MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, MECHANISATION AND

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE EDUCATION AND

FARMER TRAINING

SUGARCANE PRODUCTION MODULE

DIPLOMA IN AGRICULTURE

WRITERS: Tsuro Liliosa

REVIEWERS: Chinyise.T. and Mutambu. M.

Table of Contents
Unit 1: Origin, Classification and Botany.....................................................................................................6
1.0 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................6
1.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................................6
1.2 Origin and History of Sugarcane............................................................................................................6
1.3 Botanical Classification........................................................................................................................6
1.4 Botany of the crop.................................................................................................................................8
1.4.1 Stem / stalk.....................................................................................................................................8
1.4.2. Leaves............................................................................................................................................8
1.4.3 Roots...............................................................................................................................................8
1.4.4 Inflorescence / tassel......................................................................................................................8
1.5 Growth stages of sugarcane..................................................................................................................8
1.5.1 Emergence......................................................................................................................................8
1.5.2 Juvenile stage.................................................................................................................................8
1.5.3 Reproductive phase / Flowering.....................................................................................................9
1.5.3.1Factors affecting flowering.......................................................................................................9
1.5.3.2 Methods of Preventing Flowering..........................................................................................11
1.5.4Adult stage / Maturity...................................................................................................................13
1.5.5 Sugar cane growth pattern...........................................................................................................13
1.6 Uses of Sugarcane................................................................................................................................14
1.7Adaptaion.............................................................................................................................................14
1.7.1Latitude.........................................................................................................................................14
1.7.2 Temperature.................................................................................................................................14
1.7.3 Sunshine.......................................................................................................................................15
1.7.4 Rainfall..........................................................................................................................................15
1.7.5 Soil................................................................................................................................................15
1.8 Activity.................................................................................................................................................15
1.9 Summary.............................................................................................................................................16
1.10 Further Reading.................................................................................................................................16
Unit 2: Planting of sugarcane.....................................................................................................................17
2.0 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................17
2.1 Objectives............................................................................................................................................17
2.2 Land Preparation.................................................................................................................................17
2.3. Varieties..............................................................................................................................................18
2.3.1 Factors considered when choosing a variety................................................................................18
2.3.2 Future considerations...................................................................................................................18
2.4 Propagation.........................................................................................................................................18
2.4.1 Nursery.........................................................................................................................................19
2.4.2Mature cane..................................................................................................................................19
2.5. Factors which cause failure of setts to germinate..............................................................................20
2.6 Crop Establishment in the Field...........................................................................................................20
2.6.1 Planting Procedure.......................................................................................................................20
2.6.2 Planting methods..........................................................................................................................21
2.6.3 Methods of sett placement..........................................................................................................21
2.6.4 Planting time.................................................................................................................................22
2.7 Summary.............................................................................................................................................22
2.8 Activity.................................................................................................................................................22
2.9 Further reading....................................................................................................................................23
Unit 3: Fertiliser and Water (Irrigation) Management...............................................................................24
3.0 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................24
3.1 Objectives............................................................................................................................................24
3.2. Fertiliser Management.......................................................................................................................24
3.2.1 Time of application.......................................................................................................................24
3.2.2 Application rate............................................................................................................................24
3.2.3 Plant cane.....................................................................................................................................24
3.2.4 For Ratoon crop............................................................................................................................25
3.3 Irrigation..............................................................................................................................................26
3.3.1 Furrow irrigation system...............................................................................................................26
3.3.2. Centre Pivot.................................................................................................................................26
3.3.3 Overhead irrigation.......................................................................................................................27
3.3.4 Drip irrigation...............................................................................................................................27
3.4 Irrigation scheduling............................................................................................................................27
3.5 Problems of Irrigation..........................................................................................................................27
3.6 Summary.............................................................................................................................................28
3.7 Activity.................................................................................................................................................28
3.8 Further Reading...................................................................................................................................28
Unit 4: Crop Protection..............................................................................................................................29
4.0 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................29
4.1 Objectives............................................................................................................................................29
4.2 Weed management in Sugarcane........................................................................................................29
4.2.1 Effects of weeds............................................................................................................................29
4.2.2 Weed Control...............................................................................................................................30
4.2 Diseases of Sugarcane.........................................................................................................................31
4.2.1 Smut.............................................................................................................................................31
4.3.2 Ratoon Stunting Disease...............................................................................................................32
4.3.3 Leaf scald......................................................................................................................................33
4.3.4 Yellow Leaf Syndrome..................................................................................................................34
4.3.5 Red Rot.........................................................................................................................................34
4.3.6 Pine Apple Disease........................................................................................................................35
4.3.7 Rust...............................................................................................................................................35
4.4 Pests of Sugarcane...............................................................................................................................36
4.4.1 Black Maize Beetle (BMB) (Heronychus licas)...............................................................................36
4.4.2 Eldana borer (Eldana saccharina).................................................................................................36
4.4.3 Sesamia (Sesamia calamistis)........................................................................................................37
4.4.4 Nematodes...................................................................................................................................38
4.4.5 Termites........................................................................................................................................38
4.4.6 Trash worms.................................................................................................................................38
4.4.7 Pear scales....................................................................................................................................38
4.4 Summary........................................................................................................................................38
4.5 Activity.................................................................................................................................................39
4.6 Further Reading...................................................................................................................................39
Unit 5: Sugarcane Harvesting and Processing...........................................................................................40
5.0 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................40
5.1 Objectives............................................................................................................................................40
5.2 Preparation for Harvesting..................................................................................................................40
5.2.1Types of ripeners...........................................................................................................................41
 5.2.2 Burning.........................................................................................................................................41
5.3 Cutting.................................................................................................................................................42
5.4 Cane topping.......................................................................................................................................42
5.5 Stacking...............................................................................................................................................42
5.6 Transportation / Haulage.....................................................................................................................42
5.7 Ratoon Management...........................................................................................................................43
5.8 Other Operations on a ratoon crop.....................................................................................................44
5.9 Sugar Processing..................................................................................................................................44
5.9.1 Receiving and Cleaning.................................................................................................................44
5.9.2 Juice Extraction.............................................................................................................................44
5.9.3 Clarification / purification.............................................................................................................45
5.9.4 Evaporation..................................................................................................................................45
5.9.5 Crystallization...............................................................................................................................45
5.9.6 Centrifugation...............................................................................................................................45
5.9.7 Drying...........................................................................................................................................46
5.9.8 Refining Sugar...............................................................................................................................46
5.9.8.1 Affining..................................................................................................................................46
5.9.8.2 Purification............................................................................................................................46
5.9.8.3 Decolaration..........................................................................................................................46
5.9.8.4. Packaging..............................................................................................................................47
5.10 Sugarcane by-products......................................................................................................................47
5.11 Summary...........................................................................................................................................47
5.12 Activity...............................................................................................................................................47
5.13 References.........................................................................................................................................47
Unit 1: Origin, Classification and Botany

1.0 Introduction
This unit highlights the classification, botany and uses of the sugarcane crop

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this module you should be able to:

 Explain the origin of the crop

 Explain the classification of sugarcane
 Explain the botany of the crop
 Appreciate the economic importance of sugarcane

1.2 Origin and History of Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a tropical crop which originated in Papua New Guinea where it has been known
since 6000 BC. It gradually spread to South East Asia and India and then into the Pacific region.
Arabs were responsible for much of its spread as they took it to Egypt around 640 AD. It was
then taken to Central and Southern America from the 1520s onwards and later to the British and
French West Indies. It is now grown in more than 70 countries mainly in the tropical and sub-
tropical regions. Commercial production in Zimbabwe started in the 1930s, and was introduced
to the South East Lowveld by Murray Mcdougall, who is the founder of Triangle (pvt) Ltd, now
Tongaat Hulletts.

1.3 Botanical Classification

Family: Gramineae

Genus: Saccharum

Species: Several and these include:

1. Saccharum sinensis (Chinese canes)
This species has the following characteristics:
 Vigorous and early maturity
 Wide adaptability
 Highly fibrous
 Intermediate sucrose
 Tolerant to root rot and mosaic
2. Saccharum spontaneum (wild cane)

Its characteristics are as follows:

 The most widespread species

 Vigorous, thin grassy forms
 Tolerant to cold, diseases and drought
 Highly fibrous
 Decreased sucrose content
 Deep penetrating root system
3. Saccharum robustum (wild cane)
 Slightly thicker and taller than S. spontaneum
 Highly fibrous
 Low sucrose content
 Vigorous growth
 Disease tolerant
4. Saccharum barberi (Indian cane)
 Short and vigorous root system
 Slender, hard and small barreled
 High fibre content
 Suited to sub-tropical countries
5. Saccharum officinarum
 It is result of crossing S. barberi, S. robustum and S.sinensis
1.4 Botany of the crop

1.4.1 Stem / stalk

Sugarcane is a perennial grass with a thick stem ranging from 2-5 cm in diameter. It is
cylindrical with nodes, buds and internodes. The harder outer rind protects the juicy sugary
contents together with fibrous tissue. Some cultivars grow up to 6 m tall. The older internodes at
the base have higher sucrose content

1.4.2. Leaves
It has green leaves which are normally 2-10 cm wide and 1-2 m long with a distinct midrib

1.4.3 Roots
These are comprised of the main roots and the feeder roots. They can grow up to 5 m.

1.4.4 Inflorescence / tassel

It can be 30 – 60 cm long and it appears after 12 – 24 months after planting. It does not normally
produce fertile seeds.

1.5 Growth stages of sugarcane

1.5.1 Emergence
This takes between 10 to 14 days depending on temperatures. Tillering immediately follows after
germination.

1.5.2 Juvenile stage

This is a period during which the stalk elongates rapidly and full canopy is achieved. All plant
nutrients should be applied at this stage.

1.5.3 Reproductive phase / Flowering

It signifies the change from the vegetative to the reproductive phase. Once flowering occurs no
further leaves or internodes are produced on the flowered stalk. Fibre accumulation is greater in
flowered than non - flowered cane stalks, especially in the upper internodes. This can lead to the
development of pithiness. Quality improves after flower emergence, but subsequently declines
following the emergence and growth of side – shoots.

1.5.3.1Factors affecting flowering

a) Day length

The most important time of flower initiation occurs in late summer - period of shortening days.
Flowering occurs only when day length is approximately 12.5 hrs. In the Zimbabwe, in the
Lowveld, such day length occurs during the first 3 weeks of March, and flower emergence
normally occurs 3 - 3.5 months after flower initiation. A day length of 12.5 hrs also occurs in
September, but flower initiation is uncommon at that time of year because the day length is
increasing & not shortening.

b) Temperature

Flowering responds strongly to temperature stimulus. Flower initiation normally occurs only
when minimum temperatures are less than 18 oC. The amount of flowering is closely correlated
with the number of nights between 1 st and 20th March when the minimum temperature falls
below 18oC. Warm weather with low night temperature during the induction period results in
heavy flowering.

c) Soil moisture
High soil moisture content is one of the most important factors influencing flowering. This can
result from heavy rains in late February or early March, from excessive irrigation, or from a high
water table. Thus the most profuse flowering in a field is normally along feeders, near drains, or
below storage dams. Overhead-irrigated cane usually flowers less than furrow-irrigated cane.

Areas within a field which are inadequately irrigated, such as on steep slopes and on gravel
outcrops, will normally show little or no flowering.

(d) Age of cane

Cane must have reached a certain physiological stage of development before flower initiation
can take place. Stalks which are too young when the inductive period starts will fail to tassel.
The critical age varies with varieties, for example, NCo 376 must be at least 2.5 months old at
the start of the inductive period. Cane planted or ratooned from mid-December will not normally
flower in the following yr even if the weather conditions in March are favourable for flower
initiation.

In Zimbabwe, sugarcane is liable to flower at any age provided it is more than 2.5 months old at
the beginning of March.

e) Varieties

There are large differences in varietal susceptibility to flowering. One of the main disadvantages
of NCo 376 and N14 is that they are free-flowering varieties. Varieties like ZN10 & Nco 370 are
non-flowering. Flowering in a late-season crop causes both quality & yield loss.

Flowering is an important criterion in the selection of varieties suitable for late-season

production. ZN1L is good for late season harvesting due to high sucrose content & its flowering
is very little.
f) Soil type
Variation in flowering behavior caused by soil type has been reported from other countries, but
no explanation or correlation with soil properties has been found. In the Lowveld of Zimbabwe,
it is noticeable that flowering is worst on those para-gneiss soils, which have a lateritic sub-soil.
This could be due to the influence of a perched water table on these soils.

Cane on the black basaltic clays does not flower excessively except in poor drained areas.
Flowering on the para-gneiss is generally associated with texture. Thus differences in flowering
on different soils appear to be more closely associated with soil moisture conditions than with
other soil factors.

g) Soil fertility

There is less flowering under high fertility. Records from fertilizer trials have shown that there is
a marked reduction in flowering as nitrogen levels increase from 0 - 80kg/ha, but no further
reduction at higher levels. It is unlikely that the range of application levels normally used
commercially will have any effect on flowering because they are always higher than 80kg/ha,
and certainly the use of nitrogen fertilizer cannot be a factor in flowering.

h) Light intensity

A certain minimum light intensity is required for flower initiation during the inductive period in
March. High light intensity promote flowering. More flowering is evident on taller stalks,
margins of the field particularly along northern edges and around patches of lodged cane.

1.5.3.2 Methods of Preventing Flowering

There are several known methods of controlling flowering in susceptible varieties, but none are
suitable for practical application on a scale under local conditions. Methods which have proved
successful include:
a) Increasing day length
Illuminating at night to break the critical 11.5 hrs dark period will effectively prevent flowering
but this method would be too costly for use on a field scale. The procedure requires about 5Kw
hrs per ha at night during the flower initiation period, and its use on a limited scale in Hawaii
suppressed flowering and resulted in significant yield gains.

b) Withholding irrigation
Low levels of soil moisture during the induction period have also been used to prevent flowering
in Hawaii. Under Zimbabwe Lowveld conditions, it would be difficult to implement such
practice, because of high rainfall expectancy during the mid-Feb to mid-March period. This
could be effective if dry conditions prevail, but there would be a danger of yield loss during the
important time of the yr from the stand point of growth rate.

c) Use of Chemicals

A number of chemicals have successfully been used for flower control, the most promising being
ethrel, diquat and paraquat. These are sprayed on to the crop from the air during the period of
flower initiation, & they cause severe scotching which disrupts the flowering stimulus.
Chemical control can be introduced at short notice, such as when rainfall has interfered with
scheduled moisture stress.

However, yield will be affected by the check in growth, and there is no guarantee at application
that flower control is really necessary.

d) Varieties

The most effective method to prevent flowering is the use of varieties which do not flower.
Examples:
 ZN10 - non-flowering
 Nco 370 - non-flowering
 ZN1L – little flowering
 ZN2E – very little flowering
1.5.4Adult stage / Maturity

It is a function of age, season and variety and can be influenced by management.

Sugarcane maturity can be determined physiologically (sucrose content) or chronologically (by
age). Sucrose content is determined by:

 Temperature – low temperatures encourage less photosynthesis of sugar into sucrose but
excessive drying off reduce cane yield.
 Light intensity – more light and low temperature promote ripening in cane.

The amount of sucrose (%) determines level of maturity, that is, a mature cane has between 85 –
90 % sucrose content. Most mature part is the base & the most immature is the top. Cane above
the natural breaking point is considered too immature for milling.

In Zimbabwe, plant cane matures in about 14 Months of age. The ratoon crop develops faster and
is ready to harvest in about 12 months. Excess nitrogen delays maturity and promotes
metabolism of sugars resulting in low sucrose content.

1.5.5 Sugar cane growth pattern

Boom

Initial maturity

Figure 2: Sugar cane growth pattern

Growth is slow at first, reaching a boom stage and slow towards maturity.
Growth requires very high temperature especially during the boom stage which is around 8
months.

Factors affecting growth;

 Amount of sunlight.
 Available moisture
 Temperatures
 Nutrients / fertilizers
 Weeds.

1.6 Uses of Sugarcane

 Bargass (the fibre material left after crushing), is used as a fuel in sugar mills and
excess bargass is used for electricity generation.
 Processed sugar can be used as a sweetener in industries and homes
 Molases – raw material for portable and industrial alcohol production used in cattle
feed production.
 Filter cake/press mud – resource of organic materials and is used as rich source of
fertilizer.
 Ethanol- mixed with petrol to make blend.
 Cane tops and leaves can be used as livestock feeds
 Crop residues can produce manure

1.7Adaptaion

1.7.1 Latitude
Sugarcane is a crop grown mainly in the tropics and sub tropics. Most commercial sugarcane
growing is done between 35 oC N and S. Can thrive in frost-free, warm temperate areas.

1.7.2 Temperature
It requires high temperatures as follows:

 Minimum temperatures from 16 oC to 21 oC

  Maximum temperatures from 27oC to 38 oC

The Lowveld areas of Zimbabwe are more suitable for sugarcane production because of their
high temperatures. Most growth occurs during periods of high temperatures from August to
April. The ideal growing conditions are those characterised with long summers with a fairly dry,
sunny and cool but frost free ripening period.

1.7.3 Sunshine
Sugarcane requires plenty of sunlight. It is a short day plant and flowers in response to short days

1.7.4 Rainfall
Sugarcane requires large quantities of water of up to 1500 mm/year. In Zimbabwe, sugarcane
mainly rely on irrigation water for its moisture requirements.

1.7.5 Soil
The crop grows well on a wide variety of soils ranging from sandy to heavy soils, but heavy soils
are usually preferred. It requires heavy, deep, fertile and well drained soils. It has no special
demands regarding soil pH though the most ideal is 5.0 – 6.5 (CaCl scale). Sugarcane prefer high
organic matter.

Soils that easily compact must be avoided as there is use of heavy machinery in moving the cane
from the fields, resulting in the formation of hard pans.

1.8 Activity
 Describe the soil and climatic requirements of sugarcane
 Briefly describe the history of sugarcane in Zimbabwe
 List six uses of sugarcane
 Give the reasons why there are high levels of sugarcane production in the Lowveld of
Zimbabwe compared to other parts of the country
1.9 Summary
Sugarcane is an efficient converter of the sun’s radiation when supplied with enough moisture
under favourable temperatures. The crop also requires well drained, deep, fertile and fairly
neutral soils for it to be of economic importance to the country.

1.10 Further Reading

Clowes, M. St. J and Breakwell, W.L.1998. Zimbabwe Sugarcane Production Manual. The
Zimbabwe Sugar Association Experiment Station. Zimbabwe.

Ministry of Agriculture Mechanization and Irrigation development.Farm Management

Handbook. Field Crops, Volume 1, 2010.
Racemaekers. R.H.2001. Crop Production in Tropical Africa, Brussels, Belgium.
Unit 2: Planting of sugarcane

2.0 Introduction
Proper selection and preparation of planting material are key to successful sugar cane production.
Because of disease and the possibility of pest carry over since the planting material is vegetative;
all the necessary precautions must be taken to plant a clean seed. This section will show how
sugar cane planting is carried out from, how the crop should be managed to realize good yields
and harvesting and processing of sugar cane. It is hoped that after going through this section, you
will also want to be part of the sugar cane industry either as a grower or as an advisor.

2.1 Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to:

 Describe how land is prepared for sugarcane production

 Name the factors considered when selecting sugar cane varieties
 Select and prepare seed suitable for planting sugar cane
 Describe the planting of sugar cane under the following headings:
i) Preparation of setts
ii) Seed cane requirements
iii) Planting time
iv) Spacing
v) Planting methods

2.2 Land Preparation

Land preparation should aim to control sugarcane volunteer plants to minimize the spread of
Ratoon Stunting disease. It should aim to expose or invert stools for easy control of black maize
beetle larvae. Attention should be paid to the use of irrigation to reduce power requirement and
to produce a better tilth. Land preparation is only done when establishing a plant crop and after
harvesting the last ratoon crop.
Soon after cutting the cane, the field is pre-disced with a heavy disc harrow to destroy the stool.
It is then deep ripped to a depth of 50 – 80 cm to break up hard pans that develop from the use of
heavy machinery. One can then come in with a disc plough and then do leveling using a grader.
After leveling, a finer disc harrow is used to break up larger clods and provide finer tilth for the
ridger to work well.

2.3. Varieties
Examples of sugarcane varieties grown in Zimbabwe are:

NCo 376, NCo 310, NCo 462, CP 9/119, N14, CP 3092, ZN1, ZN 7, ZN2E

Explanation to variety naming e.g NCo 376 and ZN2E

N- Natal

Co- Company

Variety number: 376

Z- Zimbabwe

N- Natal

Variety number: 2

E- Early maturing variety

2.3.1 Factors considered when choosing a variety

The factors to consider when selecting a variety for commercial production are yield potential,
disease tolerance, sucrose content, rationing capacity, lodging susceptibility, flowering,
harvestibility and milling costs.

2.3.2 Future considerations

 Self thrashing varieties that reduces need for burning
 Mechanization – need to breed varieties more adapted to mechanical harvesting
  Biotechnology – use of foreign genes in pest control, for example, BT cane to kill stalk
borer.

2.4 Propagation

There are basically two methods of propagating sugarcane. These are through the use of seed
and vegetatively through the use of setts and tissue culture. Setts can be planted directly in

the field or they are raised in a nursery and later transplanted to the field. Seed is basically
used for breeding purposes whilst cuttings / setts are used for commercial production.

2.4.1 Nursery
Pre-germination in a nursery is sometimes carried out and sprouted setts are transplanted at the
three leaf stage after about 5 weeks of growth. Buds begin to develop in about 12-14days.

Nursery requirements are as follows:

 Very fertile soils.

 Adequate water
 Regular inspection of disease
 Healthy and vigorous growing cane as setts.
 Age of seed cane at planting should be about ten months.
 The cane should be healthy and should not have any smut contamination.
 It takes 14 months
 ZSA technicians come to assess the cane for at least 5 times to certify the seed suitability
to be planting.
Cuttings should be 25- 30cm long and should have 2-3 potential shoots.

Bud
Node

Root initials

Figure 1. Pre-germinated sett

The cuttings produce fibrous roots from root initials found at the nodes. These are called sett
roots and are temporary.

2.4.2Mature cane
The top is cut one week before planting to stimulate rooting and buds lower down. Cuttings from
the top of the plant germinate quicker than those lower down. Apical dominance is stronger in
the upper buds. The number of buds that germinate decreases if setts have more than three
internodes. When setts are laid horizontally, buds at the bottom grow slower than those at the
sides and top.

2.5. Factors which cause failure of setts to germinate

 Mechanical injury of bud.
 Chemical injury i.e. herbicides and fertilizer.
 Nutrient status of setts. N- fertilization increase germination
 Diseases (especially smut).
 Growing condition – Low temperature exposes setts to rotting.
 Variety.
 Prepla

2.6 Crop Establishment in the Field

2.6.1 Planting Procedure

Stems are cut into single or three eyed setts. The setts are then planted into pre – irrigated
furrows in summer (September - Feb) or direct into dry soil in winter (April – August). They are
then covered with soil. The furrows must be 10 – 15 cm deep for Sprinkler, drip as well as pivots
and 25 cm deep for furrow irrigation. Shallow planting results in exposure of setts after irrigation
and additional labour would be required to cover the setts. The rows are generally spaced 1.5 m
apart.

These setts must be dipped into a solution of organo-mercurial fungicides such as Benomyl or
Benlate to prevent soil borne fungal infections. Pre-germination in a nursery is sometimes carried
out and sprouted setts are tansplanted at the three leaf stage after about 5 weeks of growth.

The cutting knife must be regularly dipped in a disinfectant e.g. formalin. The setts are collected
a day before planting to prevent drying. The setts can also be hot water treated to prevent
diseases and this is also believed to stimulate the growth of setts. Setts are immersed in water of
a temperature of 520C for twenty minutes before planting. This treatment controls diseases such
as ratoon stunting and chlorotic streak.

Planting is done manually in Zimbabwe but mechanical planters can also be used.

When selecting cane for planting, it is important to note that:

 Cuttings from the top of the plant germinate quicker than those from lower down.
 Apical dominance is stronger in the upper buds.
 The number of buds that germinate decreases if setts have more than three internodes.
 When setts are laid horizontally, buds at the bottom grow slower than those at the sides
and top.
 Generally, sugarcane requires 7-8 tonnes / ha of planting material.
 One hectare requires 12 000-20 000 setts

2.6.2 Planting methods

a) Double planting

It consists of planting two setts side by side in the same furrow. This is done to increase plant
population in the plant crop.

b) Single planting
Setts are laid in a straight line. These setts placed end to end.

2.6.3 Methods of sett placement

Eye

Eye to Eye Buds of setts will be side by side

End to End

Last buds of two Setts face each other

Figure 2.Eye to eye and end to end sett placement.

2.6.4 Planting time

Sugarcane can be planted throughout the year but most ideally in the later summer months.
However the following planting times must be considered:

 March to April – are suitable as there are reduced weed problems.

 May – July is slow in initial growth.
 Planting in August to November is likely to result in high sucrose yield as well grown
cane (ten months old) by June or July can be dried off when conditions are best suited to
ripening.
2.7 Summary
Sugarcane has several varieties that have different characteristics. However, the most grown
cultivars are those that are high yielding with more tolerance to diseases. The thrust now for is to
go for cultivars that are self-thrashing as well as being more suitable to machine harvesting.

2.8 Activity
 Explain the sugarcane planting procedure. Highlight the sources of planting material, the
care one should take to ensure that clean planting material is used as well as the nursery
activities in the event of one wanting to plant out sprouted seedlings.
 How does the planting process affect the final crop stand?
 Discuss the factors that affect the growth of sugar cane
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of cuttings as a propagating material in sugar
cane production?
 With the present sugar cane varieties currently in production in Zimbabwe, which traits
should be worked on for the sugar industry to continue successfully?

2.9 Further reading

Clowes, M. St. J and Breakwell, W.L. 1998. Zimbabwe Sugarcane Production Manual. The
Zimbabwe Sugar Association Experiment Station. Zimbabwe.

Ministry of Agriculture Mechanization and Irrigation development.Farm Management

Handbook. Field Crops, Volume 1, 2010.
RacemaekersRomain H. (2001) Crop Production in Tropical Africa, Brussels, Belgium.
Unit 3: Fertiliser and Water (Irrigation) Management

3.0 Introduction
Sugarcane is a heavy feeder (it removes high quantities of nutrients from the soil) hence there is
need to large amounts of fertilizer .The fertilizers applied must supply the right amounts of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. The amount is determined by soil and foliar analysis results.

The main objective of irrigation is to ensure that the crop will not suffer from moisture stress.
This ensures that maximum benefits are obtained from other cultural operations such as
fertilization and weed control. Water is the most limiting factor to high yields and expanded
sugarcane production in the S.E Lowveld.

3.1 Objectives
After completing this unit you should be able to:

 Discuss fertilizer management in sugarcane

 Identify and explain the different methods of irrigation used in sugarcane production
 Explain the differences between the different methods of irrigation

3.2. Fertiliser Management

3.2.1 Time of application

This depends on crop requirements and it is preferable to apply fertilizers to moist soil especially
the volatile fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate and muriate of potash (m.o.p). Urea is applied
to dry soil and incorporated immediately and irrigation also applied immediately.

3.2.2 Application rate

Correct rates must be adhered to, to prevent fertilizer burns on young setts, roots and shoots.

3.2.3 Plant cane

a) Nitrogen
For plant cane that has been planted from April to August, apply 120kg / ha N. The fertilizer is
applied as splits with a third (1/3) applied at 4 weeks and two thirds (2/3) applied at 8 weeks.

For a crop planted between September and October, apply 140kg / ha N. The fertilizer applied as
a split application as follows: 1/3 at 4 weeks and 2/3 at 8 weeks.

November and December planted crop should receive 140kg / ha N, applied as 3 equal dressings
at 4, 7 and 10 weeks.
b) Phosphates

100kg / ha P2O5 should be broadcast and disced in or applied in the planting furrows.

c) Potassium

Plant cane and ratoon crops receive 60Kg/ha in one dressing together with the first Nitrogen in
April to October harvested cane in two equal dressings with the first and third Nitrogen
applications in November and December harvested cane.

3.2.4 For Ratoon crop

a) Nitrogen

Sugarcane harvested from April to May should be given 160kg / ha Nitrogen, half of it at 4
weeks and the other half at 8 weeks, whilst sugarcane harvested from June to October should be
given 180kg / ha N: half of it at 4 weeks and the other half at 8 weeks after cutting.

Cane harvested from November to December is given 180Kg / ha N in equal dressings at 2, 6

and 10 weeks after cutting.

b) Phosphates

60Kg/ha is banded on both sides of the cane row and incorporated if possible. Apply together
with the first Nitrogen dressing in April to October harvested cane and the second Nitrogen
dressing in the case of November – December harvests. Excess Phosphorus results in low sugar
content.

Ammonium nitrate is applied after irrigation when the soil is still moist. Urea should be applied
to dry soil immediately before irrigation. Single Super Phosphates and Double Super Phosphate
should be applied and disced in at planting in furrows.

3.3 Irrigation

In Zimbabwe, furrow irrigation and centre pivot are the most common irrigation systems in the
sugarcane industry.

3.3.1 Furrow irrigation system

It consists of main canal, sub-main, feeder canals and furrow. Different sizes of siphons are used
for transferring water from feeder canals. It is not suitable for course sand and undulating terrain.
Siphoning water from feeder canals needs some skill if water is to be saved from spilling. It is
simpler to manage (provided the furrows drain well). In water shortage situations, water can be
used by irrigating alternate rows.

Feeders must be kept weed free and built up as required to ensure adequate siphon head. Furrows
should be re- shaped and ridges built as soon as possible after harvest. Maintenance of tail water
drains is of particular importance to ensure efficient disposal of surplus stream flow without
spilling onto road ways.

3.3.2. Centre Pivot

This is where the irrigation equipment rotates around a pivot and crops are watered with
sprinklers. It is a highly efficient system which helps conserve water and reduce labour costs
compared to some ground irrigation techniques
3.3.3 Overhead irrigation
Advantages

 Drainage problems are decreased as there is less water wastage from deep percolation.
 Labour requirements are relatively low during operation and no particular skills are
required for moving laterals and clearing blocked nozzles.
 Can be operated efficiently at night where efficient surface irrigation is impossible.

Disadvantages of overhead irrigation

 Power costs are continuous expenses and energy is costly.

 Equipment maintenance and replacement costs are high.
 Prolonged power failures can seriously interrupt irrigation schedules and result in
significant yield losses due to moisture stress.

3.3.4 Drip irrigation

Drip system has an advantage of using less water and requiring less labour while the
disadvantages include its requirement for a well trained person to operate and manage the drips.
It can be affected by power cuts since most use electricity. Drip irrigation is not a very common
system in sugarcane production.

3.4 Irrigation scheduling

It is a way of planning future irrigation application and dates which facilitates planning of labour,
fertilizer applications, herbicide applications and weeding.

3.5 Problems of Irrigation

 Salinity (accumulation of salts) and sodicity (Na)

 Soil acidity – some fertilizers like Ammonium sulphate reduces soil pH

  Leaching of nutrients

 Movement of nutrients by surface irrigation – when attached on sediments

 Accumulation of heavy metals

3.6 Summary

The application of the right amount of fertilizer and irrigation water, at the right time would
greatly increase the yield of sugarcane, as well as sustain the environment. This can only be
achieved when proper calibration of the fertiliser application equipment is done, as well as
proper irrigation scheduling is done.

3.7 Activity
 Compare and contrast sprinkler and furrow irrigation in sugar cane production
 Explain the importance of applying the correct amounts of fertilizer at the right time in
sugarcane
 Identify and explain any deficiency symptoms for the following nutrients in sugarcane:
a) Nitrogen
b) Potassium
c) Phosphorus

3.8 Further Reading

Clowes, M. St. J and Breakwell, W.L. 1998. Zimbabwe Sugarcane Production Manual. The
Zimbabwe Sugar Association Experiment Station. Zimbabwe.

Ministry of Agriculture Mechanization and Irrigation development.Farm Management

Handbook. Field Crops, Volume 1, 2010.
RacemaekersRomain H. (2001) Crop Production in Tropical Africa, Brussels, Belgium.
Unit 4: Crop Protection

4.0 Introduction
Sugarcane, like any other crop suffers from pest, disease and weed challenges. The crop must
therefore be timely protected from these. This unit covers the different diseases, pests and weeds
that affect the sugar cane crop, as well as the various preventative and control options available.

4.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 Identify the common sugarcane weeds, pests and diseases

 Explain the pre-disposing factors for the major sugarcane diseases
 Explain the various methods of eradicating weeds, pests and diseases in sugarcane

4.2 Weed management in Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a slow starter; therefore weeds must be removed as early as is possible. A good
weed control programme should be combined with sound agronomic practices, for example,
timely land preparation, selection of adapted varieties, proper fertilization and disease and insect
control.

4.2.1 Effects of weeds

 Weeds increase water usage.

 Competing - nutrients, moisture, space or light
 Physically interfering with growth
 Interfering with harvesting
 Contaminates final product
 Harbour insect pests or diseases e.g. volunteers harbour ratoon stunting disease ,
Sorghum bicolour carry mosaic disease
  Some are invasive & upset indigenous ecology e.g Water weeds

 Impair water movement in irrigation channels

 Fire hazard - weeds on edges of cane fields can act as fire hazards

4.2.2 Weed Control

(i) Hand pulling

This is mainly done on escaped weeds with shallow roots or on a small scale of production.

(ii) Hoeing (weeding)

This is the most common method. It is however more practical on small scale production units.

(iii) Mechanical implements

This is limited in the sugar industry because the use of cultivators and other weed controlling
equipment is difficult on furrows and ridges.

(iv) Use of fire

Burning helps reduce weed seeds and trash.

(v) Irrigation management

Checking the source of water will help prevent the introduction of new weeds in a crop, where
weed parts and seeds can be screened before irrigation water is introduced into fields. Moreover,
applying water exactly where it is needed will help to starve some weeds.

(vi) Mulching or Trash blanketing

This will prevent the emergence of weeds in between rows where the mulch would be placed.
Mulch or trash would also suffocate weeds that would have germinated in between the cane
rows.
(vii) Chemical weed control

This is the use of herbicides and these should be applied properly and at the correct time.
Spraying equipment should be in good condition, properly calibrated & should have vigorous
agitation capability. Herbicides should be accurately measured or weighed. Herbicides are
grouped as follows:

 Pre-planting - these are incorporated before planting

 Pre-emergence- applied before the germination of seed weeds
 Post emergence – weeds are controlled after they have emerged

The most common weeds are Rottboellia conchinchinensis (Shamva grass), Water grasses, Milk
weed (Euphorbia), Wild cucumber, Cyperus rotundus (Purple nutsedge) and Apium
laptophyllium (Carrot weed).

4.2 Diseases of Sugarcane

4.2.1 Smut
A fungal disease caused by the fungus Ustilago scitaminea

Symptoms

 Infected cane looks like grass ( small and narrow leaves) and has long un-branched dark
brown whip-like structures
 Stems are thin with wide spaced internodes
 Sugar content will be reduced greatly

Transmission

Smut is transmitted by

 Planting infected seed cane

 Wind blown spores
  Use of contaminated planting material.

Conditions favouring the development of smut include high temperatures and high relative
humidity, which increase the germination percentage of spores.

Prevention and Control

 Use resistant varieties such as ZNIL-ZN8, CP72-2086,N14 and CP72-11312

 Practice crop rotation with crops which are not affected by these fungal spores as
thisreduces the amount of spores in the soil
 Fields must be rested as spores remain in the soil for about 200 days in dry conditions
 Rogue and burn infected plants.

4.3.2 Ratoon Stunting Disease

It is a bacterial disease caused by the bacteria Clavibacter xyli

Symptoms

 This is a systemic disease that attacks the vascular bundles in ratoon crops.
 Does not show any external symptoms other than loss of vigour in the crop.
 It can depress growth mostly in the ratoon crop.
 Infected stalks are thin and have orange / red vascular bundles at the nodes.

Transmission

The disease can be spread from one crop to crop through planting infected seed cane. It can also
be spread through the use of contaminated cane knives and mechanical implements or spread
through infected volunteers in the field to growing crops. The RSD bacteria can survive in the
soil in crop debris for three months.

Prevention and Control

 Ensure planting of disease free cane.

 At harvesting, disinfect cutting knives and other mechanical implements.
 Use of certified seed cane.
 Heat treat setts for 2hrs at a temperature of 500C in hot water.
  Fallowing for 12 months because bacteria cannot survive without juice
 Remove infected volunteers
 Use resistant varieties, for example, CP- 29-116.

4.3.3 Leaf scald

A bacterial disease caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas albilineans

Symptoms

They are divided into two phases:

(i) Chronic phase

This is characterized by chlorosis, yellow to white patches on leaves of young shoots as well as
white patches along the main veins.

(ii) Acute phase

It is a latent infection, which means plant can be infected without showing any symptoms. The
whole stool suddenly wilts and dies.

Transmission

 The disease can spread through splashes and irrigation water.

 It can also spread through use of contaminated implements
 Planting infected seed cane can also transmit it.

Prevention and Control

 Plant resistant varieties.

 Sterilize knives and setts.
 Do not collect seed from the stalks which show signs and symptoms of leaf scald
although there might be some latent infections.

4.3.4 Yellow Leaf Syndrome

It is a viral disease
Symptoms

The disease affects older leaves first with the midrib turning yellow. This extends to the rest of
the leaf and it may eventually fall off the plant.

Transmission

The disease is spread by insectcs such as grasshoppers or aphids that transmits the disease when
feeding

Prevention and Control

 Good drainage.
 Use of clean seed cane.
 Use tolerant cultivars, for example, N14 and NCo376.

4.3.5 Red Rot

It is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Colletotrichum falcatum

Symptoms

The Disease affects both seed cane setts and standing stalks. Serious symptoms of the disease are
observed in the internodes of the stalks by splitting it lengthwise.

 Internal tissues are red with white bands.

 The stalks eventually become hollow and then the fungus produces black spores.

Transmission

Disease is transmitted through infected planting material and the fungal spores can be spread by
wind, rain and irrigation water.

Prevention and Control

 Practise crop rotation.

  Use clean seed cane.
 Breeding for resistance is the best and long term thrust

4.3.6 Pine Apple Disease

It is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Ceratocystis paradoxa.

Symptoms

It is called by that name because of the smell given by sugarcane in the early stages of rotting
which is similar to that of pineapple. Rotting of sugar cane setts is the most visible sign.

Transmission

The fungus is soil borne and may enter standing stalks through damage caused by insects.

Prevention and Control

 Do not plant too deep when soil is excessively wet.

 Use young certified disease free seed cane that will germinate rapidly.
 Treat with a registered fungicide

4.3.7 Rust
It is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Puccinia melanocephala.

Symptoms

It is a seasonal disease which is common in winter. Affected cane show an orange – brown
colouration that is visible from a distance. Orange to brown patches appear on leaf surfaces.

Transmission

Disease can be transmitted by wind or rain splashes.

Prevention and Control

 Use of fungicides.
 Burning of trash to kill the pathogen.
  Timing of planting since the disease is more serious in winter.

4.4 Pests of Sugarcane

4.4.1 Black Maize Beetle (BMB) (Heronychus licas)

Pest description

The larvae are e- shaped, dirty white in colour with a light brown head. Adults feed on both
young cane shoots and older stalks by boring into their bases at or just below ground level. They
feed at night and are found within the stool and on trashed ridges.

Damage

Both larva and adult cause damage to sugarcane. They feed on roots and underground shoots.
Severe larval damage cause wilting and yellowing of leaves, stuntedness and uneven growth.

Larval damage can be noticed from March to July. Adults can bore into the tillers just below the
soil surface and damage young cane mostly. The central leaf whorl wilts and this is often
referred to as dead hearts. Up to 100 % loss can occur.

Prevention and Control

 Destruction of volunteers and weeds in the field

 Heavily infested fields must be ploughed out.

4.4.2 Eldana borer (Eldana saccharina)

Pest Description

The larva is a dark brown caterpillar with a reddish head. It forms a web that if put it in your
hand and try to drop it, it will not fall down. It is a very active pest and if disturbed, it quickly
moves backwards.

Damage
The larvae tunnel the plant stalk affecting translocation of nutrients and water. This activity of
the borer can cause the crop to be affected by other diseases such as red rot resulting in reduced
sucrose content and quality.

Damage in young plants causes dead hearts.

Prevention and Control

 Any cane stalks and trash that remain in the field after haulage must be collected and
burnt.
 Harvest affected fields first to reduce spread of Eldana.
 Cut stalks at ground level to reduce the number of borers in the stool.
 Avoid over application of Nitrogen.
 Dip setts in Cypermethrin when planting to reduce Eldana infection levels in the seed
cane.

4.4.3 Sesamia (Sesamia calamistis)

Damage

The pest causes dead hearts on the plant. Crop is subjected to red rots infections.

Prevention and Control

 Practice crop rotation

 Only uninfected setts must be planted

4.4.4 Nematodes
This is not a very important pest in sugarcane.

Damage

Interferes with normal functioning of the roots. It also suck juice from the roots and cause weak
tillering.

Prevention and Control

  Apply granules of termik.
 Practice crop rotation.

4.4.5 Termites
They attack cane at any stage of growth, causing toppling over of the crop.

Apply Thiodan for the control of termites.

4.4.6 Trash worms

Feeds at night and they thrive in trashy conditions. They can be controlled through trash burning
or removal as well as chemically by using chemicals such as carbaryl.

4.4.7 Pear scales

These are sap sucking pests that live in cane or soil. Dry conditions favour the proliferation of
this pest.

They are normally controlled by irrigation, dessication by ploughing soil and drying out.

4.4 Summary
There are various pests and diseases that can greatly reduce substantially the yield of sugarcane.
It is therefore very important these, plus weeds, are eradicated as soon as is possible. Chemical
control seems to be the most used method, but there is need to combine it with more sustainable
and environmentally friendly methods such as biological and cultural methods.

4.5 Activity
1. How effective is hand weed control in sugar cane production. In your discussion, outline any
limitations of this method if any.

2. Describe sugarcane diseases ratoon stunting and smut under the following sub-headings:

i) Causative organism
ii) Symptoms of the disease
 iii) Transmission of the disease
iv) Prevention and Control
2. There are several other sugar cane diseases, explore them using the same sub-headings as
above.
3. Suggest names of fungicides suitable for fungal disease control in sugarcane.
4. Explain why it would be necessary to alternate these fungicides.
5. Identify any three pests of sugarcane; explain their damage to the crop as well as
suggesting sustainable control measures.

4.6 Further Reading

Clowes, M. St. J and Breakwell, W.L. 1998. Zimbabwe Sugarcane Production Manual. The
Zimbabwe Sugar Association Experiment Station. Zimbabwe.

Ministry of Agriculture Mechanization and Irrigation development.Farm Management

Handbook. Field Crops, Volume 1, 2010.
RacemaekersRomain H. (2001) Crop Production in Tropical Africa, Brussels, Belgium.

Unit 5: Sugarcane Harvesting and Processing

5.0 Introduction

In Zimbabwe plant cane is mature for and ready for harvest at about 14 months of age, whilst
ratoon cane matures at around 12 months of age. Sugarcane is harvested basing on its sucrose
content as well as the age of the crop. Sugarcane must be milled within 24-48 hrs after burning to
avoid rapid deterioration of cane.
5.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Identify and explain the different methods of sugarcane harvesting

 Explain the importance of using ripeners
 Appreciate the importance of synchronizing harvesting operations with mill operations
 Identify the different by-products of the milling process and appreciate their importance
in the economy.

5.2 Preparation for Harvesting

It is necessary to dry off cane to make it acceptable at milling by starving it of water to increase
the sucrose content. The period ranges from three to four weeks. One must also consider
availability of labour, availability of machinery as well as mill functioning.

Cane is harvested manually or through the use of machinery. The use of machinery is however
very limited. In Zimbabwe, cane is harvested manually and is done from April to December. The
percentage of sucrose content in cane is highest from June to September due to low temperatures.
This is so because less sucrose is used for new growth as there is virtually no more cane growth.

At the beginning and end of milling season, sucrose content is naturally low in actively growing
cane which is not mature. Cane ripeners are applied to inhibit apical growth in the stalk and
encourage sucrose storage.

5.2.1Types of ripeners

i) Plant Growth Regulator (PGR)

Ethrel, on contact with leaves ethylene which is synthesized naturally in plants during
maturation. Ethrel should be applied about 15 weeks before harvest.

ii) Dessicants
For example Round up and Fusilade super.

These are applied about 8-15 weeks before harvest. Harvesting must to be done no more than 12
weeks after spraying.

The dessicants are grass herbicides that will kill sugarcane when applied at high rates. As
ripeners, they are applied at low rate to inhibit growth and induce maturity artificially.

5.2.2 Burning

Cane is burnt before cutting to destroy leaves. It must be done in the late afternoon hours so as to
achieve cold burning because the fire will not be so intense to affect the juice in the stalks.

Burning is not environmentally friendly. However it reduces the risk of pest infestation such as
stalk borers, Black maize beetle and Eldana borer. It also scares away dangerous animals such as
snakes that may harm the cane cutters.

Disadvantages of burning

 Sugarcane must be milled within 24 hours after burning because there will be rapid
deterioration of cane.
 Environmental degradation results as burning affects soil, water, micro organisms and
organic matter.
 Large amounts of smoke which are produced can pollute the environment
 There are high chances of the fire going out of hand, thus affecting the surrounding areas

5.3 Cutting
After burning, the cane is cut at ground level (basal cutting) using cutting knives. This is done
manually (in Zimbabwe) or by machines in other areas. Efficiency of this operation is reduced
when cane is lodged.

The cutting knife should be dipped regularly in a disinfectant (e.g. Jeyes fluid) to prevent the
spread of diseases.
However in situations where there is consistent wet weather, un-burnt cane can be cut and the
leaves are removed manually (trashing). This requires more labour and can cause problems to
surface irrigation. The advantages are that erosion and water loss are reduced. There is a build-up
of organic matter and suppression of weeds.

5.4 Cane topping

It is the removal of the upper part of the cane plant after cutting down the plant. This is targeted
at the natural break point, the point up the cane stalk where the tip naturally breaks off.

5.5 Stacking
This is where the cut cane stalks are heaped or stacked together inside or just outside the field. It
is done to facilitate easy cane haulage

5.6 Transportation / Haulage

The aim is to haul lots of cane to the mill in shortest possible time and it is economic to reduce
deterioration. In the field, haulage is done by perry loaders and grab loaders to load into tractor
drawn trailers for transportation to the loading zones or directly to the mill. Haulage can be by
road or rail transport

5.7 Ratoon Management

Harvesting of the plant crop results in re-growth and production of the first ratoon crop.
Ratooning is the practice of growing a sugarcane crop from the stubbles and root system of
previous sugarcane crop. This is done after harvesting of the previous crop. Sustainable and
economic ratoons can be upto 20, so soon after harvesting, there is need to immediately manage
properly the developing crop to continue getting economic yields. Cane leaves and tops that have
been removed from the cane stalk at harvesting are called trash and it is this trash that has to be
immediately managed.
The system of irrigation determines how to manage the trash:

a) Where the cane is irrigated by sprinkler, trash is spread evenly over the field to assist in
weed control and to reduce droplet induced surface crusting. Trash worm is common
where a lot of trash is left un-burnt. This is controlled by the use of carbaryl.

Trash can lock up Nitrogen in years of good rainfall. Microbes build up in the rapidly
decaying trash hence lock up available Nitrogen in the soil. The crop canopy yellows and
can be corrected by the normal fertilizer program.

b) Trash may be removed by burning after windrowing if furrow irrigation is used.

c) It may be managed by Trash Parting: - where trash is placed down every 5 – 8 rows.
This is also done where furrow irrigation is used.

Trash parting and burning are done to prevent the trash from impeding water flow down the
furrow and to facilitate post harvest mechanical operations such as re-ridging.

5.8 Other Operations on a ratoon crop

1. Tillage

This is done facilitate water movement in furrows and to improve water infiltration. Tillage
methods are based on soil type with lighter soils not needing improvement in infiltration.

2. Gap filling

Gap filling is done early with the first irrigation using certified seed cane. The main causes of
gaps are insect damage, especially termites and cutting too high at harvesting which results in the
death of stools. Emerged setts are the most effective for gap filling.

The other operations on ratoon crop are also applicable on a plant cane and these include
irrigation, fertilizer management and crop protection
5.9 Sugar Processing

5.9.1 Receiving and Cleaning

Sugarcane is transported to the mill for processing. Cane trucks are weighed at the weighbridge
upon arrival after which it is then mechanically unloaded on the mill yard while removing
excessive soil and rocks. Cane is cleaned by flooding the carrier with warm water (in the case of
sparse rock and trash clutter).

Alternatively, it can be spread on agitating conveyors that pass through strong jets of water &
combing drums (to remove larger amounts of rocks, trash and leaves).

5.9.2 Juice Extraction

This is where the cleaned stalks are shredded by a machine and juices are separated from fibr e.
During extraction, stalks are crushed and squeezed between a series of heavy and grooved metal
rollers to separate fibre from the juice that contains sugar.

Sugar is separated from cut stalks by dissolving it in hot water or hot juice . The extracted juice
contains 95% or more of the sucrose.

5.9.3 Clarification / purification

The process involves removing debris by adding lime. The juice extracted is acidic & turbid. The
clarification process’ aim is to remove both soluble & insoluble impurities (e.g sand, soil, and
ground rock) that have not been removed by preliminary screening.

The process uses lime, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and heat as the clarifying agents.

Lime – neutralise acids and stop sucrose from inverting

SO2 – kill microbes (ferments) which may affect the process

Heat – juice is heated to remove impurities hence get clear juice

Mud is separated from clear juice thru sedimentation and non-sugar impurities are removed by
continuous filtration. The final clarified juice contains about 85 % water and has same
composition as raw extracted juice except for the removed impurities.
5.9.4 Evaporation
To concentrate this clarified juice, about two-thirds of the water is removed through vacuum
evaporation. Clear juice is concentrated by evaporation of water until syrup is formed. The syrup
is evaporated until saturated with sugar. Syrup leaves the last body continuously with about 65%
solids and 35% water.

5.9.5 Crystallization
Sugar particles ground to small practices are added to syrup and heated to produce massecuate

and allowed to cool. When sucrose concentration reaches the desired level, dense mixture of

syrup and sugar crystals, called massecuite, is discharged into large containers known as
crystallizers.

Crystallization continues in the crystallizers as the massecuite is slowly stirred and cooled.

5.9.6 Centrifugation
Massecuite from the mixers is allowed to flow into centrifugals, where the thick syrup, or

molasses, is separated from the raw sugar by centrifugal force. It separates sugar from molasses.

Massecuite is centrifuged to remove impurities. The high-speed centrifugal action separate the
massecuite into raw sugar crystals & molasses. Raw sugar is retained in centrifuge basket while
the mother liquor, or molasses, passes through the lining.

5.9.7 Drying
It is dried to 0.2 to 0.4 moisture content (brown sugar) then to refiners for white sugar.

5.9.8 Refining Sugar

The aim is to eliminate remaining impurities and to obtain sugar that is perfectly white.

After refining then the packaging process follows.

 Removal of remaining impurities in brown sugar to get white sugar.

 Afining – sugar is centrifuged to remove external impurities

  Purification – remove internal impurities

 De-colouration – remove colour on syrup from clarification

5.9.8.1 Affining
Sugar is mixed with syrup and resulting magma is reheated before entering the centrifugal
machine that expels the syrup and along with it the external impurities.

5.9.8.2 Purification
Rid the sugar of its internal impurities.Sugar is dissolved in water.The substances in suspension
in the syrup are eliminated by treating it with common clarifying agents.

Lime with Carbon dioxide (carbonation) and this is removed by filtration and lime with
phosphonic acid (phosphatation).

5.9.8.3 Decolaration
Percolation of syrup through deep beds containing crushed animal blood.

Supplementary bleaching is done by resin to the final white colour.

5.9.8.4. Packaging
The processed sugar is then packed in different pack sizes depending on the intended destination.
The packages range from 1 kg to several thousand metric tons.

5.10 Sugarcane by-products

5.11 Summary
The S.E Lowveld of Zimbabwe has provided the ground for the production of sugar cane. The
temperatures suit the growth of the crop. The irrigation facilities in the established producing
companies have made its production possible.

5.12 Activity
 List any 3 by-products of sugarcane. Explain the importance of each by-product in the
Zimbabwean economy.
5.13 References
Clowes, M. St. J and Breakwell, W.L. 1998. Zimbabwe Sugarcane Production Manual. The
Zimbabwe Sugar Association Experiment Station. Zimbabwe.

Ministry of Agriculture Mechanization and Irrigation development.Farm Management

Handbook. Field Crops, Volume 1, 2010.
RacemaekersRomain H. (2001) Crop Production in Tropical Africa, Brussels, Belgium.

www.kew.org/plantcultures

www.fao.org/,,/S8850EO