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“The Evolution of Kashmiri Art:

A fusion of Tradition, craft and cultural heritage
BY MUNAZAH RAFIQ

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“Introduction to Kashmir’s Artistry “

Art is the silent ambassador of culture, a reflection of the soul of a people and their
history.”

This quote perfectly encapsulates the rich cultural, historical, and artistic significance of
Kashmiri art. Kashmiri art history can be traced back to the early centuries of Buddhist
influence, marked by religious carvings and stupas. With the subsequent adoption of
Hinduism, a new wave of artistic sophistication emerged, exemplified by the region’s
beautifully constructed stone temples, sculptures, and wall paintings, all of which reflected
the gods and the harmonious lifestyle of the people.
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However, it was during the 14th century, under the reign of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, that
Kashmiri art underwent a significant transformation. Known as Budshah, Zain-ul-Abidin is
credited with bringing artisans from Persia and Central Asia, who introduced intricate crafts
such as carpet weaving, shawl-making, papier-mâché, and wood carving. This period
marked the beginning of Kashmir as a hybrid cultural zone, fusing indigenous traditions
with Persian and Central Asian influences, especially after the arrival of Islam. Crafts such
as wood carving, metalwork, and the now-famous Kashmiri papier-mâché became
synonymous with the region's artistic identity. Persian artisans also introduced calligraphy,
fresco art and miniature paintings, often depicting nature, fables, and the nobility,
rendered in vibrant, colorful compositions.

The Mughal period further elevated Kashmiri art to new heights, introducing refined
aesthetics and techniques. Mughal influence extended beyond textiles into painting and
calligraphy. Landscape paintings became popular, with Mughals infusing Kashmiri art with
naturalistic details, delicate color palettes, and idealized depictions of Kashmir's scenic
beauty. This period also introduced mural painting, which adorned the interiors of shrines,
palaces, and gardens with intricate scenes from nature, royal courts, and spiritual life,
blending Mughal aesthetics with regional elements.

Kashmiri artists continued to adapt Persian influences in their painting, creating art forms
such as miniature paintings, frescoes, and religious art that often blended local cultural
themes with external elements. Thangka paintings added another layer to Kashmir’s artistic
evolution, closely linked to Buddhism's legacy in the region. Nakashi, or decorative painting
and calligraphy, turned everyday objects into exquisite pieces of art, a skill for which
Kashmiri craftsmen became renowned.

Even today, the living traditions of Kashmiri artisans endure. Pashmina shawls, silk carpets,
intricately crafted woodwork, and paper-mâché crafts not only preserve the region’s rich
artistic heritage but also continue to evolve with modern influences. These artworks offer a
window into Kashmir's history and reflect the resilience, creativity, and skill of its people,
ensuring that the art of Kashmir remains timeless.
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Table of contents

1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………2-4

Overview of Kashmiri Art and its Significance

2. The beginning of Art …………………………………………………………06

● Prehistoric beginnings

3. The influence of Buddhism and Hinduism ……………………………….7-22

● Bronze Art
● Thangka painting
● Carving and stupas
● Nakashi painting
● Basohli painting

4. Persian Influence on Kashmiri Art ……………………………………….23-32

● Papier-mâché
● Miniature Paintings
● Fresco Art
● Calligraphy

5. The Mughal Era and Its Contribution ………………………………………33-40

● landscape art
● mural paintings
● Calligraphy

6. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………41-42

● the Future of Kashmiri Art

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"Art from Prehistoric Beginnings: The Foundations of Kashmiri Creativity”

The roots of art in Kashmir go way back, to the Paleolithic era, when early humans
expressed creativity through some primitive types of artistic expression. These
prehistoric forms of art are seen within caves all over the region, which contain
engravings and paintings relating to their life experience and beliefs. These works
of art depict hunting scenes, animals, and abstract symbols, because they
represented not only a means of communication but also a reflection of the
environment and the culture of the time. Natural pigments produced from minerals
and plants allowed early artists to create truly vivid representations, putting in
place those foundational stones upon which later centuries would build a rich
tapestry of Kashmiri art. As if it were an extension of the natural cycles, these
primordial expressions of art in the region evolved with the various phases of
history that Kashmir underwent, absorbing influences from emerging cultures and
religions, ultimately contributing to the rich art heritage that Kashmir is known for
today.
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● Buddhist Influence:

Kashmiri art was thus influenced significantly due to the unique position of the
region as a cultural crossroad. It became a renowned hub for scholarship amongst
Buddhists and, therefore, played a seminal role in the spread of the art of
Buddhism across Central Asia. This 4th Buddhist Council held by Kanishka in the
2nd century CE was utilized to formalize the texts of Buddhism as different schools
of thought unfolded.

Kashmiri artists acted as a catalyst for the formation of Buddhist art during the
period of Kushans. Indigenous influences combined with Hellenistic cultures led to
a variety of styles that indicated a synergy of naturalistic forms and detailed
iconography. Bronze during this period manifests the whole consequential output
of the sculptors in the sculpting skillful images of the Gods.

In Kashmir, there are Buddhist stupas with carved sculptures describing the life of
the Buddha. It exhibits the stonework expertise of the region. Thangka painting
also, which eventually flourished in Tibetan Buddhism, borrowed the techniques
and even the styles of the Kashmiris' works.

Though Buddhism declined in Kashmir after the advent of Islam, it is interesting to

note that the artistic tradition continued, mainly in Tibet, where most of the works
from Kashmir are preserved. The passage of history brings forward how Buddhism
enriched Kashmiri art, whose legacy has inspired generations of artists.
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● BUDDHIST BRONZE ART :

Buddhist bronze art is an important period within the region's artistic and religious
history, flourishing during the 6th to 12th century when Buddhism was a dominant
cultural force. This trend is famous for exquisite bronze sculptures, mainly those of
Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and other Buddhist gods associated with Mahayana
Buddhism. The sculptures are notable for their tranquil countenances, stately
poses, and the intricate ornamentation of the body, which manifests a fine balance
of Indian and Central Asian influences in their art.

The stylistic features of Kashmiri bronze art reflect a peculiar blend of the Indian
Gupta ideals with Gandhara naturalism, making the figures themselves, as well as
the finer execution of the art, exceedingly spiritually elevating and artistically subtle.
The Buddha is often rendered in different mudras, or symbolic hand postures; such
as dharmachakra (turning the wheel of the law) and abhaya (fearlessness).
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Bodhisattvas, like Avalokiteshvara, are also quite frequently represented with

exquisite details such as multiple arms and lotus flowers, symbolizing their divine
compassion and powers.

These sculptures were mainly created by Kashmiri artisans through the lost-wax
casting technique. Using this method gave them extremely fine detail and quite a
smooth finish. Mostly these pieces were small to medium in size, representing
objects of devotion to be placed in temples or personal altars. The work in these
bronzes reflects the devotional spirit of the artisans and their technical skills.

Naturally, Kashmir was an important crossroads for Buddhism as it rivaled India,

Tibet, and China on the Silk Road. The bronzes reflect this composite cultural
environment, which greatly enriched Kashmiri art with a unique harmony of styles.
Kashmir's bronze art had an enormous influence on neighboring regions like Tibet
and Nepal, which extended and developed the tradition of bronze sculpture for
themselves.

Although many of the few remaining original sculptures have disappeared due to
invasions and the waning influence of Buddhism in Kashmir, the existing pieces, like
the Bronze Buddha of Kashmir found in the British Museum, stand as best
representations for excellent metalwork of this period. These pieces still form some
of the finest examples of early Buddhist bronze art in the Indian subcontinent.

Reflecting this grave interconnection between religion and art, the Buddhist bronze
art of Kashmir was not merely devotional objects but also cultural artifacts that
influenced the far-reaching artistic traditions of South and Central Asia. Their legacy
continues to be a source of great admiration, not only for the spiritual significance
they carry but also for their mastery in all art forms, especially when talking about
enriching Kashmir's rich cultural history.
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● THANGKA PAINTING

Thangka art, originating from Tibet, is a significant form of Buddhist creative

expression, typically found in monasteries and homes, used as a medium of
religious devotion and meditation. These intricate paintings, often crafted on cotton
or linen, are painted with water-soluble dyes and depict various deities, Buddhas,
bodhisattvas, and other religious themes, adhering to precise iconographic
guidelines. The tradition of Thangka art began in eastern India around the 7th
century and spread to Tibet, where it absorbed influences from Kashmiri, Nepali,
Central Asian, and Chinese art.

Kashmir's connection to Thangka art is deeply rooted in its historical exchanges

with Tibetan and Central Asian cultures. The Kashmiri form of Thangka painting
showcases both the vivid colors and celestial motifs characteristic of traditional
Tibetan art, while also reflecting local influences and regional adaptations. As
Buddhism once had a significant presence in Kashmir, Thangka paintings in this
region represent a fusion of Tibetan Buddhist iconography and Kashmiri aesthetics.
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The presence of Thangka in Kashmir also emphasizes the rich artistic exchange
between these regions during the medieval period, where Buddhist monks,
scholars, and artists shared their cultural and artistic traditions. As a result, the art
of Thangka became one of the unique mediums of religious and cultural
representation in the region, contributing to Kashmir’s broader artistic heritage.

Moreover, this tradition highlights Kashmir’s role as a conduit for cultural and
spiritual exchanges in the Himalayan region, with the intricate Thangka art serving
both religious and commemorative purposes in Kashmiri monasteries and homes.
Today, the legacy of Thangka art remains an important aspect of Kashmiri art,
symbolizing a spiritual connection to its past and a medium of artistic expression
rooted in Buddhist tradition.
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● THE MAKING OF THANGKA PAINTING

The Making of a Thangka Painting as Defined by Bhuchung Nubgya:

Thangka painting is a revered Tibetan art form, with a history spanning over 2000
years. As explained by Bhuchung Nubgya, a Tibetan artist from Shigatse, Tibet, the
process of creating a Thangka is governed by strict rules and guidelines, preserving
its sacred nature. From the initial preparation to the final touches, each step is
carried out with precision, resulting in a deeply spiritual object intended for
devotion.

1. Preparation of Materials

To start, four pieces of wood are required, either made by a woodcarver or crafted
personally. Additionally, four thin sticks, often made from bamboo, are needed. The
fabric used must be pure, natural, and free of plastics, traditionally known as
"kajee" in Tibetan. This raw fabric is trimmed and sewn onto the thin sticks
according to the dimensions of the thangka. Sewing is done by hand with strong,
fine string, ensuring the stitches are neither too large nor too small.

Next, the fabric is tightly stretched across the wooden frame, resembling the
tautness of a drum. Glue is then applied to the fabric. While traditionally prepared
from materials like yak leather, yak horns, fish skin, or wood, store-bought glue is
also an option. The consistency of the glue is tested by touch, and it is applied
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evenly. The glued canvas is left to dry in a shaded area, exposed to a gentle breeze.
After drying, the canvas is rubbed multiple times with a stone to ensure the glue is
fully integrated. A well-prepared canvas will emit a drum-like vibration when
tapped, signaling it is ready for painting

2. Drawing the Design

The design begins with a light sketch, often using a pencil for precision. In earlier
times, ink was used for outlining the design. Once the initial sketch is complete, it is
retraced with darker lines to create a detailed and well-defined image.

3. Mixing the Pigments

Traditional pigments used in Thangka painting are sourced from natural materials,
with colors often derived from stones and plants. For instance, blue and green
pigments are obtained from stones found in U-Tsang, particularly from the Nyemo
region. Green pigments may also come from boiling tree leaves, which are then
strained and dried for use. Some paints are extracted from fruits, like beets, which
provide long-lasting red pigments. These natural materials contribute to the
vibrancy and durability of the colors, ensuring that the painted thangka remains
vivid over time.

4. Application of Colors and Shading

The painting process follows a specific order, starting with the sky, then water, the
ground, and finally, clouds. Colors like green and blue, considered harsher, are
applied early in the process. This methodical approach ensures the painting comes
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together smoothly and with clarity. The vibrant colors are not just aesthetic but also
carry spiritual significance, with flowers and other details symbolizing offerings to
Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion.

5. Final Touches and Framing

Once the painting is complete, a special mantra, "Om Ah Hung," is written on the
back of the thangka. This consecrates the painting, infusing it with spiritual energy.
A thangka may be further consecrated by a rinpoche or monk. To finish, brocade
fabric is sewn around the thangka by a seamstress, framing the artwork beautifully.
The thangka is then ready to be placed in a shrine or a clean, elevated space where
it becomes an object of veneration, central to prayer and devotion.
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● Buddhist Carvings and stupas

Buddhist Carvings in Kashmir include intricate stone and rock reliefs of Buddha's
life, bodhisattvas, and numerous deities from the Mahayana and Vajrayana
traditions. The carvings are mostly on cliffs, temples, and monasteries, and the skill
and fervor reflected in them are quite high. Notable among them are the
Shankaracharya Temple carvings and the carvings at Harwan, which reflect both
Indian as well as Central Asian influences.

Stupas in Kashmir - like the Harwan Stupa and the remains of the Kanishka Stupa -
are architectural wonders. They stand as religious edifices home to relics of the
Buddha and sacred texts. Many of the stupas sport intricate stone carvings that
contain motifs typical of Buddhism, including the lotus, the dharma wheel, and
representations of the Buddha in various mudras.
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● Conservation in Metropolitan Museums

Most of these precious Buddhist carvings and artifacts from the stupas have been
preserved in major metropolitan museums around the world. Among them are the
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the British Museum in London, and the
National Museum of India in Delhi that holds significant collections of Buddhist art
from Kashmir.

These museums have made great efforts to preserve and restore these historic
works. They use techniques, including climate control, for the stone carvings as
delicate in the form of stone to prevent breaking it due to changing temperatures
and humidity, which deteriorates the material. In addition, art restoration experts
often clean and fix ruined parts to prevent further deterioration.

The museums also tell the history and significance of these relics, which most times
place them in exhibitions on Buddhist art and culture. This is why even the farthest
cultures like Buddhist Kashmir have been appreciated by the rest of the world
although most sites are lost or destroyed owing to natural erosion and time as well
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as political upheavals. By conserving these artifacts, museums ensure that the

legacy of Buddhist art in Kashmir is made to continue to be studied and admired
for generations to come.
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Hindu influence:

● Nakashi painting :

Hinduism has had a significant influence on Kashmiri art, especially in early periods
before the advent of Buddhism and later Islam in the region. The art forms that
developed under Hindu influence reflect religious themes, intricate symbolism, and
deep cultural traditions.

Influence of Hinduism on Kashmiri Art:

Hindu deities, religious narratives, and epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana
have been pivotal in shaping the visual culture of Kashmir. Temples built during the
reign of Hindu rulers were adorned with intricate stone carvings depicting gods,
goddesses, and mythological scenes. This artistic tradition laid the foundation for
later developments in Kashmiri art, such as Nakashi and Basholi painting, both of
which carry strong Hindu iconography and themes.
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Nakashi Painting in Kashmir:

Nakashi painting is a decorative art form, traditionally practiced in both Kashmir

and parts of northern India, including Rajasthan and Punjab. The word nakashi
refers to detailed, intricate painting or ornamentation. In Kashmir, this art form
evolved to include both Hindu and Mughal influences, merging Persian styles with
indigenous Kashmiri traditions.

Characteristics of Nakashi Painting:

1.Themes: Nakashi painting in Kashmir often featured Hindu religious themes,

such as scenes from Hindu epics or images of deities like Lord Vishnu, Shiva, and
other mythological figures. Some paintings also depicted local folklore and courtly
life.

2. Materials and Techniques: Traditionally, artists used natural pigments made

from minerals, plants, and flowers to create vibrant colors. The intricate designs
were painstakingly drawn and painted on various surfaces, including wooden
objects, walls, and fabrics. The process was highly detailed, requiring precision in
outlining and coloring.

3. Surfaces: Nakashi painting was applied to a wide variety of surfaces in Kashmir,

such as wooden furniture, boxes, papier-mâché items, and temple murals. The art
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form is especially known for its use in temple architecture, where it was applied to
ceilings and walls in both fresco and mural styles.

4. Style: Nakashi in Kashmir is distinguished by its detailed linework and

ornamental patterns. This reflects the influence of both Persian and indigenous
Kashmiri designs. The figures are often stylized, with elongated proportions, sharp
features, and intricate garments.

Hindu Themes in Nakashi and Kashmiri Art:

During the reign of Hindu rulers like the Karkota dynasty, Kashmiri artists
frequently depicted Hindu deities and religious symbols. This artistic heritage
continued into later periods when Nakashi painting incorporated these themes. It
showcased both devotional imagery and ceremonial depictions, especially in
temple decorations. The influence of local Kashmiri culture and nature, such as
flowers, birds, and intricate patterns, can also be seen in the designs.

Basohli painting
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Basohli painting, an ancient art form rooted in the town of Basohli in the Kathua
district of Jammu and Kashmir, has left a significant mark on the artistic heritage of
Kashmir. Established in the 16th century by Raja Bhupat Pal, the Basohli painting
tradition is widely recognized as a precursor to the Pahari schools of painting,
which spread across the region. This distinctive art form, which reached its peak
during the 17th and 18th centuries, blends vibrant colors, expressive lines, and
unique facial features, marking a unique fusion of Mughal, Rajasthan, Deccan, and
Gujarat influences.

The Mughal Empire's decline in the 17th century catalyzed the growth of regional
art forms like Basohli painting. As Mughal patronage waned under Emperor
Aurangzeb's rule, skilled artists sought refuge and sponsorship from local rulers in
the serene foothills of Kashmir. Basholi’s chieftains became pivotal patrons of the
arts, helping foster an environment where creativity could flourish, away from the
Mughal court's constraints. This shift brought fresh energy to the Basholi school
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and played a critical role in developing an art style that would later influence
Kashmir’s artistic narrative.

Basohli paintings are characterized by their intense colors—predominantly ochre

yellow, green, and brown—and distinct stylistic elements, such as large,
almond-shaped eyes, elaborate costumes, and carefully rendered, stylized figures.
Popular themes include Hindu mythology and love stories, particularly scenes from
the lives of Krishna and Radha, inspired by the Bhagavata Purana. Masterpieces like
"Dashavatara," crafted by the artist Mahesh, exemplify this tradition, capturing both
the religious fervor and the aesthetic depth of Basholi's rich visual language.

Over time, the Basholi school gave way to the Guler painting tradition, a softer and
more refined style that emerged in the Pahari region, reflecting a natural evolution
of the art form. Despite this transition, the influence of Basohli painting endured,
and its elements can be traced in Kashmiri art practices today. Families like the
Padhas played a crucial role in preserving Basholi's heritage, safeguarding paintings
from destruction by Afghan, Sikh, and British forces, and passing down these
artistic treasures through generations.

The legacy of Basohli painting in Kashmir is one of resilience and cultural pride. Its
blend of Hindu iconography, meticulous craftsmanship using materials like Veale
paper, squirrel hair brushes, and natural pigments, and the occasional use of gold
and silver for embellishment reveals not only the skill of Kashmiri artists but also
their reverence for tradition. The survival of Basohli art offers a glimpse into
Kashmir’s rich history of patronage, artistic excellence, and cultural diversity. Today,
Basohli paintings stand as a tribute to the artistic heritage of both Basholi and
Kashmir, capturing the region's enduring commitment to preserving its unique
cultural identity.
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PERSIAN INFLUENCE

Persian influence on Kashmiri art has been profound, enriching the region's artistic
heritage with distinct elements of Persian aesthetics and culture. This influence
began during the 14th century, particularly with the arrival of Persian artisans,
scholars, and craftsmen who came to Kashmir through Central Asia as part of
cultural exchanges fostered by rulers like Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin. Persian art
introduced Kashmir to new styles, techniques, and motifs, which blended with local
traditions to create a unique fusion. Persian designs, such as intricate floral
patterns, geometric motifs, and calligraphy, became prominent in Kashmiri art
forms, from miniature painting and papier-mâché to textile design and
architecture.

Additionally, Persian literature and poetry, especially works of Rumi and Hafez,
impacted the thematic focus of Kashmiri art, bringing spiritual and philosophical
dimensions that were reflected in artistic expressions. This blending led to a
distinctive Kashmiri aesthetic that retains its appeal today, marking Kashmir as a
vital crossroads of cultural convergence in South Asia.
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● Paper mache

Kashmiri papier-mâché is a highly distinctive handicraft deeply rooted in Persian

culture, brought to Kashmir by the revered Muslim saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani in
the 14th century. Hamadani, accompanied by Persian artisans, introduced the craft
to medieval India, where it quickly became popular. Initially derived from Persian
techniques of using paper pulp to create richly decorated, vibrant artifacts, the art
form evolved into a hallmark of Kashmiri craftsmanship, producing vases, bowls,
cups, boxes, trays, lamp bases, and many other intricate items.

Evolution and Cultural Significance

Papier-mâché in Kashmir originated as kar-i-qalamdan (pen holder work) and

kar-i-munaqqash (work on polished surfaces), creating functional and decorative
items. While Persian craftsmen first used paper pulp to decorate book jackets and
small trinkets, the practice expanded during the Mughal period to include larger
household items, such as tables, screens, cabinets, and even ceiling décor. Mughal
influence led to a deeper adoption of intricate designs, with motifs like floral
arabesques, kingfishers, and maple leaves, and techniques such as layering pulp on
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wood. The decorative approach can still be seen today on pieces like the ceilings of
Kashmir’s Madin Sahib Mosque and Shah Hamdan Mosque.

Manufacturing Process

The process of creating papier-mâché in Kashmir is labor-intensive and detailed.

Artisans first soak discarded paper in water for 4-5 weeks, then mix it with cloth
and rice straw to create a pulp. This pulp is applied in layers on a mold made of
wood, brass, or clay. After the object dries, it is polished with gemstones, such as
jade, and finished with gold and silver foils. Floral patterns and designs are painted
using brushes made from goat, cat, or donkey hair, reflecting the delicate precision
required.

Marketing and Protection

Kashmiri papier-mâché is produced in homes and workshops across Srinagar and

other parts of the Kashmir Valley, catering to both local and international markets.
To preserve its authenticity, the Government of India has registered it under the
Geographic Indication Act, protecting the craft from imitation. The vibrant tradition,
now part of school curriculums in Kashmir, is recognized globally, symbolizing both
Kashmir’s rich artistic legacy and Persian cultural heritage.

A Unique Art Form

Kashmiri papier-mâché stands out as a form of ornamental art, blending Persian

aesthetics with Kashmiri sensibilities. Its delicate, colorful designs embody a
timeless elegance that continues to captivate art lovers around the world. The craft
not only represents Kashmir’s unique art heritage but also the long-standing
cultural bonds between Persia and Kashmir.
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Miniature Painting

Persian miniature painting in Kashmir is a fascinating blend of Persian techniques

and local aesthetic sensibilities, introduced to the region by Persian artists and Sufi
scholars like Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani in the 14th century. These intricate paintings,
known for their vibrant colors and attention to detail, became an influential part of
Kashmiri art, echoing Persian themes while incorporating elements of local culture
and landscape.

Technique and Process in Kashmiri Miniatures

In Kashmir, miniature paintings followed the traditional Persian techniques

involving finely ground pigments and delicate brushwork. Artists often used natural
colors from minerals, vegetables, and precious stones, which were meticulously
prepared to achieve the desired vibrancy and translucency. The pigments were
mixed with an adhesive, often made from plant-based materials, to give the
artwork durability and luminosity. Each miniature was painted on a variety of
surfaces, including paper, ivory, or, occasionally, treated wood.
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Kashmiri miniature painters adapted Persian techniques of layering colors and

applying fine, almost calligraphic lines to delineate intricate details, especially in
facial features and clothing folds. The brushes, sometimes made from squirrel or
cat hair, were crafted for precision and allowed artists to execute fine details, such
as individual strands of hair or intricate floral designs.

Style and Themes

Kashmiri miniature painting encompassed a range of themes, often rooted in

Persian poetry, mythology, and Islamic iconography, which resonated deeply with
the spiritual and poetic traditions of the region. Persian influences brought mythical
stories, floral motifs, and Islamic geometry into Kashmiri miniatures. These
paintings often depicted narratives from Persian epics like the Shahnameh or
scenes inspired by poets like Rumi and Hafez, infusing local sensibilities and
landscapes into these themes.

Kashmiri miniatures frequently featured figures with delicate, elongated faces,

expressive eyes, and elaborate costumes, reflecting both Persian stylization and the
unique attire and aesthetic sensibilities of Kashmir. Depictions of local flora and
fauna, like the chinar tree, saffron fields, and Himalayan landscapes, were
integrated into the Persian-style compositions, blending realism with idealized
beauty.
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The Legacy of Kashmiri Miniature Painting

Over time, Kashmiri miniature painting evolved to include influences from Hindu
mythology, especially during periods when the art form was patronized by Hindu
rulers and nobles. This led to the development of unique styles that incorporated
Hindu deities, local legends, and motifs, creating a distinctive Kashmiri identity
within the broader Persian tradition.

Today, Kashmiri miniature painting stands as a testimony to the region's ability to

assimilate foreign influences and transform them into something distinctly local,
preserving the essence of Persian artistry while adding elements unique to
Kashmir’s natural and cultural landscape. This art form continues to be celebrated
for its elegance, spiritual themes, and cultural fusion, offering a timeless
representation of the Persian-Kashmiri artistic connection.
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● Fresco Art

The earliest examples of painting recognized as part of the Kashmiri regional style
are found in the frescoes at the Sumstek Temple and Dukhang shrine in the Alchi
Complex, dated to around the tenth century CE. These frescoes exhibit a vibrant
color palette and intricate royal themes, particularly visible in the detailing of
garments and accessories. Despite some shading in the flesh tones, the figures lack
pictorial depth, with human and animal figures appearing almost as if they are
floating in space. This stylistic choice is indicative of influences from the
Turko-Persian artistic traditions, particularly in terms of iconography, attire, motifs,
and facial features.

A closer examination of the Sumstek Temple frescoes reveals the presence of the
Persio-Turkic qaba robes, characterized by elaborate patterns along the sleeves,
collars, and hems. These designs bear a close resemblance to tirāz, a textile art
form patronized by the Umayyad royalty, suggesting a strong connection with
Persianate aesthetics. The inclusion of such patterns points to the cultural
exchange that took place between Central Asia and Kashmir, as the region lay on
crucial trade and cultural exchange routes. This blending of styles reflects the
evolution of a cosmopolitan artistic identity within Kashmir, as observed by art
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historian Pratapaditya Pal. He views these frescoes as a synthesis of Turko-Persian

and Indic elements, marking a departure from earlier Buddhist compositions while
retaining the vivid color palette characteristic of the period.

A distinct feature that further exemplifies Persian influence is the stylization of the
eye, which extends beyond the profile of the face. This feature became a signature
element of Kashmiri painting up to the nineteenth century, symbolizing a
divergence from the naturalistic tendencies in Mughal art and a closer alignment
with the Persianate style, notably the Herat School. Unlike Mughal art, which
emphasized realism and depth, the Kashmiri style maintained a flat, decorative
approach to spatial representation, often adorning the background with patterns or
simplified landscapes.

The Kashmiri tradition of painting preserved its identity even during the Mughal
rule, despite pressures to conform to the aesthetics of the imperial court. Many
local painters, upon joining the Mughal ateliers, had to adapt their techniques and
stylistic expressions to align with the Mughal preference for realism and intricate
detail. Yet, Kashmiri artists managed to retain elements of their indigenous style,
particularly in manuscripts where calligraphy and image coexisted. With the
prominence of nastaʿlīq script at Akbar’s court, this style of calligraphy also gained
favor in Kashmir, especially under the patronage of Sultan Yusuf Shah and his son,
Sultan Yaqub Shah.

This Persianate influence on both visual and textual arts in Kashmir is evident in
illuminated manuscripts and frescoes, which showcase a harmonious blend of
Persian motifs and Kashmiri sensibilities. Over time, these elements became
integral to the Kashmiri aesthetic, setting it apart from other regional styles and
embedding a distinct Persianate character within the Kashmiri cultural and artistic
legacy. This synthesis of Persian and local elements in Kashmiri frescoes,
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architecture, and manuscripts represents a rich fusion that contributed to a unique

artistic heritage, resisting full assimilation into the Mughal artistic mainstream while
embracing the broader cosmopolitan influences of the time.

● CALLIGRAPHY

Persian calligraphy has profoundly influenced Kashmiri art, particularly in its

development of calligraphy as an esteemed practice in the region. This influence
began with the arrival of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, a Persian Sufi saint who brought
with him skilled artisans and calligraphers from Persia in the 14th century. Their
migration infused Persian aesthetics into Kashmiri culture, especially in language,
art, and religious practices.

In Kashmiri calligraphy, Persian scripts like Nastaliq, known for its fluid and elegant
form, became dominant. This script, prized for its delicate curves and grace, is
well-suited for writing Persian and Urdu poetry and has become the preferred style
for Quranic verses and religious texts in Kashmir. Nastaliq is now a significant
component of Kashmiri calligraphy, gracing the walls of mosques, shrines, and
manuscripts.

Calligraphic art in Kashmir is not limited to manuscripts but extends to architectural

elements. Shrines, mosques, and even household items like papier-mâché objects
 31

are adorned with Persian calligraphy, blending Persian sensibilities with local
Kashmiri motifs. Traditional papier-mâché artisans, for instance, often integrate
Persian-script calligraphy into floral designs, creating a fusion that’s unique to
Kashmiri handicrafts.

The Persian influence also introduced a sense of reverence for calligraphy as an art
form, often associating it with spiritual and intellectual pursuits. Persian calligraphy,
therefore, not only contributed stylistically but also helped shape Kashmiri artistic
values, blending beauty with spirituality in a manner that continues to resonate
today.
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THE MUGHAL ERA AND ITS CONTRIBUTION

The Mughal influence on Kashmiri art introduced a rich blend of Persian aesthetics
and Indian artistic traditions, notably enhancing landscape paintings, mural art, and
calligraphy. This period saw an increased appreciation for Kashmir's natural beauty,
reflected in landscape paintings that used vivid colors and delicate brushwork to
capture the region's serene gardens, rivers, and mountains. Murals adorned
palaces and public spaces with intricate floral motifs, birds, and scenic elements,
showcasing a balance of symmetry and detail. Calligraphy also flourished, as scripts
like Nastaliq graced manuscripts and architectural surfaces, adding elegance and
sophistication to Kashmiri art, harmonizing these three art forms into a distinct
cultural legacy.

LANDSCAPE ART
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The Mughal influence on Kashmiri art, particularly in landscape painting, represents

a remarkable fusion of Persian, Indian, and later European elements, evolving
through the artistic patronage of emperors like Akbar and Jahangir. This evolution
in style began with strong Persian roots, influenced by the traditions brought by
early Mughal artists. In Akbar’s reign (1556-1605), landscape paintings closely
followed Persian conventions, as seen in the Hamzanama series, which featured
narrative scenes with distinctive Persian features: stylized clouds, floral patterns,
and vibrant blue skies. This approach focused on idealized and decorative
compositions rather than realistic depictions.

However, during the latter part of Akbar’s rule, there was a notable shift toward
realism, as artists were increasingly encouraged to draw from life. This movement
away from stylization became even more pronounced under Jahangir (r.
1605-1627), who had a deep appreciation for the natural world. Jahangir was known
for his meticulous attention to detail and his love for flora and fauna. Under his
reign, landscape art transformed significantly, moving toward a more naturalistic
style. Artists began to render trees, clouds, and water with lifelike qualities, creating
scenes that highlighted natural beauty rather than simply decorative patterns. This
shift reflected the Mughal interest in capturing the essence of the environment
around them, which was also reflected in Jahangir’s personal writings about
Kashmir, where he described its beauty with deep admiration.

European influence further enriched Mughal art during Jahangir’s reign, as

European artists and artworks made their way to the Mughal court through Jesuit
missionaries and traders. This contact introduced new techniques, particularly in
the use of perspective and shading, which Mughal artists integrated into their
works. They adapted European methods, such as realistic depictions of plants and
 34

animals, into their own style, blending it with Mughal aesthetics. The renowned
painter Ustad Mansoor, celebrated for his realistic studies of animals and birds,
exemplified this trend. His works reflect a precise, observational approach that
combines Mughal elegance with a distinctly lifelike quality, evident in his detailed
portrayals of exotic animals.

Jahangir’s passion for nature also led him to establish gardens in Kashmir, which
not only served as retreats but also inspired artistic representations of these
landscapes. These gardens symbolized the Mughal concept of paradise on earth,
and artists began incorporating elements such as lush greenery, flowing streams,
and native wildlife into their compositions. The Mughal style of landscape painting
from this period often depicted these natural settings with an emphasis on
harmony and splendor, integrating the physical beauty of Kashmir into Mughal art’s
refined aesthetic.

This combination of Persian stylization, Indian naturalism, and European realism

under Mughal patronage gave rise to a unique artistic heritage in Kashmiri
landscape art. By blending these elements, Mughal artists created an enduring style
that captured both the grandeur of the landscape and the delicate details of nature.
Their work not only left a legacy within Kashmiri art but also influenced subsequent
artistic traditions across South Asia, celebrating the region’s rich environmental and
cultural beauty.
 35

Mural paintings

The influence of Mughal mural art on Kashmiri artistic traditions is a significant

facet of the region's cultural heritage. Under the Mughal emperors, especially
during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, Kashmir witnessed an infusion
of Mughal aesthetic principles in its art and architecture. Mughal murals, which
often decorated palace walls, mosques, and public structures, emphasized
grandeur and ornate designs. Their influence can be seen in the themes, styles, and
techniques that later emerged in Kashmiri mural art.

Key Aspects of Mughal Influence on Kashmiri Murals:

1. Themes and Subject Matter: Mughal murals were known for their rich, diverse
themes, ranging from courtly life, hunting scenes, and mythical narratives to lush
landscapes and floral designs. This thematic variety inspired Kashmiri artists, who
adapted these motifs to reflect local tastes and settings. In Kashmiri murals, similar
floral and natural patterns became popular, often infused with local colors and
styles. The Mughal interest in capturing realistic portrayals of nature and courtly
scenes resonated with Kashmiri artists, who incorporated these elements while
adding their regional sensibilities.
 36

2. Architectural Integration: Mughal murals were an integral part of architectural

decoration, blending seamlessly with the structures they adorned. In Kashmir,
Mughal architectural styles influenced the design of buildings, gardens, and shrines,
which often featured wall paintings inspired by Mughal aesthetics. The Shalimar
Bagh and Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, built under Mughal patronage, became canvases
for mural art that reflected the Mughal emphasis on symmetry, vibrant colors, and
intricate detail. This tradition of decorating architectural spaces with murals
persisted, with local artists contributing to the visual richness of shrines and
palaces.

3. Stylistic Elements: Mughal murals emphasized realism in their portrayal of

human figures, animals, and botanical elements, influenced by Persian and
European art. In Kashmir, this realism blended with indigenous styles, resulting in a
unique artistic expression. Mughal-inspired mural paintings in Kashmir show finely
drawn floral and geometric patterns, reflecting the Mughal mastery of intricate
details. Additionally, the delicate use of color, refined outlines, and balanced
compositions became defining features of Kashmiri mural art, echoing the Mughal
stylistic language.

4. Floral and botanical motifs: The Mughal fascination with gardens and nature
found expression in floral and botanical motifs, which became prevalent in mural
decorations across Kashmir. These motifs, influenced by Persian and Central Asian
styles, depicted flowers, vines, and foliage with a naturalistic approach, symbolizing
paradise and beauty. In Kashmiri mural art, the Mughal floral style was adapted to
fit local aesthetics, creating elaborate designs that combined local flora with Mughal
techniques.

5. Use of Color and Materials: The Mughal palette was known for its vivid colors,
achieved through natural pigments. Kashmiri artists adopted similar color schemes,
 37

using mineral and plant-based pigments to create vibrant murals. This use of
high-quality materials contributed to the lasting appeal of Kashmiri murals, many of
which still retain their original brightness. Mughal influence encouraged the use of
rich blues, greens, and reds, which became staples in Kashmiri mural art.

6. Integration of Persian Influence: Mughal mural art was deeply influenced by

Persian aesthetics, as many of the Mughal court artists were of Persian origin. This
influence permeated into Kashmiri art through the Mughals, blending Persian
iconography, ornamental patterns, and stylized forms with local themes.
Persian-inspired cloud bands, floral arrangements, and narrative scenes became
central to Kashmiri mural compositions, adding a layer of sophistication and
cultural depth.

Examples of Mughal-Influenced Kashmiri Murals

Some of the best examples of Mughal-inspired murals in Kashmir can be seen in

shrines and historical structures that bear intricate wall paintings. The mosques
and shrines in Srinagar, including the Jama Masjid and the Shah Hamdan Mosque,
feature decorative murals and wood carvings influenced by Mughal aesthetics.
These murals display floral motifs, arabesques, and calligraphy, which were
characteristic of Mughal decoration but adapted with a Kashmiri flair.

Mughal mural art left a lasting imprint on Kashmiri artistic traditions, inspiring local
artists to adopt and adapt Mughal themes, styles, and techniques. By blending
Persian and Mughal elements with local materials and motifs, Kashmiri mural art
evolved into a distinctive expression that celebrated both local identity and the
grandeur of Mughal aesthetics. This fusion not only enriched Kashmiri art but also

solidified its connection to the broader cultural developments of the Mughal

Empire, contributing to a shared heritage that continues to be admired today.
 38

Calligraphy

The arrival of the Mughals in Kashmir introduced a refined calligraphic tradition

that reshaped the region’s visual and literary landscape. Emperors Akbar and
Jahangir promoted the Nastaliq and Naskh scripts, particularly Nastaliq, which Abul
Fazl described as the “Round Persian” characters. This elegant style, known for its
fluid and harmonious strokes, quickly gained popularity throughout the Mughal
dominion, leaving a lasting impact on Kashmir.

Distinctiveness of Mughal Calligraphy Compared to Persian Influence

While Persian styles like Kufi, Makramat Suls, Riqa, and Shaifa had already
established a presence in Kashmir, the Mughal emphasis on Nastaliq brought a
fresh elegance to the art form. Unlike the more rigid Persian scripts, Nastaliq
 39

featured a flowing and graceful style that resonated widely in Kashmiri manuscripts
and architecture. The inscriptions on Mughal coins, as well as on monuments like
the Verinag spring and Kathi Darwaza, further popularized this aesthetic,
distinguishing it from earlier Persian influences.

Flourishing of Calligraphy under Mughal Patronage

The Mughals actively promoted calligraphy by appointing and honoring skilled

calligraphers from Kashmir. Renowned artists such as Mohammad Hussain
Kashmiri (Zarin Qalam) and Mohammad Murad Kashmiri (Shirin Qalam) flourished
under the Mughal court’s patronage. Their work and influence extended beyond
royal courts, as Kashmiri artisans adopted calligraphy as a profession, creating a
thriving cultural tradition that reached rural areas and common spaces.

Legacy and Modern Preservation

This Mughal-led calligraphic renaissance left an indelible mark on Kashmir, with

Nastaliq and Naskh styles now intrinsic to the region’s manuscripts and cultural
artifacts. Today, institutions like the Academy of Art, Culture, and Languages
continue to promote and preserve these traditions through workshops and archival
efforts, ensuring that the Mughal calligraphic legacy in Kashmir remains a
celebrated aspect of its artistic heritage.
 40

Conclusion :Preserving the Legacy: The Future of Kashmiri Art

The rich tapestry of Kashmiri art, woven through centuries of diverse

influences—from Buddhism and Hinduism to Persian and Mughal
traditions—reflects not only the historical and cultural evolution of the region but
also its profound connection to the collective identity of its people. As we examine
the intricate forms, techniques, and themes that have emerged from this artistic
heritage, it becomes increasingly clear that preserving and nurturing this art is not
merely an act of safeguarding history; it is a vital investment in the future of
Kashmir.

Looking ahead, the future of Kashmiri art hinges on a conscious effort to preserve
its traditional forms while also encouraging innovation and adaptation. To achieve
this, it is essential to establish platforms that promote local artists, provide training
in traditional techniques, and foster an appreciation for the cultural narratives
embedded within these art forms. Educational initiatives can play a crucial role in
revitalizing interest among younger generations, ensuring that they inherit the
skills and knowledge necessary to carry this legacy forward.

Moreover, integrating traditional art into contemporary contexts can enhance its
relevance and appeal. Collaborations between artists and artisans from various
backgrounds can lead to the creation of hybrid forms that respect the essence of
Kashmiri art while embracing modern aesthetics and techniques. This not only
keeps the art alive but also opens avenues for dialogue, exchange, and
collaboration, enriching the creative landscape.
 41

The significance of Kashmiri art extends beyond cultural expression; it also holds
immense potential for economic development. By promoting traditional crafts and
artworks, we can create job opportunities, attract tourism, and stimulate local
economies. Art can serve as a unique selling point for Kashmir, drawing visitors
eager to experience its vibrant culture firsthand. Additionally, leveraging digital
platforms for marketing and sales can expand the reach of Kashmiri art, allowing
artists to connect with a global audience and fostering a sense of pride in their
heritage.

Ultimately, the preservation and evolution of Kashmiri art are not just about
maintaining a connection to the past; they are about envisioning a future where
this art form continues to thrive and inspire. By recognizing its cultural, social, and
economic significance, we can ensure that Kashmiri art remains a vital part of our
collective identity, contributing to the richness of our cultural heritage and shaping
the identity of future generations. Embracing this responsibility will not only honor
our ancestors but also pave the way for a vibrant artistic legacy that resonates
with the world.
 42

References

Books

Pal, P. (Ed.). (2008). The Arts of Kashmir. Asia Society Museum.

Saraf, D. N. (1987). The Arts and Crafts of Kashmir. Abhinav Publications.

Mitra, D. (1982). Buddhist Art in Kashmir. Sahitya Samsad.

Fazl, A. (Translated by H. Blochmann). (1873). Ain-e-Akbari. Asiatic Society of Bengal.

. Shokoohy, M. (1993). Persian Influence on Kashmiri Art. Islamic Arts Society.

Article

Beig, M. S. (2013, March 25). A Lasting Influence. Kashmir Life. Retrieved from
[Kashmir Life link if available]

Research Papers

Hasan, S. (2021). Landscape Paintings in the Mughal Period: Beginnings of

Landscape in the Mughal Period. Hamidia Girl's Degree College, Faculty of Visual
Arts, Prayagraj.

Hamdani, H. S., & Qureshi, M. (2024, January 11). The Art of the Book in Early
Modern Kashmir. ResearchGate.

Artists

Ahmad, R. (n.d.). Famous Paper Mache Craftsman from Srinagar

Nubgya, B. (n.d.). Thangka Artist from Shigatse, Tibet.

Websites
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● JK Arts Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.jkartsfoundation.in

● Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved from https://artsandculture.google.com
● Greater Kashmir.). Retrieved from https://www.greaterkashmir.com
● Victoria and Albert Museum. . Retrieved from https://www.vam.ac.uk
● Harvard Art Museums. Retrieved from https://harvardartmuseums.org
● Hands of Gold Kashmir. Retrieved from https://handsofgold.in
● Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved from https://www.iranicaonline.org
● Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://www.wikipedia.org
● Rising Kashmir. Retrieved from https://risingkashmir.com

YouTube Channels

1. Rubin Museum of Himalayan Art. YouTube channel. Retrieved from

https://youtube.com/@rubinmuseum?si=suvzFGfuVepIZUbP

2. MeMeraki. YouTube channel. Retrieved from

https://youtube.com/@me_meraki?si=NW2GPqhLG5xRilEc

3. Kiran Nadar Museum of Art. YouTube channel. Retrieved from

https://youtube.com/@knmaindia?si=8Ehu0G0d7Q7SLmMa

4. Search Kashmir.. YouTube channel. Retrieved from

https://youtube.com/@searchkashmir?si=vmq8Z1v6jHbhWkim

5. WildFilmsIndia. YouTube channel. Retrieved from

https://youtube.com/@wildfilmsindia?si=XiMuOSxbnInKQ6h9

6. The Quint . YouTube channel. Retrieved from

https://youtube.com/@thequint?si=SYr4kLvY_shWhlpp
 44

"To preserve art is to preserve our history; to celebrate it is to.

honor our future.”

~Munazah Rafiq