with a high level of aspiration works hard, whereas the student
with a low level may not.
d. Attitudes and interests:
Our attitudes and interests determine our motivation. These are specific to individuals. For example,
a person within the family may have a positive attitude towards family planning and all others have
negative attitudes.
So also, interests differ from one individual to another. For example, interest in sports, T.V, etc.
Whenever we have a positive attitude, we will have the motivation to attain it. In a negative attitude,
we will be motivated to avoid it. If a person is interested in music, he will be motivated to learn it. In
this way, our motives determine our behavior.

Unconscious motivation:
Sigmund Freud, the famous psychologist has explained elaborately unconscious motivation.
According to him, there are certain motives of which we are unaware because they operate from our
unconscious.These motives or desires which are repressed by our conscious remain in our
unconscious and will be influencing our behavior.Our irrational behavior, the slip of tongue, slip of the
pen, amnesia, multiple personalities, somnambulism, etc., are some examples of such behaviors for
which we do not have answers.
 - By Ayesha

These motives can be delineated only by psychoanalysis. Many times psychosomatic disorders like
paralysis, headaches, gastric ulcers, etc., also may be due to unconscious motivation.

18. Motive, Need, and Drive :

Ans. “Motive” a Latin word meaning—to move. That is it can be considered as the mover of behavior.
Several hundred words like “wants”, “desire”, “need”, “drive”, “goal”, “aim”, “ambition”, give equal
meaning to motivation with a slight difference. Motivation is the internal state of an organism causing
it to strive toward a goal, which is often aroused by external stimuli.
According to Fisher, A motive is an inclination or impulsion to action plus some degree of orientation
or direction.
Drive and Need
Often used by psychologists, are components of motives. The drive is a physiological urge such as
hunger, thirst, and sex. Need is applied to more complex motives like achievements, love, social
approval, status, and the like.
Motivation is made up of motives and drives. Motives are expressions of a person’s needs; hence
they are personal and internal.
Incentives and reinforcement are the external things in motivation.
Motivational Cycle
The motivational cycle has got three distinct aspects, which are as follows:
• Some motivating state that impels the person toward some goal
• The behavior displayed in striving the goal
• Achievement of the goal
The goals may be positive or negative and learned or innate.
Positive goal: Hunger, thirst
Negative goal: (Avoid or escape) Avoidance of pain
Learned positive goal: Money motivation
Learned negative goal: Fear - stimulates or motivates the adult to avoid a behavior (Painful shock).
19. Multiple Intelligence Theory :
Ans. This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner
first outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, where
he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligence."
Gardner proposed that there are eight bits of intelligence, and has suggested the possible addition of
a ninth known as "existentialist intelligence."
To capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that people
do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical,
interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligence.
While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, he or she
most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in verbal,
musical, and naturalistic intelligence.

Criticism
Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics
argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different "intelligence"
 - By Ayesha

simply represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of
supporting empirical research.
Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators. Many
teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophies and work to integrate Gardner’s
theory into the classroom.
Learning more about multiple intelligences can help you better understand your strengths.
A. Visual-Spatial Intelligence
People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals
are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.
Strengths-Visual and spatial judgment
Characteristics:-People with visual-spatial intelligence:
● Read and write for enjoyment
● Are good at putting puzzles together
● Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well
● Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts
● Recognize patterns easily
● Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are:
● Architect
● Artist
● Engineer
B. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence can use words well, both when writing and
speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and
reading.1
Strengths- Words, language, and writing
Characteristics:- People with linguistic-verbal intelligence:
● Remember written and spoken information
● Enjoy reading and writing
● Debate or give persuasive speeches
● Can explain things well
● Use humor when telling stories
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
● Writer/journalist
● Lawyer
● Teacher
C. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing
patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about
numbers, relationships, and patterns.
Strengths:-Analyzing problems and mathematical operations
Characteristics:-People with logical-mathematical intelligence:
● Have excellent problem-solving skills
 - By Ayesha

● Enjoy thinking about abstract ideas

● Like conducting scientific experiments
● Can solve complex computations
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are:
● Scientist
● Mathematician
● Computer programmer
● Engineer
● Accountant
D. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement,
performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent
hand-eye coordination and dexterity.
Strengths:-Physical movement, motor control
Characteristics:-People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:
● Are skilled at dancing and sports
● Enjoy creating things with his or her hands
● Have excellent physical coordination
● Remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are:
● Dancer
● Builder
● Sculptor
● Actor
E. Musical Intelligence
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds.
They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and
performance.
Strengths:-Rhythm and music
Characteristics:-People with musical intelligence:
● Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments
● Recognize musical patterns and tones easily
● Remember songs and melodies
● Have a rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are:
● Musician
● Composer
● Singer
● Music teacher
● Conductor
F. Interpersonal Intelligence
 - By Ayesha

Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with
other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and
intentions of those around them.
Strengths:-Understanding and relating to other people
Characteristics:-People with interpersonal intelligence:
● Communicate well verbally
● Are skilled at nonverbal communication
● See situations from different perspectives
● Create positive relationships with others
● Resolve conflicts in group settings
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
● Psychologist
● Philosopher
● Counselor
● Salesperson
● Politician
G. Intrapersonal Intelligence
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their emotional
states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including
daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their strengths.
Strengths:-Introspection and self-reflection
Characteristics:-People with intrapersonal intelligence:
● Analyze their strengths and weaknesses well
● Enjoy analyzing theories and ideas
● Have excellent self-awareness
● Understand the basis for his or her motivations and feelings
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
● Philosopher
● Writer
● Theorist
● Scientist
H. Naturalistic Intelligence
Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance
than his original seven bits of intelligence. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type
of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the
environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of
even subtle changes to their environments.
Strengths:-Finding patterns and relationships to nature
Characteristics:-People with naturalistic intelligence:
● Are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology
● Categorize and catalog information easily
● Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
 - By Ayesha

● Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are:
● Biologist
● Conservationist
● Gardener
● Farmer

20. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence :

Ans. The theory, proposed by psychologist Robert J. Sternberg, contends that there are three types
of intelligence: practical (the ability to get along in different contexts), creative (the ability to come up
with new ideas), and analytical (the ability to evaluate information and solve problems).
•The theory comprises three sub-theories: contextual, experiential, and componential. Each sub
theory corresponds to one of the three proposed types of intelligence.

Origins:
Sternberg proposed his theory in 1985 as an alternative to the idea of the general intelligence factor.
The general intelligence factor, also known as g, is what intelligence tests typically measure. It refers
only to “academic intelligence.”
Sternberg argued that practical intelligence—a person’s ability to react and adapt to the world around
them—as well as creativity are equally important when measuring an individual's overall intelligence.
He also argued that intelligence isn’t fixed, but rather comprises a set of abilities that can be
developed. Sternberg's assertions led to the creation of his theory.
Subtheories
Sternberg broke his theory down into the following three sub-theories:

1.Contextual sub theory: The contextual sub theory says that intelligence is intertwined with the
individual’s environment. Thus, intelligence is based on the way one functions in everyday
circumstances, including one’s ability to
a) adapt to one’s environment
b) select the best environment for oneself
c) shape the environment to better-fit one’s needs and desires.

2.Experiential sub theory: The experiential sub theory proposes that there is a continuum of
experience from novel to automation to which intelligence can be applied. It’s at the extremes of this
continuum that intelligence is best demonstrated. At the novel end of the spectrum, an individual is
confronted with an unfamiliar task or situation and must come up with a way to deal with it. At the
automation end of the spectrum, one has become familiar with a given task or situation and can now
handle it with minimal thought.
 - By Ayesha

3.Componential sub theory: The componential theory outlines the various mechanisms that result in
intelligence. According to Sternberg, this sub theory is comprised of three kinds of mental processes
or components:
● Meta components enable us to monitor, control, and evaluate our mental processing, so that
we can make decisions, solve problems, and create plans.
● Performance components are what enable us to take action on the plans and decisions
arrived at by the meta components.
● Knowledge-acquisition components enable us to learn new information that will help us carry
out our plans.
Kinds of Intelligence
Each sub theory reflects a particular kind of intelligence or ability:
● Practical intelligence: Sternberg called one’s ability to successfully interact with the everyday
world practical intelligence. Practical intelligence is related to the contextual sub theory.
Practically intelligent people are especially adept at behaving in successful ways in their
external environment.
● Creative intelligence: The experiential sub theory is related to creative intelligence, which is
one’s ability to use existing knowledge to create new ways to handle new problems or cope in
new situations.
● Analytical intelligence: The componential sub theory is related to analytical intelligence, which
is essentially academic intelligence. Analytical intelligence is used to solve problems and is
the kind of intelligence that is measured by a standard IQ test
Sternberg observed that all three kinds of intelligence are necessary for successful intelligence,
which refers to the ability to be successful in life based on one’s abilities, personal desires, and
environment.
Critiques:
There have been several critiques and challenges to Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence over
the years. For example, educational psychologist Linda Gottfredson says the theory lacks a solid
empirical basis and observes that the data used to back up the theory is meager. In addition, some
scholars argue that practical intelligence is redundant with the concept of job knowledge, a concept
that is more robust and has been better researched. Finally, Sternberg’s definitions and explanations
of his terms and concepts have at times been imprecise.
21. Spearman's Two-factor Theory of Intelligence:
Ans. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory:
Spearman proposed this Two-Factor theory of intelligence in 1904. The theory is based on factor
analysis, which is a statistical procedure that correlates test scores to identify underlying clusters of
factors. He used factor analysis to examine relationships between people’s scores on different tests
or sub-tests of intelligence. He concluded that people who do well on some intelligence tests also do
well on others. Conversely, if people do poorly on an intelligence test, they also tend to do poorly on
other intellectual tests. This led him to believe that there are one or more factors that are common to
all intellectual tasks.
Based on his research, he promotes that each activity involves a general factor ‘g’ which it shares
with all intellectual activities. Apart from ‘g’, it also shares a specific factor ‘s’ which belongs to a
 - By Ayesha

specific ability of that individual to deal with specific problems. (e.g. vocabulary, mathematics, spatial
abilities)
‘g’ belongs to the general intelligence which is a common thread that runs through all the tasks that
the individual performs through the course of his life. The quantity of this ‘g’ depends on the amount
of cerebral cortex energy present and the maximum quantum of this is predetermined. To what
extent an individual uses this energy depends on the environment, upbringing, education,
friend-circle, motivation, etc that it reacts when subjected to.
Apart from this general factor ‘g’, an individual may have a specific ability to deal with a particular
situation/problem. This specific ability can be given as s1, s2, s3, etc.
The total ability or intelligence 'A' of an individual, thus, can be expressed by the following equation:

g + s1 + s2 + s3 + ... = A
Illustration of Spearman's two-factor intelligence theory.
Each specific ability share the general factor “g”
For example, an individual who is an IIT graduate could also be a good writer and end up being an
author, an editor, or a columnist. An astronaut could also have specific singing abilities. Thus the
engineer has a general factor intelligence ‘g’ and a specific ability ‘s1’ to crack the CET and hence
ended up being an IIT graduate, and so is the case with the astronaut.
This two-factor theory of Spearman has been criticized on various grounds:
Spearman held that intelligence may be expressed in terms of two factors, but as we have seen
above, there are not only two but several factors (g, s1, s2, s3...).
According to Spearman, each job requires some specific ability. This view was untenable as it
implied that there is nothing common to different jobs except a general factor and professions such
as those of nurses, compounders and doctors could not be put in one group.
22. Das's PASS Theory of Intelligence:
Ans. The PASS (Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive )THEORY of intelligence
has been developed by J.P Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). They proposed that three
functional units of the brain determine the intellectual activity of an individual. These three units are
responsible for planning, arousal/attention, and simultaneous/Successive processing. These PASS
processes are interactive yet each has its severaldistinctive functions.
Attention-Arousal: This process is basic to any behavior and it is processed by the 1st functional unit
of the brain that involves the ability to selectively attend to stimuli while ignoring other distractions.
Arousal keeps people awake and alert. The arousal functions are generally associated with the
brainstem and thalamus. Individuals with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) have impairments in this
area. An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on the relevant portion of a problem.
Simultaneous Processing: This involves the ability to integrate separate stimuli/information into our
knowledge system as an interrelated whole. The occipital and parietal lobes are thought to be
important for these functions. For example, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test, a design is
given and one of its parts has been removed. We are required to choose one of the six options which
complete the design. Simultaneous processing helps us in finding relationships between the given
abstract figures. Simultaneous processing is broad with occipital and parietal lobes.
 - By Ayesha

Successive Processing: This involves the ability to integrate stimuli/information into sequential order.
Learning digits, alphabets, multiplication tables, etc. are examples of successive processing. This
type of processing is related to the temporal lobe.

Planning: This is the ability of an individual to make decisions about how to solve problems and how
to carry out the task. It involves setting goals, courses of action to reach the goal, and anticipating
their consequences. Planning is associated with the frontal lobes of the brain.

23. Assessment of Intelligence:-

Ans. Intelligence is
● The ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from life’s everyday experiences
● The ability to solve problems
● The capacity to adapt and learn from experiences
● Includes characteristics such as creativity and interpersonal skills
● The mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select one’s environment
● The ability to judge, comprehend, and reason
● The ability to understand and deal with people, objects, and symbols
● The ability to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Measure of intelligence that takes into account a child’s mental and
chronological age
IQ Score = MA / CA x 100
Mental age (MA): the typical intelligence level found for people at a given chronological age
Chronological age (CA): the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test
People whose mental age is equal to their chronological age will always have an IQ of 100. If the
chronological age exceeds mental age – below-average intelligence (below 100). If the mental age
exceeds the chronological age – above-average intelligence (above 100).

The normal distribution: most of the population falls in the middle range of scores between 84 and
116.
• Very Superior Intelligence (gifted) - Above 130
• Superior Intelligence - 120 to 129
• High Average Intelligence - 110 to 119
• Average Intelligence - 90 to 109
• Low Average Intelligence - 80 to 89
• Borderline Intellectual Functioning - 71 to 79
• Mild Mental Retardation - 55 to 70
• Moderate Retardation - 40 to 54
• Severe Mental Retardation - 25 to 39
• Profound Mental Retardation - Below 25
 - By Ayesha

Intelligence tests were developed for the practical function of selecting students for admission or
placement in schools. Originally these tests were not based on any theory of intelligence. They
defined intelligence as the ability to do well in school.
Stanford-Binet
This test was developed to identify children who had serious intellectual difficulties -- such that they
would not succeed in the public school system and who should not be placed in the same classes
with other students. This test measured things that were necessary for school success such as
understanding and using language, computational skills, memory, and the ability to follow
instructions.
Individual responses in four content areas -
● Verbal reasoning
● Quantitative reasoning
● Abstract/visual reasoning
● Short-term memory
Wechsler Scales
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III): Used with people 17 and older
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III): Used with children 6 to 16
Infant IQ Tests: Infant IQ tests are much less verbal than IQ tests for older children
•Developmental Quotient (DQ): An overall developmental score that combines subscores on the
motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants
•Bayley Scales of Infant Development: Scales that assess infant development – current version has
three parts: a mental scale, a motor scale, and the infant behavior profile
•Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence: A test that focuses on the infant’s ability to process information in
such ways as encoding the attributes of objects, detecting similarities and differences between
objects, forming mental representations, and retrieving these mental representations
The scores on the Gesell and Bayley tests DO NOT correlate highly with other IQ tests. The
components of an infant IQ test are not the same as the components of other IQ tests. Unlike the
other tests, the Fagan test is correlated with measures of IQ in older children (habituation and
dishabituation in infancy predict intelligence in childhood and adolescence - quicker habituation and
greater amounts of looking in dishabituation reflect more efficient processing).
Intelligence through adolescence:
● There is a strong relationship between IQ scores obtained at ages 6, 8, and 9 and IQ scores
obtained at 10.
● There is still a strong relationship between IQ scores obtained in preadolescent years and
those obtained at age 18.
● However, individual intelligence scores can fluctuate dramatically over childhood and
adolescence.
 - By Ayesha

Intelligence in adulthood:
Intellectual Development (John Horn):
● Crystallized intelligence: accumulated information and verbal skills, which increase with age
● Fluid intelligence: the ability to reason abstractly, which steadily declines from middle
adulthood
Cognitive mechanics versus Cognitive pragmatics (Paul Bates): Cognitive mechanics decline during
aging whereas cognitive pragmatics do not.
● Cognitive mechanic (hardware of the mind; speed and accuracy of the processing; attention;
visual and motor memory; discrimination; comparison; categorization)-> have a
biological/genetic foundation
● Cognitive pragmatics (culture-based software; reading and writing skills; language
comprehension; educational qualifications; professional skills; knowledge of the self and
coping skills)-> have an experimental/cultural foundation.
Factors Influencing Intelligence-
The Child’s Influence:
● Genetics
● Genotype–Environment Interaction
● Gender
o Boys and girls:
● Tend to be equivalent in most aspects of Intelligence.
● The average IQ scores of boys and girls are virtually identical
● The extremes (both low and high ends) are over-represented by boys
o Girls as a group:
○ Tend to be stronger in verbal fluency, in writing, in perceptual speed (starting as early
as the toddler years
o Boys as a group:
○ Tend to be stronger in visual-spatial processing, in science, and in mathematical
problem solving (starting as early as age 3)
The Immediate Environment’s Influence
● Family Environment
● School Environment
○ Attending school makes children smarter
■ Children from families of low SES and those from families of high SES make
comparable gains in school achievement during the school year
○ What about during summer break?
 - By Ayesha

■ During the academic year -- schools provide children of all backgrounds with
the same stimulating intellectual environment.
■ Over the summer, children from low-SES families are less likely to have the
kinds of experiences that would maintain their academic achievement.
The Society’s Influence
● Poverty
○ The more years children spend in poverty, the lower their IQs tend to be
■ Children from lower- and working-class homes average 10-15 points below
their middle-class age-mates on IQ tests
○ In many countries, children from wealthier homes score better on IQ test than
children from poorer homes
■ The greater the gap in wealth in a country the greater the difference in IQ
scores
○ A chronic inadequate diet can disrupt brain development
■ Chronic or short-term inadequate diet at any point in life can impair immediate
intellectual functioning
○ Reduced access to health service, poor parenting, and insufficient stimulation and
emotional support can impair intellectual growth
● Race
○ Overall, differences in IQ scores of children from different racial and ethnic groups
describe children’s performance ONLY in the environments in which the children live.
These findings do not indicate potential, nor do they tell us what these children would
do if they live someplace else. The current group differences in IQ are due to
environmental differences -- as discrimination and inequality decrease -- IQ
differences decrease.
■ The average IQ score of Euro-American children is 10-15 points higher than
that of African-American children
■ The average IQ score of Latino and American-Indian children fall somewhere
in between those of Euro-American and African-American children
■ The average IQ score of Asian-American children tend to be higher than any
other group in the US
■ American-Indian children: Better on the performance part than the verbal part
of an IQ test
■ Latino children: Better on the performance part than the verbal part of an IQ
test
■ Asian-American children: Better on the performance part than the verbal part
of an IQ test
■ African-American children: Better on the verbal part than the performance part
of an IQ test

24. Personality Assessment and Measurements:

Ans. Personality Assessment
The following methods are used for evaluation and
measurement of personality traits.
 - By Ayesha

• Observational methods (Interview)

• Personality inventories (Paper- Pencil Tests)
• Projective techniques
Interviews
The interview is one of the oldest ways of evaluating personality traits. It is face-to-face contact.
Types: (Two different settings)
• The employment interviews in which the interviewer
attempts to determine the suitability of the person for employment.
• Counseling interview: It is used to solve the problem of a person.
Other Types:
• Guided or structured interview: In this, the interviewer will have a set of questions. It goes
according to the question and elicits answers (systemic).
• Unguided or unstructured: The interviewer will ask
questions depending upon the purpose of the interview.
• Stress interview: The interviewer induces stress and
sees how the interviewee responds.
• Counseling interview: In this, the clinician tries to get
a wide range of personal feelings and attitudes by getting him or her to talk about personal
experiences. The interviewer records not only what clients talk about but the way they talk about
them from observation, the clinician attempts to construct the picture of a person's major motives,
the sources of conflict, and areas of poor adjustment.
Inventories
The most popular techniques are paper-pencil tests in the form of questionnaires or inventory. It can
be given to a large group of people. The psychologists have constructed a number of inventories.
• MMPI
• EPI
• BAI
• CPI and so on
The questionnaire consists of questions or simple statements marked ‘yes’ or ‘no’, ‘true’ or ‘false’.
These questionnaires were first during World War I to help emotionally unstable army men.
To Quote a few Examples of Statements:
• I consider myself a very nervous person.
• I frequently feel moody and depressed.
The questionnaires can assess whether the individual is an extrovert or introvert and neurotic or
normal, etc.
Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI): The original MMPI has 566 statements or
items, for people to answer themselves. The items can be answered as true or false or cannot say. It
includes statements such as
“I enjoy books and magazines.”
“Do you frequently feel sad?”
“In public places I sometimes see people whispering about me.”
Sometimes MMPI is used in diagnosing certain psychological problems. It is also used to assess the
personality trait of people who are not disturbed. It is the most widely used test both for clinical and
research purposes.
 - By Ayesha

This test has been revised by NIMHANS and Mysore

University. Prof. B. Krishnan revised the Mysore University questionnaire. This revised questionnaire
has 100 questions only.
Cattel’s personality inventory (CPI—16 PF):
It is called a 16-personality factors questionnaire (16 PF). Cattle and his associates used 4500
adjectives applicable to human behavior. Later they used 170 adjectives such as cool-warm,
trusty-suspicious, affected-emotionally stable, shy-bold, practical-imagination, etc.
California psychological inventory (CPI): This scale measures some evidence of genetic contribution
to a large number of traits. It shows a higher correlation on monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins.
For example achievement, intellectual efficiency, etc.
Projective Techniques
The basic idea of these tests is the way people respond to vague (on ambiguous) situations. It is
often a projection of their feelings and motives. They are intended to provide expression to
unconscious impulses and other aspects of personality in which the test takes himself or herself not
aware.
The following tests are used:
• Rorschach InkBlot Test
• Thematic apperception test (TAT)
• Children apperception test (CAT)
• Sentence completion test
• Word association test
Rorschach Inkblot test:
Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychologist developed this test which is a practical tool applied to
study the unconscious factors of behavior and personality. It is based on the principle that every
performance of a person is an expression of his total personality. In this, the subject is responding to
inkblots.
The test consists of 10 cards. Some of the blots are colored and some are in black and white. The
subject is instructed to look at the inkblots one at a time and report everything seen on the inkblot
card.
5 → black and white
2 → red and black
3 → multi-colored
The first phase adopts free association and the second phase is inquiry. The responses are
interpreted and analyzed as per the significance of the response.
The subject responses may be scored in terms of three categories.
• Location: Does the response involve the entire inkblot or some small part?
• Determinants: Is the subject responding to the shape, color, or texture of the blot?
• Content: What does the response represent? E.g.
Animals, plants.
Thematic apperception test (TAT):
American psychologist Murray developed TAT in 1930. It involves pictures of actual scenes rather
than inkblots. It consists of 30 pictures from which the psychologist usually chooses a set for each
person, which seems likely to elicit particularly relevant material. In TAT, a person is asked to make
up a story about what is happening, what went before, what is going to happen, and what the people
 - By Ayesha

are thinking and feeling. Most of the people identify themselves with one of the characters in the
pictures and reveal their perception. The system of scoring and interpretation takes into account the
hero of the story, conflicts of the hero, theme, content, style of the story, subjects attitude towards
authority and sex, emotional expressions and conclusion of the story, etc.
Children’s apperception test (CAT):
Bellock and Bellock designed it. CAT is used on children who have behavior and adjustment
problems.
Sentence completion test:
In this, there are incomplete sentences, and the individuals have to complete the sentence. For
example,
• My mother……….
• When I am at a party……….
• My friends……….
Based on the response given by the subject, the personality is analyzed.
Word association test:
In this test, there are several selected words from which the examiner will present a series of words,
one at a time to the subject and ask him to respond as quickly as possible with the first word that
comes to his mind and the tone of feelings of his response may reveal things about his mind.
Controlled and Uncontrolled Word Association Tests are available.
25. Definition and Classification of Personality:
Ans. PERSONALITY
The word personality is derived from the Greek word ‘persona’, the mask used by actors in Greek
drama.
● Personality is the total quality of an individual’s behavior as it is shown in his habits of
thinking, in his attitude, interests, his manner of acting, and his philosophy of life. Personality
is more than the total of an individual’s traits and characteristics.
● According to Mischel “Personality is the distinctive pattern of behavior that characterized
each individual’s adoption to the situation of his or her life.”
● According to Allport “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.”
● Psychologists have given more definitions of personality. Each definition involves some
aspects such as the psychophysical characteristics of an individual.
Classification of Personality
Type Approach
Hippocrates, the father of Medicine, the Greek physician grouped people into four types:
• Sanguine—Cheerful
• Phlegmatic—Calm
• Choleric—Irritable
• Melancholic—Depressed
Sheldon’s types:
William Sheldon, divided people into three types according to the body built:
• Endomorph—Soft, fat and round, sociable and relaxed
• Mesomorph—Heavy and muscular, physically active and noisy
• Ectomorph—Tall, thin and flat-chested, self-conscious, shy, and reserved
 - By Ayesha

Kretschmer’s types:
• Pyknic type—Fat body, large head, chest, and abdomen, sociable, jolly, easy-going, and
good-natured
• Athletic type—Strong body, firm muscles, wide chest, and shoulders, energetic, optimistic,
challenging, sportive
• Asthenic type—Lean and tall body, reserved, shy, sensitive, pessimistic
• Dysplastic type—Undeveloped and disproportionate body personality also undeveloped and
imbalanced.
Based on sociability, Dr. Karl G. Jung classified people into two main groups namely extroverts and
introverts.
Extroverts:
Extroverts are people who take more interest in others and like to move with people and are skilled.
They are friendly and sociable and not easily upset by difficulties. They are dominated by emotions,
whereby they make decisions quickly and act on them without delay. They are realistic and face the
problems of life objectively.
Introverts:
They are interested in themselves, their feelings, emotions, and reactions. They are busy in their
thoughts and are self-centered. They are reserved and like to work alone. They are reserved and
sensitive, unable to adjust easily to social situations. They are inclined to worry and easily get
embarrassed. Poets, philosophers, scientists, and artists belong to this group.
The majority of people are ambiverts, having the qualities of extroverts and introverts in different
proportions.

Traits or Factors:
The trait is an aspect of personality, i.e. a reasonable characteristic of a person. For example,
patience, honesty, perseverance, thoroughness, initiative, etc.
Groups of personality traits are known as personality factors or dimensions of personality. These
factors are as follows:
• Psychological factors: It includes motives, interests, attitudes, will and character, intellectual
capacities as intelligence, reasoning, attention, perception, and imagination.
• The Environmental or Social factors
• The Physiological factors: It includes the physique of the individual—his size, strength, looks, and
constitution.
 - By Ayesha

Child Psychology
26. Meaning and Practical importance of studying Child Psychology.
Ans: Child psychology is the study of the subconscious and conscious childhood development. Child
psychologists observe how a child interacts with their parents, themselves, and the world, to
understand their mental development.
● A child psychologist’s role has gained importance lately with the awareness of children's
mental health issues and their impact on later life.
● The child psychologist conducts scientific research on the development of a child.
● He/ she works with clients and tries to diagnose and treat learning disorders, developmental
disorders, and socializing disorders by administering several psychological tests to the
concerned children.
● They work in tandem with the concerned elders be it parents, teachers, or clients, and help
them to manage the behavioral issues by providing apt solutions.
As a scientific discipline with a firm empirical basis, child study is of comparatively recent origin. It
was initiated in 1840, when Charles Darwin began a record of the growth and development of one of
his children, collecting the data much as if he had been studying an unknown species. A similar,
more elaborate study published by German psychophysiologist William Preyer put forth the methods
for a series of others. In 1891 American educational psychologist G. Stanley Hall established the
Pedagogical Seminary, a periodical devoted to child psychology and pedagogy. During the early 20th
century, the development of intelligence tests and the establishment of child guidance clinics further
defined the field of child psychology.
The data of child psychology are gathered from a variety of sources. Observations by relatives,
teachers, and other adults, as well as the psychologist’s direct observation of and interviews with a
child (or children), provide much material. In some cases, a one-way window or mirror is used so
that children are free to interact with their environment or others without knowing that they are being
watched. Personality tests, intelligence tests, and experimental methods have also proved useful in
understanding child development.
Despite attempts to unify various theories of child development, the field remains dynamic, changing
as the fields of physiology and psychology develop.
One of the first people to study children as individuals were " John Amas Comenius ". the famous
educational reforms of the 17th century. He strongly felt that children should be studied not as
embryonic adults but in their essential child nature to understand their capacities and know-how to
deal with them. His studies revealed the two most important trends.
1. Philosophical treatise on education in which children were studied only indirectly and
2. Direct daily observation of children in which they were studied first hand.
the principles of child psychology are based on research findings and theories about children's
behavior as the development from the time of conception to the beginning of adolescence. The onset
of pubescence, which typically occurs between 12 and 15 years of age, marks the transition to a
period of life that psychologists have considered sufficiently different from earlier childhood to meant
separate treatment as the psychology of adolescence. Thus child psychology is the study of children,
starting with conception and ending in adolescence.
Subject Matter Of Studying Child Psychology:
 - By Ayesha

Child and developmental psychologists have enriched the field and subject matter of child
psychology by attempting to study and investigate the various physical and mental development of
human beings from birth and adulthood.
Under their investigations, observations, and through scientific and systematic research they have
been able to bring to light many valuable pieces of information regarding the physical, mental and
social development of both normal, superior, subnormal, and handicapped children. Though as a
scientific discipline developmental psychology is less than a century old, through various systematic
and scientific investigations, its field and subject matter has been widened speedily.
The subject matter and field of child psychology can be divided into broad areas.
● How do children grow and how do they change as they grow,
● Determinants of Developmental changes,
● Remedy of abnormal growth and development of children including therapeutic methods and
rehabilitation of physically, socially, and psychologically disadvantaged children.
○ Under physical development mechanisms of conception, prenatal and postnatal
development, growth of height and weight, muscles, nerves, bones, various organs of
the body, development of sensory and motor organs are studied as subject matter
and field of psychology.
○ Under mental development, attention, learning, thinking and cognitive growth,
observation, intellectual growth, motivation, interest, curiosity, creativity, play,
aspirations and values, emotions, work and play, social and moral development,
development of language and speech, and overall development of personality of the
child is explored.
27. Practical Importance of studying Child psychology
Ans. Perhaps it is child psychology that forms the foundation for all branches of psychology. Since it
deals with the child from the time of conception till maturation, it has significance both in the
development of the science of psychology and in the application of psychology.
The behavior of an individual at any stage of life is the result of his past experiences and the present
development. Understanding the behavior of an adolescent or an adult is impossible without the
knowledge of its developmental history.
This is not only apparent in the clinical situation, but also other applied psychological fields such as;
educational, social, emotional, cognitive, and intellectual developments.
The systematic study of child psychology has several practical applications. By reading child
psychology we can understand individual behavior. In case of abnormal behaviors, we can
diagnose, modify the behavior, and can cure the patient.
Thus the study of child psychology has two important aspects namely:
(i) Understanding the Individual Child and
(ii) Understanding adult behavior
a. Understanding Individual Child:
The child grows day by day with the increase in age and a large number of changes take place in
him. The changes in one child can be compared with that of other children of the same age by the
cross-sectional studies, for example, his physical growth in height, weight, his style of talking,
walking, and playing as well as his mental growth in thinking, emotions, learning and understanding
the language can be compared with other children.
 - By Ayesha

Since the child is very small in age, a thorough medical check-up is necessary. Any sort of physical
defect which may affect his cognitive and intellectual development can be cured of the early stage.
The second advantage of reading child psychology is to save the child from juvenile delinquency.
Psychological treatment (psychotherapy) and behavior modification can help the child to change his
emotional misunderstanding and to develop good relationships with parents, friends, neighbors, and
other members of society.
The third purpose of reading child psychology is to know as well as uplift the educational level and
the social status of culturally disadvantaged children.
A large number of parents in our country are not aware of child care and early education. They
remain in villages and tribal areas of the country. In most cases, their children are culturally deprived.
The children may not face challenges in society’s modern society and novelty. They do not get
stimulation from their environment. They also do not get motivation from their parents to succeed in
the field of education. Such difficulties can be known by the study and analysis of the behavior of
culturally disadvantaged children and their future can be built up properly.
b. Understanding Adult Behaviour:
If we meet thousands of adult persons, both men and women at random from the general population,
we will be able to find a large number of people as normal. They have a normal childhood, school
life, college life, family, socio-cultural life.
They are capable of establishing good relationships with other people. Their emotional reactions are
essentially adequate and appropriate. They have job satisfaction and essentially they are
law-abiding people.
On the other hand, there are a smaller group of superior individuals. There are also groups of
individuals who are known as abnormal. They have limited intelligence, emotional instability,
personality disorganization, and character defects. They are socially misfit and liabilities and lead a
wretched personal life.
Those abnormal deviants of society are broadly known as psychoneurotics, psychotics, mentally
defectives, and antisocials. Those people show some effects which have childhood effects. These
facts are revealed by the clinical data and case histories of criminals and psychiatric patients by the
longitudinal studies.
It was Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, who emphasized that childhood experiences
are the root cause of adulthood abnormality. He analyzed the statements of patients and got the
truth. Thus, he proved the poetic statement of Wordsworth, “The child is father to the man.”
In the case of the normal life of adults, there may be unhappiness and feeling of insecurity. The
personality of a normal adult is complex. It also differs from person to person. We find that there are
individual differences and unique personality growth. These sorts of growth and development are the
result of childhood experiences.
Any aspect in adulthood like his choice of service, married life, his plan about family and children can
be understood in the light of his childhood records.
28. Methods of Studying Child Psychology:
A. Ans. There are numerous methods to study Child Psychology. A few of them are listed below.
B. Baby Biography Method
C. Case History Method
D. Behavior Rating Method
E. Field Study Technique
 - By Ayesha

F. Questionnaire Method
G. (N.B. - Every Method is a short note)
H.
I. BABY BIOGRAPHY METHOD:
J. The baby biography method is one by which the biography of the child is observed in detail. It
includes the study of hereditary and environmental effects on the child. His day-to-day
developments, the direction, and the trend of changes are recorded by the biographers.
K. The biographer while writes the biography of the child, usually uses his child. From his
childhood, he gets some novel, encouraging, and curious details. Those observations
become very useful for other observations.
L. Wilhelm T. Prayer, a physiologist has recorded the mental development of his son during the
first four years. In his book The Mind of the Child, published in the year 1882, he described
the development of reflexes from birth. It also included the influence of experience and
learning during the growth and development of the child.
M. The baby biography method has some defects for which the method has been criticized in
various ways. In the first place, it is not based on scientific data. The pieces of information on
children are not collected systematically and at regular intervals. In some cases, there is no
experimental evidence.
N. The second criticism is that philosophers develop their theory and examine it over their
children. Therefore, instead of collecting biodata from children, they verify the obtained theory
on children.
O. Thirdly, the biographers are the parents or near and dear relatives of the children. They
observe the positive aspects of the early development of the child and as such, the negative
aspects are neglected. So a single child observation is not sufficient enough to make valid
and reliable generalizations from the findings made by biographers.
P. Despite such criticisms, the baby biography method is a unique one. Just like philosophical
information have not experimental evidence. Although the information is not verified
experimentally yet those have adequate influence in outlining major problems of child
development.
Q. CASE HISTORY METHOD:
R. The case history method is a technique to study the child’s behavior. It attempts together all
relevant materials and to arrange them in such a manner as to give genetic significance.
S. In a case history method, the “rapport” is to be established between the child and the
psychologist. Rapport is a specific condition created in the child to accept the suggestions by
the psychologist.
T. The child or his parents, in case the child is mentally retarded, dumb, and is unable to tell
about him, can be able to report the history of the child in a “free association”. The other type
is controlled by the psychologist.
U. In the case history method usually, the information of the child including his name, age the
name of his parents, and other identifications are recorded.
V. *Personality make-up: The child’s personality make-up is recorded in the case history
method. He has to tell his emotional reactions for example the situations in which he feels
happy or unhappy. His attitude towards self and others, feeling of security or insecurity, level
of intelligence. Temperament and interest are recorded under the personality make-up.
 - By Ayesha

W. *Social Adjustment: Social adjustment is an important factor that is recorded in the case
history method. Under this category, it is recorded whether the child has many or a few
friends, and of course, friends of what nature. Usually, his attitude towards associations, his
popularity, social and recreational activities, nature of spending leisure, and his
gregariousness are included in the case history method.
X. *Home Background: The home background of the child affects personality development. It is
taken into consideration while preparing the case history of the child. It includes the
relationship of the child with parents and other members of the family. Some parents reject
the child whereas in some families the child leaves home days together. This shows the
unpleasant relationship of the child with his parents.
Y. Other factors affecting home backgrounds are the emotional atmosphere, personality and
stability of parents, and outstanding childhood experiences.
Z. There are differences of opinion and quarreling between father and mother, suspicion among
members of the family, and indecisive attitude of the parent in some families. It affects to a
great extent the personality of the child. Therefore, these factors are recorded in the case
history method.
AA.*Psycho-sexual Development: Sigmund Freud, the world-famous psychologist, has described
that psychosexual development is the development of mind and body respectively. With the
increase in age, the child has to develop his understanding, memory, emotion, attitude, and
cognitive processes. His body and different parts of it grow simultaneously.
BB.*Pre-school Education: Pre-school education affects the child very much in the school. What
he has learned in nursery school, kindergarten, or from “Abadhana” makes him wise to
understand school subjects. These factors are important to note in the case history method.
CC. *School Atmosphere: The child’s quality and quantity of education, attitude towards
school, relation with teachers and classmates are very necessary. His relationship with the
teachers and friends determines his capability of social and emotional adjustment. Therefore,
these factors are recorded in the case history method.
DD. *Physical Health: The child is to be asked about his health and the health of his parents.
Whether the child suffers any disease from his early childhood or any other physical injury is
to be recorded in the case history. If there is any disease of his parents, grand and great
grandparents, or by any other member of the family, those should get an important place
under case history. The diseases, whether curable or not curable are to be recorded under
the case history method.
EE.BEHAVIOUR RATING METHOD:
The behavior of a child can be rated by assigning a rank or position among other children. When the
child can speak, walk, play with children, and when he can understand language his behavior can be
rated. In other words, when he is physically and mentally matured he can understand the meaning of
rating or a rank. It determines the character or quality of the child.
The rating acts as a reinforcement. When parents say to the baby that “you are a good and obedient
child”, he perceives his activities are good. Whatever he has done is highly appreciated or liked by
his parents. Therefore, he likes to repeat the same task again and again.
In the behavior rating method both physical and mental behaviors are considered. A child, for
example, can be rated or ranked for his walking, talking, playing, reading, and writing.
 - By Ayesha

He can also be ranked for his thinking, memorizing, learning, and intellectual activities. His physical
and mental behaviors are compared with other children when they are rated. One behavior can be
compared with another behavior of the same child. The behavior can be rated in a free association
where the child can be observed objectively.
The behavior can also be rated in a controlled or experimental situation. The memory, learning,
problem-solving, the manner of expression of language can be tested in the laboratory. A student’s
examination performance is the bright example of his behavior in a controlled situation which is
graded and the student gets the position.
FF. FIELD STUDY TECHNIQUE:
Child psychology has extended itself to various spheres and fields of life. Because of the difficulties
faced in the application of experimental technique, since it requires a well-equipped laboratory and
can’t be carried out in different fields of life, field study is used as an alternative to laboratory
investigation.
In the field study technique, the infant/child is observed in his natural surrounding like the home,
playground, or school. The investigator proceeds to the real field with a set of questions and
problems and makes observations accordingly. To obtain a clear understanding and spontaneous
responses of the child, the researcher joins the day-to-day life of the child.
The field study method is free from the artificial nature of the experimental method and enables the
investigator to study the child in actual life-like situations.
GG. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD:
The questionnaire technique was made popular by famous American Psychologists G. Stanley Hall
and others. To study children in groups and to obtain a large number of data in a short period the
questionnaire technique was introduced by him in the 20th century.
Information or behavior activities and reactions of children, adolescents, and adults, their attitude,
interest, aptitude, and personality traits are explored/collected through several distinctive that
prepared questions called the “Questionnaire”.
Keeping in view the culture, tradition, and environment in the questionnaire method and
characteristics, qualities, and personality traits of a particular age group and I.Q. the level is
assessed through several standardized questions. Mostly, emotion, perception, learning, memory,
power of observation, IQ, thinking, creativity, intelligence, imagination, curiosity, social and
personality development are assessed through answers to several questions.
The children are usually asked familiar questions relevant for their age, questions relating to their
culture and environment with which they are acquainted.
Advantages:
● Less costly, less time taking and large no. of data can be collected
● More reliable results
● Provides a lot of objective information
● Information regarding the child is collected indirectly from his parents, relatives, classmates,
playmates, peers, and teachers
● Statistically analyzed and quantitatively placed data
● More scientific, reliable, and valid
Limitations:
● The validity of the results depend upon the honesty and truthfulness of the subject
● Subject omits some questions unanswered because of confusion
 - By Ayesha

● The subject may be scared of the investigator

● There’s no scope to verify the authenticity of the answer
However, the limitations of the questionnaire method can be partly overcome, provided the questions
are framed properly keeping in view the age, I.Q., culture, socio-economic status, and environment
of the child.

Industrial Psychology
29. Importance & Problem in Human Engineering:
Ans: Human Engineering, popularly known as engineering psychology, is also called applied
psychophysics, system research, and the man-machine system had come into prominence as a field
of socialization since the second world war. Engineering psychology owes its existence to a type of
cooperative research where experts from different fields like engineers, psychologists, statisticians,
medical men, physicists, and physiologists have made their significant contributions.
Importance of Human Engineering:
For the perfect operation of a machine, a capable and competent operator is required. But when the
engineer designs a machine for more output in a shorter period of time, he is not usually concerned
with the human being whose cooperation is necessary for operating the machine. He quite often
forgets the man who has to operate the machine.Machines are designed first and it is usually taken
for granted that the man will adjust himself to the machine. This outlook created a lot of problem not
only for the operators and employees who deal with the machines, but for the management also.This
particularly happened when many complicated machines were designed and manufactured during
the wars.The system of human engineering developed as a solution to such problems. When
engineers realised that man unlike the machine cannot be redesigned, they started with the man and
designed the machine around the man to suit his abilities and capacities, keeping in view the various
limitations of the human operators.
The increased mechanisation of work thus developed a feeling that man and machine must work in
relation to each other. In engineering, the machine is designed first and there is no consideration
whatsoever for the human being who usually operates the machine. But in human engineering the
purpose is to design the machine in accordance with the human needs, abilities and limitations.
Thus Blum(1956) remarks “ Human engineering is that endeavour which seeks to match human
beings with modern machines so that their combined output will be comfortable, safe and more
efficient.” In these lines Blum has indicated the need for the cooperative endeavour of psychologists
and engineers to successfully match human beings with modern machines.
It was further recognized that as long as man operates a machine, one must design the machine in
relation to and aroud the man. For this purpose the knowledge of psychologists are utilized by
engineers.
Problems in Human Engineering:
It has also been viewed that until the machine age was well advanced in the 19th century, nobody
worried about the fact that man was actually the weak sister in mechanized productions. But in the
early decade of the twentieth century both engineers and psychologists began to adopt human
beings to the demands of a technological society.
The growing tendency was felt by every one that before a machine would guarantee better
performance it must take into consideration the physiological and psychological limitations of human
 - By Ayesha

being related to visual acuity, reaction time, sensory motor and perceptual motor coordination,
strength and capacity, intelligence and ability etc. Undoubtedly, machines run much faster. But man
cannot operate the machines with the same speed. Various electronic and radio communication
systems and aircrafts etc., cannot be operated by the human beings most efficiently and speedily
because of the physiological and psychological limitations. This is one of the major problems that the
human engineer has to face.
The second limitation of complicated designed machines is that untrained people employed in
certain complicated and mechanical jobs take a long period to reach the standard. It should be
accepted beyond dispute that electronics and other communication systems require a particular
potentiality of a worker which may not be found in all workers.
Keeping i in view the various difficulties that the engineer faces while designing a machine on job,
Morgan and his associates have classified the problems of human engineering under five specific
heads.
1. Appraising New Equipment. This refers to testing the design of a new equipment and fixing its
price. For improvement in the system of human engineering, new designs may be experimented with
the already existing ones by logical analysis of the characteristics of the new design. Accordingly,
changes in the old or new designs can be brought about to ensure efficiency.
2. Optimal Method of Work. Keeping in mind the limitations of human beings, the engineering
psychologist should find out the best way of operating the machine so that the individual will feel safe
and comfortable. He can perform efficiently and finish the work in less time. The human engineers
should therefore find out the best method of doing work following the principles of scientific
management.
3. Design of Instruments. New instruments should be designed and old instruments should be
redesigned to suit human ability, capacity and limitations. The dials, sounds, breaks and controls,
signals etc., should be designed in such a way that the worker can handle them with minimum effort.
The average reaction time of human organisms, perceptual motor and sensory motor coordination
capacities, strength, balance and visual acuity etc., should also be taken into consideration by the
technocrats while planning a new machine or a new task.
4. Design of Tasks. All the tasks should be classified and analysed under different heads to make the
performance of the job more systematic and economical. The different tasks, if necessary, can be
modified for developing and implementing one best method of doing work.
5. Design of Systems. This is otherwise known as the system research.
System research is divided into
● A. Equipment display, and
● B. Equipment control.
A. Equipment Display: It is concerned with the display or arrangement of scales, meters, dials and
graphs in the workplace. The problem of equipment display thus refers to the design of the
instrument for conveying information from the machine to the man. When the equipment is applied to
the man-machine system it refers to display.
Display is a means of providing information which an operator may not be able to get directly through
his senses. This information is given to the operator through various cues such as visual cues,
auditory cues, tactile cues etc. This information is necessary to run the machine effectively.
 - By Ayesha

Further, various information should be provided to the operator as quickly as possible, for the
effective operation of the machine and the avoidance of hazards. Many difficulties are faced when
the psychological characteristics of the operator are ignored in the design of displays.
B. Equipment Control: The problem of equipment control deals with the design of controls that
human operators must use. A control is something attached to a panel or a machine. A worker
operates the machine through its controls.
A number of problems are found relating to the placement of controls, shape of controls, size,
direction and movement of controls. An engineer sometimes designs the control of a machine so that
no one but a genius with ample time to spare can run it accurately. Further, he blames the operator
or the maintenance man when something goes wrong.
It is found that confusion of controls is the most common error made by aeroplane pilots which
means that the operator mistakes one type of control for another. Other sources of errors among the
pilots are pushing control in the wrong direction, say, to the right instead of left, clockwise instead of
anti-clockwise, and forgetting to use particular control etc.
30. Process and Steps in Human Engineering:
Ans. In psychology, decision-making is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of
a belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options, it could be either rational or
irrational.
Decision making is the cognitive process that results in the selection of a course of action or belief
from several possibilities. Heuristics are simple rules of thumb that people often use to form
judgements and make decisions; they are good for most situations but can sometimes lead to errors
in judgment.
Decision Making Process:
Understanding of the problem which has created the need for a decision, can give an idea of the
decision making process. Unless the problem is adequately understood or defined, decision making
becomes difficult. Larson states four different types of decision problems.
(i)When definition of the objective and identification of alternative courses of action are complete the
job is to decide which course of action is best
(ii) When the objective is defined but the courses of action which will tend to achieve this objective
are not known, the job is to undertake the determination of possible alternatives and selection of the
most effective and desirable alternative.
(iii)When the objective is not formulated, the job is to make a comprehensive choice concerning the
alternatives.
(iv) When the identified situation is considered as currently or potentially undesirable in future, the
job is to devise actions which will eliminate or alleviate these undesirable conditions.
Steps of Decision Making:
Calkins (1959) holds that an administrator has to follow the following five steps for an appropriate
decision making..
1. Identification and understanding of the problem.
2. Defining and clarifying goals.
3. Alternative goals.
4. Analysing the anticipated consequences of each alternative.
5. Selecting a course of action.
 - By Ayesha

The most desirable and effective alternative leading to the goal is to be selected in the step of the
decision making process. But in order to make the decision making effective and goal oriented one
has to follow 1 to 4 analytical stages bit by bit and then follow the last step. However, there may be
flexibility in following the steps depending upon the need of the hour and conditions of the
circumstances.
According to Schmidt (1958) each and every decision involves framing a hypothesis about the future
on the part of the decision maker i.e., what is being expected in the future to say whether the value
of a particular share will rise in the coming three months or not. This tenacity or rejection of the
hypothesis will depend upon the actual market performance of the stock in future. After the
hypothesis is formulated a decision is to be made by the executive about the future course of action.
Schmidt has given four different kinds of executive decisions and their consequences such as
Delays, stays, delight and fright. After correctly guessing the future occurrences when the executive
decides not to take any action, he only delays the decision by mentioning. "Please wait'' Discuss put
up after 15 days etc. Such a decision leads to unnecessary delay.
When the executive has wrongly guessed what is going to happen in future and stays the operation
of the decision his hypothesis becomes false. If he would have acted on the hypothesis, he would
have been wrong.
30. Individual Decision Making Process
Ans. Among small group communication scholars, decision-making is studied as a group
phenomenon as a means of understanding how to improve the process and help groups make better
decisions. By contrast, psychologists are interested in the “heuristics” and “biases” that make people
favor one course of action over another.
In a group, it is not easy to hold any one person accountable for a wrong decision. Individual
decision-making saves time, money and energy as individuals usually make prompt and logical
decisions, says Juneja, while group decision-making involves a lot of time, money and energy.
There are also types of decision making such as rational and non rational as advanced by
Simen(1959).
The first category refers to the quantification of the decision making process in terms of the utility
value of various outcomes, the probability of occurrence of the various outcomes etc. After this is
done, a formal mathematical system is to be developed for optional decision making choices. Simen
views that these models can be used as idealized standards against which man's performance can
be compared.
The second category i.e. the nonrational decision making models are also called the organionic
approach. These models insist on making decision making as a joint or group process in an
organisation. Thus such decision makings are obviously influenced by group size, organisational
structure and motivation of the members of the organisations. The motivational variables like needs,
rewards, punishments and penalties, attitude of the group towards the management, job satisfaction,
financial and nonfinancial incentives play their respective roles in each decision making.
There are also other modes of decision making such as normative models of individual decision
making which include Brunswik Lens Model, Bayes Model of Decision making etc. Friedman (1960)
has summarized the rules to follow in a competitive decision making situation.
1. Determine the underlying rules of the game and the extent of the restrictions upon all the
competitors.
 - By Ayesha

2. Describe in as much detail as possible the particular situation in which competitive decisions are
to be made by the competitors.
3. List all the alternative courses of action which are available to the competitors.
4. Calculate or estimate a final utility to each of the competitions as a result of the selection of the
various alternatives.
5. Study individual competitors and their past behaviour to determine possible strategies they might
use in arriving at their decisions in the particular situation being studied.
6. Estimate a priori probabilities that the competitor used and given strategy and a posterior
probabilities that the observed events would have occurred with the given strategies.
7. Calculate the final relative probabilities for the various hypothesis concerning competitive
strategies.
8. Estimate the probabilities of a competitor's use of his alternative courses of action in the situation
being studied.
9. Given the estimated probabilities of the competitors use of his alternative courses of action,
choose the alternative course of action which maximizes expected utility. (Quoted from Blum and
Naylor).
Pros of Individual Decision Making
● ‌An individual generally makes prompt decisions. While a group is dominated by various
people, making decision-making very time consuming. Moreover, assembling group
members consumes a lot of time.
● ‌Individuals do not escape responsibilities. They are accountable for their acts and
performance. While in a group it is not easy to hold any one person accountable for a wrong
decision.
● ‌Individual decision making saves time, money and energy as individuals make prompt and
logical decisions generally. While group decision making involves a lot of time, money and
energy.
● ‌Individual decisions are more focused and rational as compared to group.
Cons of Individual Decision Making
● ‌A group has the potential of collecting more and full information compared to an individual
while making decisions.
● ‌An individual while making any decision uses his own intuition and views. While a group has
many members, so many views and many approaches and hence better decision making.
● ‌A group discovers hidden talent and core competency of employees of an organization.
● ‌An individual will not take into consideration every member's interest. While a group will take
into account the interest of all members of an organization.
31. Causes and Reaction to Stress
Ans. Stress can be shortly described as a group of responses an organism makes to a stimulus
disturbs the physical and mental health of a person. The term stress means to an engineer any
external force directed at some physical object. The result of the force is a kind of strain which refers
to a change in the structure of an object. Stress is thus considers as an external event: or stimulus
which affects work moderate well being. Strain caused by stress are anxiety and distress. Stress
may be defined as a dynamic condition in which the individual is confronted with an opportunity,
demand or resource related to the individual desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be
both uncertain and important.
 - By Ayesha

Causes of Stress;
Nobody can avoid stress. It is a reality in everyday life. Sources or causes of stress refer to the
factors contributing to stress. The sources of stress may be trival, may be external/situational, may
be physical. Very simple incidents may also cause stress in persons, who perceive it differently, like
delay of a plane, safe arrival of a train, quarrel with a friend, loss or theft of money and property, ups
and downs in the share market, stress due to heavy income tax etc., not getting a telephone call
from the girlfriend and son at U.S.A. and so on. The degree of stress varies with brief upsets and
quick recovery depending upon the causes of stress. A stressful lifestyle resulting from day to day
problems of finance, family relationship, excessive work, insecurity and to possess more and more
may lead to stress. Low self confidence and low self esteem may produce higher stress. Jobs that
provide a low level of variety, significance, autonomy, feedback and identity to incumbents create
stress and reduce satisfaction and involvement in the job.
The sources of stress are classified as follows: 1.Stressful life events coming from the physical
environment:
In the study of Holmes and Rahe (1967) on stressful life events, it was found that greater values
were assigned to death, divorce, marital separation etc. and smaller values to minor quarrels,
transfer from job, change of school and residence etc. My tenant has given me a notice that he will
leave my house next month which he took on rent. I'm for that reason-experiencing mild stress as I
have to choose a new tenant and how he will deal with us, whether he would pay the rent regularly
or not etc.; all these bother me.
2.Frustration arising out of physical, Social, and Internal Stressors:
Frustration is a great source of external/situational, social and internal stress. Frustration arising out
of interference of goal oriented behaviour may be physical, social and internal. If the frustration is
minor, the stress is less and if major the stress is high. If the frustration prolongs for a long period the
stress becomes chronic and causes serious illness. Physical/external Frustrations coming from the
environment lead to a variety of stress. Fire, injury, flood, accident, war cyclones are examples of
physical sources of frustration. Obstacles from the physical environment provide the most commonly
experienced stress through frustration. The checks, value system such as restriction on inter caste
or inter-religion marriage, rapid social change, competition and rivalry, general social uncertainty and
religious intolerance put a great deal of stress and produce feelings of inadequacy, discomfort,
isolation, insecurity, anguish and pain. These are called Social frustrations and come under external
sources of frustration.
Internal frustration arises out of any sort of personal limitations or personal factors like physical
deformity, lack of intelligence, ugliness, struggle for power, prestige and recognition or any other
personal reason earlier discussed. Unrealistically high standards of life, high level of aspiration
without basic capacity also become the sources or causes of stress.
3.Threat:
Many stress situations do not carry a major threat to our biological or psychological needs in our day
to day life. Cold, hot, noise, and mild workplace threats are not serious enough to produce stress of
high degree. But certain stress situations which we perceive in our cognitive field as damaging or
threatening to our survival produce stress of high order. Diagnosis of cancer, fear of AIDS, brain
tumour, loss of social status due to the inter-religion marriage of the daughter in a conservative
society carry a high degree of threat.
 - By Ayesha

Stress caused by disloyalty of a friend is greater than loss of a gold ring for one person while it may
be the reverse in case of another. Thus individual difference exists in the perception of a situation.
4. Minor hassles of everyday:
Our daily life is filled with innumerable, minor irritations which are literally called hassles. The minor
hassles have relatively lower intensity but have higher frequency. In other words they are frequently
experienced in our day to day life, but they are low in degree or intensity, like common quarrels at
home, problems relating to the education or home work of a son, shopping, having too many things
to do in a less time or at once. Simultaneously, financial difficulties, poor result of children in school,
decoration of home, buying a new car or house etc. difference of opinion with wife, familial quarrel,
scolding by wife for coming home drunk etc. etc. act as sources of stress.
5.Work Related Stress
In this competitive age importance is given to work culture. Many people spend more time at work
than in other single activities. People day to day are more career conscious and the influence of
American work culture on the youths and adults of the world, need of money to lead luxurious life,
also the need to work and get job satisfaction and many other related factors have motivated the
modern men and women to work hard and work for a longer duration than their physiological limit.
Under these circumstances jobs and careers have become the major sources of stress. Many other
factors produce stress in the workplace besides long hours of work. They are sexual harassment,
gender discrimination, bias and prejudice towards lower class people. o much competition with
coworkers to get a promotion, bad behaviour of employer or immediate supervisor, low salary but
more work, discrimination on the ground of race and caste, honesty and merit not being rewarded
and so many other factors.
6.Inner Pressure:
Pressure may be external or internal. External pressures come from the physical and social
environment which have been discussed earlier. Inner pressures involve pressure from one's self,
ideal or conscience which produces guilt feeling and hence stress. Inner pressure also comes from
one's level of aspiration, unrealistically high standard of level of aspiration (which does not match
with one's ability and achievement) courage and social responsibility. In a highly competitive society
determination to reach the top or to be the best can lead to continuous and severe pressure and a
significant degree of discomfort. Inner pressure may produce severe guilt feeling when the ego
desires fail to maintain a balance between the Id desires and commands from the superego.
Reactions to Stress:
The reactions to stress can be categorized as
(i) Physiological, (ii) Behavioral, (iii)Psychological.
● (i) Physiological. Undue fatigue, headache, sweating various types of psychophysiological
dependent like migraine, headache, insomnia, alcoholism, peptic ulcer, high blood pressure,
asthma, coronary diseases, rapid breathing and heartbeat, tensed muscles, skin problems,
muscular twitches, baldness come under the physical reactions to stress.
● (ii) Behavioral. Behavioral disorders produced by stress are usually quarrelsomeness, lack of
efficiency, and competency, low quality of over eating and under eating, absenteeism and
turn over, in efficiency, low productivity, low performance, lack of concentration, absenteeism,
irregularity, lack of job satisfaction and frequent change in job. Smoking and drinking persons
who are very sincere and perfect and get their only satisfaction in life from job and work show
 - By Ayesha

major breakdown when confronted with stress and anxiety. Thus dissatisfaction with one's
work and on the job conditions is found to be stressful to many people.
● (iii) Psychological. Dissatisfaction breeds discontentment. (lack of confidence, poor self
esteem, lack of concentration). So the employees prefer to withdraw and avoid their job.
They avoid work through many pretentions like being irregular, remaining absent frequently,
doing work without any interest, dedication and motivation etc. Job dissatisfaction also
produces conflict. frustration, anguish, and frequent irritability.
The above physical, behavioural and psychological reactions to stress adversely affect the physical
and mental health of the workers.
32. Stress Management
Ans. It refers to an effective way to handle stress. Low and moderate levels of stress if they are
continuous and sustained for a long period may have bad effects and so should be managed. Stress
is a very common experience in modern life. Work load, pressure, doing more work in less time, high
aspiration, greed for money, power and prestige, various failures in life and competition are common
stressors and influence the physical and mental health of the person. Since stress is a part of every
one's life it is difficult to avoid it completely. Though low to moderate level of stress experienced by
the employees may not be a cause of concern to the management, high stress is definitely
detrimental from every angle since stress has various impacts on the behaviour, physiological and
psychological health of the organism disturbing the peace and happiness of an organism, it is
essential that steps should be taken to reduce stress on human life. Stress also disrupts normal day
to day activities as well works of complex nature. This is why to-day psychologists, psychiatrists and
clinical psychologists are trying hard to devise various means to reduce the effect of stress on
human beings. The problem of control and management of stress has received active attention even
in the area of Yoga.
1. Style of Living:The lifestyle of modern man, particularly middle and higher class people, is such
that they do less physical work. Modern gadgets and various techniques of doing work through
mechanical devices like Calculator, Computer, Laptop, Teaching machines, Washing Machine,
Grinder, Fridge, Oven, Cleaning Machine, Car, Scooter have reduced physical work and made
people physically lazy. Mental exercise for relaxation are also not up to the mark. Thus, both mind
and body are vulnerable to the various types of stressors. This is why to-day psychologists and
health specialists advice to do physical and mental exercise like Yoga and meditation which will be
discussed later on. By changing one's lifestyle one can check a lot of stress and also can cope with
stress. Instead of using all gadgets to simplify work and complete it is less time people should do
work manually as far as practicable. I use mostly manual techniques of doing work and in spite of the
heavy pressure of work I enjoy my work, mostly feeling relaxed and coping with stress successfully.
2.By having Optimistic and positive outlook towards life: Optimistic attitude and a general tendency
to have a positive outlook towards everything can reduce a lot of stress. It has been earlier
discussed how optimistic people are less affected by stress because they know how to manage and
control it. Instead of taking a stressful event too seriously, if it is taken lightly and rationalized as a
normal occurrence of life and everybody is subjected to it, the depth of the stress will definitely
reduce. Optimistic persons emphasize positive aspects of any stressful events.
3.By using various successful defence mechanisms: To cope with a stressful situation people use
various defence mechanisms like rationalization, sublimation, withdrawal, regression, reaction
formation, projection, etc. some of which are successful and others are unsuccessful. However one
 - By Ayesha

should only use successful defence mechanisms like sublimation and rationalization to cope with the
stressful situation. But too much use of rationalization and sublimation is also not desirable.
4. By maintaining balance between ability, aspiration and achievement: Too much or too little
aspiration leaves the person nowhere because too little aspiration makes the person in-active and
too much aspiration produces frustration and stress, as the person is not able to reach the goal set
for him. A balance between ability, aspiration and achievement can make the person balanced, self
sufficient, reality oriented with very few frustrations in life. Its frustrations are less obvious; the effect
of stress is less experienced. An actualized person has full satisfaction in life as he progresses
keeping in view his abilities and aptitudes. A person has better stress tolerance capacity if his goal
discrepancy score (G.D.S) is very small in various areas of work.
5. Hardiness: It is a personality character which reduces the adverse impact of stress. Hardiness is a
personality trait characterized by commitment, challenge and control. These qualities resist stress
strongly. It is also found that individuals having a high degree of hardiness are less susceptible to
various illnesses.
6. Detachment: Detachment means not outcome oriented. Detached persons do not show interest in
property, wealth, name, fame, power, prestige and recognition. Saints and Sadhus are detached
persons and they experience less stress. It is said that wealth brings unhappiness. The more wealth
you have, the more you are worried about their maintenance, investment etc. Detached persons do
their work but don’t wait for the outcome.
7. By reducing anxiety and tension: If the individual tries to have an anxiety free tension free life by
planning his day to day work, finances, and activities in a constructive and organized manner, he will
experience less anxiety and less tension keeping other factors constant. Therefore the environment
or field in which one lives must be planned accordingly so that he has to face few stressors and
without anxiety and tension he can cope with the stressors in a constructive way.
8. By improving stress tolerance capacity: Everyone does not have stress tolerance capacity. Some
react to stress negatively without coping with it, or tolerating it. The stress tolerance capacity is to be
developed from early childhood. Instead of immediate fulfillment of all wishes and desires, it may be
delayed for a reasonable time so that the child can learn to wait or tolerate the frustration arising out
of it. Through the process of socialization frustration tolerance is also developed.
9. Ability to handle stress bravely (Fortitude): A well adjusted person bravely faces stressful
situations and also handles it in a normal manner. In order to cope with or manage the stress every
person is required to endure it bravely and then to make plans to handle it effectively. Fortitude and
courage are essential to overcome stress.
10. Use of a substitute goal: Where a person faces a stressful situation he has to examine it and find
out what can be the possible solutions. Suppose a person got a notice from the income tax
department on some problems about his tax payment. Instead of being panicked he must first try to
consult his lawyer calmly. But instead of doing that if he is very scared thinking about what will
happen to him, how much more he has to pay, whether he will be sent to police custody and so on
and does not take any positive step, he cannot cope with the situation.
11. Preparation for Stress: During bad periods when the possibility of disappointment is strong, one
should prepare himself in advance to cope with the stressful situation, find alternate means to face it
or accept it as the case may be. Such preparations make it easier to manage the stressful situation.
If a stressful situation comes all of a sudden, the shock is more than when someone is aware of it
and makes advance preparations as to how to face it.
 - By Ayesha

12. Familial and Social Support: When a person facing a stressful situation receives the support,
sympathy and help of his family members, neighbours and society he successfully manages to cope
with it without reacting negatively which may produce bad impact on his health and psychological
make up. Family members and society should come foreward to console a person whose wife or
husband has died so that he can face the calamity bravely without generation of stress.
13. By taking recourse to recreation, hobbies and relaxations: Stress can not be reduced by sitting at
home and brooding. Mind can be diverted from stress by being engaged in various recreations like
viewing the T.V., listening to music, attending various cultural programmes in which the person has
interest, visiting places of interest and being engaged in relaxations. When a person is engaged in
various hobbies like embroidery, knitting, writing, cooking and trying new recipes, reading story
books, joining a club, his mind is relaxed and he is able to cope with the stress. Diversion is a very
important technique of adequately coping with the stressful situation.
14. By becoming assertive and confident: If more work is given to him, he should protest mildly
instead of losing his temper.
15. Level of adjustment: By improving one's level of adjustment stress can be controlled. One's level
of adjustment depends upon the interaction between the severity of stress and the adjustive
resources of the person. Low stress tolerance, immaturity, a distorted frame of reference, lack of
competencies lowers the individual resources for dealing with stress and make him susceptible to
stress. But sometimes a mature, stable personality may also be vulnerable to stress. When the
stress appears to be too great for the adjustive capacity of the person, mental disorder occurs.
33. Work Morale
Ans. A human being is a member of a team. The factory is a world by itself and the workers lead a
social life in the factory. Therefore, the worker rarely functions as an isolated individual and it is in
fact impossible to deny the existence of the social structure in any company.
Blum (1956) says, "to do so is to refuse to face reality, men and women lead a social life in the job
and they make friends and enemies, they exchange confidences, meet socially after working hours,
talk together and so on. In short, consciously or unconsciously they form groups. These groups at
last become the basic core of morale formation".
Allport has defined national morale as an individual's attitude in a group endeavour. According to
Maier (1970) this statement implies that both personal and social features are involved in the hental
condition which recalls morale. The importance of morale in team work, in community elton, in group
behaviour, in class in trade union, in management association, in military and army etc. is observed.
In fact, most of the studies on morale come from the military and industry.
CHARACTERISTIC
People become aware of morale when something goes wrong in industry. For no obvious reasons
production goes down or workers complain too much and the attitude becomes unfavourable. Under
all these circumstances, one usually remarks that the morale of the factory or the group Is shattered.
According to Guin (1958) morale is defined as:
1. The absence of conflict.
2. It is a feeling of happiness.
3. It is a good personal adjustment. 4. It is ego involvement in one's job.
5. Morale is group cohesiveness.
6. Morale is a combination of job related attitudes.
7. Morale is defined as the individual's acceptance of the goals of the group.
 - By Ayesha

DETERMINANTS
From the findings of several investigations in the field of industry and elsewhere, certain factors have
emerged as being conducive to good morale. The more important of these are attitude, type of
supervision, method of supervision, sacrifice, participation in group activity, tolerance and freedom
within the group, confidence in leaders, etc.
Blum (1956) has mentioned the following four most important determinants of morale :
1. Feeling of solidarity, identification and belonging.
2. Experience of progress towards the goal.
3. Need for a goal.
4. Tolerance and freedom.
By and large, the determinants of morale can be divided into two parts:
1. Situational determinants.
2. Determinants outside the work situation.
METHODS OF INCREASING INDUSTRIAL WORK MORALE
One of the pressing problems in industry today is to increase the morale of the workers. When it is
suspected that the morale of a group has gone down, any of the following four methods or all of
them may be used to raise morale.
1. Expert approach.
2. Industrial spy approach.
3. Industrial counsellor approach.
4. Employee problem approach.
A. Expert Approach
The expert approach is the most frequently used technique in industry. If things do not go well in a
factory and the trouble persists in spite of the best effort of an industrialist, an expert is appointed for
the time being to find out the core of the trouble. The important aspect of this approach is the use of
an expert in making a spot survey. The expert comes, inspects the plant, looks at fans, the washing
basin and playground, discusses the other problems with important people, makes a spot survey and
writes a report with some suggestions and advice to improve morale. For example, he may suggest
any or all tile following items, like posters, speeches, slogans, parties, welfare associations etc.
B. Industrial Spy Approach
An expert whose true identity is not known to the employees and who acts as a participant observer
in disguise is appointed as the spy. The industrial spy is engaged in tracing out the real causes of the
workers grievances which they hide because of fear retrenchment, or punishment The spy works
and makes friends with other workers, but secretly sends all information to the management about
the complaints and grievances of the employees. By gaining the confidence of the fellow workers
and being intimate with them, he acquires a deep knowledge about the group and its complaints. He
sends a confidential report to the management and eventually disappears. The management, in turn,
takes necessary steps to improve the morale of the workers by dismissing some union leaders or
agitators on the recommendations of the spy.
C. Industrial Counsellor Approach
The importance of an industrial counsellor has been revealed by the classic findings of the
Hawthorne studies.
The Hawthorne studies indicated that the industrial counsellor is useful in increasing moral by
improving relations and by acting as a mediator between the employee and the employer.
 - By Ayesha

The employees are informed that the industrial counsellor is a representative of the personnel
department and has been deputed by the management to talk with them. It has been noted from
various experimental findings and observations that the employees voluntarily speak out their
personal and professional problems to the counsellor. Thus the counsellor talks with the workers,
listens to their complaints and grievances and gives suggestions. As a result, the gap in
communication is bridged, the spirit of the workers goes up and there is a stop to the personal
conflicts and problems of the workers.
D. Employee Problem Approach
The employee problem approach is said to be the most successful approach in increasing the
morale of the workers. It is held to be the best among the four techniques, the most widely used and
has the advantage of having a number of advantages over the other three.
The employee problem approach was originated by Kurt Lewin during the war years. One of the
major advantages of this method is that it considers the group as a whole, while attempting to
increase the morale of the employees.
In this technique the group is directed to solve its own problems by the group discussion method.
This approach is mostly a form of role playing where the foreman, the boss or a trained psychologist
puts forth an urgent day-to-day problem to the employees, with some amount of guidance but very
little interference.
The workers are allowed to bring out tile solution on their own. This is only possible by group
discussion. So group co-operation becomes an automatic by-product of this method which naturally
increases industrial morale. When the supervisor or the boss throws the problem among the
workers, the problem is analysed through various discussions and arguments.
In the employee-problem approach, following a sensitivity training approach a group meeting is
called and the problem is presented comprehensively by the leader of the discussion group who is
trained in the art of conducting a democratic meeting. Finally, a solution or a goal is established.
Thus workers not only see the progress they are making but also make active and meaningful
participation in solving the problem.
34. Work Culture
Ans. By culture, we mean that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
customs, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man in a society. Two terms are key to the
concept culture; history and shared phenomenon. With regard to the first, it may be stated that
cultural mores of a society are passed on from generation-to-generation. The second by team which
is basic to culture implies that the cultural ethos are shared among the members of a society.
The following 10 features constitute the cultural web of an organization. The web helps us
understand and describe the culture of an organisation.
a. Control: The number of rules and regulations, and the amount of direct supervision that is
used to oversee and control employee behavior.
b. Communication Pattern: The degree to which organizational communication systems are
restricted to the formal hierarchy of authority.
c. Rituals: Rituals being observed and practised in the organization. The typical rituals may
include dress code of employees, how visitors are greeted, how festivals are celebrated, how
often senior executives visit subordinates, how much time employees take for lunch and the
like.
 - By Ayesha

d. Stories: Stories about past incidents told and retold speak about the corporate culture.
Stories generally include heroic deeds of the founders, large hearts of the present CEOs,
handling a deviant employee and the like.
e. Structures and Symbols: The size, shape, location, vastu, and age of the building speak
louder of a firm’s culture. Symbols such as logos, offices, cars, titles and jargons used reveal
the culture of the organization.
f. Organizational Structure: This defines a number of hierarchies, who is reporting to whom,
and who sits next to whom.
g. Ceremonies: These are more formal than rituals. Elaborate sets of activities enacted time
and again on important occasions constitute ceremonies. These occasions provide
opportunities to reward and recognize employees, whose behaviour is sync with the values of
the company.
h. Purpose: Culture has a purpose in terms of achieving common objectives. Success will
reinforce the culture and make it stable.
i. Risk taking: The degree to which employees are encouraged to be aggressive, innovative
and risks reflect on the culture.
j. Routine Behaviors: These refer to the behaviors of employees towards each other and
towards outside of the organization are significant indications of the corporate culture.
35. Reward System in Work Discipline
Ans: People join organizations expecting rewards. Firms distribute money and other be exchanged
for the employee availability, competencies and behaviors.
There are 4 types of rewards:
● Membership and Seniority based
● Job Status based
● Competency based
● Task Performance based
A. Membership and Seniority Based:
Benefits an employee receives depend on the firm which he or she joins. An MBA taking up in Wipro
and Infosys gets more benefits than the boy or girl who joins in a state government.
In the same firm, a senior employee receives more benefits than his or her junior employee.
Reinforcement, pay raises, retirement benefits, and perquisites depend on seniority of an employee.
Money is understood to be a powerful motivator for more than one reason. In the first place, money
is fundamental for completion of a task. Work, unless it is voluntary or "play", involves a contract
between two parties "guaranteed" by the payment of money. The employee takes pay as the reward
for his or her work, and the employer views it as the price for using the services of the employee.
Second, as a medium of exchange, money is the vehicle by which employees can buy numerous
need-satisfying goods and services they desire.
Third, money is one of the hygiene factors, and improving maintenance factors is the first step in
efforts directed towards motivation.
Fourth, money also performs the function of a "scorecard" by which employees assess the value that
the organisation places on their services and by which employees can compare their "values" to
others.
Fifth, reinforcement and expectancy theories attest to the value of money as a motivator. In the
former, if pay is contingent upon performance, it will encourage workers to high levels of effort.
 - By Ayesha

Consistent with the expectancy theory, money will motivate to the extent that it is seen as being able
to satisfy an individual's personal goals and is perceived as being dependent upon performance
criteria.
Sixth, money acts as punctuation in one's life. It is an attention getting and affect producing
mechanism. Money has, therefore, tremendous importance in influencing employee behaviour.
Seventh, money is easily vulnerable for manipulation. Other factors like satisfaction, responsibility, a
challenging job and the like are nebulous. Payments and the plans with which they are linked are
manipulatable.
Finally, money will be a powerful motivator for a person who is tense and anxious about lack of
money. Many worries and concerns are financially based. It is relaxing to receive sufficient money to
clear the outstanding bills and past debts which have been causing tensions.
B. Job Status based Reward:
Every firm rewards employees for the status of the jobs they are holding. Firms use an evaluation
system which helps establish differentials in status of jobs. Status differentials used as the basis for
establishing salary/wage differentials.
Jobs that require more skill and effort, have more responsibility, and have difficult worl conditions
would have more value and consequently would be placed in higher pay gra Firms that do not use
job evaluation systems still reward job status-based on pay sur information about the labour market.
A supervisor will receive higher rewards than a purchasing assistant as the job of the for enjoys
better status than the latter. It has more value to the organisation (calculated by evaluation systems
or pay survey) and therefore employees in that job receive more sta based rewards in the
organisation. High status job holders are also rewarded with m perquisites.
One advantage of status-based pay is that it helps maintain feelings of equity. Job evalua systems
try to maintain internal equity; that is, to ensure that employees feel their pay is when compared to
how much other jobs in the firm are paid. Pay surveys help maintain exte equity; that is, to ensure
that employees feel their pay is fair when compared to how m people in other firms are paid.
Job-based rewards also motivate employees to compete positions higher up the organisational
hierarchy.
C. Competency Based Reward:
Increasingly organisations are linking rewards to competencies of employees. Competent are
reflected through skills, knowledge, and traits that lead to desirable behaviours. Employees are
expected to have several competencies, and these traits are evaluated by observing spec behaviour
patterns.
Where rewards are linked to competencies, what emerges is the skill-based pay. In the s based pay,
employees are paid on the basis of the number of jobs they are capable of discharge or on the depth
of their knowledge. The purpose of this system is to motivate employee acquire additional skills so
that they become useful to the organisation.
D. Performance Based Reward:
The trend that is emerging recently is to link pay to performance rather than to seniority or
membership. Firms in N. America, Europe, and Asia are paying their employees more for
performance than ever before.
Performance-based rewards are many, but the most common among them are:
Profit-sharing is an organisational performance-based reward. In profit-sharing, designated
employees are allowed to share in the profit earned by a company. Employee stock ownership plans
 - By Ayesha

(ESOPs) confer ownership of the firm on employees. ESOPs encourage employees to share in the
company.
Team rewards are common where firms rely on teams to get the work done. Some teams are
rewarded with special bonuses or gifts if they collectively achieve specific goals. A gaining plan is a
type of team reward that motivates team-members to reduce costs and increase your efficiency in
their work process. Gain sharing plans use a predetermined formula to ulate cost savings and pay
bonus to all team-members. Typically, the company shares the savings with employees.
Individual rewards are quite common in organisations. The most common is the piece rate each link
pays to the units produced by an employee. Commissions are paid to salespeople on actual sales
shown by them. Merit pay is based on an individual's performance. This is usually replaced by
reasonable bonuses for accomplishing specific tasks or for achieving aims. Although these bonuses
are often determined from team or organisational ormance, they may also result from satisfactory
completion of individual goals.

Counselling Psychology
36. Types of Counselling and Its meaning
Ans. Counselling is a broad field of clinical psychology that emphasises helping and advising
persons with various problems of day to day life relating to education, occupation, career, mild
mental problems like mild depression, marriage and marital problems, family related problems and
professional problems too. It is thus required for any and every area of life with problems.
Counselling in a wider sense, not only includes mere advice based on subjective speculation but
helping an individual and improve his quality of life through therapeutic discussions, administration
and interpretation of tests and finally guidance.
Types of Counselling:
Counselling can be
(a) direct and indirect,
(b) individual and group.
(a) In direct counselling the client and the counsellor have more discussion and more interaction with
each other. The counsellor takes an active role in direct counselling.
Direct counselling is more often than not used today in most of the normal day to day problems.
● Initial Disclosure to the Counsellor
A client takes an appointment with the counsellor and then goes to his chamber to meet him. In the
course of initial discussion, he establishes contact with the counsellor which may be technically
called "rapport". Rapport, is the establishment of goodwill, positive contact and confidence between
the client and the counsellor.
● Start of counselling session
After the client is satisfied with the counsellor's manners and dealings, and vice-versa, the
counselling session starts in a very calm, quiet and cordial atmosphere. Privacy is essential
particularly in individual counselling.
● Understanding the client's problems
The counsellor joins the third stage, makes efforts to understand the client's problems, needs and
desires and tries to adopt himself in achieving the goal of the client. Thus, the client and counsellor
 - By Ayesha

should have a common goal i.e., benefitting and being benefitted through counselling. Without
getting honest information from the client, the counsellor cannot proceed rightly in counselling.
Honest self-disclosure is only possible, when the client has rapport with the counsellor and when he
genuinely feels that the counsellor would really help him.
● Application of tests as and when necessary
Sometimes clients selected for counselling are administered various psychological and personality
tests if required. This is done to add objectivity to the already observed problems of the client made
by him through self disclosure. If the counsellor feels that self disclosure is not enough for
counselling, he will apply the necessary tests to obtain more information in an objective and scientific
manner. This type of approach in counselling is better than counselling based on mere observation
only, particularly, for the prevention of crime and delinquency, for reducing anti-social activities, for
career and vocational counselling for knowing the various personality traits and degree of
intelligence, reaction time etc.
● Exploration of depth aspect of personality
In the course of discussion, the counsellor is acquainted with the depth aspects of the client's
personality and forms an impression about the client's personality dynamics and coping behaviour.
The counsellor also attempts to know in this stage about the clients views and attitudes on the
satisfactory progress of the counselling process. In this stage, the client is asked to give up his old
habitual behaviours and show the newly learnt behaviours, thus there is a change of behaviour from
old to new and in this process the client has to go through emotional stress, since he is told about
the inadequacy of his old behaviours and how they are not helpful to him. Giving up on old
inadequate behaviours and developing new adequate behaviour becomes a little bit difficult for the
client. But finally, when he accepts it, and recognises the defects of his old behaviour, the counselling
process progresses towards success. Gradually, after a few sessions, the counsellor and client
reach a mutually acceptable assessment and diagnosis of the clients problems.
● Action
It is the last stage of the counselling process. After several sessions of successful counselling, the
last part of the counselling process begins through action by the interpretation of test results,
detailed in depth discussion with the client and going to the root of various problems of the client, the
decision-making process starts. The counsellor shows the way to the client to take a decision from
several possible alternatives. The counsellor to evaluate the effectiveness of the behavior in the
solution of the problem and reduction of stress.
Non directive Counselling
Otherwise known as client centred therapy, it was devised for the first time by Karl Rogers. Client
centred therapy's purpose is to change the various beliefs of the client by placing him mainly in an
environment where he receives unconditional acceptance from the counsellor. In this type of
counselling the counsellor refrains from giving advice or direction to the client.
Here the client is left to himself to speak out his problems. Instead of interfering during the talking
session, the counsellor just nods or says 'yes', 'go on', "continue" to encourage the client to speak
out his emotional, personal or suppressed, repressed problems. For achieving this purpose, the
client is provided with situations and stimulations to evaluate his basic nature positively.
In non-directive counselling, the role of the counsellor is to provide the client insight into the conflicts
between his ideal self and his actual self and he helps him in the acceptance of his actual self. This
 - By Ayesha

type of counselling involves acceptance, recognition and clarification of the feelings of the individual
client.
It encourages him to talk about his most deeply felt emotions which are the root cause of his
problems. The purpose here is to remove the emotional conflicts which are blocking the self
actualisation of the client. The counsellor's job is to create a therapeutic situation which would
facilitate the client to talk in a more honest and emotional way about himself and he helps the client
to get insight into his emotional conflicts which are creating psychological problems for him.
Individual counselling
Here counselling is done face to face on individually only one client is present while counselling
individual counselling is costly.
Group Counselling
Counselling can also be imparted in groups. When groups of people have similar problems, and they
fall within a particular age range, they can be counselled in groups. In group counselling, the
problems should be simple and not complicated or acute.
Group counselling is a type of counselling or relationship between the counsellor, and the client
characterised by trust or openness in a group. It is conducted in a small group of people. In group
counselling, few people with similar background and similar problems should be involved. But if more
people are taken in a group, interpersonal contact may be absent which will not help the client.
Many psychologists consider counselling as a process of interpersonal interaction and
communication. For effective counselling in a group, the client and the counsellor must be able to
appropriately and accurately send and receive both verbal and non verbal messages.
The purpose of the group counsellor programme is to provide some help and advice to the persons
facing problems in career, job, profession, in group relations and family life etc.
They are advised how to deal with their negative emotions like aggression, violence and anger in a
realistic manner and with a positive approach. Realistic examples should be given to convince them
so that the advice given would really work. The group should also have confidence in the counsellor
to accept his advice.
Combined Individual and Group Counselling
In combined individual and group counselling, clients are seen individually by the counsellor and also
take part in group sessions.
The counsellor in such a situation is usually the same person. Attendance of both individual and
group sessions is important. Failure to attend would perhaps mean that the client does not want to
cooperate or take the counselling because of some difficulties.
Combined and individual counselling is an ongoing plan in which the group experiences interact
meaningfully with the individual counselling experiences. Combined individual and group counselling
provide a reciprocal feedback that helps to form an integrated therapeutic experience.
In a group counselling contact of the various clients with each other helps in the development of
soldier to soldier contact and transferential reactions. It is generally found that the dropout rate in the
combined therapy is lower than in group counselling alone.
In many cases combined counselling appears to bring various problems to the surface and to
resolve them more quickly than may be possible with either method alone.
Legal counselling can also be provided in groups and individually to the offenders, criminals and
antisocial agents.
 - By Ayesha

37. Characteristics of an Effective Counsellor

Ans. In order to be an effective Counsellor one must follow the following points:
1. A counsellor must have basic knowledge of human psychology and particularly clinical psychology
in order to be an effective counsellor. He has to understand the basic elements of human
psychological processes to carry forward counselling as a therapeutic process. The fundamental
knowledge of human psychology and clinical psychology specifically is necessary to be a good
counsellor. Since counselling is a part of psychotherapy only psychologists with specialisation is
clinical psychology and counselling should practice it.
2. Only basic knowledge or M.A. degree in clinical psychology or psychology is not enough. In order
to be a skilled counsellor one has to take training in the area of counselling from recognised
institutions or under the guidance of experts in the area of counselling.
3. A counsellor must know correctly his own personality characteristics. Knowledge about his own
self, his feelings, emotions, needs and imaginations, strengths and weaknesses will help him to
understand himself and his limitations plus advantages. This knowledge will help him not only in
properly handling the problems of the client, but also to know exactly what he is doing, why he is
doing so and whether such doings have any effect on the client, whether his personality qualities
have any adverse effects on the client, whether he is projecting his own misconceptions and
prejudices on the client. By knowing his own self-minutely, he can be able to segregate his own
problems from the problems of the client. A counsellor is a human being and he has his own
problems and personality traits also. What is emphasised here is that if the counsellor knows about
these well in advance he will try not to colour or influence the client's views and problems.
4. A counsellor should have both sound mental and physical health. A person without good physical
and mental health is always worried about himself and demonstrates stress and anxiety in his
dealings. Such a person instead of being a good counsellor needs counselling himself. His own
problems will trouble him so much that he cannot give justice to a client. Rather, his problems will
aggravate the problems of the client instead of reducing it.
5. A counsellor should not only have sound physical and mental health he should also have very few
problems in day to day life. Persons with continuous problems in their life should not take up the
profession of counselling even if they have a degree in psychology or even clinical psychology or
specialisation and training in the area. Since it is very difficult to segregate the after effects of
personal problems on professional work, this point is to be followed strictly.
6. In order to be an effective counsellor, knowledge of counselling specialisation in the area and
experience etc. are not enough. The person must be psychologically fit to be an effective counsellor.
He should not only show interest in the profession, he should also be sensitive to the needs of the
clients. Further, he should have an understanding attitude so that he can understand the client's
verbal and non-verbal messages. If he is sensitive to the problems of the client and sincerely wants
to help him, he can think of different skills and strategies of solving the problems of the client.
7. The counsellor's approach towards the client should be based on objectivity and facts. His
dealings with the client should be objective. No subjective or emotional feeling should colour the
interaction between the client and the counsellor. The counsellor also must not show a biased
attitude towards the client. This can be possible if the counsellor knows his own bias and prejudices
and tries not to project them on the client.
 - By Ayesha

8. A counsellor should be sincere, genuine, tolerant and sympathetic. He must not try to cheat or
mislead the client. He should also have a determination and work culture. He must be dedicated to
his profession so that he can be an effective and successful counsellor.
9. Just as the client should have respect for the counsellor, similarly, the counsellor should have
respect for the client. He should not joke with the client, nor consider him unworthy or socially
unacceptable because of his problems. He should be dealt with humanly as otherwise the
counsellor's careless behaviour would have dangerous effects on the client and his problems will be
multiplied and aggravated instead of being reduced. He should not panic the client for his problems
rather would try to explain to him soothingly what he (the client) has to do and how he has to follow
his advice. It is to be remembered that half of the disease or problems of the client can be reduced
with the understanding and soothing behaviour of the counsellor.
10. Some of the most important characteristics of a counsellor are sympathy and empathy, the
counsellor must be sensitive to the problems of the client. He must give them due importance
instead of handling them superficially. He should be able to see things and perceive them from the
point of view of the client, so that his point of view and clients' point of view should match positively.
His goal and clients goal should be more or less same in the counselling situation. The counsellor as
and when necessary should be a good listener than a big talker.
11. The counsellor should have good communication ability. He must talk pleasantly and behave
effectively to be a skilled counsellor. Effective speaking and effective listening are good
communication skills. If the client and the counsellor belong to the same culture and speak the same
language, it is better for communication. Otherwise, the counsellor should have sufficient knowledge
of the cultural background of the client. In order to be sympathetic towards the client and consider
the client's problems as his own (empathy) the counsellor has to be well aware of the cultural
background of the client.
12. The counsellor should have testing skills and good knowledge of the application of various
psychological tests.
Finally, a counsellor having all the positive human qualities, and knowing the skills of the profession
having good work culture and knowledge plus experience in the area being thoroughly professional
with a human touch proves to be an effective counsellor. Mere knowledge and experience or mere
human qualities are not enough. A combination of both is required to be an effective counsellor.
38. Objective, Characteristics and Principles of Counselling
Ans. Objectives of counselling:-
1. To help the client to accept actual or impending changes that are resulting from stress, it
involves psychological, emotional, and intellectual.
2. To encourage the client to examine the available alternatives, decide choices are appropriate
and useful for problem solving.
3. To relieve distress among people who are reacting to difficult circumstances.
4. To change the behavior by reducing the stress or risk.
5. It helps the counselee to acquire independence & sense of responsibility.
6. It helps the client to explore and fully utilize his potentialities and actualize himself.
7. To encourage & develop special abilities and right attitudes.
8. To assist the student in planning for educational & vocational choices.
9. To help a student to work out a plan for solving his difficulties.
10. To help students to grow, explore & maintain or develop their overall personality.
 - By Ayesha

11. To help students in checking wastage and stagnation.

12. To minimize the incidence of indiscipline.
13. To motivate the students for self employment.
Characteristics of counselling
● It is a purposeful learning experience for the counsellor.
● It is the purposeful oriented and private interview between the counsellor and counsellee.
● Based on mutual confidence a satisfactory relationship will be established.
● Counselling process is structured around the felt needs of the counselle.
● Main emphasis in counselling process is on the counsellee's self direction and
self-acceptance.
Principles of counselling
● Made to the requirement of an individual's problems
● Emphasizes thinking with the individual.
● Avoid dictatorial attitude.
● Maintain a relationship of trust and confidence with the client.
● Client's need is to be put first.
● Every one participating in the counselling process must feel comfortable.
● The client's family members must be included in the counselling process.
● Skills of warmth, friendliness, and empathy are ingredients of a successful counselling
process.
● Counsellor has to listen attentively, answer questions
● objectively. & reinforce important information.
● Let the client make a voluntary informed decision.
● Maintaining the dignity of the individual is the primary concern in counseling.

--the-end--