Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Soil Fertility,
Soil Chemistry
and Nutrient

Summarized by:

Soil Fertility, Soil Chemistry and Nutrient 1

 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

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Index

S.No. Topic Name Page

No.
1. Soil Fertility 5
2. The criteria of essentiality put forth by Arnon 7
3. Movement of ions to roots-Mass flow, diffusion 10
4. Nitrogen 12
5. Nitrification 15
6. Nitrogen Fixation 18
7. Phosphorus-P cycle 22
8. Factors affecting phosphate fixation in soil 24
10. Potassium – content in soil, source, forms of soil potassium 27
11. Secondary Nutrients 30
12. Magnesium 33
13. Sulphur & Sulphur Oxidation 50
14. Micronutrients 40
15. Zinc 42
16. Copper and Iron 45
17. Manganese 50
18. Boron 52
21. Molybdenum and Chlorine 55
22. Soil pH 59
23. Importance of Soil pH on nutrient availability of plant nutrient 62
24. Problematic soil 65
25. Reclamation of problematic soils 70
26. Irrigation water 74
27. Soil fertility Evaluation 78
28. Plant analysis 80
29. Biological methods of soil fertility evaluation 83
30. Pot culture test 85
31. Nutrient use efficiency 87
32. Use of fertilizer and insecticides in Agriculture 91

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Soil fertility: Soil fertility is defined as the quality that enables the soil to provide proper
nutrient compounds in proper amounts and in proper balance for the growth of specified
plants. Soil fertility is also defined as the ability of soil to supply adequately the nutrients
normally taken from the soil by plants.

Soil Chemistry: It deals with the chemical constitution of the soil - the chemical properties
and the chemical reactions in soils. It is the study of chemical composition of soil in relation
to crop needs.

Soil fertility and Soil productivity

Soil fertility Soil productivity
1. It is the inherent capacity of the 1. Soil productivity emphasizes the capacity
soil to provide essential chemical of soil to produce crops and is expressed
elements for plant growth in terms of yield.
2. A combination of soil properties 2. An economic concept and not a property
and an aspect of soil – plant of soil
relationships.
3. Soil fertility is vital to a 3. Soil fertility is one factor among all the
productive soil. But a fertile soil external factors that control plant growth
is not necessarily be a productive like air heat (temp.), light, mechanical
soil. Many factors can limit support, soil fertility and water. Plant
production, even when fertility is depends on soil for all these factors
adequate. For eg., soils in arid except for light.
region may be fertile but not
productive.
4. Organic matter in the soil 4. Organic matter also improves soil
improves soil fertility by productivity by improving soil porosity,
mineralization of nutrients. aggregation and physical condition of
soil thus modifying the soil environment
for crop growth.
Concepts of soil fertility and soil productivity

➢ The impactof soil on the growth of plants and made a mention about the application of
organic wastes and saltpeter for the plants.
➢ The increase in the weight of plant during its growth was reported by Nicholas (1401 -
1446).
➢ Jan Baptiste van Helmont (1577-1644) attributed the increase in weight of willow shoot
to water.
➢ But a German chemist, Glauber (1604-1668), who attributed the growth of plants to the

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absorption of saltpeter (KNO3) from the soil.

➢ John Woodward (during the year about 1700) first conducted water culture experiments
on spearmint and emphasized that the growth factor is some terrestrial matter but not the
water.
➢ Jean Baptiste Boussingault (1802-1882) carried out field plot experiments. He was
called as ‘father of field plot technique’.
➢ Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) put forth the ‘law of minimum’ which states that the yield
is governed by the limiting nutrient and is directly proportional to the factor which is
minimum in the soil.
Soil as a source of plant nutrients

Soils are complex natural formations on the surface of the earth and consist of five main
components: mineral matter, organic matter, water, air and living organisms. The rocks and
minerals on weathering release nutrients into the soil. The most important part of the soil with
respect to plant nutrition is the colloidal fraction which consists of inorganic colloids (clay)
and organic colloids (humic substances). Most of soil colloids possess electronegative
adsorption sites available for attracting cations including calcium, magnesium, potassium,
ammonium etc as well as H+ arising from the biological activity. Organic matter on
decomposition releases nutrients. The cations adsorbed on the surface of the colloids are
capable of exchanging rapidly and reversibly with those in soil solution.

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Lecture 2: Nutrient elements

The criteria of essentiality put forth by Arnon

In order to distinguish the elements which are essential from those which may be taken in by
the plants but are not essential, Arnon (1954) has laid down the following criteria.

1. The plant must be unable to grow normally or complete its life cycle in the absence of
the element.
2. The element is specific and cannot be replaced by another.

3. The element plays a direct role in plant metabolism.

It appears that an element would have to be considered essential even if it has not been possible
to demonstrate that it fulfills the second criterion of essentiality. For ex., for many bacteria,
diatoms and other algae, vitamin B12 is known to be essential, but the essentiality of cobalt
per se has not been demonstrated. D.J. Nicholas gave more exact definition of essential
elements and advanced the term “functional or metabolic nutrient” to include any mineral
element that functions in plant metabolism, whether or not its action is specific.

Terminology

Plant nutrition: Plant nutrition is defined as the supply and absorption of chemical
compounds required for plant growth and metabolism. It is the process of absorption and
utilization of essential elements for plant growth and reproduction.

Nutrient: Nutrient may be defined as the chemical compound or ion required by anorganism.
The mechanism by which the nutrients are converted to cellular material or used for energetic
purposes are known as metabolic processes.

Beneficial elements: The elements, the essentiality of which for growth and metabolism has
not been unequivocally established, but which are shown to exert beneficial effects at very
low concentrations are often referred to as beneficial elements, or potential micronutrients.
Eg : Silicon, vanadium,cobalt and aluminum.

Functional element: Nicholas D J (1961) advanced the term functional or metabolic nutrient
to include any mineral element that functions in plant metabolism whether or not its action
is specific.

To describe the level of nutrient element in plants the following terms are proposed.

1. Deficient : When an essential element is at low concentration that severely limits yield
and produces more or less distinct deficiency symptoms.
2. Toxic : when the concentration of either essential or other element is sufficiently high to
inhibit the plant growth to a great extent.

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Classification of essential nutrients: The essential plant nutrients may be divided into
macronutrients (primary and secondary nutrients) and micronutrients.

A. Macronutrients.

Macronutrients or major nutrients are so called because they are required by plants in larger
amounts. These are found and needed in plants in relatively higher amounts than
micronutrients. They include C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S. C, H and O constitute 90 – 95
per cent of the plant dry matter weight and supplied through CO2 and water. Remaining six
macronutrients are further sub divided into primary and secondary nutrients.

i) Primary nutrients: Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are termed as primary nutrients
because the correction of their wide-spread deficiencies is often necessary through the
application ofcommercial fertilizers of which these are the major constituents.
ii) Secondary nutrients: Calcium, magnesium and sulphur are termed as secondary nutrients
because of their moderate requirement by plants, localized deficiencies and their
inadvertent accretions through carriers of the primary nutrients. For example, the
phosphatic fertilizer, single super phosphate (SSP) contains both Ca and S. Similarly,
ammonium sulphate, a nitrogenous fertilizer also supplements S.
B. Micronutrients:

Micronutrient is an element that is required in relatively small quantities but is as essential as

macronutrients. These elements have often been called trace elements. They are again
classified into micronutrient cations (eg. Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu) and micronutrient anions (eg.,
B, Mo and Cl) depending upon the form in which they are available.

Primary nutrients (C, H, O, N, P, K)

Macronutrients

Secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg, S)

Plant nutrients
Micronutrients
Cationic Eg: Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co

Anionic Eg: Mo, B, V, Cl,

The classification of plant nutrients is as below:

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Essential plant Nutrient Biochemical functions

1st Group Major constituent of organic material, essential elements of
C, H, O, N, S atomic groups which are involved in enzymatic processes
and assimilation by oxidation – reduction reactions.
2nd group Esterification with native alcohol groups in plants.
P, B, Si Involved in energy transfer reactions.
3rd group Nonspecific functions establishing osmotic potentials.
K, Na, Mg, Ca, Mn, Cl enzyme activation, balance of ions, controlling
membrane permeability and electro potentials.
4th group Present predominantly in a chelated form incorporated
Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo in prosthetic groups.

Based on mobility in plant

S.N. Mobile Partly mobile Immobile
1. Nitrogen Iron Calcium
2. Phosphorus Zinc Sulphur
3. Potassium Copper Boron
4. Magnesium Molybdenum

Mobile nutrient: Mobile nutrients are those when deficient in the plant, move from the
matured tissue (older leaves) to the young meristem thus the deficiency symptoms are
manifested on the older tissue.

Immobile nutrient: Immobile nutrients are those which under the situation of deficiency in
the soil cannot move from older to younger tissue and hence the deficiency symptoms appear
first on the younger leaves.

Essential Nutrient

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Lecture 3:

Movement of ions soils to roots - Mass flow, diffusion,

root interception and contact exchange

Movement of ions from soils to roots

For the ions to be absorbed by plants roots, they must come in contact with the root surface.
This generally takes place by three ways in which the nutrientions in soil may reach the
root surface

I. Movement of ions by mass movement in the soil solution – Mass flow.

II. Diffusion of ions in the soil solution – Diffusion.

III. Root interception and contact exchange.

I. Mass flow:

Mass flow, a convective process occurs when plant nutrient ions and other dissolved
substances are transported in the flow of water to the root in enmesh those results from
transpiration water uptake by the root. This depends on the rate of water flow or the water
consumption of plants. Mass flow supplies an over-abundance of calcium, magnesium is
many soils and the most mobile nutrients such as N and S.

Factors affecting mass flow As mass flow involves nutrient movement with water, both the
amount of water and volume of soil it comes from, affect the mass flow.

1) Soil moisture content: In dry soil, no mass flow of nutrients occurs because there is no
water to carry them to the plant roots. .
2) Soil temperature: Low temperature reduces transpiration and evaporation;resultantly
reduced water flux occurs across the roots.
3) Size of the root system affects the water uptake and consequential mass flow. Root
density, however, is much less critical for nutrient supply by mass flow than for root
interception and diffusion.
II. Diffusion :

Diffusion occurs when an ion moves from an area of high concentration to one of low
concentration by random thermal motion. As plant roots absorb nutrients from the
surrounding soil solution, a diffusion gradient is set up. A high root absorbing power results
in a high diffusion gradient favoring ion transport. The three principal factors influencing the
movement of nutrients into the roots are the diffusion coefficient,concentration of the nutrient
in soil solution and the buffering capacity of the solid phase to release nutrients into the soil

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solutions. Soil moisture is a major factor that affects the relative significance of the mass
flow and diffusion. Diffusion becomes progressively less important as the moisture content
decreases.

Factors affecting diffusion

1. Soil water: The higher the moisture content, higher will be the diffusion coefficient, until
the moisture content reaches saturation.
2. Soil compaction: Incremental increase in the soil compaction at the same moisture
content leads to the exclusion of air; soil particles come closer, the continuity of moisture
flows increases, path to be traversed by the ion by diffusion becomes less tortuous and
resultantly, the diffusion coefficientexhibits an increase.
3. Temperature: The rate of chemical reaction doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature.
The increase in temperature increases the effective diffusion coefficient of a nutrient ion.
4. Chemical amendments: Chemical treatments modify the concentration of the nutrient
ions in soil solution as given below
➢ Amelioration of soil acidity through liming raises the pH of the soil. Thus, diffusion
coefficient of cations decreases, and anion increases as a result of liming.
➢ Application of gypsum to a sodic soil reduces the soil pH, as a result of which
diffusion coefficient raises.
➢ Organic manures act as the store house of nutrients. In addition, they release low
molecular weight organic substances which havethe ability to form complexes with
cations. This increases the diffusion coefficient of nutrients.
III. Root interception and ion exchange: Jenny and Overstreet (1939) propounded the
‘theory of contact exchange’. Theory of contact exchange rests on the concept of
overlapping oscillation spaces of adsorbed ions, or redistribution within intermingling
electric double layers.

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Lecture 4:

Nitrogen

The ultimate source of nitrogen used by the plants is the inert gas nitrogen, which constitutes
about 78 % (by volume) of the earth’s atmosphere. The ploughed layer of majority of
cultivated soils contains about 0.02 – 0.04% nitrogen.

Factors influencing the content of N in soils

a) Climate
(i) Temperature: Lower the temperature higher is the N content due to more organic
matter addition and slow rate of decomposition.
(ii) Water supply: Soil N content increases with water supply up to field capacity.

b) Effect of cultivation: N content decreases with cultivation due to organic matterloss through
decomposition.
c) Soil texture: Finer the texture, higher is the N content.

d) Depth in the profile: Surface soil has more N content than deeper soils.

Forms of soil nitrogen: The total nitrogen content of soils ranges from less than 0.02 % in
sub soils to more than 2.5 % in peat soils. The N present in soil can generally be classed as
inorganic (around 2 %) and organic (around 98 %).

1. Inorganic nitrogen compounds: The inorganic forms of soil nitrogen include

ammonium (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), nitric oxide (NO) nitrous oxide
(N2O) and elemental nitrogen. NH4+, NO3- and NO2- are important in soil fertilityand
represent 2 to 5 % of total nitrogen.
2. Organic nitrogen compounds : occur as consolidated amino acids or proteins, free
amino acids, amino sugars and other unidentified compounds like materials that result
from the reaction of NH4+ with lignin, polymerization of Quinone’s and nitrogen
compounds, the condensation of sugars and amines. Bound amino acids are to the extent
of 20-40 %, amino sugars (hexosamines) 5 to 10 %, purine and pyrimidine derivatives 1
% or less.

Mineralization of N compounds: N mineralization is simply the conversion of organic

nitrogen to mineral form (NH4+, NO3-, and NO2-). When organic residues having a C: N ratio
wider than 30 are added to the soil, immobilization of nitrogen takes place. If C:N ratio is
narrow i.e., less than 20 (for legume residues), mineralization is the result. It takes place
essentially by three steps.

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1. Aminisation 2. Ammonification 3. Nitrification.

1. Aminisation: Heterotrophic soil microbes, mostly, bacteria like Pseudomonas and

Bacillus are believed to dominate in the breakdown of proteins in neutral and alkaline
soils. Under acidic conditions fungi prevail. In this step hydrolytic decomposition of
proteins and release of amines and amino acids takes place.

Proteins → R-NH2 + CO2 + Energy + other products.

2. Ammonification : The amines and amino acids so released are further utilized by still
other groups of heterotrophs with the release of ammonical compounds. The step is
termed as ammonification.

R-NH2 + HOH → NH3 + R – OH + Energy.

4
NH3 + H2O → NH + + OH-

The ammonium thus formed may be nitrified to nitrite and nitrate which are used by
plants.

Fate of released ammonium in the soil

1. It may be converted to nitrites and nitrates by the process of nitrification.

2. It may be absorbed directly by higher plants.

3. It may be utilized by heterotrophic organisms in further decomposingorganic carbon

residues.
4. It may be fixed in biologically unavailable form in the lattice of certainexpanding type
clay minerals.
5. It could be released back to the atmosphere through volatilization

Ammonium fixation

In agricultural soils, 5 – 20 % of the total nitrogen is found as fixed ammonium ion, with an
average of 10 %. When ammonium containing or ammonium forming fertilizers are added
to the soil, most of ammonium gets adsorbed on the cation exchange sites, but a part of it is
susceptible to strong adsorption in the interlayer spaces of some 2:1 layer silicate clay mineral
with an expanding lattice.

Factors affecting ammonium fixation

1. Type and amount of clay: NH4+ fixation increases with increase in the content
particularly 2:1 type of clay minerals like vermiculite, finegrained mica and smectite.
2. Moisture content of the soil: The moisture content and temperature of the soil
4

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+.
will affect the fixation of NH Freezing and drying increases the fixation.
Alternate cycles of wetting and drying; freezing and thawing are believed to
+2
contribute to the stability of recently fixed NH

3. Amount of K+: The presence of K+ will restrict NH + fixation

4 sinceK+ also
fills the fixation sites.

4. Depth of the soil: Fixation of NH + is generally

4 higher in sub soil than surface
soil due to higher clay content and lower rate of nitrification.
+
5. Organic matter content: Higher the organic matter content more is the NH
fixation.4

6. Population of nitrifying bacteria: Nitrifying bacteria oxidize NH + to nitrite

4

and nitrates thus reducing the chances for NH + fixation.

4

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Lecture 5:

Nitrification

Nitrification: The biological oxidation of NH + released by

4 the process of ammonification

to nitrate is known as nitrification. This process is carried out by nitrifying bacteria referred
to as nitrifies. It is a two-step process in which NH + is first converted to nitrite (NO -)4and
then to nitrate (NO -). Conversion to nitrite is brought about largely by a group of obligate
autotrophic bacteria known as Nitrosomonas as

2 NH4 + + 3 O2 → 2 NO2 - + 2H2O + 4H+

The conversion from nitrite to nitrate is affected by Nitrobacter as follows :

2 NO2 - + O2 → 2 NO3 -

Factors affecting nitrification

i) Supply of the ammonium ion: Because the substrate for the nitrifying bacteriais the
ammonium ion, a supply of this ion is the first requirement for nitrification.
ii) Population of nitrifying organisms: Under similar conditions of temperature,
moisture and added ammonia, the nitrification is greatly influenced by population of
nitrifying bacteria.
iii) Soil reaction: Nitrification takes place between pH of 5.5 to 10.0, with an optimum
around 8.5.
iv) Soil aeration: The nitrifying bacteria are anaerobes and hence require sufficient oxygen
supply.

v) Soil moisture: The rate at which nitrification proceeds in a soil is governed to a marked
extent by the water content being retarded by both very low or very high moisture
content.
vi) Temperature : Very low nearer freezing and increases rapidly up to 35oC.

vii) C : N ratio : when organic residues with wide C : N ratio are added, general purpose
decay organisms are dominant and nitrifies become inactive.
viii) Pesticides : Nitrifying organisms are quite sensitive to some pesticides.

Leaching losses of nitrate nitrogen:

Leaching loss of nitrogen from the soil is a loss from the soil-plant system and causes lower
efficiency of applied nitrogen. It may vary from 2 to 50 % of applied

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N. Of the total leaching loss, more than 90 % is in the form of NO - as mostly3 nitrate ions
are present in soil solution because of the reason that the anion exchange capacity of the soil
is much less than cation exchange capacity.

Denitrification :

Denitrification is a process limited to anoxic soils in which bacterial reduction of NO3 - and
NO2 - takes place leading to the release of NO, N2 O and N gases. When soils become
waterlogged, oxygen is excluded, and anaerobic decomposition takes place. Some anaerobic
organisms have the ability to obtain their oxygen from nitrates and nitrites with the
accompanying release of nitrous oxide and nitrogen.

Facultative anaerobic bacteria belonging to the genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus denitrificans

and Paracoccus are responsible for this. Autotrophs like Thiobacillus denitrificans also
brings about denitrification.

Nitrification inhibitors: Several products have been developed with the purpose of slowing
the release and/or nitrification of applied N to synchronize the supply of N with the crop
demand and consequently decrease nitrogen losses via leaching and / or denitrification. These
chemicals restrict the growth of Nitrosomonas and keep nitrogen in NH4+ form.

Natural nitrification inhibitors

Neem cake (Azadiracta indica)

Karanj cake (Pongamia glabra)

Neem oil and nimin

Chemical nitrification inhibitors

N - serve or nitrapyrin (2 chloro – 6 tri chloromethyl pyridine)

DCD (Dicyandiamide)
Sulphathiozole
Thiourea Hydroquinone
Calcium carbide (CaC2)
Phenyl phosphorodiamidate (PPD)
Nitrogen immobilization

Immobilization of nitrogen is the reverse of mineralization, and it occurs when large

quantities of low nitrogen crop residues with wide C:N ratio (>30:1)such as coconut coir
or cereal straw begin decomposing in soil, the high amounts of carbohydrates in such
residues cause the microbial population to build upquickly. As new cells are formed, nitrogen

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and other essential elements from soil are used to build protoplasm. This leads to a decrease
in the levels of inorganic nitrogen for crops. A shortage of nitrogen can be avoided in such
situations by supplying enough fertilizer nitrogen to compensate for immobilization and to
meet the crop requirements. This lockup of inorganic N of soil is temporary and slowly will
be released after mineralization.

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Lecture 6:

Nitrogen fixation

Different groups of N2 fixers : There are three main groups of N2 fixers as given below :

I. Symbiotic :

Symbiotic nitrogen fixers reduce nitrogen in association with plants by forming some
specialized structures in plants.

a) Legume – rhizobium symbiosis :

Some plants of leguminosae family form a symbiotic association with bacteria with the genus
Rhizobium which fix atmospheric nitrogen. Rhizobia infect the root moving to the root cortex
through an infection thread which results in the formation of a tiny outgrowth called root
nodule. Sesbania rostrata forms nodules on the stem as well. This association is host specific.
The Rhizobia turn to bacteroids which have nitrogenase enzyme embedded into
leghaemoglobin. The symbiotic association of the host and the bacterium is mutually
beneficial to both organisms. Specific species of bacterium infects the roots of a particular
group of legumes. This host specificity of different Rhizobium species or the group of legume
crops nodulated by single Rhizobium sp. is referred to as ‘cross inoculation group’.

Rhizobium sp. Plants nodulated

R. meliloti Medicago sativa (alfalfa), Melilotus sp. (sweet clover),

Medicago sp., Trigonella foenum grakum (fenugreek)

R. trifolii Trifolium sp. (red clover, white clover)
R. leguminosarum Pisum sativum (garden and field peas), Vicia faba
(broadbean), Lens esculenta (lentils), Lathyrus sp.
R. phaseoli Phaseolus vulgaris, P. coccineus
R. lupini Lupinus sp., Ornithopus sativus
R. japonicum Glycene max (soybean)
Rhizobium sp. Vigna ungiculata (cow pea), V. radiata (mung bean),

Arachis hypogeae (groundnut), Cajanus cajan (redgram)

Rhizobium sp. Cicer arietinum (chickpea), Sesbania sp.

b) Symbiosis with non-legumes

i) Non legume – Frankia symbiosis

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The member actinomycetes, the Frankia forms symbiosis with forest treesbelonging
to the families Casuarinaceae and Myricaceae.

ii) Azolla – Anabaena symbiosis :

Azolla is a freshwater fern found floating on the surface of water. All the species of
Azolla have an algal symbiont called Anabaena azollae in a specialized cavity inthe
upper leaf surface. In rice fields the symbiosis can fix N2 upto 30-40 kg N ha-1.

II. Non-specific associative N2 fixers :

Rhizobacteria like Azospirillum, Acetobacter, Azotobacter, Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas

etc. These bacteria are capable of using exudates of roots as the source of energy.

III. Free living nitrogen fixers:

4
Many soil bacteria are capable of reducing molecular N2 to NH + without forming any
association with plants. They supply about 10-15 kg N ha-1. They also function as plant
growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR).

The requirements of Biological N fixation are

i) An active nitrogenase enzyme system

ii) Mg2+ and a continuous supply of ATP

iii) A strong reducing agent i.e., suitable e- donor

iv) Low oxygen tension

Nitrogen balance sheet

I. Gains of N by soil: Acquisition of N by soil can happen through four ways.

1. N fixation by symbiotic bacteria: The bacteria which live in symbiotic relationship

with the host plant (legume) and fix N in the root nodules belong to the genus
Rhizobium. They derive the energy needed for this purpose from the carbohydrates of
the host plant.
2. Azofication: Heterotrophic free-living bacteria Azotobacter and Clostridium fixN
referred to as Azofication. These organisms derive energy from the decomposing
organic matter.
3. Additions through rain: on an average it is a believed that 5 kg N/ha is added to the
soil every year.
4. Additions through manures and fertilizers: The greater part of N gain by the soil
is acquired through crop residues, organic manures, green manures and N fertilizers.

II. Losses of N from the soil : The removal of N from the soil may be through

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1. Removal by crops and microorganism : This cannot be considered as a loss in real

sense, but a loss to the soil. Crop removal is the major loss of nitrogen to the soil

2. Leaching : Nitrogen can be lost due to leaching either as NO3- or NH4+. More than 90
%in the form of NO3- because AEC of soil is much lesser than CEC. The magnitude
of leaching loss depends on soil texture, soil moisture status, water table depth,
permeability and hydraulic conductivity of soil.
3. Gaseous loss of nitrogen: as NH3 by volatilization or as NO, N2O and N2
through denitrification.
a) Ammonia volatilization : Losses of N through NH3 ranges from 5 to 35

%. The Loss is less in flooded soil. Increase in pH to alkaline side results in

volatilization.

b) Denitrification : When the redox potential of the soil falls below + 250 mVin
soil due to submergence, the microbes like Thiobacillus denitrificansutilize the
oxygen from N compounds. These losses range from 10-40 %.
c) Chemodenitrification : Non microbial processes by which nitrogen may be
reduced in soil to gaseous form is known as chemodenitrification.
4. Immobilisation : Conversion of inorganic nitrogen to organic forms by soil
microorganisms is called immobilization.
5. Ammonium fixation by clay mineral : NH4+ is adsorbed strongly in the interlayer
spaces of 2 : 1 clay minerals.
6. Soil erosion and runoff. Runoff may be as high as 70 %.

Balance sheet of Nitrogen can be worked out by taking into consideration of additions and
losses of N.

Nitrogen balance = (Amount of fertilizer N added to soil + N added through crop residues,
irrigation and rainwater, manure) – (crop uptake of N + N loss through various processes +
N remaining in the soil).

Functions of nitrogen in plants: In N sufficient plants, its concentration varies from 1

to 5 %. Cell cytoplasm and organelles contain N in combination with C, H, O, P and S.

➢ It’s an essential component of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, porphyrins, flavins,
purines and pyrimidine nucleotides, flavin nucleotides, enzymes, coenzymes and alkaloids.
➢ N containing chlorophyll fixes atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis.
➢ Being a constituent of RNA and DNA, N is responsible for transfer of genetic code.
➢ Improves the quality of leafy vegetables and fodders.
➢ Improves the quality by increasing protein content.

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Deficiency symptoms: Plants having less than 1 % nitrogen are usually regarded as deficient
in N.

➢ Due to high mobility of N in plants, its deficiency symptoms first appear on the older leaves
in the form of light green to pale yellow coloration due to proteolysis).
➢ Stunted growth is the manifestation.
➢ In grasses, the lower leaves usually fire or turn brown beginning at the leaf tip, and
progressing along the midrib in the form of inverted ‘V’ shape.
➢ Reduction in flowering and crop yields and lower protein content are associated with N
deficiency.

Corrective measures: Nitrogen in the form of NO3- is more prone for leaching especially
on light textured soils with more permeability. So, split application of nitrogen is
recommended. Foliar application in the form of urea @ 2 percent concentration is advocated
in dry land areas.

N Source %N

Ammonium sulfate 21.0

Ammonium chloride 25 – 26.0

Ammonium nitrate 33 – 34

Ammonium nitrate sulfate 30.0

Mono-ammonium phosphate 11.0

Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 18 – 21.0

Calcium nitrate 15.0

Urea 45 – 46

Urea ammonium nitrate 28 – 32

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Lecture 7:

Phosphorus- P cycle

Phosphorus (P), an essential nutrient for all living organisms, is a vital component of the
substances that are building blocks of genes and chromosomes. The total P content in Indian
soils ranges from 100 to 200 ppm. The total P consists of inorganic P and organic P.

Forms of soil P

I. Inorganic P: The inorganic phosphorus content of soils is frequently higher than that of
organic phosphorus (excepting organic soils) accounting for 54 to 84%.The inorganic P
can be further divided into different pools.

1. Soil solution P: Phosphorus is absorbed by plants largely as primary and secondary

orthophosphate ions (H2PO4-, HPO42-). The amount of each form is dependent on soil
pH. Very little P is present in soil solution, concentration being less than 0.1 ppm.

2. Labile soil phosphorus is the readily available portion of the quantity factorand it has
a high dissociation rate, permitting rapid replenishment of solution phosphorus. The
Fe-P and Al-P constitute 1-25 % of total P in soils. The Ca-P constitutes 40 _ 50 %
or even moreof total P in neutral to alkaline and calcareous soils.

3. Non labile P: The relatively less active non labile forms are the occluded and
reductant soluble P.
Fe and Al containing P compounds:

Strengite Fe PO4 .2 H2O

Vivianite Fe3 (PO4)2 8 H2O

Variscite Al PO4. 2 H2O

Wavellite Al3 (OH)3 (PO4)2. 5 H2O

Organic phosphorus: In Indian soils, the organic P ranges from 0 to 2160 ppm. It
constitutes 20 to 90 % of total soil P.

The principal organic P compounds in soil are

(1) Inositol phosphate (2-9%): Phytin is the calcium magnesium salt of phytic acid
(Inositol phosphoric acid) with an empirical formula (CH)6 (H2PO4)6. It is present in
the soil not exceeding 30-40 %

(2) Phospholipids are P containing fatty acids (1-2 %)

(3) Nucleic acids to the extent of 1-2 % of soil organic P

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(4) Unidentified esters and phospho proteins.

P present in the above forms is mineralised by microorganisms and thephosphates that are
released are available to the plants.

Factors affecting the availability of inorganic P

1. Soil pH : Soil pH severely influences the reactions of P with different ions. Monovalent forms
are preferred by plants than divalent or trivalent. A soil pH of 6.5 – 7.5 is considered to be the
best for optimum availability of phosphorus.

In strongly acid soils, the concentration of Fe and Al ions greatly exceeds,forming insoluble
compounds with H2PO - rendering it unavailable.

Phosphorus fixation

The fixation of P is a chemical reaction that makes it unavailable to crops. Another term
often used in this sense is ‘P retention’. Phosphate fixation can bethe removal of phosphate
from solution by soil which reduces the amount that plantroots can absorb. Thomas Way
(1850) demonstrated the P fixation. Soil pH has a deep effect upon P fixation. In neutral to
alkaline soils (pH 7.0 and above), the presence of lime causes the precipitation of phosphorus.
In acid soils (pH < 6.5), iron and aluminium react with phosphorous to form highly
insoluble compounds.

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Lecture 8:

Factors affecting phosphate fixation in soil

Factors affecting P fixation in soils

1. Clay minerals: The main seat of P fixation in soils rests on the clay fraction. The more
the surface area exposed with a given type of clay, the greater is the tendency to retain
phosphorus.

2. Type of clay: Phosphorus is retained to a greater extent by 1:1 than by 2:1 clays. Soils
high in kaolinitic clay will fix larger quantities of added P due to more AEC.

3. Hydrous metal oxides of iron and aluminium: In soils with significant amounts of iron
and aluminium oxides, the P fixing capacity is larger.

4. Amorphous colloids: In Andisols, due to the presence of large quantities of amorphous

colloids like allophanes with large negative charges which arebalanced by aluminium
cations, the phosphate becomes fixed to these aluminium ions.

5. Calcium carbonate: Calcium carbonate precipitates phosphates to form insoluble

apatites. The activity of P will be lower in those soils that have a high Ca2+ activity.

6. Soil pH: adsorption of P by iron and aluminium oxides declines with increasing pH.

7. Organic matter : High organic matter content decreases P fixation.

8. Temperature : The rise in temperature generally enhances P fixation.

9. Over liming : Over liming increases P fixation by forming more insoluble Ca-P
compounds.
Methods to reduce P fixation

1. Organic matter addition : Incorporation of organic residues into soil influences the
reactions of phosphates and its availability to plants. Organic matter counteracts the
effect of CaCO3. It also reduces P sorption by soil. Addition of organic matter also
increases P concentration in soil solution through mineralization of organic P and
solubilisation of native soil P compounds. This effect is more pronounced at higher
moisture level. During decomposition of organic matter various organic acids are
produced which solubilize the phosphates and other P bearing minerals and thereby
lower the P – fixation.

The reason is

a) By formation of phospho - humic complexes that are easily assimilated by plants.

b) Through the mobilisation of the phosphate by humate ion by anion exchange

c) By forming a coating on sesquioxide particles by humus as a protective cover which

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otherwise fix P.

2. Placement of fertilizers: The finer the soil texture, the greater is the retention of added
P due to increased speed of reaction with surface area of contact. If finely divided
fertilizer P is added to a soil by applying through broadcast the phosphate is exposed to
a greater amount of surface, hence more fixation takes place. While band placement
reduces the surface of contact between the soil and fertilizer with consequent reduction
in the amount of fixation.

3. Role of mycorrhiza : Certain mycorrhizal fungi known as VAM colonize plant roots
and through this association help the plant to absorb more P.

4. Role of P solubilising microorganisms: P solubilising bacteria like Bacillus

megatherium and Pseudomonas striatus; or fungal species namely Aspergillus awamori
are reported to enhance the availability of fixed P and reported to add 30 – 35 kg P2O5
ha-1 under ideal conditions.

5. Liming of acid soils: About one- third of Indian soils are acidic in reaction. The
beneficial effect of liming of these acid soils is due to the release of fixed P that was held
with iron, aluminium oxides &hydroxides.

Quantity– Intensity relationships Schofield (1955) divided the measurements

i) Intensity of supply: which indicates the soil solution phosphate and is

measured by phosphate potential.
ii) Quantity factor: which indicates the total quantity of P in the soil. This pool
supplies P to the soil solution pool (intensity) when P is taken up by plants.
Functions of phosphorus in plants:

Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in human body making up for more than 20
% of body minerals. It is largely absorbed by the plant roots as dihydrogen orthophosphate
ion (H2PO4-). In normal P sufficient plants, P content varies from 0.1 to 0.4 per cent by
weight.

The following are the functions of phosphorus in plant system

1. Constituent of nucleoproteins, phytins and phospholipids.

2. Essential constituent of number of enzymes -important in energy transfer.

3. Essential for cell division and development.

4. Stimulates root development and growth.

5. Responsible for early establishment of seedlings.

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6. Strengthens the straw and decreases lodging.

7. Brings about early maturity.

8. Counteracts the effect of excessive nitrogen.

Deficiency symptoms : In general, plants having less than 0.1 % phosphorus are designated
as P-deficient. Because of its faster mobility in plants, P gets translocated from older tissues
to the meristematic tissue. Therefore, deficiency symptoms of P first appear on the older
leaves.

P deficiency results in

➢ the production of dark green color leaves.

➢ Severe restriction of root growth.

➢ thin, erect and spindly plants with sparse and restricted foliage.

➢ suppressed lateral bud production.

➢ bluish green foliage, and under continued deficiency the older leavesbecome bronzed
or develop reddish purple tip or leaf margins.

Toxicity symptoms

Excess of P causes trace element deficiency particularly Fe and Zn.

Correction of deficiency Generally, P is applied as a basal application by bandplacement.

The following are the phosphatic fertilizers.

1. Single Super Phosphate (SSP) contains 16 to 22% P2O5

2. Rock phosphate contains 30-38 % P2O5

3. Triple Super Phosphate contains 46 % P2O5

4. Diammonium phosphate contains 46 % P2O5

5. Monoammonium phosphate contains 52 % P2O5

6. Basic slag contains 10-20 % P2O5

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Lecture 9:

Potassium:- content in soil – Source – forms of soil potassium –

Potassium fixation.

Potassium is one of the three major plant nutrient elements. The consumption of potassic
fertilizers in India is 1.33 Mt. Potassium content in the earth’s crust averages about 1.9 %
with the range of 0.5 – 2.5 %. In tropical soils the total content of K is quite low because of
their origin, high rainfall and high temperature.

Sources of potassium: The K in soil originates from the disintegration and decomposition
of rocks containing potassium bearing minerals. The minerals considered original source of
K are potassium feldspars, orthoclase and microcline (KAl Si3O8), muscovite KAl3 Si3O10
(OH)2, biotite K(Mg Fe)3 Al Si3 O10 (OH)2. Potassium is also found in the soil as secondary
silicate clays like illite, vermiculite and chlorite.

Forms of soil potassium: Soil potassium is believed to exist in four categories based on their
availability to crops.

1. Water soluble K

2. Readily exchangeable K

3. Fixed K

4. Lattice or inert reserve K

1. Water soluble K: Potassium is present as soluble cation in soil solution. It is in

equilibrium with exchangeable K.

2. Exchangeable K: This fraction constitutes the K adsorbed on soil claycomplex and

replaceable with neutral salts. In mineral soils, it is less than 1% of the total K.

3. Fixed potassium : The part of the added K which is firmly bound by the soil and not
immediately replaceable with neutral salts is said to be fixed K. The fixed K is bound
between the basal planes of micaceous minerals.

4. Lattice potassium : This form constitutes a major part of the total K in mineral soils and
present in primary minerals such as muscovite, biotite and potash feldspars. It accounts
for 92 – 98 % total K.

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Lecture 10:

Factors affecting potassium fixation

Factors affecting K-fixation

1. Clay minerals : K fixation is controlled mainly by clay minerals, with both their
quantity and nature being important. Illite, weathered mica, vermiculite take part in K
fixation but 1:1 type of clays such as kaolinite do not fix potassium.
2. Soil reaction : K fixation capacity can be reduced by the presence of Al3+ and Al-
hydroxide cations.
3. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): Fine textured soils have a higher CECand hold
more exchangeable K.
4. Concentrations of added K : Increasing the concentration of K+in soils with high
fixing capacity encourages greater fixation.
5. Wetting and drying : Soils with high exchangeable K+ on dryingwill result in fixation
due to air drying.
6. Freezing and thawing : of moist soils may release fixed K.
7. Sub soil K and rooting depth : Exchangeable K varies withdepth.
8. Soil temperature : Higher temperature favors dehydration and contraction of the
crystal lattice resulting in higher K fixation.
9. Ca and Mg (exchangeable cations): The size of K+ and other ions that would replace
K is important in K fixation. The cations of smaller size of the hydrated ions can easily
enter into clay lattices and replace some of the fixed potassium.

Quantity and intensity parameters

The concept of intensity, quantity and buffering power proposed by Beckette (1964) are
useful in measuring the potassium supplying power of soils.

Intensity factor is a measure of K in soil solution that is immediately available for absorption
by plants. Quantity factor is a measure of the capacity of the soil to maintain the level of K
in soil solution over a long period or over the duration of crop growth. The capacity is mainly
due to the exchangeable K.

Functions : K is absorbed by the plant as K+. Its concentration in healthy tissue varies from
1-5 %. Potassium is a unique element that plants can accumulate it in abundant amounts
without exhibiting any toxicity symptoms. This behavior is referred to as luxury
consumption. Potassium plays a regulatory role in plant metabolism. Potassium is not a
component of any organic compound in plants.

➢ It regulates the opening and closing of stomata.

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➢ Plays a major role in transport of water and nutrients throughout the plant inxylem.
➢ It improves drought tolerance.

➢ Neutralizes organic anions and other compounds and maintains the pH of

cytoplasm in the range of 7-8.
➢ Activates > 60 enzymes, including starch synthetase, K is responsible for the
activation of nitrate reductase enzyme.
➢ Enhances crop quality, shelf life of fruits and vegetables.

➢ Reduces lodging of crops, enhances winter hardiness.

➢ Imparts disease resistance.

Deficiency symptoms

➢ Potassium deficiency does not manifest immediately in the form of visible symptoms.
First growth rate decreases, and later deficiency symptoms appear. Deficiency
symptoms first develop on the older leaves.
➢ Chlorosis along the margins followed by scorching and browning of tips of older
leaves which gradually progresses inwards giving burning appearance. Slow and
stunted growth of the plant and crop lodging.
➢ Shrivelled fruits and seeds.
➢ Reduced crop yields without the appearance of definite symptoms; the phenomenon is
called hidden hunger.
➢ Decrease in resistance to certain plant diseases
➢ Decrease in the quality of fruits and vegetables.
➢ Potassium deficiency disturbs the overall physiological activity within the plant system
by altering the activities of enzymes like invertase, catalase in crops like sugarcane.

Correction measures

Potassium chloride or muriate of potash constitutes 99% of usage of K fertilizer and

potassium sulphate accounts for 1%. Muriate of potash contains 60% K2O or 50% K and
sulphate of potash contains 50 % K2O or 41.5% K. Some crops are sensitive to high amounts
of potassium chloride. These include tobacco, grapes, cotton, fruit trees, sugarcane, potatoes,
tomatoes, straw berries, onion and cucumber. Oil palm and coconut on the contrary appear
to be chloride loving crops. Potassium nitrate containing 44% K2O (37% K) and 13% N is
preferred for spraying on fruit trees and horticultural crops. Spraying of KNO3 during
winters (rabi season) to impart cold hardiness is also in practice by the farmers in Andhra
Pradesh.

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Lecture 11:

SECONDARY NUTRIENTS

Secondary nutrients include calcium, magnesium and sulphur. Ammonium sulphate (100
kg) supplies 20 kg N and 24 kg S; While single super phosphate supplies 16 kg of P2O5, 21
kg of Ca and 12 kg of S. Potassium sulphate supplies 52 kg K2O and 18 kg of S. Lime which
contains Ca and Mg is applied to raise the pH and sulphur compounds are used to lower the
pH of soil.

Calcium

Content and sources of soil calcium : The calcium concentration of the earth’s crust is
about 3.20 %, it may be as low as 0.015 % in humid region to as high as 5 % in arid region.
High calcium content in arid regions could be due to low rainfall and hence little leaching.
The major sources of calcium are the weathered products of rocks and minerals containing
calcium like the following sources

S.N. Mineral Chemical formula Total CaO (%)

1. Calcite CaCO3 56.0

2. Apatite Ca10(PO4)6 50.0 – 53.2

3. Dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3 33.2

4. Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 32.2

Forms of calcium in soils : Calcium is generally the dominant cation in normal cultivated
soils. It is present in different forms. The calcareous soils have higher amount of Ca than
acid soils.

a) Mineral particles : Calcium is mostly present as primary minerals such as basic

plagioclase like anorthite, and basic rocks like basalt, gabbro. They allrelease Ca on
weathering.
b) Calcium carbonate : Calcite mineral is very common. The nodular form of calcium
carbonate and amorphous calcium carbonate exist.
c) Simple salt : calcium is present in many simple salts such as calcium chloride, calcium
sulphate, calcium nitrate and calcium bicarbonate.
d) Exchangeable calcium : Of all the cations on the exchange complex of soils Ca2+ is the
most dominant cation.

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The fate of released calcium

1. Absorbed by organisms : Legumes use much more calcium than grasses. Prolonged
cropping with crops like alfalfa on sandy soils low in Ca depletesCa resource.
2. Losses due to leaching : The loss of calcium in drainage water due to leaching by
rain or irrigation is very large. The loss of Ca2+ increases with increase in rainfall or
with increase in permeability of the soil. Leaching losses range between 84 to 224 kg
ha-1.
3. Adsorbed by clay colloids : If the activity of calcium in soil solution suddenly
increases, there will be a shift in equilibrium with subsequent adsorption of some Ca2+
by exchange complex.
4. Reprecipated calcium : Calcium is reprecipitated as secondary calcium compounds
in arid climate. In arid region, due to low rainfall, Ca in soil solution will be
precipitated as least soluble calcium compounds.

Factors affecting the availability of Ca in soils

1. Total calcium supply : Total supply of calcium in very sandy acid soils withlow
cation exchange capacity can be too low to provide sufficient available calcium to
crops.

2. Soil pH : High H+ activity occurring at low soil pH will impede calcium uptake due
to high base unsaturation.

3. Cation exchange capacity and degree of saturation of exchange complex : The

absolute amount of calcium present is not that important, but the relative amount of
other cations or degree of calcium saturation is important. Montmorillonite
requires a 70 % base saturation to release Ca, while kaolinite requires only 40 % base
saturation.

4. Type of soil colloid. The type of clay influences the degree of calcium availability.
A much higher degree of saturation is required for 2 : 1 clay minerals than 1:1 clay.

5. Ratio of calcium to other cations in soil solution : Calcium availability is influenced

by the ratio between calcium and other cations. Calcium / total cation ratio of 0.10 to
0.15 is desirable. Blossom end rot, a calcium deficiency disorder in tomatoes can be
prevented by maintaining a Ca / soil solution salt ratio in the range of 0.16 and 0.2.

Functions of calcium in plants

Calcium is absorbed by the plant as calcium ions (Ca2+), the sufficiency range is between
0.2 – 1.0 %.

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1. Essential for the formation of cell wall and calcium pectate in the middle lamella of
the cell wall which regulates the entry of only those nutrientswhich are not toxic to
plants. In seeds, calcium is present as calciumphytate.
2. In root tip, calcium is very essential for the meristematic activity.

3. Provides a base for neutralisation of organic acids and other toxins (like Al)
produced in plants.
4. It plays a role in mitosis (cell division) and helps to maintain thechromosome
structure.
5. Essential co-factor or an activator of a number of enzymes like hydrolases.

6. It activates phospholipase, argnine kinase, amylase and Adenosine triphosphatase

(ATPase) enzymes.
7. Favors the assimilation of nitrogen into organic constituents especiallyproteins.

Deficiency symptoms

Soils seldom become calcium deficient, as long as soil pH is maintained towards neutral
range. Deficiency of calcium is characterized by a reduction in meristematic tissue
1. Failure or desiccation of terminal bud development.
2. Chlorosis of young leaves followed by distortion of the growing points of the stem.

3. In fruit trees, the death of growing points followed by die back.

4. In guava, the old leaves are chlorotic with red brown spots.

5. In apple, the discoloration of the fruit meat, the condition generally referredto as “bitter
pit”.
6. In Brassica, severe loss of color in young leaves, terminal bud leaves are hooked, leaves
below become cup shaped. Old leaves collapse due to terminal bud disintegration.
7. Blossom end rot in tomato is due to Ca deficiency

Correction measures

Calcium as a plant nutrient is more important in calcium deficient acid soils. The application
of carbonate or sulphate salts of calcium @ 2 – 4 q ha-1 in furrows could increase the yield
by 48 %.

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Lecture 12:

Magnesium

Magnesium is absorbed by plants from the soil solution as Mg+2. It constitutes 1.93 % of
the earth’s crust ranging from 0.1 % in coarse sandy soils of humid region to 4 % in fine
textured soils of arid and semi-arid regions. If large quantities of magnesium are added to
montmorillonite, it may convert to vermiculite.

Fate of released Mg : On decomposition of primary minerals, Mg is released into soil which

may then be
1) Lost in the percolating water.

2) Absorbed by living organisms.

3) Adsorbed by surrounding clay colloids.

4) Reprecipitated as secondary mineral in arid regions.

The soil Mg available to plants is in the exchangeable plus water soluble forms. The
availability of Mg is influenced by

a) Amount of exchangeable Mg+2 : Soils are deficient in Mg when they contain less than
25 to 50 ppm of exchangeable Mg+2.
b) Soil pH : Nutritional problems of Mg+2 will arise in strongly acid soils with Al+3
saturation of 65 to 70 %. The availability of Mg+2 can also be adversely affected by high
H+ activity in strongly acid soils.
c) Degree of Mg saturation : The more the degree of saturation the greater is its
availability. When exchangeable magnesium is more than 45 %, it is toxic to plants.
Magnesium availability is high when its saturation is 10 – 20 % on the exchange
complex. Normally, the exchangeable magnesium accounts for 4 to 20 % of CEC.
Magnesium saturation should not be less than 10 %.
d) Nature of other exchangeable ions : Plant deficiencies of Mg can occur in soils with
wide Ca / Mg ratio. Ideally it should not be greater than 7:1. High levels of exchangeable
K+ can interfere with Mg uptake. K / Mg ratio should be less than 5:1 for field crops, 3:1
for vegetables and sugarbeet, 2 : 1 for fruit and green house crops. NH4+ also interferes
with Mg nutrition.

e) Removal by crop : Legumes exhaust more Mg than non legumes.

f) Additions through fertilizers, manures and rains: FYM and oil cakes arerich source
of Mg. Basic slag contains 3 – 4% of magnesium. Serpentines contain 26 %.

Functions

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The usual concentration of Mg+2 in crops varies between 0.1 and 0.4 per cent. A large part of
Mg is associated with organic anions like malate.

Magnesium
➢ Mg is the only mineral constituent of chlorophyll located at its centre.

➢ Chlorophyll formation usually accounts for about 15 to 20 % of total Mg content of

plants as Mg - porphyrin.
➢ Serves as a structural component of ribosomes. Mg activates the formation of
polypeptide chains to form amino acids. About 70 % of Mg is associated with anions
such as malate and citrate.
➢ Seeds contain Mg as salt of phytic acids. Mg is required for phosphatetransfer from
ATP (Phosphorylation) in carbohydrate metabolism.
➢ Several enzymes (eg : Ribulose carboxylose) require Mg+2 as Cofactor.

➢ It promotes uptake and translocation of phosphorus and movement of sugars within the
plants.

Deficiency symptoms : As a consequence of Mg+2 deficiency, the proportion of protein

nitrogendecreases and that of non-protein nitrogen increases in plants.

➢ Shortage of Mg+2 results in an interveinal chlorosis of the leaf in which onlythe veins
remain green, and the interveinal areas turn yellow with streaky or patchy appearance.
In more advanced stages the leaf tissue becomes uniformly pale yellow, then brown
and necrotic.
➢ Affected leaves turn small in final stage and curve upwards at the margins.

➢ In some vegetables, interveinal chlorosis with tints of red, orange and purple colors is
observed.
➢ Grass tetany : Cattle consuming forages with low Mg may suffer from
“Hypomagnesemia” (low level of blood Mg) commonly known as Grass tetany. This
happens due to high levels of NH4+ - N and K application.

Correction measures :

Use of dolomitic limestone Ca Mg (CO3)2

Magnesia → Mgo 55 % (Mg)

Basic slag → 3-4 % Mg

At a dose of 30 – 50 kg ha-1

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Lecture 13:

Sulphur

The earth’s crust contains about 0.06 % sulphur. It is mostly present as sulphides, sulfates
and in organic combinations with C and N. More than 95% of total sulphur in soil is present
in organic matter under temperate conditions. Under tropical and sub-tropical conditions, the
organic matter content in the soil is generally less than the temperate soils.

Forms of sulphur in soils : Sulphur is present in the soil in many different forms, both
organic and inorganic. The inorganic forms are readily soluble sulphate, adsorbed sulphate,
insoluble sulphate co-precipitated with calcium carbonate and reduced inorganic sulphur
compounds.

=
1. Easily soluble sulphate : Sulphur is normally taken up by plants as the SO ion. In
sulphur deficient soils the amount of readily soluble SO = is frequently between 5 and 10
ppm. Medium losses when bound to divalent like Ca2+ or Mg2+ and minimum losses
when bound to Al3+ or Fe3+.
2. Adsorbed sulphate : Adsorbed sulphate is an important fraction in soils containing large
amounts of hydrous oxides of iron and aluminium like in Oxisols and Ultisols. Adsorbed
sulphate can account for upto 1/3rd of total sulphur.
3. Sulfate coprecipiated with calcium carbonate : It is an important fraction in calcareous
soils.
4. Sulfides : Under anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils, there may be accumulation
of H2S formed by the decay of organic matter. Also, SO = present in the soil4 serves as an
electron acceptor for sulphate reducing bacteria and it is reduced to H2S. This reduction
takes place at a redox potential of less than - 150 mV and at a pH range of 6.5 to 8.5.
5. Elemental sulphur : It is an intermediate product formed during oxidation of sulfides
by chemical processes.
6. Organic form : Most of the sulphur in surface horizons of well drained agricultural soils
of humid, temperate, semi-arid and sub-tropical regions is present in the organic form. It
accounts for more than 90 %.

Average C : N:S ratio for calcarious soil 113 : 10 : 1.3 and for non-calcareous soilsit is 147
: 10 : 1.4. The N:S ratio of most soils is in the range of 6 to 8 in the formof amino acid like
cystein, cystine and methionine.

Sulphur Transformations : The transformations of sulphur in soil are many and varied with
changes often being cyclic. Also, the element converts back and forth from inorganic and
organic forms due to the presence of living organisms.
Soil Fertility, Soil Chemistry and Nutrient 35
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1. Mineralisation : Mineralisation of sulphur is the conversion of organic sulphur to

=
inorganic SO by microbes. It depends on the sulphur content of the decomposing
material. Mineralisation of sulphur takes place at or below C/S weight ratio of
approximately 200 : 1.
2. Immobilisation : Sulfur is immobilized in soils in which the ratio of either C : N: S is
too wide. At a C : S ratio of above 200 : 1, immobilisation or tie-up of SO4= with various
organic forms is favored. Particularly, if the ratio is greater than 400: 1i.e., when low
sulfur containing organic materials are added to soils not plentifully supplied with
inorganic sulphur immobilization of inorganic sulphur takes place. Sulphur cycle

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Lecture 14:
Sulphur oxidation

Elemental sulfur, sulfides and several other inorganic sulfur compounds can be oxidized in
the soil by microbial oxidation, though chemical non biological oxidation also takes place to
a lesser extent. The rate of biological oxidation depends on three factors like

i) the microbial population

ii) Characteristics of sulfur source,

iii) Environmental conditions in the soil

eg : Thiobacillus thiooxidans.

Thiobacillus thioparus

Factors affecting sulphur oxidation in soils

1. Soil microflora : The more the number of sulphur oxidizing bacteria like

Thiobacillus thiooxidans the more is sulphur oxidation.

2. Temperature : Temperature between 25o and 40oC will be close to ideal, the process
is slow below 10oC.
3. Soil pH : Optimum pH range is 6.5 to 7.2.

4. Soil type and properties : S oxidation is not very dependent on soil texture, organic
matter content etc. Rapid sulphur oxidation is observed in wellfertilized soil than one
low in P and K. Thiobacilli require NH4+ and NO3- is injurious. Organic matter is not
essential as Thiobacilli are autotrophic but not heterotrophic.
5. Fertilizer interactions : Sulphur when applied in combination with N and P increases
the rate of sulphur oxidation.
A) Sulphur reduction or Sulphide Injury or H2S injury
Under anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils there may be accumulation of H2S formed
by the decay of organic matter. In some rice paddies, high in organic matter and low in active
metallic elements such as iron, the free H2S may be released which is harmful to rice roots.
This H2S injury to rice in paddies is referred to as “Akiochi”.

Symptoms of Akiochi

➢ The upper leaves become progressively shorter.

➢ Lower leaves drying to a dirty yellow color with brown spots on the surface.

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➢ Roots are pale white, mingled with black or rotten ones giving rotten egg smelland
when roots are exposed to sun after washing they turn to reddish colour.
➢ Soil pH is around 6.0.

➢ Bubbles will be coming out from the affected areas.

Remedial measures

➢ Use of Ammonium sulphate or any S containing materials should be avoided.

➢ Application of material containing iron such as laterites or lake mud.

➢ Providing aeration to soil by draining the field.

Functions of sulphur in plants

1. It is required for the synthesis of the S containing amino acids cystein, cystine and
methionine and for protein synthesis.
2. It activates certain proteolytic enzymes such as papainase and synthesis of papain.
3. It is a constituent of certain vitamins viz., Thiamine and biotin, coenzymes and
glutathione, Acetyl coenz A (precursor for fatty acid synthesis), ferredoxin.
4. It is present in the crops like onion, mustard, cabbage and cauliflower as polysulfides.
5. It increases oil content of crops like flax, soybean, groundnut etc.

6. Disulfide linkages (-S-S - ) have been associated with the structure ofproteins.
7. Sulfhydryl (-SH) groups in plants are related to increased cold resistance.

8. It is required for N fixation in legumes and is a part of nitrogenase enzyme system.

Deficiency symptoms
Sulphur content in plants ranges between 0.1 to 0.4 %. In view of the large field scale
occurrences of sulphur deficiencies in India, it has been described as the fourth major nutrient
after N, P and K. Plants suffering sulphur deficiency accumulate non protein nitrogen in the
form of nitrate and amide. N:S ratio of plants is between 9 to 12 : 1. As sulphur is immobile
in the plant, its deficiency is manifested on young leaves.

1. The fading of normal green colour of the young meristem followed by chlorosis.
2. Shoot growth is restricted.

3. In Brassica, the lamina is restricted, and the leaves show cupping owingto the curling
of leaves.
4. The older leaves become puckered inwardly with raised areas betweenveins.
5. The older leaves may develop orange or reddish tints and may be shedprematurely.

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6. The stem and leaf petiole may become brittle and may collapse.

7. Reduced synthesis of proteins and oil.

Management of sulphur or correction measures for S deficiency:

1. Application of elemental sulphur or gypsum particularly on alkaline soils.
2. Application of sulphur containing fertilizers like single super phosphate (12- 14% S),
Magnesium sulphate (30 % S), Ammonium sulphate (24.2% S).
3. For correcting deficiencies of sulphur on the standing crop, foliar application of
sulphate containing salts like Ferrous sulphate (32.8% S) and ferrous ammonium
sulphate (16% S) etc.

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Lecture 15:
Micronutrients
Theyare constituents of enzymes and co-enzymes. The micronutrients essential for green
plants are iron, copper, manganese, boron, zinc, molybdenum and chlorine.

Sources : The main source of micronutrients in soil is the parent material . The micronutrient
content of the soil entirely depends on the rocks from which the parent material is derived;
soil forming processes, additions and removals. Cobalt, Nickel and copper are preferentially
attached to more basic rocks. Zinc has a greater tendency to be associated with sulphides.

Forms of micronutrients in soils : Viets (1962) postulated five distinct pools of

micronutrients in soils.

Pool A: It is the soil solution pool and contains water soluble ions. It is usually small or
almost nonexistent for copper and zinc and very small for iron andmanganese in well aerated
and natural soils. Poor aeration, low redox potential and low pH can markedly increase
manganese and iron but not copper and zinc.

Pool B : This comprises of the micronutrient cations exchangeable by weakelectrolytes like

NH4+. It is small for Cu and Zn.

Pool C : Includes the adsorbed, chelated or complexed ions exchangeable by other cations
possessing high affinities for exchange sites or extractable withstrong chelating agents, like
EDTA, pyrophosphates, ammonium acetate and carbon tetra chloride and dithizone and other
chelating compound which canextract such complexes.

Pool D: Micronutrient cations in secondary clay minerals and insoluble metal oxide. It
depends upon the content of clay and on the amount of its saturation with micronutrients.

Pool E: Comprises cations held in primary minerals. It is determined by the parentmaterial

and other geochemical considerations.

Organic form : organic matter is an important secondary source of some trace element. They
are held in complex combination with colloid complex.

Predisposing factors for occurrence of micronutrient deficiencies in soil and plants

i) Parent material : The soils whose parent material originally contain lowamounts of
micronutrients are most likely to show micronutrient deficiency under leaching and
intensive cropping.

ii) Soil pH : Acid soil conditions are most conducive for Mo deficiency. Similarly,high
pH soils such as sodic soils show Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu deficiency. Over liming of acid
soils also causes deficiency of micronutrient cations. In acid sulfate soils micronutrient
toxicity limits crop growth.

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iii) Land leveling and shaping : Land leveling and shaping removes the fertile top soil in
which micronutrients are concentrated.
iv) High yielding varieties : HYV require more nutrients depleting the nutrients from soil
causing their deficiencies.
v) Imbalanced nutrient application : High doses of macronutrient application induces
micronutrient deficiencies.
vi) Soil conditions : Waterlogged condition reduce the availability of Zn and Cu and
increase availability of Fe and Mn.
vii) Organic matter: Organic compounds like humic and fulvic acid form organo -metallic
complexes held as insoluble complexes. But some organic ligands can keep
micronutrient cations as soluble chelates and those are plant available.
viii)CaCO3: More CaCO3 leads to less availability of Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu; and increases Mo
availability.
ix) Soil texture : Boron is available in more amounts in coarse fraction but fixed in fine
textured soils.
x) Clay content : Montmorillonite adsorbs more Zn and Cu.

xi) Fertilizers : Fertilizers containing macronutrients when applied to soil induce the
deficiency of micronutrients. Basic nitrate salts reduce iron availability.
xii) Interactions with macronutrients : Interaction is defined as the influence of an element
upon another in relation to crop growth. Negative interaction is observed between P and
Zn leading to P induced Zn deficiency.

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Lecture 16 :
Zinc
Essentiality of zinc was established by Sommers and Lipmann.

Content : Average zinc content of mineral soils varies between 10 and 330 ppm. Depending
upon the type of extractant used, the available zinc in Indian soils varies from less than 1
ppm to few ppm.

Forms of zinc in soils

1. Water soluble zinc
2. Exchangeable zinc
3. Adsorbed zinc on surface of clay, organic matter, carbonates and oxide minerals
4. Organically complexed Zn
5. Zinc substituted for Mg2+ in the crystal lattices of clay minerals
For rice plant
If Zn content is less than 5 ppm (is the critical limit) - very high response isobtained to the
application of zinc
5 - 10 ppm – High response
10 - 15 ppm – Possible response
15 - 20 ppm – No response
Factors affecting availability of zinc in soils

1. Soil pH : Zinc is generally more available in acid soils than in alkali ones. MostlypH
induced deficiencies of zinc occur in pH range of 6 to 8. The critical pH for
availability of Zn is 5.5 to 6.5. In the alkaline range particularly above pH 7.85, zinc
forms negatively charged ions called zincate ions, thus reducing the availability due
to the formation of calcium zincate.
2. Organic matter : The presence of organic matter may promote the availability of
zinc by complexing with zinc.
3. CaCO3: Zinc deficiencies are more common in calcareous soils. Zinc was
adsorbed on CaCO3 rendering it unavailable.
4. Clay minerals : Zinc adsorption on montmorionite clays from ZnCl2 solution
occurs as Zn2+, Zn Cl+ and Zn (OH)2 ions.
5. Phosphates : Zn deficiency is very common in soils containing very high
amounts of phosphates.

Functions : Plants absorb zinc as Zn2+. Zinc sufficient plants contain 27 to 150ppm Zn
in mature tissue.

➢ Zinc is a constituent of three enzymes viz., Alcoholic dehydrogenase,carbonic

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anhydrase, superoxide dismutase (SOD).

➢ Zn is involved in the synthesis of indole acetic acid, metabolism of gibberellicacid and
synthesis of RNA.
➢ Because of preferential binding to sulphydryl group, zinc plays an importantrole in
the stabilization and structural orientation of the membrane proteins.
➢ Zn resulting in P toxicity.
Deficiency symptoms influences translocation and transport of P in plants. Under Zn
deficiency, excessive translocation of P occurs
Zn deficiency symptoms show wide variation in different plant species. The common
symptoms are chlorosis between the veins, reduction in the size of the young leaves, which
are often clustered, bronzing, purple, violet, reddish brown or brown coloration of the foliage.

1. Khaira disease of rice: The first symptom of zinc deficiency appear in 3 - 4 week old
seedlings when the young leaves develop reddish brown pigmentation. The pigmentation
appears first in the middle of the leaves, then intensifies and spreads over the entire
lamina. The affected tissue becomes papery and necrotic and under conditions of severe
deficiency, the entire mass of leaves collapses and further growth of the plant is arrested.
2. White bud of maize : Soon after the emergence of seedlings, areas between the veins of
old leaves become light yellow and develop white necrotic spots, which later develop
dark brown necrotic areas that enlarge and coalesce, resulting in the necrosis (death of
the entire leaf). Leaves that emerge and unroll subsequently appear yellow and white.
3. Mottle leaf or Frenching of citrus

4. Reduced leaf size and shortening of internodes in brinjal and mango called as little leaf.

Varietal susceptibility to Zn deficiency

Crop High susceptibility Low

susceptibility
Rice Jaya,IR - 8, RP -4,14RP6,17 Cauvery, Tellahamsa, Ratna,
Mahsuri
Black gram T 27, J 9
Greengram TI,T2,T3,and Hydrid46
Groundnut ---------- M 13
Gang
a -2
Maize Ganga-5 Gang
a-3
Ganga -101

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Corrective measures
1. Soil application of zinc sulphate (21% Zn) @ 50 kg ha-1 once for three crops or years
is effective and economic to overcome its deficiency. Zinc sulphate need to be
applied on the surface and mixed in the soil through light harrowing.
2. In case of rice, zinc sulphate can be broadcast after final puddling before
transplanting.
3. In case of orchards, zinc sulphate can be applied in the basin mixing into the soil.
4. When deficiency appears on standing crop, spraying of 0.2 % ZnSO4 twiceor
thrice at weekly intervals or at 0.5 per cent concentration with lime.
5. In case of alkali soils, the dose of zinc sulphate for soil application needs to be
doubled to 100 kg ha-1.

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Lecture 17:

Copper: and Iron - Content – Forms in soils – Critical limits in soils and plants.
Factors affecting its availability –Functions – Deficiency symptoms – Corrective
measures- Toxicity symptoms.

COPPER

Copper concentration in earth’s crust ranges from 55 to 70 ppm. Sulfides are the
predominant minerals of copper in the earth’s crust. Copper deficiency is often the first
nutritional disorder to appear in plants grown on newly reclaimed acid

Histosols (organic soils) and this condition is referred to as ‘reclamation disease’.

Forms of copper

1. In the soil solution : Ionic and complexed Cu in the soil solution range from10-8 to
10-6 (0.6 to 63 ppb). At soil pH below 6.9, it exists as Cu2+ and above 7.0 as Cu
(OH)2 and CU (OH)+
2. Occluded and co-precipitated Cu : Cu is buried in various mineral structures or
substituted for other ions or as an impurity in carbonate minerals or trapped in oxides
of Fe and Al.
3. Adsorbed Cu: Cu2+ is adsorbed to layers silicate clays, organic matter and oxides of
either iron or Al.
4. Clay minerals and oxides: Cu is held tightly with Cu – O – Al or Cu – O – Fe surface
bonds.
5. Organic matter: In many soils one fifth to one half of Cu occurs in organically bound
form. Organic acid molecules solubilise Cu and make it available to plants. Humic and
fulvic acids contain multiple binding sites for Cu, with COO- playing a prominent role.

Factors affecting availability and movement of copper :

i) Texture : Cu+2 in soil solution is usually lower in excessively leached podzolic sands and
calcareous sands

ii) Soil pH: Mobility of Cu+2 in soil solution increases with increasing pH due to

a) increased generation of pH dependent sites on colloids

b) reduced competition with H+,

c) conversion of highly soluble Cu2+ to less soluble Cu (OH)+ and Cu (OH)2.

iii)Interrelationship with other elements: Excessive use of NPK fertilizers aggravate Cu

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deficiency. Acid forming fertilizer increase Cu deficiency due to increased abundance of

Al3+ in soil. High concentration of P, Fe, Zn and Al depress absorption of Cu.

iv) Incorporation of crop residue: Incorporation of crop residues reduce Cu mobility due to

i) Chemical reactions of Cu2+ and organic compound and other substances originating
from decomposing organic residues.
ii) Competition for available Cu2+ by microbes

iii) Inhibition of root development and ability to absorb Cu2+.

v) Plant factors: Crops highly responsive to Cu are carrot, lettuce, spinach, table beets,
citrus and onions. Crops tolerant to low Cu are beans, peas, potatoes, lotus species.

Functions

Similar to other micronutrient cations, copper is absorbed by plant roots as Cu2+.

➢ Concentration of Cu2+ in copper sufficient plants is from 5 to 30 ppm andtoxicity

occurs between 20 and 100 ppm.
➢ Cu2+ is a component of large number of proteins and enzymes like plastocyanin, SOD,
Diamine oxidase, polyphenol oxidase, Ascorbateoxidase.
➢ Important in imparting disease resistance.

➢ Enhances fertility of male flowers.

Deficiency symptoms

➢ Plants having a copper content of less than 5 ppm are regarded as Cudeficient.
➢ Male flowers’ sterility, delayed flowering and senescence are the mostimportant
effects of Cu deficiency.
➢ Chlorosis of the younger shoot tissue, white tips, reclamation disease, necrosis, leaf
distortion and die back are characteristics of Cu deficiency.
➢ The shoot apex may cease to grow, resulting in the development of severalauxiliary bunds.
➢ In cereals symptoms appear as bleaching and withering of young leaves.
➢ Exanthema and dieback in citrus which manifests as dark brown spots onthe leaves,
terminal twigs and fruits.
➢ Yellowish brown blotches on the leaf particularly in legumes.
➢ Tip drying and bluish green leaf tips are the symptoms in rice.
➢ Empty glumes in wheat
➢ Total amino nitrogen accumulates in plants
Correction

Soil and foliar application are both effective. Soil application @ 1.0 – 5 kg /ha of CuSO4. 5
H2O (24 % Cu).

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Foliar application of CuSO4 @ 0.2 % concentration. Cu-

EDTA contains 9-13 % Cu.

Copper toxicity occurs in acid soils and also due to the usage of sewage sludge, municipal
composts, pig and poultry manures and mine waste and repeated use of copper containing
pesticides like Bordeaux mixture, CuSO4. Toxicity symptoms include reduced shoot vigor,
poorly developed discolored root system and leaf chlorosis resembling iron deficiency.

IRON

Iron comprises of about 5 % of the earth’s crust and is the fourth most abundant element in the
lithosphere. Normal concentration of total iron in soil varies from 0.7 to 5.5 %, average being
3.8 %.

Critical limits of iron in plants

50 ppm Deficiency

50 ppm – 250 ppm Adequacy level

Not known toxic

Factors affecting availability and movement of iron

1. Iron imbalance : Imbalance of ions such as Cu, Fe and Mn reduce the availability of iron.
2. Soil pH : Iron deficiency is most often encountered in high pH and calcareous soils in arid
regions. For each unit increase in pH the activities of Fe3+ and Fe2+ decrease by 1000 fold
and 100 fold respectively.

3. Excessive water and poor aeration : Flooding and submergence of soils improve iron
availability. Under reduced conditions, sulfides are released which combine with Fe2+
forming iron sulfide, otherwise if the soils are deficient iniron, the sulfides combine
with H+ forming H2S which causes ‘akiochi’.

4. Organic matter : Iron reduction was greatly accelerated by the addition of organic matter.
5. Interrelationship with other nutrients : High phosphorus levels usually aggravate iron
deficiency. NO3- application lowers iron solubility. On the contrary, NH4+-N addition
increases iron availability. Other metallic cationicmicronutrients compete with iron for
adsorption.
6. Plants factors : The ability of plants to absorb and translocate iron appears to be
genetically controlled. Roots of iron efficient plants alter their environment to improve the
availability and uptake of iron.

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Functions

Iron is taken up in Fe2+ form by plants. Its concentration in the range of 100 – 500 ppm in
mature leaf tissue is regarded as sufficient for crop production.Variable valency of iron
assigns it a role in biological redox systems.

➢ Iron is a constituent of two groups of proteins viz., a) Heme proteinscontaining Fe –

porphyrin complex. eg., peroxidase, leghaemoglobin.
➢ Fe-S proteins in which Fe is coordinated with thiol group Eg : Ferredoxin.

➢ It activates a number of enzymes including aminolevolinic acid synthetaseand

Coproporphyrinogen oxidase.
➢ It plays an essential role in the nucleic acid metabolism.

➢ It is necessary for synthesis and maintenance of chlorophyll in plants.

➢ It is structural constituent of pigments in micro-organisms; the black pigmentin

Aspergillus niger contains iron)

Deficiency :

➢ The critical limit of iron in plant is 30 ppm, the sufficiency range being 50 and 250 ppm.

➢ It has been established that Fe2+ content of the plant rather than total Fe content resolves
Fe def.
➢ Deficiency of Fe results in interveinal chlorosis appearing first on the younger leaves
with leaf margins and veins remaining green. Plants having less than 50 ppm of Fe are
usually classified as iron deficient.
➢ In later stage burning of the chlorotic leaves start from the tips and margin, spread
inwards.
➢ The chlorotic leaves may become white and the leaf tissues devoid ofchlorophyll die.

➢ In case of barley, maize and jowar, leaves show reddish brown spots on leaves away
from the base on margin.
➢ Under conditions of severe deficiency, growth cessation occurs with the whole plant
turning necrotic.

Correction : In general soil application of iron salts such as ferrous sulfate is not practiced
because of their rapid oxidation to much less soluble ferric iron. Correction of Fe deficiency
is generally done by foliar sprays.

Sources

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➢ FeSO4.7 H2O : 19 % Fe
➢ Iron chelates NaFe EDTA : 5-14 % Fe
➢ Fe – EDDHA (Ethylene Diamine Dihydroxy acetic acid salt of Fe) forcalcareous soils
➢ Fe DTPA (Diethylene Triamine Penta Acetate salt of Fe) for alkaline soils
➢ Fe HEDTA (Hydroxy Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate salt of Fe) for alkalisoils
➢ Fe EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate salt of Fe) for acid soils

Iron chlorosis in paddy nurseries

Iron chlorosis is common in rice nurseries due to the prevailing irrigated dry condition in the
soil which oxidises Fe2+ to Fe3+ thus reducing its availability. It can be corrected by spraying
1.0% of Fe SO4 or FAS (Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate) mixed with 0. 1% citric acid, twice or
thrice at 4 to 5 days intervals or till chlorosis disappears.

Iron Toxicity

Toxic situations occur primarily on acid soils (< pH 5.0) and where excess soluble iron salts
have been applied as foliar sprays or soil amendments.

Symptoms

One of the most common symptoms is necrosis or death of the leaves. Necrotic spots will
appear on the leaves of plants suffering from iron toxicity. Other symptoms include dark green
foliage, stunted top growth and root growth, as well as leaf bronzing—especially on rice—
which causes dark brown to purple spots on the foliage. The symptoms developed in rice grown
in acid soils are browning of roots and bronzing of leaves.

➢ Reduced manganese uptake by plants.

Management

➢ Management of iron toxicity is mainly through cultural practices. One of the most
effective ways to avoid and to treat iron toxicity is by adding lime to thetopsoil to raise
the soil pH.
➢ Providing proper aeration to the soil to oxidise Fe2+ to Fe3+ form.

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Lecture 18:

Manganese

Manganese concentration in the earth’s crust averages 1000 ppm. It is an element that is widely
distributed and at least traces of it are found in most rocks.

The total manganese in Indian soils ranges between 92 to 11500 ppm but majority of soils
contain 300 to 1600 ppm of Mn. Forms of manganese are usually expressed as water soluble
Mn2+, exchangeable Mn2+, water soluble and insoluble organically bound manganese, easily
reducible manganese and manganese oxides. These forms are in equilibrium with one another.

Factors affecting availability and movement of manganese

1. Effect of pH and carbonates : Soil pH will also greatly influence Mn2+ availability
and uptake. High pH favors the formation of less available complexes ofMn. Activity
of the soil microorganisms which oxidize soluble manganese to unavailable forms
reaches a maximum near pH 7.0

2. Excessive water and poor aeration: Soil submergence and water logging lower the
redox potential and increase the amount of soluble Mn2+ in soils.

3. Organic matter : Availability of Mn can be affected in several ways by the presence

of organic materials. The low availability of manganese in basic soils high in organic
matter is attributed to the formation of unavailable Mn compounds.It may also be held
in unavailable organic complexes in peats or muck soils.
4. Imbalance of metal ions : High levels of Cu, Zn or Fe in the soil will impede
manganese uptake by plants.
5. Interrelationship with other nutrients : Acid forming N fertilizers like (NH4)2 SO4,
NH4Cl, NH4NO3 will enhance plant uptake of manganese. Neutral chloride containing
salts like NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 have increased the manganese concentration of plants.
6. Seasonal and climatic effects : It is believed that wet winter weather favors the
presence of Mn2+, whereas warm dry summer encourages the formation of less
available oxidized forms of manganese.
7. Soil microorganisms : Deficiencies of Mn is caused by soil micro organism oxidizing
Mn2+ to Mn4+.
8. Plant factors : Among cereals, Oats are sensitive to Mn deficiency. Low reductive
capacity at the root due to root exudates may be the factor restricting uptake and
translocation of manganese.

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Functions : Healthy Mn sufficient mature plants contain 20 to 300 ppm of Mn. It is a

transitional metal, present in plants in Mn2+ form. Because of its variable valence,Mn plays an
important role in the photosynthesis and detoxification of superoxide free radicals.

➢ Mn is an integral component of the water splitting enzyme associated with photosystem

II. Because of this role, Mn deficiency is associated with adverse effects on
photosynthesis and O2 evolution.
➢ It is a constituent of superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD). Mn SOD, present in mitochondria
protects cells against the deleterious effects of superoxide free radicals.
➢ Mn has a role in TCA cycle in oxidative and non-oxidative decarboxylation reactions
with Nicotine Adenine Diamide (NAD)

Deficiency symptoms: Mn deficient plants contain less than 25 ppm Mn. Interveinal chlorosis
in dicotyledons is characterized by the appearance of chlorotic and necrotic spots in the
interveinal areas. In monocotyledonous plants like cereals, Mn deficiency symptoms appear as
greenish grey spots, fleeks and stripes more on the basal leaves (Grey speck). Chlorotic leaf
areas soon become necrotic and turn red, reddish brown or brown. Symptoms of Mn deficiency
are popularly known as

Grey speck of Oats

Speckled yellow of sugar beetMarsh spot of
peas
Pahala blight of sugar caneFrenching of
tung grass

Corrective measures
Soil application of Mn SO4. 3 H2O (26-28 % Mn) @ 10-25 kg/ha andMn SO4 H2O
(30-32 % Mn) @ 10-25 kg/ha
MnO2 contains 55-65 % of Mn
EDTA - Mn supplies 5-12 % of Mn

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Lecture 19:
Boron

The total boron content in Indian soils has been found to vary from 7 to 630 ppm. It is observed
that more boron is concentrated in the surface soils than in the sub surface.

Factors affecting available boron content in Indian soils

1. Parent material : The boron content of granite is 19.3, shales and limestone 39.2, basalt
42.5 and of alluvium 42.3 ppm.
2. Texture : Boron content of the soil depends on the coarse sand fractionthan on the
clay content. Arid zone soils have higher boron content.
3. Calcium carbonate : Calcareous soils are supposed to contain more total boron than
non-calcareous soils.
4. Effect of cultivation : Cultivated soils have more boron than their counter part virgin
soils due to its accumulation through irrigation water.
5. Irrigation water : Continuous use of irrigation water containing even a small amount
of boron would build up the boron content of the soil.
6. Soil pH : This element generally becomes less available to plants with increasing pH
greater than 6.3 to 6.5. Adsorption of boron by iron and aluminum hydroxides is
maximum at pH of 8 to 9 and 7 respectively.
7. Organic matter : It is one of the main sources of boron in acid soil.

8. Soil moisture : Boron deficiency is often associated with dry weather and low soil
moisture conditions.
9. Plant factors : Crops most sensitive for boron deficiency are sugar beetand celery.
High boron requiring crops are apple, asparagus, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower. Boron
needs of graminae are low.

Soils where boron deficiency is common are

➢ Soils low in boron such as those derived from acid igneous rocks.

➢ Highly leached acid soils like laterites and podsols.

➢ Light textured soils.

➢ Soils low in organic matter.

➢ Alkaline soils with high amount of free CaCO3.

Functions of boron : Boron is absorbed by plants as boric acid. However, it can also be
absorbed in anionic form viz., dihydrogen borate (H2BO3-), monohydrogen borate (HBO32-)

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under acidic conditions and borate BO33- under high pH condition. Normal boron sufficiency
in plants is between 10 and 200 ppm.

➢ Boron is neither a constituent of enzymes nor it activates any of the

enzymes.
➢ Most important property of boron (H3BO3) is to form stable complexes with
organic compounds with cis - diol configuration.
➢ It is responsible for cell wall formation and stabilization, lignification and xylem
differentiation. As a consequence, B deficiency causes changes in chemical
composition and ultra-structure of cell wall, accumulation of toxic phenols, inhibition
of lignin synthesis and a decrease in the production of indole acetic acid (IAA).
Decrease in IAA is responsible for the induction of Ca deficiency.
➢ It imparts drought tolerance to the crops.

➢ Plays a role in pollen germination and pollen tube growth.

➢ It facilitates ion uptake by way of increasing the activities of plasmamembrane

bound H+ - ATPase.
➢ It facilitates the transport of K in guard cells as well as stomatal opening.

Deficiency symptoms

Plants having B concentration in the order of 5 to 30 ppm are suspected to be boron deficient.
Critical deficiency range of B varies from 5 to 10 ppm in graminae plants and 20 to 70 ppm
in dicotyledons.

➢ Boron deficiency symptoms are conspicuous on the terminal buds or the youngest
leaves, which become discolored and may die under acute deficiency.
➢ Internodes become shorter and give appearance of a bush or rosette.

➢ Increased diameter of stem and petiole gives rise to the typical cracked stemof
celery.
➢ Specific names given to B deficiency in different crops areHeart
rot of sugar beet.
Browning or hollow stem of cauliflower.Top
sickness of tobacco
Internal cork of apple.

Boron fertilizers : Generally, crops like alfalfa and other legumes, cruciferous plants such
as cabbage, cauliflower and turnip and fruit trees such as apple, need boron fertilization.

i) Foliar aplication of Borax (Na2 B4 O7 10 H2O which contains 10.6 % B)at 0.1 %

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concentration.
ii) Calmonite Ca2B4O7 5 H2O is suitable for sandy soils due to slow solubility.

iii) Boric acid H3BO3 contains 17 % B

iv) Solubor : Na2B407. 5 H2O + Na2B1006 10 H2O contains 20-21 %

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Lecture 20:

Molybdenum and Chlorine

The essentiality of Mo was established by Arnon and Stout (1939). The total Mo content of
most soils varies from 0.2 to 5.0 ppm with a mean of 2 ppm.

Forms of molybdenum: Molybdenum is generally present as

i) Part of the crystal lattice of primary and secondary minerals.

ii) Adsorbed as molybdate (MoO =) on clay or exchange complex.

iii) Part of the organic matter.

iv) Water soluble compounds.

The available Mo content of Indian soils extractable with ammonium oxalate at pH 3.3
(Tamm’s extractant) varies from traces to 1.65 ppm.

Soil type Mo content

Alluvial soils 1.0 to 5.5 ppm

Black cotton soils 0.6 to 11.80 ppm

Laterite soils 1.34 to 2.0 ppm.

Critical limits in soil:

Ammonium oxalate extractable molybdenum is 0.05 to 0.2 ppm. Soils with less than 0.15
ppm of available Mo respond to the application.

Critical limits in plants:

0.1 ppm deficiency

0.5 ppm adequacy level

Not known toxic level.

Factors affecting the availability of molybdenum

1. pH : Availability of Mo is low in acid soils, with increase in pH the availability

increases upto 7.9.
2. Organic matter : The role of organic matter in increasing the availability of Mois due

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to the protection of molybdenum from anion adsorption.

3. Calcium carbonate : Liming of acid soils increases Mo availability. Liming
makes the native molybdenum available by increasing its availability.
4. Texture : Mo availability increases with increase in clay content.
5. Phosphate and sulphate fertilizers : Phosphate and sulfate ions may compete with
molybdate ions for exchange sites in the soil and plant.
6. Manganese : Mn induces Mo deficiency because of antagonism between themdue to changes
in pH.
7. N and K fertilizers : N fertilizers reduce the response to Mo in case of legumesdue to
reduced biological N fixation. However, a positive interaction exists between K and Mo.
8. Oxides of iron and aluminium : Availability of Mo may depend upon the molybdate
adsorbed to free iron oxides.
Functions

➢ Mo is a constituent of nitrate reductase.

➢ Activates several enzymes like catalase, peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase.

➢ Inhibits acid phosphatase.

➢ Required by N fixing organisms like Azotobacter, clostridium, Nostoc,

Anabaena.
➢ Deficiency of Mo results in accumulation of nitrates.

➢ Involved in carbohydrate metabolism and sugar formation.

Deficiency :

➢ In most plants with reticulate venation, the first effect of Mo deficiency appears as
chlorotic mottling between the veins.
➢ Brassica crops are very susceptible to Mo deficiency, the symptoms developing in 3–4-
week-old plants.
➢ Tomato, lettuce, spinach, beet root and Brassica speces especially cauliflower, broccoli
and rape seed are very sensitive to restricted Mo supply.
➢ Legumes develop symptoms which resemble N deficiency.
➢ Grasses seem to have low Mo requirement.
➢ Citrus plants develop ‘yellow spot’.
➢ Cauliflower exhibits whiptail (leaves get twisted elongated)
➢ Cabbage shows cupping, veins become purple, leaves become necroticand
malformed along the margins.

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Correction measures

➢ Application of 400 -500 gm of sodium molybdate (Na2MoO4) alongwith

super phosphate to the soil.
➢ Mo deficiency can be corrected by spraying 0.1 % sodium molybdate.
➢ Liming of acid soils helps in correcting Mo deficiency.
➢ Seed treatment with Mo as sodium molybdate is very effective method ofcorrecting
the deficiency.
Toxicity

➢ Plants develop brilliant tints of golden yellow or blue due to formation ofgranular
complex between Mo and tannins.
➢ In potato, tomato and flax, Mo toxicity manifests as reddish or golden yellowcolor of
the shoots.

CHLORINE

Chlorine has recently been established as one of the essential nutrients for plant growth.
Wilting is considered the most general symptom of chlorine deficiency. It is present primarily
in igneous and metamorphic rocks. In the soil, Cl- occurs as NaCl, Ca Cl2 and Mg Cl2. The
quantity of Cl- in soil solution may range from 0.5 ppm or less to over 6000 ppm.

Behavior of Chlorine in soil

Chloride is highly mobile in soils. Chloride ion will accumulate in ground water which will
move into the root zone by capillarity.

Functions

➢ Chlorine has been shown to be involved in the oxygen evolution inphotosynthetic

reactions.
➢ Claimed to be involved in photophosphorylation.

➢ In microorganisms, chlorine containing metabolically active compounds likechloro

metabolites were found.
➢ In higher plants, chlorides largely accumulate in free ionic form in cellvacuoles.
Deficiency symptoms
➢ Common symptoms are wilted appearance of the foliage and stuffy roots with laterals
showing branching.
➢ Tomato leaves show chlorotic mottling, bronzing and tissue necrosis.

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Toxicity symptoms

Excess chloride will increase the osmotic pressure of soil water and lower the water
availability to crops. Some plants are sensitive to chloride and develop leaf burn symptoms
when chloride concentrationreaches about 0.5%.leaves of tobacco and tomatoes thicken and
begin to roll due to excess chloride. The other toxicity symptoms include reduction in the
number and size of leaves, burning or firing and scorching of the leaf tips or margins,
bronzing, premature yellowing and abscission of leaves. Sometimes growth reduction may
occur without any leaf symptom.

High concentration of Cl- in soil is due to

➢ High amount of chloride in irrigation water.

➢ Inadequate leaching of salts from the root zone of the plant.

➢ Inadequate permeability and drainage of the land.

➢ High water table and capillary movement of Cl- into the root zone.
The crops have been classified into different grades of tolerance to Cl- like

1. Low tolerance to Cl- (< 20 me L-1) eg : Peach, Avocado, Lemon, Beans,Apple

2. Medium tolerance (20-25 me L-1), eg : Orange, Apricot.

3. High tolerance (> 25 me L-1), eg : Tomato, Beet

Chloride is beneficial for some salt loving plants like beetroot, spinach, cabbage etc. There
is a negative interaction between chloride and nitrate (NO3-) ions in plants.

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Lecture 21:

Soil pH
pH and its method of Expression.

pH : Sorenson (1909) suggested the term pH (pH puissance dehydrogen or pourvoir

hydrogen ), which means the power of hydrogen. pH is the negative loarithm of hydrogen
ion activity.

pH = - log 10 (H+)

pH 6.0 is ten times more acidic than pH 7.0

pH scale: The pH value represents the amount of free or active acidity and not the total
acidity. That means it represents the intensity of acidity of a soil solution.

Neutral

Acidity Alkalinity

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

In this scale, the pH value ranges from 0 to 14 where pH value of 0 represents the highest
limit of active acidity; pH ‘7’ represents neutrality and pH ‘14’ represents the highest degree
of alkalinity or basicity.

Relationship between H+ and OH-

The reaction of a solution represents the degree of acidity or basicity caused by the relative
concentration of active H+ or OH- present in it. According to the theory of dissociation, the
activity is due to dissociation or ionization of compounds into ions. Acidity is due to excess
of H+ ions over OH- and alkalinity is due to excess OH- over H+. A neutral reaction is
produced by an equal concentration of H+ and OH-.

Classification of soils based on pH:

Based on the pH value of soil solution, the soils have been classified into the following
categories.

pH Range Category (Rating)

< 4.5 Extremely acidic

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4.5 – 5.0 Very strongly acidic

5.1 – 5.5 Strongly acidic

5.6 – 6.0 Medium acidic

6.1 – 6.5 Slightly acidic

6.6 – 7.5 Neutral

7.5 – 7.8 Mildly alkaline

7.9 – 8.4 Moderately alkaline

8.5 – 9.0 Strongly alkaline

> 9.1 Very strongly alkaline
Classification of soil acidity

Soil acidity is of three kinds, namely

a) Active acidity
b) Exchangeable acidity
c) Reserve acidity

a) Active acidity

It may be defined as the acidity developed due to concentration of hydrogen and aluminium
ions in the soil solution. This acidity is very small, implying that only a meager amount of
lime would be required to neutralise the active acidity. Inspite of smaller concentration,
active acidity is important since the plant root and microbes around the rhizosphere are
influenced by it and because a dynamic equilibrium exists among active, exchangeable and
reserve acidities in the soil.

b) Exchangeable acidity:

In strongly acidic soils, the concentration of exchangeable aluminium and hydrogen ions
contribute to exchangeable acidity. It may be defined as the acidity developed due to
adsorbed hydrogen (H+) and aluminium (Al3+) ions on soil colloids. However, this
exchangeable hydrogen (H+) and aluminium (Al3+) ions concentration is meagre in
moderately acidic soils.

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c) Reserve acidity:

It is measured by titrating a soil suspension up to a certain pH, normally about 8.0, the amount
acidity in the soil being equivalent to the amount of NaOH used. The potential acidity refers
to the acidity caused by H+ held in different chemical combinations and those adsorbed on
the surfaces of soil clay particles and organic colloids. Liming is always limited to neutralise
the active acidity and part of the exchangeable acidity. When an active acidity is neutralised
progressively, the H+ from the potential sources are released into soil solution. The total
acidity is the summation of active and exchangeable acidity.

Factor affecting pH of soils: Soil pH results from the interaction of soil minerals, ions in
solution and cation exchange. High pH is caused by the reaction of water and the bases
calcium, Magnesium and sodium to form hydroxyl ions. Low pH is due to the acidic
constituents like Al3+ released by hydrolysis of primary minerals.

The factors affecting soil pH are:

1. Nature of soil colloids: When the soil colloids have H+ as adsorbed ion onthe exchange
complex, the soil reactions become acidic.
2. Percentage base saturation (PBS) and kind of adsorbed base: Soils having low PBS
show acidic reaction. Sodium saturated soils have much higher pH values than Ca and
Mg saturated soils.
3. Soil solution: Under field conditions, the concentration of salts varies with the moisture
content of the soil. More dilute the solution of a base unsaturated soil; more is the number
of hydrogen ions that dissociate into the soil solution. The pH lowers with increase in
concentration of CO2 of soil solution due to the formation of carbonic acid.
4. Climate: In general, soils formed in the areas of high rainfall are acidic,while those
formed in areas of low rainfall are alkaline.
5. Soil management: As a result of constant cultivation basic cations are lost from the soil
through crop removal and leaching making the soil acidic. Acidic fertilizers like
ammonium sulphate make the soil acidic, while basic fertilizers like NaNO3 make the
soil alkaline.
6. Oxidation – Reduction state of soil under anaerobic or reduced conditions as in
waterlogged soils the ferric and manganic ions are reduced to ferrous (Fe2+) and
manganous (Mn2+) states, thus increasing pH, under such conditions sulphides are
converted to SO = thus lowering the pH upon formation of4acid.

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Lecture 22:

Importance of soil pH on nutrient availability of plant nutrients

– Buffering capacity of soils.

Influence of soil reaction on the availability of plant nutrients : Soil reaction is the
important factor which governs the availability of various nutrients by influencing the soil
properties like physical, chemical and biological etc.

Soil reaction and microbial activity: The activity of microbes is influenced bythe variations
in soil pH.

➢ Bacteria and actinomycetes prefer near neutral to slightly alkalinereaction (pH 6.5
– 8.0).
➢ Fungi work satisfactorily at all pH ranges. They face a large

competition at higher pH values with bacteria and actinomycetes.Hence they grow better
in acidic reaction of pH between 4.5 to 6.5.

Nitrogen: Plants absorb nitrogen in the form of NO-3 whose formation depends onthe ability
of nitrifying bacteria. The microbes responsible for nitrification are activewhen the soil pH
is between 6.5 to 7.5. Nitrogen fixing bacteria also fail to function below a soil pH of 6.0.

Phosphorus : Phosphorus availability is high when soil pH is between 6.0 to 7.5.

At pH values less than 5.0, soluble phosphates are fixed as complex and insoluble compounds
of Fe, Al and Mn.

At pH values of more than 7.5, complex insoluble calcium phosphates like apatites. Excess
calcium also hinders the phosphorus absorption and utilisation by the plants.

Calcium and magnesium and other basic cations like potassium becomedeficient due to
their leaching.

Sulphur: The bacteria responsible for the oxidation of sulphides to sulphates can function
satisfactorily at all pH values.

Micronutrients : Under acidic conditions as in the humid regions because of high rainfall
due to leaching of bases, aluminium, iron and micronutrients become toxic. They are more
soluble at low pH. At a soil pH of less than 5.5, aluminium starts to leave the structure of
silicate clays. High levels of soluble aluminium are injurious to crops. Aluminium toxicity
increases water stress during dry period.

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Buffering capacity of soils

Buffering refers to the resistance to a change in pH. Buffering in soils is their resistance
against any change in the concentration of hydrogen or other cations in the soil solution. This
power to resist a change in pH is due to the Buffering action. In soils, the clay and humus act
as buffer systems. The buffering capacity is greater in clay soils than in sandy soils. The
colloidal complex behaves in a way similar to a mixture of weak acid and their salts thus
acting as a buffer. In soils, the buffering action may be due to one or several of the following
buffering agents

➢ Carbonates, bicarbonates and phosphates present in the soil.

➢ Colloidal complex with associated cations.
➢ Organic acids being released continuously in the soil act as weak acids.
➢ H+ released from the soil exchange complex provides the reserve acidity.

Soils are a mixture of acidoids and basoids and hence act as amphoteric. The basis of
buffering capacity lies in the adsorbed cations (both acidic and basic).There is equilibrium
between the adsorbed hydrogen and aluminium ions and H+ inthe soil solution.

Factors affecting buffering capacity of soils

Buffering capacity of the soil depends on the factors like amount and kind of clay, organic
matter content, cation exchange capacity, carbonates, bicarbonates, phosphate content and
organic acids.

1. Amount of soil colloids: Soils containing large amounts of clay and organic matter are
said to be highly buffered and require large amounts of lime for affecting a certain change
in pH than an acid soil containing smaller amounts of clay and organic matter.
2. Cation exchange capacity: Keeping all the factors constant, buffering capacity of the soil
increased with increase in cation exchange capacity.
3. Soils having higher amounts of calcium carbonate, organic acids and phosphates show
higher buffering capacity.
4. Soils containing large amounts of 1:1 type clays are generally less strongly buffered than
soils in which the predominant clay minerals are 2:1 type.

5. The degree of buffering is highest between the soil pH of 4.5 and 6.0 anddrops off
below and above this range.
Importance of buffering in agriculture

The importance buffering in soils is mainly two folds

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i) The stabilization of soil pH

ii) Calculations of amount of amendment necessary to affect a certainchange in soil

reaction.

Changes in soil reaction not only have a direct influence on the plants but also exerts an
indirect influence on soil environment by creating sudden changes in the availability of
nutrients. The amounts of amendments necessary to affect a given alteration in soil reaction
also relate to the effectiveness of pH stabilization. The greater the buffering capacity of the
soil, the larger must be the amounts of amendments to affect a given change in pH.

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Lecture 23:
Problem soils

Problem soils are the soils whose productivity is lowered due to inherent unfavorable soil
conditions viz., salt content and soil reaction. In India, the extent of salt affected soils
increased enormously to 10 M ha. Soil salinity is one of the major problems restricting crop
production in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world.

Units of expression for salinity and alkalinity :

Salinity is measured in terms of electrical conductivity (EC) which is the ability of salt
solution to conduct electricity. It is expressed in terms of deci Siemens per metre (dS m-1).

Sodium is involved in alkalinity. It is expressed in terms of exchangeable sodium percentage

(ESP), which is the degree of saturation of exchangeable complex withsodium; and sodium
adsorption ratio (SAR) which is a comparative ratio of Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+.

Exchangeable Na [c mol (𝑝)+ (𝑘𝑔−1 ]

ESP = x 100
CEC [c mol (𝑝)+ 𝑘𝑔−1 )]

𝑁𝑎+
SAR = 2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+
√𝑐𝑎
2

Comparison of characteristics of salt affected soils

Characteristic Saline soil Alkali soil Saline – alkali

Content in soil Excess soluble Presence of These are
saltsof calcium, excess transitionsoils.
magnesium and exchangeable They contain
sodium sodium on the sodium
exchange saturation and
complex excess soluble
salts
Exchangeable Exchangea Exchangeable ---
calcium/ blecalcium sodium
sodium
Colour White Black ---

Dominant salts Sulphates, Sodium

chloridesand carbonateand
nitrates of bicarbonate
calcium,

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magnesiumand
sodium

SAR <13 >13 >13

ESP <15 >15 >15

Soil pH ~ 8.5 >8.5 ~ 8.5

Physical Flocculated, Deflocculated, Flocculated or

condition of permeable to water permeability to deflocculated
thesoil and air water and air is
poor.
Morphologic White crust on the High amounts of ---
alcharacter surface exchangeable
sodium lead to
dispersion of the
clay, which
togetherwith
humus may form
dark colored soil
Organic matter Slightly less than Very low Variable
content normal soil
Total soluble >0.1 % <0.1% >0.1%
salt content

EC > 4 dS m-1 < 4 dS m-1 > 4 dS m-1

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Rice in salt affected soils

Saline soil

Sodic soil

Formation of saline and alkali soils

1. Weathering of rocks and minerals: The soluble salts released during weathering leach
down with rainwater, but again move upward due to high temperature and accumulate as
white crust forming a saline soil.
2. Hydrolysis of sodium saturated exchange complex in the formation of an alkali soil
: Sodium carbonate undergoes hydrolysis to form sodium hydroxide, which dissociates
to increase concentration of hydroxyl ions in soil solution.

3. Salty underground water : If the ground water is salty, the salts move upwardwith
water and get deposited when water evaporates.
4. Arid and semi-arid climate : The low rainfall is not sufficient to leach down the
soluble weathered products and hence the salts accumulate in the soil.
5. Quality of irrigation water : If water contains excessive amounts of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, Cl-,
HCO3-, CO3=, BO33- their continuous application develops salt affected soils. Besides this, a
rise in the groundwater level, poor drainage which prevents leaching of salts and continuous
use of bad quality irrigation water leadto the secondary salinisation and alkalisation.
6. Use of basic fertilizer : Basic fertilizers like NaNO3 and basic slag may developsoil
alkalinity.
Nutrient availability in saline and alkali soils

➢ Presence of excessive quantities of salts in saline soils result in an increase in osmotic

pressure of soil solution (osmotic effect). This results in the movement of water from
plant cell into the more concentrated soil solution.

➢ This inhibits uptake of water and nutrients into the plant cell.

➢ Alkali soils adversely affect plant growth in many ways.

i. Such soils are in poor physical condition. The presence of high Na+ keepsthe soil

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particles suspended.
ii. Soils contain excessive amounts of boron, bicarbonates and sodium.

iii. Active sodium ions interfere with plant nutrition and metabolism. It adversely
affects Ca2+ and Mg2+ nutrition of plants.
iv. Due to high pH, availability of phosphorus and micronutrients becomes low;the
soils encounter Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn deficiencies.
v. Plant suffers oxygen deficiency as soil structure is adversely affected due tothe
dominance of sodium.

Acid soils : Soils with pH < 5.5 have been defined as acid soils by USDA. However, soils
with pH < 6.5 can also be categorized as acidic soils. Out of 157 M ha of cultivable land in
India, 49 M ha are acidic, of which 26 M ha land is having a pH of less than 5.6 and the rest
23 M ha of land is having a soil pH in the range of 5.6 to 6.5.

Formation : The leaching of bases is the prerequisite for the formation of acid soils which
are dominantly found to occur in regions with high rainfall. The major process involved in
the formation of acid soils is podzolisation in areas of temperate climate; laterization of
varying degrees, marshy conditions with significant amounts of partly decomposed organic
matter. Acid soils occur in almost all major soil groups except the black soils (Vertisol).
Acid soils occur in Assam, Manipur and Tripura, peaty and marshy soils of West Bengal and
Kerala. Very low pH (4 or less) is an indication of the presence of sulfuric acid as in the cat
clays in Kerala, the soils are referred to as acid sulfate soils.

Characteristics Nutrient availability

Low pH, high exchangeable H+ and Al3+, low CEC and high base unsaturation are the
characteristics of acid soils. Adverse effect is due to toxic concentration of Al, Mn and Fe
and deficiency of Ca and Mg. Acid soils are low in available P and have high P fixing
capacity. Available micronutrient status isadequate except molybdenum. The population of
bacteria and actinomycetes is lower and those of fungi higher.

Calcareous soils

Calcareous soils are soils in which a high amount of calcium carbonate dominates the
problems related to agricultural land use. They are characterized by the presence of calcium
carbonate in the parent material and by a calcic horizon, a layer of secondary accumulation
of carbonates (usually Ca or Mg) in excess of 15% calcium carbonate equivalent and at least
5% more carbonate than an underlying layer. In some soils the calcium carbonate deposits
are concentrated into layers that may be very hard andimpermeable to water (also called
"Caliche"). These caliche layers are formed by insufficient rainfall (at nearly constant annual

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rates) leaching the salts to a particular depth in the soil at which the carbonates precipitate.
They are also formed by salts moving upward from a water table (caused by irrigation) and
precipitating near the top of the capillary fringe. The total extent of calcisols is estimated at
800 million hectares worldwide mainly concentrated in arid or Mediterranean climates.

Main production constraints

Calcareous soils develop in regions of low rainfall and must be irrigated to be productive.
Therefore, one of the main production constraints is the availability of water for irrigation.
The quality of the irrigation water is of crucial importance for sustainable agricultural
production on calcareous soils. Calcareous soils tend to be low in organic matter and
available nitrogen. The high pH level results in unavailability of phosphate (formation of
unavailable calcium phosphates as apatite) and sometimes reduced micronutrient availability
e.g., zinc and iron (lime induced chlorosis).

Management:
➢ Addition of copious amounts of organic matter which release organic acidsduring
decomposition for solubilising CaCO3 and to release the fixed P.
➢ Regular application of ZnSO4 @ 25 – 50 kg ha-1

➢ Application of phosphatic fertilisers by placement method to overcome theproblem

of P fixation.
➢ Foliar application of micronutrients in their respective sulphate form.

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Lecture 24:

Reclamation of problematic soils

Reclamation of salt affected soils :

Before proceeding for reclamation of salt affected soils, the following points should be
considered, and available information should be collected on

i) Nature and extent of salinity.

ii) Quality of irrigation water with respect to sodium, boron and bicarbonate andsalt
content.
iii) Drainage conditions.

iv) Nature and distribution of salts in the root zone.

v) Calcium carbonate content of the soil.

I. Mechanical amelioration of salt affected soils

The commonly followed physical or mechanical method of amelioration of salt affected soils
include deep ploughing, sub soiling, sanding, profile inversion and scraping.

➢ The first two methods break the impermeable layer, hard pan or cemented sub soil layer
existing at various depths in soil profile to improve the internal drainage of the soil and
to facilitate the transportation of salts dissolved in water to deeper layers.
➢ Incorporation of sand in salt affected soils is done to bring about

➢ permanent changes in texture, increase permeability and to improve waterrelations in

the root zone.
➢ Profile inversion can be adopted only under conditions where surface soil isgood but
the soil below is sodic or saline.
➢ Scraping is adopted to remove the few centimeters of salt encrustation.

II. Chemical amelioration

A. Reclamation of a saline soil

Leaching : The main objective in reclamation of these soils is to leach the salts below the
root zone (hence, drainage system should be installed if necessary). Leaching requirement
(LR) has been defined as that fraction of water that must be leached through the root zone to
control soil salinity at a specified level.

This is achieved by flooding and draining. To make it effective, bunds areraised around
plots prepared and water is applied depending on their water requirement to leach salts.

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Leaching requirement (LR) = ECaw / EC dwECaw is the EC of applied water.

ECdw is the EC of drainage water.

B. Reclamation of alkali (Sodic) soil :

Reclamation of sodic soils involve two stages. First, the replacement of sodium by another
cation and second, the leaching of the desorbed sodium salts out of the root zone. This may
be done with gypsum (CaSO4. 2 H2O) and leaching with good quality irrigation water.

Gypsum requirement : Gypsum requirement is the calculated amount of gypsum necessary

to add to reclaim the soil. It is the amount of gypsum required to be added to a sodic soil to
lower its ESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) to a desired level. This should be followed
by application of good quality water to leach salts. Rate of gypsum application depends on
soil pH and the amount of exchangeable sodium present on the soil exchangeable complex.
Gypsum is suitable for alkali soils upto a pH of 9.0.

III. Biological amelioration Organic materials and the activity of plant roots improve
biological activity in the soil. During the decomposition of organic materials CO2 is
released which forms carbonic acid thus dissolving calcium compounds. This can be
accomplished by green manuring, incorporation of crop residues, application of FYM,
press mud and other organic materials.

Classification of crops based on salt tolerance plant tolerance to saltconcentration is

due to

1) Accumulation of high level of sodium and chloride in shoots

2) Exclusion of salts by root cells,

3) Excretion of adsorbed salts from the plant by means of salt glands as in

halophytes.
Salt tolerance of crops
1. Highly tolerant eg : Sesbania, rice, sugarcane, oats sugarbeet, Turnip, Date palm, ber
2. Moderately tolerant eg : Castor, cotton, sorghum, maize, wheat, spinach, guava,
pomegranate.
3. Moderately sensitive eg : Radish, cabbage, tomato, sweet potato.
4. Highly sensitive eg : Carrot, onion, lemon, orange, grape, apple, pulses, sesamum, pea.

Green manure crop is to be raised and incorporated at flowering stage into the soil
immediately after reclamation. Rice crop is preferred to be grown after the green manure
crop owing to its high tolerance to soil sodicity.

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✓ Management of acid soils: Acid soils can be managed by either growing crops suitable
for particular soil pH or by ameliorating the soils through the application of amendments
which will counteract soil acidity. Acid soils aremade more suitable for agricultural
use by liming which raises the soil pH. Liming increases the exchangeable base status,
influences nutrient uptake, reduces toxic concentration of aluminium and manganese by
neutralizing effect, improves the soil structure and promotes root distribution.

Lime requirement of acid soil is the amount of a liming material that must beadded
to raise the soil pH to some prescribed value usually in the range of 6.0 to 7.0. Liming
materialis the material which contains Ca and Mg that Can neutralize soil acidity.

Limes t o n e , marketable lime, lime shells, paper mill sludge and basic slag are some
of the liming materials available in the market.

The efficiency of liming materials can be judged on the basis of the following factors

i) Neutralizing value (N.V) or CaCO3 equivalent (CCE) is defined as the acid neutralizing
capacity of an agricultural liming material expressed as a weight percentage of calcium
carbonate.

CCE of liming material = Molecular weight of CaCO3 x100

Mol. Wt. of a liming materialThe CaCO3 equivalent of burnt lime is calculated as

Molecular weight of CaCO3 x100

Mol. Wt. of Cao

= 100/56 = 1.786

Rock phosphate is the suitable P fertilizer than soluble phosphate

ii) Purity of liming material: The purer the material the higher will be the
effectiveness.
iii) Degree of fineness of liming material: The rate of reaction of liming materialswith an
acid soil depends upon the fineness of the material.

Classification of crops based on acidity tolerance

1. Slight tolerance (upto pH6.5): eg.,Alfalfa and sugar beet
2. Moderate (pH 6.0): eg., Peanut, cabbage, carrot, onions, radish, spinachand
cauliflower.
3. Medium (pH 5.5) : eg., Cowpea, soybean, cotton, wheat, oats, peas, tomato,
sorghum and millets
4. Strong (pH 5.0): eg., Tobacco, apple, grapes, plum, watermelon

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5. Very strong (pH 4.5) : eg., Citrus

Problems associated with over liming: When excessively large amounts of limeis applied
to an acid soil, the growth of the plant is influenced by one or many of these causes

✓ Deficiency of iron, copper and zinc will occur.

✓ Phosphorus and potassium availability is reduced.

✓ Due to over liming, boron deficiency occurs.

✓ Due to the application of lime in excess, the incidence of diseases likescab in root
crops will be increased.
✓ Due to over liming, the soils may become calcareous.

✓ All these effects can be reduced by the application of large amounts oforganic
manures like FYM, incorporation of green manure crops

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Lecture 25
Irrigation water

Quality of water is an important consideration in any appraisal of salinity or alkali conditions

in an irrigated area. Salinity is one of the most important criteria for assessing quality of
irrigation water especially under arid and semi-arid region. Ground water contributes to about
40 % of all irrigation. The quality of irrigation water depends on the amount and kind of salt
dissolved in it.

Harmful effects of poor-quality irrigation water : If water containing excessive soluble

salts is applied to the field, the soil turns saline to alkali. Harmful effects due to poor quality
water through increased osmotic pressure of soil solution, thus inhibiting uptake of water and
nutrients from soil to plant roots. Excessive sodium adsorbed by clay causes de-flocculation,
destroys soil structure resulting in poor circulation of air and water in the soil.

A. Classification of irrigation water or criteria for judging the quality of

irrigation water given by USSL
1. Classification based on EC (Electrical Conductivity)

C1 – Low salinity water, EC < 250 → mho/cm. This water can be used for mostcrops

C2 – Medium salinity water, EC ranges between 250 – 750→mho/cm. Can beused with
moderate leaching.

C3 – High salinity water, EC between 750 to 2250 → mho/cm. This water cannot beused
on soil with restricted drainage.

C4 – Very high salinity water, EC > 2250 → mho /cm. Not suitable for irrigation.

2. Classification based on SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio)

Na +

SAR = Ca + Mg
2

The concentrations of Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ are expressed as meq L-1

S1 – SAR < 10. Low sodium water can be used on all soils with little danger ofdevelopment
of harmful level of exchangeable sodium.

S2 – SAR is 10-18. Medium sodium water can produce hazards with finetextured soils
which have high CEC especially with low leaching conditions.

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S3 – SAR is 18-26. High sodium water; may produce harmful level of exchangeable sodium
in most soils. It requires special management practices such as good drainage, high leaching
and organic matter additions. Exchangeable Na should be replaced by the use of chemical
amendments..

S4 – SAR > 26. Very high sodium water, not suitable for irrigation. This watercan be used
with the addition of gypsum or other amendments.

3. Boron concentration : It is evident that boron is essential for normal growth of the plant,
but the amount required is very small. The permissible levels of boron in irrigation water
are :
Boron concentration (ppm)
Semi
Sensitive Tolerant
Boron class tolerant Remarks
crops crops
crops

Very low < 0.33 < 0.67 < 1.0 Can be used
safely

Low 0.33 – 0.67 – 1.00 – Can be used with

0.67 1.33 2.00 management

Medium 0.67 – 1.0 1.33 – 2.0 – 3.0 Unsuitable for

2.0 irrigation

High 1.0 – 1.25 2.0 – 3.0 – 3.75

2.5

Very high 1.25 2.5 3.75

B. Grouping of irrigation water

S.No. Sub-class ECiw RSC

Main class SARiw
dSm-1 (me L-1)

I. Good - <2 < 10 < 2.5

II. Saline Marginall 2- 4 < 10 < 2.5

ysaline

Saline > 4 < 10 < 2.5

High > 4 > 10 < 2.5

SAR
saline

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III. Alkali Marginall <4 < 10 2.5 –

yalkali 4.0

Alkali <4 < 10 > 4.0

Highly Variab > 10 > 4.0

alkali le

Use of saline water in agriculture

The change in quality of irrigation water is technically not feasible and not economically
viable. The following measures should be adopted for the use of saline water.

1. Selection of salt tolerant crops and varieties.

2. Deep ploughing to break the hard pan of salts if any.

3. Furrow planting is best for saline conditions because the seed can be safely planted below
the zone of high salt accumulation.
4. Poor germination, high mortality of young seedlings and poor tillering are common
features when the crop is grown with poor quality water. So, higher seed rate and close
spacing is advisable. An additional seed rate of 25% should be adopted.
5. Dhaincha as a green manuring crop improves physical properties of the soil.

6. Addition of organic manures to some extent mitigates the adverse effect of poor-quality
water.
7. Fertilizers should be applied 1.25 - 1.5 times the normal rate of their application.
8. Application of Zn @ 20 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 counteracts the negative effect of higher salinity
and sodicity.
9. Split application of nitrogen to prevent N losses through volatilization and
denitrification. Correction of nutrient deficiencies by foliar application of nutrients.

10. Dilution and cyclic use of good and saline waters. When good quality water is
limited, it can be used as follows :
➢ Presowing and first irrigation should be with good quality water. Later saline
water can be used.
➢ Poor quality water can be mixed with good water.

➢ Drip or pitcher irrigation is found suitable.

11. Use of mulches to reduce the requirement of water for evaporation.

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➢ Use of mulches and intercultural operations reduce water requirement of crops, thus
with saline water salinity develops at a relatively lesser intensity.
Salt tolerance of different crops.

High tolerant : Rice, cotton, sugarbeet, tobacco, date palms, ber.

Moderate tolerance : Spinach, sugarcane, wheat, guava, pomegranate, tomato,sweet

potato.

Highly sensitive : Beans, pea, grape, orange, apple, pear, carrot.

Treatments with amendments

Water of high RSC can be used for crops having low water requirement. The rainwater should
not be allowed to leave the field as runoff but should be allowed to percolate through the soil
profile.

Use of gypsum : In water containing excess of sodium (when RSC > 4 me L-1),gypsum can
be successfully used. With the addition of gypsum, the adverse effects of sodium can be
mitigated.

Gypsum can be applied by

a) Keeping gypsum lumps or powdered gypsum in bags in small tanksconstructed at the

mouth of the tube well or water passage.
b) Application of gypsum @ 75 kg ha-1 for each irrigation of 5 cm depth for 1me L-1 of
RSC above 2.5 me L-1 should be applied to the soil.

➢ Water containing toxic amounts of boron can be reduced by mixing with gypsum.
Sodium borate is converted to calcium borate which being soluble can be leached out
of root zone.

Use of ion exchange resins : On a limited scale, water containing excess amounts of Na is
passed through high CEC calcium and H-charcoal, which adsorbs Na.

➢ Liberal application of organic manures specially growing of green manureslike

sunhemp and dhaincha and incorporating the same at the time of flowering in the soil
also reduce the adverse effects of high RSC water.
➢ Phosphorus should preferably be applied as SSP.

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Lecture 26

Soil fertility Evaluation:

Soil fertility : is concerned with the inherent capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate
amounts and in proper balance for the growth of specified plants when other factors such as
light, moisture, temperature and the physical condition of the soil are favorable. Soil fertility
is an aspect of the soil plant relationship viz., plant growth with reference to plant nutrients
available in soil.

Approaches for soil fertility evaluation : The wide variety of diagnostic techniques used
so far can be broadly grouped into

1) Soil Analysis

2) Plant Analysis

3) Biological methods

4) Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency or toxicity.

Soil testing and plant analysis are useful tools for making recommendations for application
of fertilizers to crops. Soil testing gives a measure of the availability of nutrients to crops,
plant analysis indicates the actual removal of the nutrients from the soil.

Objectives of soil testing

1. Grouping soils into classes relative to the levels of nutrients for suggesting fertilizer
practices.
2. Predicting the probability of getting profitable responses.

3. Helping to evaluate soil productivity.

4. Determining specific soil conditions like alkali, salinity and acidity which limits crop
yields.
Rating limits of soil test values

Nutrient Lo Medium High

w
Organic carbon Below 0.5 0.5 – 0.75 Above 0.75
(%)
Avail. N (kg ha-1) Below 280 280 – 560 Above 560

Avail. P (kg ha-1) Below 10 10 – 24.6 Above 24.6

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Avail. K (kg ha-1) Below 108 108 – 280 Above 280

Limitations

➢ Confident diagnosis by this approach requires much experience as the symptoms of

some nutrient deficiencies are difficult to differentiate.
➢ By the time the deficiency / toxicity symptoms appear, the crop has undergone marked
set back and the ameliorative measures taken at that timemay not produce optimum
yields.

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Lecture 27
Plant analysis

Plant analysis is useful in confirming nutrient deficiencies, toxicities or imbalances,

identifying hidden hunger, evaluating fertiliser programme and determining the availability
of elements. Plant analysis is based on the fact that the amount of a given element in plant is
an identification of the supply of that particular nutrient and as such is directly related to the
quantity in the soil.

Two general types of plant analysis are in use.

1. The tissue test which is customarily made on fresh tissue in the field.

2. Total analysis performed in the laboratory with precise analyticaltechniques.

A. Tissue Tests:

Rapid tests for the determination of nutrient elements in the plant sap of fresh tissue. In these
tests, the sap from ruptured cells is tested for unassimilated nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium. They are semi quantitative tests mainly intended for verifying or predicting
deficiencies of N, P or K. The results are read as low, medium or high. Through the proper
application of tissue testing, it is possible to anticipate or forecast certain production
problems which still in the field.The concentration of the nutrients in the cell sap is usually a
good indication of how well the plant is supplied with nutrients at the time of testing.

(1) Plant Part to be Selected: In general, the conductive tissue of the latest mature leaf is
used for testing.
(2) Time of Testing: The most critical stage of growth for tissue testing is at the time of
bloom or from bloom to early fruiting stage. Nitrates are usually higher in the morning
than in the afternoon if the supply is short.
Test for nitrates → Diphenylamine
Phosphates → Molybdate + Stannous oxalate test

For potassium → Sodium cobalti nitrate

B. Total Analysis:

Total analysis is performed on the whole plant / plant parts. Precise analytical techniques are
used for measurement of the various elements after the plant material is dried, ground and
ashed and used for estimating total nutrient content.

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Relative and Average Plant Nutrient Concentrations

Plant Nutrient Average Concentration*
H 6.0%

O 45.0%

C 45.0%

N 1.5%

K 1.0%

Ca 0.5%

Mg 0.2%

P 0.1%

S 0.1%

Cl 100 ppm (0.01%)

Fe 100 ppm

B 20 ppm

Mn 50 ppm

Zn 20 ppm

Cu 6 ppm

Mo 0.1 ppm

* Concentration expressed by weight on a dry matter basis.

Critical Nutrient Concentration:

Critical Nutrient Concentration is the level of a nutrient below which crop yield, quality
or performance is unsatisfactory. However, it is difficult to choose a specific concentration.
For crops such as sugarbeet excessive concentration of N seriously affects the quality. So,
CNC is maximum rather than a minimum consequently it is more realistic to use the critical
nutrient range (CNR) which is defined as the range of nutrient concentration at a specified
growth stage above which the crop is amply supplied and below which the crop is deficient.

Indicator plants: Certain plants are very sensitive to deficiency of a specific plant nutrient,
and they produce specific symptoms which are different from other deficiency symptoms.
Thus, the deficiency of that element can easily be detected. The indicator plants are the
following

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Element Deficiency indicator plant

N Cauliflower, Cabbage

P Rape seed

K Potato

Ca Cauliflower, Cabbage

Mg Potato

Fe Cauliflower, Cabbage, Potato

Na Sugar beet

Mn Sugarbeet, Oats, Potato

B Sunflower

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Lecture 28

Biological methods of soil fertility evaluation

For calibrating crop response, besides chemical soil test values other procedures are also
available. They are

1. Mitscherlich pot culture method

2. The Jenny pot culture test

3. The Neubauer seedling method

4. The Stanford and Dement technique

5. Sunflower pot culture technique for boron

6. Sackett and Stewart technique (Azotobacter test for P2O5 and K2O)

7. Mehlich technique for available K2O

8. Mehlich Cunninghamella plaque method for phosphorus

9. The Mulder’s Aspergillus niger test for copper and magnesium

10. A – value (tracer technique)

Microbiological methods are

1. Sackett and Stewart technique : Used to find out P2O5 and K2O status in the soil judged
by colonization of Azotobacter in the culture prepared from soil. Three containers having
soil culture are used of which one portion is supplied with P2O5 another with K2O and
rest with both P2O5 and K2O. The cultures are inoculated with Azotobacter and incubated
for 72 hrs and growth of colony may be classified as under.
Class Growth of the colony
Class I Very deficient – None or few small pin head sized colonies
areseen.
Class II Moderately deficient – few colonies

Class III Slightly deficient – The colonies on unfertilized cultures are

equal in number and development.
Class IV Not deficient – colonies on both fertilized and unfertilized
plaques are equal in number and development.

2. Mehlich technique for available K2O : A small amount of soil is taken in conical flasks
in which appropriate nutrient solution is added and then it is inoculated with Aspergillus

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niger and incubated for four days. Weight of mycelialpad and its K2O content are taken
into account.
Critical limits for available K by using the Aspergillus niger method

Weight of 4 pads(g) K2O absorbed by A niger Degree of potassium

deficiency
per 100 g soil (mg)
<1.4 <15 Very deficient
1.4 to 2.0 15 to 20 Moderate to slight
deficiency
2.0 >20 Not deficient

3. Mehlich’s cunninghamella plaque method for P : Cunninghamella is sensitive for

P2O5 status. The soil is mixed with nutrient solution and paste is prepared which is spread
in clay dish. Then inoculated with cunninghamella and allowed to incubate for 4-5 days.
The diameter of the mycelial growth is consideredas an index for P status.
P – deficiency and mycelial growth

Diameter of colonies Degree of P

(mm) deficiency
<10 Very deficient

11-15 Moderately deficient

16-21 Slightly deficient

>22 Not deficient

4. Mulder’s aspergillus niger test for Cu and Mg : Color of the mycelia and spores give
an indication of either deficiency or sufficiency of Cu and Mg. For comparison, known
standards are prepared as follows and their colors are compared with those on the
unknown soil.
Ranges for Cu and Mg in Mulder’s test

Cu in µg /g of air –dry Deficiency degree mg in µg/3 g of air –

soil dry soil
< 0.4 Very deficient < 50
1 – 1.5 Slightly deficient 50 - 100
>2.0 Not deficient >100

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Lecture 29:

Pot culture test:- Mitscherlich’s pot culture method - Jenny’s pot culture test.
Neubauer’s seedling method. Sunflower pot culture technique for Boron. A - Value

Besides plant analysis there are some biological tests which may be used to evaluate soil
fertility.

1. The Mitscherlich pot culture method : In this method pots containing 2.72 kg soil are
taken for growing oats as test crop. N, P and K are added in different combinations in
these pots [No - one pot, Po - three pots (NK), Ko- three pots (NP) and NPK - three pots)
]. The crop is grown till maturity and percentage increase in yield is calculated by using
Mitcherlich tables from rotation of given quantity of fertilizers over native fertility status
(control).
2. The Jenny’s pot culture test : Smaller pots consisting of 1.81 kg soil are used for
growing lettuce (Lactuca sativa longifolia) as test crops for 6 weeks. Following
treatments are used in four replications.

The percentage values are categorized as deficiency, probable deficiency and uncertain
deficiency as mentioned below :

% yield
Definite Probable Uncertain
Jenny’s values deficiency deficiency deficiency
N 20 20-50 51-70
P 20 20-50 51-65
K 70 70-75 76-80
S 66 66-76 77-83
3. The Neubauer’s seedling method

In this technique, 100 seedlings of rye or oats are made to feed exhaustivelyon 100 g of soil
mixed with 50 g of sand for 17 days in dishes of 11 cm and 7 cm depth. A blank without
any soil also is taken. The total P2O5 and K2O uptake is calculated and the blank value is
deducted to obtain root soluble P2O5 and K2O in 100 g of air dry soil. These values are
designated as Neaubauer’s numbers and expressed as mg/100 g of dry soil. The following
Neaubauer limit values are used to determine the deficiency.

Neaubauer limit values mg/100 g soil

Nutrient Barle Oats Rye Wheat Turnip Potato Sugarbee
y t
P2O5 6 6 5 5 7 6 6

K2O 24 21 27 20 39 37 25

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4. The Stanford and Dement technique : Round waxed cardboard cartons of about 100 g
capacity with bottom removed which are nested in similar containers having intact
bottom filled with 680 g of sand. The seeds of the test crop are sown about 1.25 cm deep.
After growing the seedlings for 2 to 3 weeks, a carton containing the plants are nested in
second carton holding 200 g of soil or soil mixed with fertilizers. The plant roots enter
the second carton where these plants are allowed to feed for 3 to 5 days. Four plants of
maize and 30 plants of wheat aremaintained for the study. After 5 days the plant samples
are taken to determine thenutrient content.
5. Sunflower pot culture technique for Boron : In this method 500 g soil is taken in small
pot and 5 sunflower seedlings are allowed to grow. The soil is fertilized with a solution
containing all the nutrients except B and deficiency of B is noticed and ranked.
Class Days after which B deficiency is noticed

Marked deficiency < 28

Moderate deficiency 28 – 36

Little or no deficiency > 36

6. A value : By using radioactive isotopes, it has now become possible tocalculate the
available nutrients in the soil. Fried and Dean (1952) defined A-value as that amount of
nutrients in soil which behave in a similar way as the applied fertilizer nutrient doses.

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Lecture 30

Nutrient use efficiency:- Soil, plant and management factors influencing

Nutrient use efficiency in respect of N, P, K, S, Fe and Zn fertilizers

Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) may be defined as yield per unit input. In agriculture,
this is usually related to the input of fertilizer, whereas in scientific literature, the
NUE is often expressed as fresh weight or yield per content of nutrient. Nutrient
use efficiency is defined as the extent to which the nutrients and management
practices interact to give a specified yield level.

Yield with applied nutrient−Yield without applied nutrient

NUE (%) = x 100
Amount of nutrient applied

Factors affecting NUE

A. Soil factors : The most important factors are soil physical conditions, soil
fertility and soil reaction. Coarse textured soils are usually poorer in available
nutrients than fine textured soils. On such soils nitrogen and potassic fertilizers
should be more frequently applied than in fine textured soils. The higher the
fertility status of the soil, the lower is the response. Soil reaction is an important
consideration in the selection of right type of P fertilizers. The higher the
organic matter status, the more is the nutrient useefficiency.
B. Climatic factors : include temperature, rainfall and its distribution,
evaporation,length of day and growing season. Rate of nitrification is slower in
cooler climate than in warmer climate, hence more amounts of fertilizers should
be added in cool climate. Higher amount of fertilizers is required in high rainfall
region due to leaching to obtain an expected yield potential. In arid regions,
soil moisture is a limiting factor to get higher nutrient use efficiency. The higher
the light intensity, thebetter is the nutrient use efficiency.
C. Crop factors : CEC of plant roots influences the fertilizer responsiveness of
thecrop. A large ramifying root system of the plant absorbs nutrients more
efficiently. The time of application of fertilizer should match the pattern of
nutrient uptake to increase nutrient use efficiency. For legumes N fertilizer may
be reduced as they can fix atmospheric N to increase N use efficiency.

D. Agronomic factors : include selection of fertilizer responsive crops and

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varieties, timely sowing, proper spacing, proper dose, time and method of
fertilizer application to increase the yield and thereby increasing NUE.
How to enhance nutrient use efficiency

Use efficiency of any nutrient can be increased by achieving potential yieldsof

crops by optimizing the factors of crop production.

1. Selection of suitable crops and varieties, which are input responsive

recommended for the region.
2. Sowing or planting the crops at optimum time.

3. Maintaining optimum plant population.

4. Use of organic manures and bio fertilizers to supplement nutrients and also
to bring ideal conditions for crop growth.
5. Inclusion of legumes in the cropping system as intercrop.

6. The crops should be irrigated at least to save life at critical growth stages.

7. Fertilizer scheduling must be based on soil test values to prevent nutrient

deficiencies or luxury consumption.
8. P and K fertilizer and part of N fertilizer should be applied as basal and N in
splits doses; for light textured soils K also should be applied in splits.
9. Band placement of fertilizers preferable to prevent losses. (Especially P to
reduce fixation).
10. Under moisture stress condition, foliar application of urea at
2%concentration is effective.
11. Micronutrient deficiencies should be corrected instantly.

12. ZnSO4 should be applied as package once in two seasons @ 25-50 kg/ha.

13. Problem soils must be ameliorated by taking reclamation measures.

NUE of individual nutrients also can be increased by following the above

management practices along with some specific measures as follows
Nitrogen use efficiency : can be increased through

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➢ Split application of nitrogenous fertilizers to prevent losses due to leaching.

➢ The use of slow-release nitrogenous fertilizer like urea formaldehyde, sulphur

coated urea, Neem coated urea etc.
➢ Use of nitrification inhibitor (Eg: N-serve) to retard the conversion of NH4+-
N to NO3--N to prevent leaching and make it available to crops for quite longer
period.
➢ By the integration of inorganic N with organic sources the soil physical
condition can be optimized besides adding nutrients to the soil.

P use efficiency can be increase by decreasing P fixation and balanced application of the
nutrients. P fixation can be reduced by judicious application of organic manures,
application of P fertilizer by placement, inoculation (either seedor soil) with phosphorus
solubilising bacteria like Pseudomonas, Bacillus megathrium var. phosphaticum.

K use efficiency : can be enhanced by preventing leaching loss either by split application
on light soils, applying organic manure and balanced application of nutrients.

S use efficiency : Sulphur in soil solution is present as SO = and more

4 prone for leaching

losses. The losses can be prevented by applying organic manures to improve water holding
capacity of the soil and it also acts as a source of S. S oxidation can be facilitated by
providing oxidized conditions in the soil.

Fe use efficiency : Most available form of iron is Fe2+. All the measures which govern the
soil reaction will influence Fe availability. Fe availability is more in acidicsoil pH.

Application of organic manures including green manuring improve the use efficiency of
iron by:
i. Acidifying the rhizosphere due to the release of organic acids

ii. Supplementing with iron after decomposition

iii. Act as substrate for heterotrophic bacteria that can reduce ferric to
ferrousform (eg., Bacillus, Clostridium and Klebsiella etc.).
iv. The microbes also produce chelating ligands called as ‘siderophores’
thatcan form complex with Fe3+, which can be absorbed into the plant.

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➢ Reclamation of alkali soils

➢ If deficiency appears on standing crop foliar application of Fe.

Zn use efficiency
➢ Zn fertilizer should not be applied with phosphatic fertilizers.
➢ Maintaining the soil pH between 5.5 – 6.5 by applying organic manures.

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Lecture 32

Use of fertilizers and insecticides in Agriculture

Trends in their use – effect of excess use on soil
and water

Fertiliser consumption was around 67 thousand tonnes in early 1950s and it picked up
very fast during mid-1950s. By early 1960s consumption of NPK crossed 400 thousand
tonne and at the time of onset of green revolution consumption of fertiliser approached
1 million tonnes. On per hectare basis, fertiliser consumption in India increased from
0.5 kg in early 1950s to 7 kg at the time of onset of green revolution in 1966-67. It is
worth mentioning that in the pre green revolution post -Independence period fertiliser
consumption remained quite low but its growth rate was higher than that of crop
production. The common perception about fertiliser use in India is that use of
nitrogenous fertiliser has increased at a relatively faster rate compared to the useof
potassic and phosphatic fertilisers and this has increased the imbalance in useof plant
nutrients, which, in the long run, is considered to cause adverse impact on soil fertility
and crop productivity.

Pollution due to excessive nitrate in soil : The increase of nitrates in the drinking
water due to excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers and animal manures is regarded as the
most important fertilizer related pollution issue. The nutrient enrichment and
deterioration of surface water quality due to transportation ofnutrients applied through
fertilizers via leaching or runoff or sediment erosion. Nitrates can also be absorbed in
large amounts by plants particularly fodders and vegetables and may result in nitrate
toxicity (particularly the plants belonging to Chenopodiaceae family) to the consumers.
Slowly mineralizing organic manures result in less accumulation of nitrate in plants.

Nitrate pollution of ground water : High soil nitrate level and sufficient downward
movement of water to move nitrate below the rooting depth are often The World
Health Organisation standard for drinking water is 10 mg NO3-- N/L. An excessive
ingestion of nitrates may also increase the risk of cancer in humans due to the formation
of nitrosamines.

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Eutrophication

It refers to the process of enrichment of surface water bodies with nutrients. The nutrient
enrichment of water bodies results in intense proliferation and accumulation of algae
and higher aquatic plants in excessive quantities that can result in detrimental changes
in the water quality. Estimates indicated that more than 80% of N entering the surface
waters originates from agricultural activities. Both N and P are important in stimulating
eutrophication.

Heavy metal contaminants in fertilizers as soil pollutants The contamination ofsoils

by heavy metals through fertilizers such as cadmium from phosphatic fertilizers is also
receiving increasing attention; rock phosphate being highly potential source, for lead
and cadmium. Leafy vegetables accumulate more heavy metals.

Strategies for minimizing the adverse effects of N use on environment

There are two approaches

1. The optimum use of the ability of the crop plants to compete with processes that
lead to losses of N from soil – plant system to the environment.
2. The direct reduction in the rate, duration and extent of loss of N to the environment
by loss processes themselves.

Pollution due to pesticides : The use of pesticides in India is increasing at the rate of 2
to 5 % per annum. Inappropriate pesticide application can also lead to off – target
contamination due to spray drift and run off from plants, causing contamination of the
soil.

Insecticides

The chlorinated hydrocarbons like DDT persist for a long period in the soil (half-life of
three years); while organophosphate insecticides persist only for few days or months.
The carbamate insecticides are harmful to earthworms. The ratio of pesticide
concentration in the adsorbed state and the solution phase is defined as the partition
coefficient. Pesticides with smaller partition coefficient values are more likely to be
leached compared to those with large partition coefficient values. DDT has very high
partition coefficient value of 243000 as against aldicarb with 10.
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Fungicides

Toxicity from the accumulation of copper-based fungicides may render the soil useless
for growing the crops. Oxidation of sulphur contained in the fungicides can alter the
chemistry of organic matter in the surface horizon of soils. Other fungicides like captan,
carboxin and benomyl are decomposed very rapidly within a few weeks of their
application.

Herbicides

In the intensive and diversified crop rotation systems, a herbicide applied to one crop
may persist in the soil at concentrations high enough to damage the subsequent sensitive
crops eg., Atrazine.

Reducing pesticide levels in soils

Degradation of even the most resistant pesticides is encouraged by conditions that favor
overall microbial proliferation in the soil. The biochemical degradation by soil
organisms is the single most important method by whichpesticides are removed from
the soil. The application of large quantities of organic manures can help in this task.
Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticide not only lead to degradation of soil health but
also create human health hazards. In this regard, soil organic matter could be an
important attribute to be considered to maintain soilquality for sustainable productivity
of crops.

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