Major test to assess human intelligence(fig 1)

Test Name Origin Purpose Components Scoring Method

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Alfred Binet & Identify children Verbal reasoning, IQ = (Mental Age /
(SBIS) Theodore Simon needing academic quantitative reasoning, Chronological Age) × 100
(1904) assistance abstract reasoning,
short-term memory

Wechsler Adult Intelligence David Wechsler Comprehensive Verbal comprehension, Overall IQ score derived
Scale (WAIS) (1955) assessment of adult perceptual reasoning, from index scores
intelligence working memory,
processing speed

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for David Wechsler Assess cognitive Similar to WAIS but Overall IQ score based on
Children (WISC) (1949) abilities in children adapted for ages 6-16 performance in subtests

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Alan S. Kaufman & Measure cognitive Simultaneous Scaled scores across
Children (KABC) Nadeen L. Kaufman abilities in children processing, sequential different cognitive
(1983) processing, learning, domains
planning abilities

Raven's Progressive Matrices John C. Raven Assess abstract Non-verbal patterns Scored based on accuracy
(1938) reasoning requiring identification of responses
of missing pieces

Binet-Simon Test Alfred Binet & Measure cognitive Tasks assessing Based on age-related
Theodore Simon abilities in children memory, attention, and performance
(1905) critical thinking

Differential Ability Scales (DAS) Colin D. Elliott Cognitive assessment Measures verbal, non- Scaled scores across
(1990) tool for children verbal, and spatial various cognitive abilities
reasoning

Multiple Intelligences Test Howard Gardner's Identify strengths Assesses linguistic, Qualitative assessment
theory (1983) across multiple logical-mathematical, rather than a single IQ
intelligences spatial, musical, bodily- score
kinesthetic,
interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and
naturalistic intelligences

Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Various developers Assess ability to Tasks measuring Scored based on emotional
Tests perceive and manage emotional awareness and perception and
emotions regulation management skills

Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Raymond Cattell Reduce cultural and Non-verbal reasoning, Scored based on the
Test (1949) language biases in abstract problem-solving accuracy of non-verbal
measuring reasoning tasks
intelligence

Test of Nonverbal Intelligence Linda Brown et al. Assesses abstract Geometric shapes and Scored based on accuracy,
(TONI) (1982) reasoning without patterns requiring focusing on non-verbal
language demands abstract problem-solving ability

Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Richard Woodcock Assess a wide range Working memory, Standard scores derived
Cognitive Abilities (1977) of cognitive skills processing speed, from performance in
and abilities auditory processing, subtests
long-term retrieval

Difference in IQ and EI (fig 2)

Aspect IQ (Intelligence Quotient) EQ (Emotional Quotient)

Definition Measures cognitive abilities, including logical reasoning Measures emotional intelligence, including
Type of ability differ and problem-solving skills. self-awareness and empathy.

Focus Primarily on analytical thinking and academic Focuses on interpersonal skills and emotional
performance. regulation.

Info processing Non verbal cues Soft and hard skills

Influence Largely influenced by genetics and stable throughout Primarily shaped by social interactions and can
life. be developed over time.

Assessment Evaluated through standardized intelligence tests. Assessed through emotional intelligence tests
and self-reporting methods.
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence
Test
Situational Tests for Emotional Management
(STEMs)

Predictive Value Predicts success in academic and technical fields. Predicts success in leadership, teamwork, and
interpersonal relationships.

Training Potential Less responsive to training; generally stable over time. Highly responsive to training and personal
development efforts.

Learning:classical and operant ( fig 3)

Aspect Classical Learning (Classical Conditioning) Operant Learning (Operant Conditioning)
Definition A type of learning where an organism associates a A type of learning where behavior is shaped
neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to and maintained by consequences
produce a conditioned response. (reinforcements or punishments).

Key Theorist Ivan Pavlov B.F. Skinner

Process Involves pairing a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) Involves the use of reinforcement
with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) to (positive/negative) or punishment
produce a conditioned response (e.g., salivation). (positive/negative) to increase or decrease the
likelihood of a behavior.

Nature of Behavior Involuntary (automatic responses like salivation, Voluntary (deliberate behaviors like pressing a
fear, etc.) lever, speaking, etc.)
Key Components - Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): naturally elicits a - Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of
response (e.g., food) behavior
- Unconditioned response (UCR): natural response - Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of
to UCS (e.g., salivation) behavior
- Neutral stimulus (NS): stimulus with no response - Positive: Adding a stimulus (e.g., giving a
initially (e.g., bell) reward or applying a punishment)
- Conditioned stimulus (CS): after conditioning, - Negative: Removing a stimulus (e.g.,
the NS becomes CS and elicits a response removing a negative condition)
- Conditioned response (CR): learned response to
the CS (e.g., salivation when hearing the bell)

Example Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of a bell, A child receives a treat for cleaning their room
which was paired with food. (positive reinforcement), or a student avoids
detention by completing homework (negative
reinforcement).

Response Focus Focuses on forming associations between stimuli Focuses on the consequences of behaviors and
and responses. how they increase or decrease the occurrence of
behaviors.

Types of Responses Conditioned Response: A learned reaction (e.g., Operant Response: A voluntary action affected
salivation) by reinforcement or punishment (e.g., pressing
a lever, studying)

Key Phenomena - Acquisition: Learning phase where association is - Shaping: Gradual reinforcement of behaviors
made closer to the desired outcome
- Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned - Extinction: Decrease in behavior after
response removal of reinforcement
- Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a
conditioned response after a pause

Real-life Phobias, conditioned emotional responses, Education (reinforcing good study habits),
Applications advertising (e.g., associating products with workplace incentives, parenting (reinforcing
emotions or feelings). Recent research has shown positive behaviors or using consequences).
classical conditioning principles can even influence Recent studies emphasize the effectiveness of
health outcomes, such as placebo effects operant conditioning in behavioral therapy and
skill acquisition

Reinforcement in both types of learning:(fig 4)

Aspect Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Role of Reinforcement UCS reinforces association between CS and Reinforcement directly modifies behavior based
UCR on consequences

Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcement through UCS; negative Positive reinforcement provides rewards;
reinforcement less common negative reinforcement removes aversive stimuli

Outcome Establishes conditioned responses through Shapes voluntary behaviors based on rewards or
associations; extinction occurs without UCS punishments; extinction occurs without
reinforcement

Role of reinforcrment, extinction and continued stimuli (fig 5)

 Aspect Reinforcement Extinction Continued Stimuli
Definition Strengthens association between CS Decrease in CR when CS is Repeated presentations of CS or
and UCS presented without UCS UCS during conditioning

Role in Learning Establishes and strengthens Demonstrates weakening of Essential for effective conditioning
conditioned responses learned associations

Example Dog salivates at bell due to food Dog stops salivating when Bell ringing before food is
being presented bell rings without food presented

Conflict resolution (fig 6)

Conflict Resolution
Method Description Strengths Limitations
Negotiation Direct discussion between - Quick and cost-effective. - Requires willingness to compromise
parties to reach a mutually - Fosters cooperation and from both sides.
acceptable compromise. encourages problem-solving. - May not address underlying power
- Empowers parties to take imbalances or deep-rooted issues.
ownership of the solution. - Risk of one party dominating the
negotiation.

Mediation A neutral third-party facilitator - Encourages open dialogue and - Depends on both parties' willingness
helps parties communicate and understanding. to cooperate and engage in good faith.
negotiate a voluntary - Preserves relationships by - The mediator's effectiveness can vary
agreement. promoting collaboration. based on skills and experience.
- Can lead to creative solutions that - May not result in a binding agreement
satisfy both parties' interests. if parties are unwilling to commit.

Arbitration A neutral arbitrator listens to - Provides a final resolution that is - Parties must accept the arbitrator’s
both sides and makes a binding enforceable. decision, which may not be satisfactory
decision on the dispute. - Generally faster and less for either side.
expensive than litigation. - Less control over the outcome
- Useful when parties need a clear compared to negotiation or mediation.
outcome quickly. - Can strain relationships if one party
feels unfairly treated.

Collaboration Both parties work together to - Builds stronger relationships and - Time-consuming; requires significant
find a win-win solution that trust among team members. effort and open communication from
satisfies everyone's needs. - Leads to long-term solutions that all parties.
address root causes of conflict. - May not be feasible in urgent
- Encourages creativity and situations where quick decisions are
innovation in problem-solving. needed.
- Requires skilled facilitators or leaders
to guide the process effectively.
Compromise Both parties agree to give up - Faster than collaboration; can - Neither party may feel fully satisfied
something to reach a middle resolve conflicts quickly in time- with the outcome, which can lead to
ground. sensitive situations. lingering resentment.
- Allows for partial satisfaction of - May reinforce adversarial
both parties' needs. relationships if used frequently without
- Often leads to immediate addressing underlying issues.
resolution of disputes. - Can become a default strategy,
leading to superficial resolutions.

Avoidance One or both parties choose to - Useful for cooling down emotions - Does not resolve the underlying issue,
avoid or postpone addressing or when issues are trivial or potentially leading to unresolved
the conflict. unimportant. tensions or future conflicts.
- Can prevent escalation of minor - Can create a culture of avoidance,
disputes into larger conflicts. where important issues remain
- Provides time for reflection before unaddressed.
re-engaging in discussions. - May cause frustration among team
members who prefer direct
communication.

Competition One party seeks to win at the - Effective in high-stakes situations - Damages relationships and can create
expense of the other, often where quick decisions are necessary a toxic work environment if overused.
leading to a zero-sum outcome. (e.g., emergency scenarios). - Unsustainable as it fosters resentment
- Can be useful when defending and hostility among team members.
important principles or values. - Often leads to further conflict rather
than resolution.

Accommodation One party concedes or - Preserves relationships and can - Can lead to resentment or unmet
compromises their position to promote goodwill among team needs if one party consistently
maintain harmony within the members. accommodates without addressing their
group. - Useful when one party recognizes own concerns.
that the other’s needs are more - Risks creating an imbalance in power
important in a specific situation. dynamics within teams if used
excessively.
- May result in superficial harmony
without addressing deeper issues.

Key Leadership Styles and Theories

1. Autocratic Leadership
Theory: Trait Theory (Great Man Theory)
Explanation: Autocratic leaders make decisions unilaterally, exercising complete control over all
aspects of the organization or team. This style is effective in situations requiring quick decision-
making or crisis management.
Example: Steve Jobs exemplified autocratic leadership at Apple. His assertive style ensured
that the company followed his vision, resulting in groundbreaking products. However, his
reluctance to accept feedback sometimes generated tensions within teams.
Strengths: Quick decision-making, clear direction, and effective discipline.
Limitations: Can lead to low morale, stifle creativity, and create resistance to change.

2. Democratic Leadership
Theory: Behavioral Theory
Explanation: Democratic leaders encourage participation and input from team members in
decision-making processes. This fosters a sense of ownership and accountability among
employees.
Example: Nelson Mandela demonstrated democratic leadership during his presidency by
collaborating with various political factions to guide South Africa through its transition from
apartheid to democracy.
Strengths: Promotes collaboration, enhances morale, and encourages innovation.
Limitations: Decision-making can be slower due to the need for consensus.

3. Laissez-Faire Leadership
Theory: Contingency Theory
Explanation: Laissez-faire leaders provide minimal direction and allow team members to make
decisions independently. This style is effective when team members are highly skilled and self-
motivated.
Example: Warren Buffett is known for his hands-off approach at Berkshire Hathaway,
empowering managers to operate their divisions autonomously.
Strengths: Fosters creativity and innovation; promotes autonomy among skilled employees.
Limitations: Can lead to a lack of direction and accountability if team members are not self-
motivated.

4. Transactional Leadership
Theory: Transactional Leadership Theory (Managerial Theory)
Explanation: Transactional leaders focus on structure, clear roles, and rewards/punishments to
motivate followers. They emphasize routine and order and intervene when performance falls
below expected standards.
Example: Bill Gates in Microsoft’s early years exemplified transactional leadership by
emphasizing results and rewarding high performance.
Strengths: Provides clear expectations and accountability; effective in structured
environments.
Limitations: May overlook individual needs and creativity; can lead to a lack of intrinsic
motivation.

5. Transformational Leadership
Theory: Transformational Leadership Theory
Explanation: Transformational leaders inspire followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes by
appealing to their values and sense of purpose. They foster a strong sense of vision and create
significant changes within organizations.
Example: Martin Luther King Jr. is a classic example of transformational leadership, motivating
millions during the Civil Rights Movement through his vision for equality.
Strengths: Encourages high levels of engagement; fosters personal growth among followers.
Limitations: May overlook practical details in favor of visionary goals; dependent on the
leader’s charisma
.
Transitional vs. Transformational Leaders
Transitional Leadership
Definition: Transitional leaders manage change from one phase to another, guiding organizations
through periods of uncertainty or crisis.
Character: Focuses on stability, short-term goals, and maintaining organizational continuity while
using a blend of transactional and transformational techniques.
Example: Gerald Ford navigated the U.S. presidency after the Watergate scandal,
stabilizing the country during a period of national uncertainty.

Transformational Leadership
Definition: Transformational leaders aim for profound, long-term change by inspiring followers
toward a shared vision characterized by motivation and emotional connection.
Character: Visionary, charismatic, proactive; encourages personal growth among team members.
 Example: Elon Musk embodies transformational leadership through his innovative vision
for Tesla and SpaceX, inspiring teams to pursue groundbreaking advancements.

Key Differences Between Transitional and Transformational Leaders

Aspect Transitional Leader Transformational Leader
Focus Short-term stability and continuity Long-term change and innovation

Style Pragmatic, often directive Visionary, inspiring, emotionally engaging

Goal Guiding through a transition period Achieving fundamental transformation

Impact on Followers Limited personal development High personal and professional development

Example Gerald Ford focusing on national recovery Martin Luther King Jr. inspiring societal change
Leadership Styles and Their Impact on Decision-Making
1. Autocratic Leadership
Description: In this style, leaders make decisions unilaterally without seeking input from team
members.
Decision-Making Process: Decisions are made quickly, often based on the leader’s judgment and
expertise.
Impact:
Strengths: Effective in crisis situations where quick decisions are necessary; provides clear
direction and accountability.
Limitations: Can suppress team creativity and morale; employees may feel undervalued and
disengaged due to lack of involvement in decision-making.
2. Democratic Leadership
Description: Democratic leaders encourage participation and input from team members in the
decision-making process.
Decision-Making Process: Decisions are made collaboratively, with discussions and consensus-
building among team members.
Impact:
Strengths: Fosters a sense of ownership and accountability; enhances creativity and innovation
through diverse perspectives.
 Limitations: Decision-making can be slower due to the need for consensus; may lead to conflicts
if team members have differing opinions.
3. Laissez-Faire Leadership
Description: Leaders provide minimal direction, allowing team members to make decisions
independently.
Decision-Making Process: Team members are empowered to take initiative and make choices
based on their expertise.
Impact:
Strengths: Encourages autonomy and innovation among skilled employees; can lead to high job
satisfaction.
Limitations: May result in a lack of coordination and direction; not suitable for teams that require
more guidance or structure.
4. Transactional Leadership
Description: Focuses on structured tasks, clear roles, and rewards or punishments based on
performance.
Decision-Making Process: Decisions are often based on established procedures and metrics, with
an emphasis on efficiency.
Impact:
Strengths: Provides clarity and consistency in decision-making; effective for achieving short-term
goals.
Limitations: May stifle creativity and innovation; can lead to low morale if employees feel they
are only valued for their output.
5. Transformational Leadership
Description: Transformational leaders inspire and motivate followers to achieve extraordinary
outcomes by appealing to their values and sense of purpose.
Decision-Making Process: Leaders involve team members in shaping the vision and direction of
the organization, fostering collaboration.
Impact:
Strengths: Enhances employee engagement and commitment; encourages innovative thinking and
personal development.
Limitations: May overlook practical details in favor of visionary goals; requires strong
communication skills to convey the vision effectively.
Decision-Making Models in Organizations
Effective decision-making is crucial for organizational success. Various models can guide leaders
in making informed choices:
Rational Decision-Making Model
Involves identifying a problem, gathering information, generating alternatives, evaluating options,
choosing an alternative, implementing it, and monitoring its effectiveness.
Bounded Rationality Model
Recognizes that decision-makers operate under constraints (e.g., limited information, time
pressure) that affect their ability to make fully rational decisions. Leaders must balance
thoroughness with practicality.
Creative Decision-Making Model
Emphasizes the importance of creativity in generating innovative solutions. This model includes
steps such as problem identification, immersion in the issue, incubation (setting aside the
problem), illumination (insight), and implementation.
Participatory Decision-Making
Involves stakeholders at various levels in the organization to gather diverse perspectives and foster
buy-in for decisions. This approach enhances commitment to outcomes.
Leadership Decision-Making Impact on Decision-
Style Description Process Making Strengths Limitations
Autocratic Leaders make Quick decisions based Decisions are made Effective in crises; Can suppress creativity; may
Leadership decisions on leader's judgment quickly; limited team provides clear direction lead to disengagement.
unilaterally and expertise. involvement. and accountability.
without team
input.

Democratic Leaders Collaborative Fosters ownership; Enhances creativity; Slower decision-making;

Leadership encourage decision-making diverse perspectives promotes accountability potential for conflict among
participation through discussions enhance creativity. and morale. team members.
and input from and consensus.
team
members.

Laissez- Leaders Team members make High autonomy; Encourages innovation; Lack of coordination; may
Faire provide decisions based on decisions made by high job satisfaction not suit teams needing
Leadership minimal their expertise. skilled employees. among skilled workers. guidance.
direction,
allowing
independence.

Transaction Focuses on Decisions based on Consistency in Provides clarity and May stifle creativity; low
al structure, clear established procedures decision-making; consistency; effective morale if employees feel
Leadership roles, and and performance efficiency emphasized. for short-term goals. undervalued.
rewards/punis metrics.
hments.

Transformat Leaders Involves team Collaborative approach Encourages innovative May overlook practical
ional inspire and members in shaping enhances engagement thinking; fosters details; requires strong
Leadership motivate the organization’s and commitment. personal development. communication skills.
followers vision.
toward a
shared vision.

Decision-Making Models
Decision-Making Model Description
Rational Decision-Making Model Identifies a problem, gathers information, generates alternatives, evaluates options,
chooses an alternative, implements it, and monitors effectiveness.

Bounded Rationality Model Recognizes constraints (limited information, time pressure) affecting decision-making
capabilities, balancing thoroughness with practicality.

Creative Decision-Making Model Emphasizes creativity in generating innovative solutions through steps: problem
identification, immersion, incubation, illumination, and implementation.
Participatory Decision-Making Involves stakeholders at various levels to gather diverse perspectives and foster buy-in
for decisions, enhancing commitment to outcomes.

Aspect Sensation Perception

Definition The process of detecting physical energy The process of organizing,
from the environment through sensory interpreting, and making sense of
organs (e.g., eyes, ears). sensory information.

Nature Involves raw data collection; it is a Involves cognitive processing; it is a

physiological process. psychological process.

Example Feeling the warmth of sunlight on your skin. Interpreting that warmth as a
pleasant day outside.

Focus Concerned with the initial detection of Concerned with understanding and
stimuli. interpreting those stimuli.

Process Passive; occurs automatically without Active; involves mental processes,

conscious effort. including memory and experience.
Determinant Description Examples
Personal Characteristics Individual traits such as attitudes, personality, motives, A person with a positive attitude may
interests, past experiences, and expectations influence perceive ambiguous situations more
how stimuli are interpreted. favorably.

Characteristics of the Target Attributes of the stimuli being perceived, such as A bright red object may stand out
novelty, motion, size, and background, affect against a dull background, attracting
perception. attention.

Situational Factors Contextual elements like time of perception and A sound perceived differently in a
environmental settings can influence interpretation. quiet room compared to a noisy
environment.

Perceptual Learning Past experiences and training shape how individuals An artist may notice color differences
emphasize certain sensory inputs while ignoring that others overlook due to their
others. training.

Mental Set Preparedness or readiness to receive specific sensory Expecting a train's arrival may
inputs can affect perception. heighten awareness of train sounds
despite background noise.
Motives and Needs Current desires or needs direct attention to specific A hungry person is likely to focus on
stimuli relevant to those needs. food-related cues in their environment.

Cognitive Styles Individual differences in thinking patterns influence Some people may focus on details
how information is processed and interpreted. while others see the overall picture
first.

Determinants of preception:
Determinant Description Examples
Personal Characteristics Individual traits such as attitudes, personality, A person with a positive attitude may
motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations perceive ambiguous situations more
influence how stimuli are interpreted. favorably.

Characteristics of the Target Attributes of the stimuli being perceived, such as A bright red object may stand out
novelty, motion, size, and background, affect against a dull background, attracting
perception. attention.

Situational Factors Contextual elements like time of perception and A sound perceived differently in a
environmental settings can influence interpretation. quiet room compared to a noisy
environment.

Perceptual Learning Past experiences and training shape how individuals An artist may notice color differences
emphasize certain sensory inputs while ignoring that others overlook due to their
others. training.

Mental Set Preparedness or readiness to receive specific sensory Expecting a train's arrival may
inputs can affect perception. heighten awareness of train sounds
despite background noise.

Motives and Needs Current desires or needs direct attention to specific A hungry person is likely to focus on
stimuli relevant to those needs. food-related cues in their
environment.

Cognitive Styles Individual differences in thinking patterns influence Some people may focus on details
how information is processed and interpreted. while others see the overall picture
first.