Aircraft Structures

CHAPTER 8.
Thin-walled beams

Prof. SangJoon Shin

Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab.

 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

 Typical aeronautical structures

● Typical aeronautical structures --- Light-weight, thin walled, beam-like structure

← complex loading environment
(combined axial, bending, shearing, torsional loads)
• Closed or open sections, or a combination of both : profound implications
for the structural response (shearing and torsion)

• Thin-walled beams : specific geometric nature of the beam will be exploited

to simplify the problem’s formulation and solution
process

8.1 : closed section

8.2 : open section

8.3 : combination of both

8.4 : multi-cellular section

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.1 The thin wall assumption

C : geometry of the section, along

the mid-thickness of the wall

s : length along the contour,

orientation along C

t(s) : wall thickness

• The thin wall assumption --- wall

thickness is assumed to be
much smaller than the other
representative dimensions.

t ( s) t ( s) t ( s)
 1,  1, 2  1 (8.1)
b h b h 2

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.1 The thin wall assumption

• The thin-walled beam must also be long to enable the beam theory to be a
reasonable approximation

b2  h2
1
L

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.2 Stress flows

 The stress components acting in the plane of the cross-section are assumed to
be negligible as compared to the others.

 3  1 ,  23   12
 23   13
,
• Only non-vanishing components : axial stress  1
transverse shear stress  12 ,  13
 It is preferable to use the stress components parallel and normal to C.

•  n ,  s , rather than Cartesian components.

dx3 dx
 n   12 cos    13 sin    12   13 2 (8.2a)
ds ds
dx dx
 s   12 sin    13 cos    12 2   13 3 (8.2b)
ds ds
dx3 dx
cos   ,sin    2 Sign convention
ds ds for s
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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.2 Stress flows

 Principle of reciprocity of shear stress → normal shear stress

• n must vanish at the two edges of the wall because the outer surfaces
are stress free.

• No appreciable magnitude of this stress component can build up since

the wall is very thin.

• n vanishes through the wall thickness.

• The only non-vanishing shear stress component :  s , tangential stress

Inverting Eq. (8.2a), (8.2b), and n  0
dx2 dx3
 12   s  13   s (8.3)
ds , ds

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.2 Stress flows

Thin-walled beams :

It seems reasonable to assume that s is

uniformly distributed across the wall
thickness since the wall is very thin.

Concept of “stress flow”

n( x1 , s )   1 ( x1 , s )t ( s ) (8.4a)

f ( x1 , s )   s ( x1 , s )t ( s ) (8.4b)

n : “axial stress flow,” “axial flow”

f : “shearing stress flow,” “shear flow”

• Only necessary to integrate a stress flow along C, instead of over an

area, to compute a force.

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.3 Stress resultant

• Integration over the beam’s cross-sectional area → integration along curve C

• Infinitesimal area of the cross-section dA  tds

• axial force

N1 ( x1 )    1dA    1tds   nds (8.5)

A C C

Axial flow
• bending moments

M 2 ( x1 )   nx3 ds M 3 ( x1 )    nx2 ds (8.6)

C C

• shear forces

dx2 dx
V2 ( x1 )   f ds V3 ( x1 )   f 3 ds (8.7)
C ds C ds

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.3 Stress resultant

• Torque about origin O,

  
M O ( x1 )   rP  fds
C


rP  x2 i 2  x3 i 3 : position vector of point P

ds  dx2 i 2  dx3 i 3 : increment in curvilinear coord.

 dx dx
M O ( x1 )   ( x2 dx3  x3 dx2 ) f i1   ( x2 3  x3 2 ) f i1 ds
C C ds ds
At point Po,
dx3 dx
rO  x2 cos   x3 sin   x2  x3 2 (8.8)
ds ds
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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.3 Stress resultant

• Magnitude of the torque


M 1O ( x1 )   frO ds , rO  rP (8.9)
C

--- torque = magnitude of the force X perpendicular

distance from the point to the line of action of

the force

• Torque about an arbitrary point K, of the cross-section

dx3 dx
M 1k ( x1 )   frk ds (8.10) and, rk  ( x2  x2 k ) cos   ( x3  x3 k ) sin   rO  x2 k  x3 k 2
C ds ds
• rk : perpendicular distance from K to the line of action of the shear flow (8.11)

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.4 Sign conventions

variable s,

 s s
x2 ( s )  a  1   x3 ( s )  b l  a 2  b2
 l , l ,
The perpendicular distance from O, to the
tangent curve C, denote ro, becomes
dx3 dx  sb s  a  ab
rO  x2  x3 2  a  1    b     (8.12)
ds ds  ll l l l
variable s’,

s'  s'
x2 ( s ')  a x3 ( s )  b  1  
l ,  l 
r’o becomes,
dx3 dx s '  b   s '  a ab
r 'O  x2  x3 2  a     b  1    (8.13)
ds ' ds ' l  l  l l l

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.4 Sign conventions

 The sign convention for the torque is independent of the choice of the curvilinear
variable, s

s: counterclockwise, s’: clockwise

f '( s ')   f ( s ) r 'O ( s ')   rO ( s )

However, the resulting torque is unaffected by this

choice.

M 1O ( x1 )   frO ds   f ' r 'O ds '

C C

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 8.1 Basic equation for thin-walled beams

8.1.5 Local equilibrium equation

• A differential element of the thin-walled beam

--- all the forces acting along axis i1

 n   f 
 nds   n  dx1  ds  fdx1   f  ds  dx1  0
 x1   s 

After simplification,

n f
 0 (8.14)
x1 s

• Any change in axial stress flow, n, along the beam axis must be equilibrated
by a corresponding change in shear flow, f, along curve C that defines the
cross-section

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 8.2 Bending of thin-walled beams

• A thin-walled beam subjected to axial forces and bending moments

--- Euler-Bernoulli assumptions are applicable for either open or closed cross-sections

- Assuming a displacement field in the form of Eq. (6.1)

Stain field given by Eq. (6.2a) – (6.2c)

--- axial stress distribution, from Eq. (6.15)

 N1 x2 H 23
c
 x3 H 33c c
x2 H 22  x3 H 23
c

1  E   M2  M3  (8.15)
S H H 

S   EdA , H  H 22 H 33c  ( H 23
c c 2
)
A

  Ex32 dA , H 33c   Ex22 dA , H 23  A Ex2 x3 dA

c c
H 22
A A

- axial flow distribution using Eq. (8.4a)

 N1 ( x1 ) x2 ( s ) H 23
c
 x3 ( s ) H 33c c
x2 ( s ) H 22  x3 ( s ) H 23
c

n( x1 , s )  E ( s )t ( s )   M 2 ( x1 )  M 3 ( x1 )  (8.16)
 S H H 

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

• Bending moments in the thin-walled beams are accompanied by transverse

shear force → give rise to shear flow distribution

- evaluated by introducing the axial flow, given by Eq. (8.16) into the local
equilibrium eqn., Eq. (8.14)

f  1 dN1 x2 H 23
c
 x3 H 33c dM 2 x2 H 22
c
 x3 H 23
c
dM 3 
  Et     (8.17)
s  S dx1 H dx1 H dx1 

- sectional equilibrium eqns, Eq. (6.16), (6.18), (6.20) substituting into (8.17),
and assuming that p1 , q2 , q3  0

f  x2 H 23
c
 x3 H 33c c
x2 H 22  x3 H 23
c

  E ( s )t ( s )   V3  V2  (8.18)
s  H H 

- Integration -> shear flow distribution arising from V2, V3

s  x2 H 23
c
 x3 H 33c c
x2 H 22  x3 H 23
c

f (s)  c   Et   V3  V2  ds (8.19)
0
 H H 
c: integration constant corresponding to the value at s = 0

The procedure to determine this depends on whether cross-section is closed or

open.
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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

c
- Since H , V2 , V3 are function of x1 alone

c
Q3 ( s ) H 23  Q2 ( s ) H 33c c
Q3 ( s ) H 22  Q2 ( s ) H 23
c
f (s)  c  V3  V2 (8.20)
H H

where “stiffness static moment” or “stiffness first constant”

s s
Q2 ( s )   Ex3 ( s )tds Q3 ( s )   Ex2 ( s )tds (8.21)
0 0

--- static moments for the portion of the cross-section from s = 0 to s

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.1 Shearing of open sections

Principle of reciprocity of shear stress  12   21 , 23   32 , 13   31 ,

→ shear flow vanishes at the end points of curve C

Shear flow must vanish at point A and D

since edges AE and DF are stress free.

If the origin of s is chosen to be located

at such a stress free edge, the
integration constant c in
c
Q3 ( s ) H 23  Q2 ( s ) H 33c c
Q3 ( s ) H 22  Q2 ( s ) H 23
c
f (s)  c  V3  V2
H H
must vanish.

17 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.1 Shearing of open sections

Procedure to determine the shear flow distribution over cross-section

1. Compute the location of the centroid of the cross-section, and select a set of
centroid axes, i1 and i 2 , and compute the sectional centroidal bending stiffness
c
, H 33 and H 23 . (principal centroidal axes → H 23  0 )
c c c
H 22

2. Select suitable curvilinear coord. s to describe the geometry of cross-section.

3. Evaluate the 1st stiffness moments using

s s
Q2 ( s )   Ex3 ( s )tds Q3 ( s )   Ex2 ( s )tds (8.21)
0 0

c
Q3 ( s ) H 23  Q2 ( s ) H 33c c
Q3 ( s ) H 22  Q2 ( s ) H 23
c

4. f(s) is determined by f ( s )  c  V3  V2 (8.20)

H H

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.2 Evaluation of stiffness static moments

homogeneous, thin-walled rectangular strip oriented at an angle 

s s s
Q2 ( s )   Ex3tds  E  (d 3  s sin  )tds  Est ( d 3  sin  ) (8.22)
0 0 2

Young’s modulus  the area of strip  coord. of the

centroid of the local area

similar result of the other stiffness static moment,

s
Q3 ( s )  Est ( d 2  cos  ) (8.23)
2

Since the strip is made of a homogeneous material, E factors

Out of integral. s
Q2 ( s )  E 
0
x tds
3

Area static moment

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.2 Evaluation of stiffness static moments

Thin-walled homogeneous circular arc of radius R

ds  Rd

s  d 
Q2 ( s )   Ex3tds  Et  ( d 3  R sin  ) Rd  EtR 2  3   1  cos  
0 0
R 

 d  
Q3 ( s )  EtR 2  1  2    cos   (8.24)
 R  

stiffness static moment = E  area  distance to the area

centroid

Q2 ( s )  EAx3 Q3 ( s )  EAx2

• ”Parallel axis theorem”, but in this case, only the transport term remains
since the static moment about the area centroid itself is zero, by definition.

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.3 Shear flow distributions in open sections

 Example 8.1 Shear flow distribution in a C-channel

- uniform thickness t, vertical web height h, flange width b, subject to a vertical

shear force V3
- centroid: b
d
 h
 2  
 b
- symmetric about axis i2 , principal axes of bending, H 23  0
c

Q2 ( s )  th3 h 
2
 h3 bh 2 
f (s)  c  c
V3 (8.25) H 22  E 
c
 2bt     E   t
H 22  12  2    12 2 

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.3 Shear flow distributions in open sections

 Example 8.1 Shear flow distribution in a C-channel

h
Ets1
Q (s )
f ( s1 )  c1  2 c 1 V3  0  2 V   Ehts1 V3 (8.26)
c 3 c
H 22 H 22 2 H 22

Because, f ( s1  0)  0

h  s2 h  s2 EV 1 tEV
Q2 ( s2 )  Ets2 f ( s 2 )  c2  ts2 c3   [bh  s2 ( h  s2 )] c 3 (8.27)
2 2 H 22 2 H 22

Because, f ( s2  0)  f ( s1  b)
h
Ets3
f ( s3 )  c3  2 V  hs3 tEV3
c 3 c (8.28)
H 22 2 H 22

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.3 Shear flow distributions in open sections

 Example 8.1 Shear flow distribution in a C-channel

- upper and lower flange: linearly distributed, 0 at the edges

- vertical web: varies in a quadratic manner, shear flow and the stress pointing
upward
- max. shear flow: mid-point of the vertical web

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.3 Shear flow distributions in open sections

 Example 8.2 Shear flow continuity conditions

• 2-wall joint : equilibrium of forces along the beam’s axis → -f1+f2=0, or f1=f2
: The shear flow must be continuous at the junction J

• 3-wall joint : -f1-f2-f3=0, or more generally

f i 0 (8.29)

• “sum of the shear flows converging to a joint must vanish.

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

• Problem is not precisely defined --- Whereas the magnitudes of the

transverse shear forces are given, their lines of action are not specified.
-> It is not possible to verify the torque equilibrium of the cross section.

 Definition of the shear center

• subjected to horizontal and vertical shear force V2,

V3 with lines of action passing through K, (x2K, x3K),
no external torque applied, M1K=0

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

 3 equipollence conditions

1 Integration of the horizontal component of the shear flow over cross

-section must equal the applied horizontal shear force

 dx 
 C
f  2  ds  V2
 ds 
will be satisfied since it simply corresponds to the definition of shear
force dx
V2 ( x1 )   f 2 ds
C ds
2 Integration of the vertical component of the shear flow over cross-
section must equal the applied vertical shear force

 dx 
 C
f  3  ds  V3
 ds 

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

 3 equipollence conditions

3 Torque generated by the distributed shear flow is equivalent to the

externally applied torque, about the same point.

--- does require the line of action of the the applied shear forces about
point K, the torque,

M 1k   frk ds (8.10)
C

torque generated by the external forces w.r.t. point K = 0

M 1k  0  0  V2  0  V3
M 1k   frk ds  0 (8.39)
C

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

--- point K cannot be an arbitrary point, its coords must satisfy the
torque equipollence condition

M 1k   frk ds  0 (8.39)
C

“Definition of the shear center location”

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

 Alternative definition
Perpendicular distance from an arbitrary point A to
dx3 dx
the line of action ra  rO  x2 a  x3 a 2
ds ds
 x2 a , x3a  : coord. of point A
Subtracting this equation from Eq. (8.11)
dx3 dx
rk  ra  ( x2 k  x2 a )  ( x3 k  x3a ) 2
ds ds
Substituting into the torque equipollence condition, Eq. (8.39)

 dx   dx 
C
fra ds  ( x2 k  x2 a )   f 3 ds   ( x3 k  x3a )   f 2 ds 
 C ds   C ds 
  fra ds  ( x2 k  x2 a )V3  ( x3 k  x3a )V2  0
C

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

Torque generated about point A by the shear flow distribution

M 1a   fra ds  ( x2 k  x2 a )V3  ( x3 k  x3 a )V2 (8.40)

C

--- moment at A due to force and moment

resultant at point K

M 1a  M 1k  ( x2 k  x2 a )V3  ( x3 k  x3 a )V2

M 1k  0 By Eq. (8.39)

Eqs. (8.39), (8.40) ---

Torque generated by the shear flow distribution
associated with transverse shear force must vanish
w.r.t. the shear center.

30 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

 Summary

• A beam bends without twisting if and only the transverse shear loads are
applied at the shear center.

• If the transverse loads are not applied at the shear center, the beam will
both bend and twist.

• If the cross-section features a plane of symmetry, the shear center must

lie in that plane of symmetry.

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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

 Example 8.6 Shear center for a C-channel

- axis i2: axis of symmetry -> shear center lies at a point along this axis
- It is necessary to evaluate the shear flow distribution by V3, to determine
the shear center location
- Resultant force in each segment: by Eqs. (8.30) – (8.32)
b hb 2 t EV3
R1   f ( s1 ) ds1  c
0 4 H 22
h
R2   2
h f ( s2 ) ds2  V3

2

b hb 2 t EV3
R3   f ( s3 ) ds3  c
 R1
0 4 H 22

 3 equipollence conditions
R1  R1  0

R2  V3

32 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.5 Shear center for open sections

h h
C
frk ds   R1
2
 R2 e  R1  0
2

hR1 h 2 b 2 t E 3b
e   (8.41)
R2 4 H 22 6  h
c

b
 Example 8.8 Shear center for a thin-walled right-angle section

Figure 8.33 - Shear center in thin-walled right-angle section

Lines of actions of two resultant of the shear flow distributions, R1
and R2, will intersect at point K → procedures no torque about this
point → must then be the shear center
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 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.7 Shearing of closed sections

 x2 H 23
s
c
 x3 H 33c c
x2 H 22  x3 H 23
c

Same governing equation f ( s )  c   Et   V3  V2  ds (8.19)
0
 H H 
still applies, but no boundary condition is readily available to
integrate this equation.
Exception: axis of symmetry

If V3 acts in the plane of symmetry i , i 

1 3

→ mirror image of shear flow distribution

point A : joint equilibrium condition

f1  f 2  0
f1  f 2  0
symmetry condition : f1  f 2

shear flow vanishes at A and similarly B

34 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.7 Shearing of closed sections

1st step : Beam is cut along its axis at an arbitrary point.

→ “auxiliary problem,” shear flow distribution fo(s)

2nd step : fo(s) creates a shear strain  s → infinitesimal axial strain du1

s f0 ( s)
du1   s ds  ds  ds (8.43)
G Gt

35 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.7 Shearing of closed sections

3rd step : total relative axial displacement at the cut

f0 ( s)
u0   ds
C Gt

4th step : fc is applied to eliminate the relative axial

displacement, thereby returning the section to its
original, closed state (fc : “closing shear flow”)

total shear flow f  s   f0  s   fc  s 

f0 (s)  fc
ut   ds  0 (8.44)
C Gt
displacement compatibility eqn. for the closed section
f0 ( s)
C Gt ds
fc   (8.45)
1
C Gt ds
36 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.7 Shearing of closed sections

 Summary
• f0(s) for an auxiliary problem f0 ( s)
C Gt ds
• fc(s) by →→→→→→→→ fc  
1
• f  s   f0  s   fc  s 
C Gt ds

37 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.7 Shearing of closed sections

 Example 8.9 Shear flow distribution in a closed triangular section

- shear flow distribution for open section: already computed in Example. 8.4

2
13  s1  V3
f 0 ( s1 ) 
360  39t  t
13 V3 1   s2   V3
2

f 0 ( s2 )   1   (8.46)
360 t 72   15t   t
2
13  s3  V3
f 0 ( s3 )  
360  39t  t

- constant closing shear flow : by Eq. (8.45)

f0 39 t f ( s ) 15 t f ( s ) 39 t f ( s ) 23V3
C Gt  0 Gt 1 15t Gt 2 0 Gt ds3  10Gt
 
0 1 0 2 0 3
ds ds ds
23V3
23V3
ds 1 108 f c   10Gt  
C Gt Gt
 (39t  30t  39t ) 
G 108 1080t (8.47)
G
38 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.7 Shearing of closed sections

 Example 8.9 Shear flow distribution in a closed triangular section

- final shear flow distribution f  s   f0  s   fc

- Both shear flow in the auxiliary section and the closing shear flow are (+)
when pointing along the local curvilinear variable

39 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.8 Shearing of multi-cellular sections

∙ Procedure similar to that used for a single

closed section must be developed. One
cut per cell is required.

• Shear flow distribution in the resulting open sections is evaluated using the
procedure in sec. 8.3.1 f0(s1), f0(s2), f0(s3) along C1, C2, C3

• Closing shear flows are applied at each cut. : fc1, fc2

• Then, shear flow distribution : f 0 ( s1 )  f c1 , f 0 ( s2 )  f c 2 , f 0 ( s3 )  ( f c1  f c 2 ) ,

along C1 , C2 , C3 .

40 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.8 Shearing of multi-cellular sections

front cell : clockwise / aft cell : counterclockwise

f 0 ( s1 )  f c1 f ( s )  ( f c1  f c 2 )
ut 1   ds1   0 3 ds3  0
C1 Gt C3 Gt
f (s )  fc 2 f ( s )  ( f c1  f c 2 )
ut 2   0 2 ds2   0 3 ds3  0
C2 Gt C3 Gt
 1   1  f0 ( s)
 C1  C3 Gt  c1  C3 Gt  c 2
ds f  ds f   C1 C3 Gt ds
   
 1   1  f0 ( s)
 C3 Gt  ds f c1   C2  C3 Gt 
ds f c 2   C2  C3 Gt
ds
   
 Extension to multi-cellular section with N closed cells
• Open section by N cut, one per cell: shear flow distribution in open
section by the procedure in sec 8.3.1

• Closing shear flows are applied at each cut and displacement

compatibility conditions are imposed: N simultaneous equations.

• Total shear flow distribution is found by adding the closing shear

flow to that for the open section.
41 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.8 Shearing of multi-cellular sections

 Example 8.11 Shear flow in thin-walled double-box section

- multi-cellular, thin-walled, double-box section subjected to a vertical shear

force, V3
- right cell wall thickness 2t, while the remaining three walls of the left cell
wall thickness t

- Due to symmetry, i2: principal axis of bending -> H 23  0

c

- bending stiffness based on thin-wall assumption

  2tb3  tb3  b   23 3
2

H c
22  E 2    2(bt  b  2t )     tb E
  12  12  2   12

- 1st step: transformed into an open section by

cutting the two lower flanges

42 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.8 Shearing of multi-cellular sections

- shear flow distribution for open section

6V3 s1 6V  s  12V3 s4
f 0 ( s1 )  , f 0 ( s3 )  3  1  3  , f 0 ( s4 ) 
23b b 23b  b 23b b
6V3   s2  s2  12V3   s5  s5 
f 0 ( s2 )   1   1    , f 0 ( s5 )  1  1   
23b   bb 23b   bb
12V3  s6  12V3  s7  s7
f 0 ( s6 )  1  ,  f ( s )  1 
23b  b  23b 
0 7
bb

- 2nd step: closing shear flows, fc1, fc2 , are added to the left and right cells

- axial displacement compatibility at left cell

b f 0 ( s1 )  f c1 b f (s )  f b f (s )  f
ut 1   ds1   0 2 c1
ds2   0 3 c1
ds3
0 Gt 0 Gt 0 Gt
b f 0 ( s7 )  f c1  f c 2 b  7 f c1 f c 2 12V3 
 ds7    0
0 G  2t Gt  2 2 23b 

43 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.8 Shearing of multi-cellular sections

- axial displacement compatibility at right cell

f 0 ( s4 )  f c 2
b b f (s )  f b f (s )  f
ut 2   ds4   0 5 c2
ds5   0 6 c2
ds6
0 G  2t 0 G  2t 0 G  2t
b f (s )  f  f b  f c1 12V3 
 0 7 c1 c2
ds7   2 f  0
Gt  2 23b 
c2
0 G  2t
V V
- sol. of two simultaneous eqn.: f c1  8 3 , f c 2  16 3
69b 69b
- total shear flow in each segment of the section
2V3   s2  
2
2V3  s1  s2
f ( s1 )   4  9  , f ( s2 )  5  9  9   
69b  b 69b  b  b  
2V  s  4V  s 
f ( s3 )  3  5  9 3  , f ( s1 )   3  4  9 4 
69b  b 69b  b
(8.50)
4V3  s  
2
s 4V  s 
f ( s5 )  5  9 5  9  5   , f ( s6 )  3  5  9 6 
69b  b  b   69b  b

12V3   s7  
2
s7
f ( s7 )  2  3  3   
69b  b  b  
44 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.3 Shearing of thin-walled beams

8.3.8 Shearing of multi-cellular sections

- shear flows in the webs vary quadratically, while those in flanges linearly

- Net resultant of the shear flows in the flanges must vanish because no
shear forces is externally applied in the horizontal direction.

- Resultant of the shear flows in the webs must equal the externally applied
vertical shear force, V3

45 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.4 The shear center

8.4 Shear Center

 Chap. 6… Assumption that transverse loads are applied in “such a

way that the beam will bend without twisting”
 More precise statement : the lines of action of all transverse loads pass
through the shear center
- If the sear forces are not applied at the shear center, the beam will undergo
both bending and twisting

8.4.1 Calculation of the shear center location

• Involves two linearly independent loading cases

① ()[ 2] , unit shear force V2[ 2]  1 , no shear force along i3 , V3
[ 2]
0
→ shear flow f [ 2] ( s )

)[3] , V3[3]  1,V2[3]  0  f [3] ( s )

(②

- from Eq.(8.7), shear forces equipollent to f [ 2] ( s )

dx2 dx3
V2[ 2 ]  
c
f [2]
ds
ds  1, V3[ 2 ]  c
f [ 3]
ds
ds  0 (8.51)

46 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.4 The shear center

- shear center location K ( x2 K , x3 K ) : Eq (8.10) 

dx3 dx
M 1   c
f [ 2 ] rK ds  
c
f [ 2 ] (r0  x2 K
ds
 x3 K 2 )ds
ds
rK : distance from K to the tangent to contour C , Eq. (8.11)
- Rearranging

 dx3   dx2 
 x2 K 
 
c
f [2] ds   x3 K 
ds    c
f [ 3] ds  
ds  c
f [ 2 ] r0 ds

 
by Eq.(8.51)
0 1


 x3 K   f [ 2 ] r0 ds
c
(8.52)

similarly, x2 K   c
f [3] r0 ds (8.53)

47 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.4 The shear center

- alternate torque equipollence condition, Eq.(8.40)

x3 K  x3 a   c f [ 2 ] ra ds (8.54)

x2 K  x2 a   c f [ 3] ra ds (8.55)

( x2 a , x3 a ) : coordinate of an arbitrary point A

• General procedure for determination of the shear center
① compute the x-s centroid and select a set of centroidal axes
(sometimes convenient with principal centroidal axes)
② compute f [2] (s) corresponding to V2[ 2]  1, V3[ 2]  0
f [3] (s) corresponding to V2  0, V3  1
[3] [3]
③ compute
 according to Sections 8.3.1 or 8.3.7
④ compute the coordinate of shear center using Eqs (8.52) and (8.53)
or (8.54) and (8.55)
- If the x-s exhibits a plane of symmetry, simplified

plane  i , i2  is a plane of symmetry, the s.c. must be located in that plane.

 x3 K  0 , Eq. (8.52) can be bypassed.

48 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.4 The shear center

 Example 8.12 Shear center of a trapezoidal section

- closed trapezoidal section

- shear flow distribution generated by a vertical shear force, V3
: sum of the shear flow distribution in the auxiliary open section and the
closing shear flow f  s   f  s   f
0 c

EV3  h2  h1 2  EV
f 0 ( s1 )  c 
s1  h2 s1  , f 0 ( s2 )  c3  s22  h12  (h1  h2 )l  ,
H 22  2l  H 22
(8.48)
EV  h  h h h  EV
f 0 ( s3 )  c3  2 1 s32  h1s3  1 2 l  , f 0 ( s4 )  c3   s42  h22 
H 22  2l 2  H 22

EV3 2(h13  h23 )  (h1  2h2 )l 2  3(h1  h2 )lh1

fc  c (8.49)
H 22 6(l  h1  h2 )

Fig. 8.38. Thin-walled trapezoidal section subjected to a vertical shear force, V3

49 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.4 The shear center

- location of the shear center: by Eq. (8.49)

x2k  
C
 f    s   f    r ds
o
2
c
2
o

f o 2  s   f o  s  V3 , f c2  f c V3 , V3  1
- Evaluation of integral

b h2  h1 1   h1  h2  l 1  l  h22  h12   h23  h13 

x2 k 

4 l 1   h1  h2  l 1  l  h2  h1   h23  h13  l  h23  h13  
- Due to the symmetry of the problem, x3k  0
- If h2  h1 , x3k  0 by symmetry

Fig. 8.38. Thin-walled trapezoidal section subjected to a vertical shaer force, V3

50 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

 Chap. 7… Saint-Venant’s theory of torsion for x-s of arbitrary shape.

solution of PDE is required to evaluate the warping or stress
function. However, approximate solution can be obtained for thin-
walled beams

8.5.1 Torsion of open section

 Sec. 7.4 … Torsional behavior of beams with thin rectangular x-s

 Sec. 7.5 … Thin-walled, open x-s of arbitrary shape, shear stresses

are linearly distributed through the thickness,
torsional stiffness ~ (wall thickness)3 (Eq. (7.61)), very limited
torque carrying capability

51 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

8.5.2 Torsion of closed section

 Fig. 8.50… thin-walled, closed x-s of arbitrary shape subjected to

an applied torque, assumed to be in a state of uniform torsion,
axial strain and stress components vanish  n(s) =0
- local equilibrium eqn. for a differential element, Eq.(8.14) 

f s
0 (8.59)
s Shear i3 M1  0
s
 shear flow must remain constant along curve C
Flow c
dA  O
f ( s )  f  const. (8.60) r0ds / 2 i2
P r0
- constant shear flow distribution generates a torque M1 t (s)
M1   f (s)r (s)ds  
c
0
f  r ( s )ds
c
0
ds
Fig. 8.50. Thin-walled tube of arbitrary
cross-sectional shape
2A (Eq. (8.56))
M 1  2 Af (A : enclosed area by C) (8.61)

“Bredt-Batho formula”

52 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

- shear stress  s resulting from torque M1

M1
 s (s)  (8.62)
2 At ( s )
twist rate vs. applied torque… simple energy argument
- strain energy stored in a differential slice of the beam of length dx1

1  1 s 
2

dA  
2 c 
rs s tds   
 2 c G 
tds  dx1

(8.63)

- introducing shear stress distribution, Eq.(8.62)

 1 M 12 ds 
dA  
 2 4A
2 c Gt ( s )
 dx1

(8.64)

- work done by the applied torque

1 1 d 1  1 
dW  M 1d 1   M 1  dx1
  M 1
 1  dx1 (8.65)
2 2 dx1  2 
d 1
where twist rate 1 
dx1
53 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

- 1st law of thermodynamics… dW  dA

M1 ds
 
1
4 A2 c Gt
(8.66)

 proportionality between M1 and x1 , torsional stiffness

4 A2
H11 
ds (8.67)
c Gt

- arbitrary shaped closed x-s of const. wall thickness, homogeneous material

4GtA2
H11  , l: Perimeter of C (8.68)
l
… maximum H11  thin-walled circular tube (maximize the numerator)

54 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

• Sign convention
A : area enclosed by curve C that defines the section’s configuration

2A  c r (s)ds
0

r0 ( s ) : perpendicular distance from the origin, O, to the tangent to C, its sign

depends on the direction of the curvilinear variable, s
A is (+) when s describes C while leaving A to the left
(-) in the opposite.

f  0, A  0  M 1  2 Af  0

- s’ : clockwise direction, f    f , A   A
M 1  2 Af   2 Af  0

55 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

8.5.3 Comparison of open and closed sections

• Closed section : shear stress is uniformly distributed through the thickness

• Open section : shear stress is linearly distributed
• Torsional stiffness  (enclosed area)2 for closed section, Eq(8.67)
• Torsional stiffness  (thickness)2 for open section, Eq(7.64)
- Fig.8.51. Circular shape, thin-walled tube of mean radius Rm

Closed  s
Open  s
H 11open  2 GRm t 3 / 3 , Eq(7.64)
tube tube
H 11closed  2 GRm3 t , Eq(7.19)
2
H 11closed  Rm 
Rm
 3   (8.69)
Rm t t H 11open  t 
Fig. 8.51 A thin-walled open tube and closed tube

- Maximum shear stress  max subjected to t he same torque, M 1

M 1t 3M 1 M 1 Rm M1
 open
 G 1open t  G   closed
 Rm G 1closed  G 
H 11open 2 Rm t 2 H11closed 2 Rm2 t
max max

 open
R 
max
 3 m  (8.70)
 closed
max  t 
56 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

- Example : Rm =20t
① H11  that of closed section will be 1,200 times larger than that of the open section
② max  that of open section will be 60 times larger than that of the closed section
 closed section can carry a 60 times larger torque

8.5.4 Torsion of combined open and closed sections

• x-s presenting a combination of open and closed curves (Fig. 8.52)


- twist rate is identical for the trapezoidal box
rectangular strips
b2 w
 M 1  H11 1 w
box box

• Torques they carry   strip

M
 1  H strip
11
1 t t
t
C h
t

b1
Fig. 8.52 Thin-walled trapezoidal beam
with overhangs

57 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

 H 11  4GtA / l Eq.(8.68)
box 2

• Torsional stiffness   strip

H
 11  Gwt 2
/3 Eq.(7.64)

• Total torque M 1  M 1box  2 M 1strip

 H 11strip   2 wl  t  
2

M 1  H11 1  2 box  1  H11 1 

box box
2    1
 H 11   3 (b1
 b2
)  h  
t
… for thin-walled section,  1 , H11  H 11box
h
 torsional stiffness of the section is nearly equal to that of
the closed trapezoidal box alone.

M1
M 1box  H11box1  H11box  M1
H11
box

H11strip
M1 strip
 H 11 1
strip
 M1
H11box

58 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

• Max. shear stress … from Eqs. (8.62), (7.65)

M 1box 1
 max 
box
 M1
2 At 2 At
3M 1strip 3 H 11strip
 max 
strip
 M1
20t 2
wt H11
2 box

• ratio
 strip
l t
max
  
 box
max
b1  b2  h 

… the max. shear stress in the strip is far smaller than that in the trapezoidal box

59 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

8.5.5 Torsion of multi-cellular sections

• 4-cell, thin-walled x-s subjected to a torque M 1 (Fig. 8.53)

- only uniform torsion exists, and hence the axial stress flow vanishes
f
: Eq.(8.14) reduces to 0 C E B
s A
F G
 shear flow is constant dx1
D
Fig. 8.53 A thin-walled, multi-cellular section under torsion

• Free-body diagrams of the portion of the section

- Fig. 8.54-(1) … axial stress flow=0, f A  f B
- Fig. 8.54-(2) … f C  f D
- Fig. 8.54-(3) … f C  f F  f G  f B  0 ,  f i  0 (8.71)
… “the sum of the shear flows going into a joint must vanish”

fC fC
fB C C
E fB
fA B
fF
fD G fG
B F
A
dx1
(1) (2) D (3)
Fig. 8.54 Free-body diagrams of the thin-walled, multi-cellular section.
60 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

8.5.5 Torsion of multi-cellular sections

• Const. shear flows are assumed to act in each cell of the section (Fig. 8.55)

-f [ 2 ] f [4]
f [ 2 ]  f [ 3 ] f [ 3 ] -f [ 4 ]
E
f [1]
f [2]
f [4]

f[3]

Fig. 8.55 Shear flows in each cell of a thin-walled, multi-cellular section

• Determination of the const. shear flow in each cell

N N
M 1   M 1[ i ]  2 A[ i ] f [ i ] (8.72)
i 1 i 1

• Const. shear flows are assumed to act in each cell of the section
• Determination of the const. shear flow in each cell
① total torque = sum of the torques carried by each individual cell
“Bredt-Batho formula”

61 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

② compatibility condition … twist rates of the various cells are identified.

          
[1]
1 1
[ 2]
1
[i] [N]
1 (8.73)
- Eq.(8.66) 
M 1[ i ] ds 2 A[ i ] f [ i ] ds
1  C[ i ]
[i]
  [i ]
4( A ) Gt
[i] 2 C
4( A[ i ] ) 2 Gt
(8.74)
1 f [i ]
 [i ]  [i ] ds
2A C
Gt
• Eqs.(8.72), (8.73) … Ncells eqn.s for Ncells shear flows

62 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

 Example 8.17 Two-cell cross-section

- Two-cell cross- section (Fig. 8.56): highly idealized airfoil structure

- Eq. (8.72): total torque carried by the section is the sum of the torques
carried in each cell
N cell
M 1  2  A  f     R 2 f    6 R 2 f 
2
i i 1
(8.75)
i 1

- Eq. (8.73): twist rates for the two cells are identical.
twist rate for the front cell

1 f 1  f 1 f 1  f 2  1  1 2 1  2 

 [1]
 1  ds   R 2R   f   ( f  f )
2G R / 2  t 
1 2
2 A C1 Gt ( s ) 3t  G Rt 3 

twist rate for the aft cell

1  f  f R
2 1
1 f  2 1  2  2 
1[2]   2 C2 ( f  f   )  f   2 10 
1 2
ds  2  2 R  f 2 10   
2A Gt ( s ) 2G 3R  3t t  6GRt  3 

63 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.5 Torsion of thin-walled beams

 Example 8.17 Two-cell cross-section

- Equating the two twist rate -> second eqn. for the shear flow

1  1 2 2 1  1  2 

 f  ( f  f )    ( f 2  f 1 )  f 2 2 10 
 3  6 3 

- which simplifies to

f    1.04 f 
1 2

1  2
- This can be used to solve for f and f

- largest contribution to the torsional stiffness comes from the

outermost closed sections, which is the union of the frount and
aft cells.

The largest shear flow circulates in this outmost section, leaving

the spar nearly unloaded.

- torsional stiffness
M1 ( R 21.04  6 R 2 ) f 2
H11    2  2.81 GR t
3

1[1] 1 / ( GRt )[1.04  2 / 3(1.04  1)] f

64 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.6 Coupled bending-torsion problems

8.6 Coupled bending-torsion problems

 Chap. 6… arbitrary x-s subjected to complex loading conditions

2 important restrictions
① no torques
② transverse shear forces are assumed to be applied in such a way
that the beam will bend without twisting
 Now can be removed
• Fig. 8.65 … concentrated transverse load P2 acting at the tip and it point of
application, A, with coord. ( x2 a , x3 a ) ,
p1 ( x1 ) , p2 ( x1 ) , p3 ( x1 )  distributed loads
p1 ( x 1 ) q 2 ( x 1 ) Point of
i2 P2 Q application P2
i2 Cross-
2

p2 ( x1 ) A( x 2 a , x 3 a ) section
P1
i1 A C
Q1 
i3 p3 ( x1 )
i3 K  Centroid
P3 Q 3 C ( x2c , x3c )
Shear center
q3 ( x1 ) q1 ( x 1 ) K ( x2k , x3k )
Fig. 8.65 Beam under a complex loading condition
65 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.6 Coupled bending-torsion problems

• Solution procedure
① Compute location of the centroid, C ( x2 c , x3 c )
② Compute orientation of the principal axes of bending i1 , i2 , i3
* * *

and the principal bending stiffness (sec. 6.6)

③ Compute location of the shear center,  ( x2  , x3 ) (sec. 8.4)
④ Compute torsional stiffness (chap. 7, or sec. 8.5.2)
⑤ Solve the extensional problems Eqs. (6.31), (6.32) in principal centroidal axes of
bending planes
⑦ Compute torsional problem

d  * d 1* 
 H 11 *   [ g1 ( x1 )  ( x2 a  x2  ) p3 ( x1 )  ( x3 a  x3 ) p2 ( x1 )] (8.76)
* * * * * * * * * *

dx14  dx1 
B.C. 1*  0 at root
d 1*
H 11 *  Q1*  ( x2*a  x2* ) P3*  ( x3*a  x3* ) P2* @ at tip
*
(8.77)
dx1
… : axis system defined by the principal centroidal axes of bending
 More convenient to recast the governing eqn. in a coord. system for which
axis i1 is aligned with the axis of a beam
*

66 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.6 Coupled bending-torsion problems

- Knowledge of centroid and shear center  complete decoupling of a problem

 4 independent problems axial problem

 bending problem
 torsional problem
- If no torque and all transverse loads are applied at the s.c.
 R.H.S of Eq(8.77) =0  1 ( x1 )  0 , the beam does not twist
If not, the beam twists, rigid body rotation 1 ( x1 ) about the s.c.

67 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.6 Coupled bending-torsion problems

 Example 8.18 Wing subjected to aerodynamic lift and moment

- Wing coupled bending-torsion problem (Fig. 8.66)

- principal axes of bending i2 and i3 : their origin at shear center
- axis i1 : along the locus of the shear centers of all the cross-sections
-> straight line called the “elastic axis”
- aerodynamic loading : lift per unit span LAC, applied at the aerodynamic
center
aerodynamic moment per unit span MAC

- differential eqn for bending in plane (i2 , i3)

d 2  c d 2u3 
 H 22   LAC (8.79)
dx12  dx12 
du3 d 2u3 d 3u3
BC: u3   0 at the root,  3  0 at the unloaded tip
dx1 dx12 dx1
- governing eqn for torsion
d  d 1 
H
 11     M AC  eLAC 
dx1  dx1 
BC: 1  0 at the root, d 1
 0 at the tip
dx1
e: distance from the aerodynamic center to the shear center

68 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.6 Coupled bending-torsion problems

 Example 8.18 Wing subjected to aerodynamic lift and moment

- typical transport aircraft: e = 25 – 35% chord

- it is convenient to select the origin of the axes at the s.c., rather than at
the centroid.: bending problem is decoupled from the axial problem.
beam will rotate about the origin of the axes system.

- The rotation Ф1 of the section is, in fact, the geometric angle of attack of
the airfoil.
- lift, LAC , is a function of the angle of attack

- aerodynamic problem: computation of the lift as a function of the angle of

attack
- elastic problem: computation of wing deflection and twist as a function of
the applied loads
- aeroelasticity: study of this interaction

Fig.8.66. The wing bending torsion coupled problem

69 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion
 Thin-walled beam subjected to an applied torque
→ Shear stress generated
→ Out-of-plane deformations, “warping”, in x-s : magnitude is typically
small, but dramatic effect on the torsional behavior

 Particularly pronounced for non-uniform torsion of open sections

Twist rate varies along the span
↔ Contrasts with Saint-Venant theory
Uniform torsion, constant twist rate

70 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion
8.7.1 Kinematic description

 Fig 8.70 : thin-walled beam subjected to a tip concentrated

torque Q1

Fig. 8.70. Thin-walled beam subjected to

an applied torque.

 Displacement field
• Similar to that for Saint-Venant solution
• Each x-s is assumed to rotate like a rigid body about R
(“center of twist”, (x2r, x3r)) ← unknown yet
u1 ( x1 , s )   ( s )1 ( x1 ) (8.80a)
Twist rate
Unknown warping function

u2 ( x1 , s )  ( x3  x3r )1 ( x1 ) (8.80b)

u3 ( x1 , s )  ( x2  x2 r )1 ( x1 ) (8.80c)
71 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion

 Strain field

u1 d u2 u3 (8.81)

1   ( s) 1  23   0
x1 dx1 x3 x2
u2 u1 u2  d  
2  0  12     ( x3  x3r )  1
x2 x2 x1  dx2 

u3 u2 u3  d  

3  0  13     ( x2  x2 r )   1
x3 x3 x2  dx3 

d1
 Non-uniform torsion is assumed → 0
dx1
→ axial strain ≠ 0
In-plane strain components =0 since rigid body rotation assumed
Shear strain components → partial derivatives of warping function and twist rate

72 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion

8.7.2 Stress-strain relations

 Non-vanishing components of the stress

d1
 1  E 1  E  ( s )
dx1
d 
 12  G 12    ( x3  x3r )  G1
dx
 2  (8.82)
d 
 13  G 13    ( x2  x2 r )  G1
 dx3 
 Only non-vanishing shear stress component for thin-walled beams → τs
dx2 dx
 s   12   13 3
ds ds
 d  dx2 d  dx3 dx dx 
   ( x2  x2 r ) 3  ( x3  x3r ) 2  G1
 dx2 ds dx3 ds ds ds 

{
{
Distance from the twist center to
Total derivative of Ψ w.r.t. s
the tangent to C, Eq.(8.11)

 d 
s    rr  G1
→ for open and closed sections
(8.83)
 ds 
73 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion
8.7.3 Warping of open sections

 Shear stress distribution in open-section

→ linearly distributed across the wall thickness and 0 along the wall mid-line

 τs = 0 along curve C, Eq.(8.83)

 d 
s    rr  G1  0 (8.84)
 ds 
 Warping function relation
d  dx dx 
  rr    ro  x2 r 3  x3r 2  (8.85)
ds  ds ds 
 Purely geometric function, Γ(s)

d (8.86)
  ro
 Warping function
ds
 ( s )  ( s )  x2 r x3  x3r x2  c1 (8.87)

74 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion
8.7.3 Warping of open sections

d1
 Uniform torsion,  0 → axial strain/stress = 0
dx1
→ c1 and (x2r, x3r) cannot be determined, simply represents a rigid body displacement
field, does not affect the state of stress/strain
 Non-uniform torsion

{ varying applied torque

constrained warping displacement at a boundary or at some point

→ non-vanishing axial strain/stress although acted upon by a torque alone

but, still N1, M2, M3=0

 Axial force N1 =0 → Eq.(8.82a), (8.87)

  tds  0
c
1

75 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion
8.7.3 Warping of open sections

C
E tds  x2 r  Ex3tds  x3r  Ex2 tds  c1  Etds  0
C C C

{
0 0


{
S (axial stiffness)
origin of the axes is selected to be
at the centroid

1
c1  
S C
E tds
(8.88)

 Bending moment M 2    1 x3tds  0

C

C
E x3tds  x2 r  Ex32 tds  x3r  Ex2 x3tds  c1  Ex3tds  0
C C C
{
{
{ 


H 22 C H 23C  0 0
(principal centroidal
axes of bending)

76 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion
8.7.3 Warping of open sections

1
x2 r  
H 22 C  C
E x3tds (8.89)

 M3 = 0
1
x3r  
H 33C 
C
E x2tds (8.90)

77 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion
 Example 8.20 Warping of a C-channel

- C-channel cross section subjected to a tip torque (Fig. 8.24)

- axes in the figure: principal centroidal axes of bending i2 and i3
- axis i2 : axis of symmetry
- 1st step : compute the purely geometric function,  s  
d
  ro (8.86)
ds
ro : normal distance from the origin of the axes to the tangent
of the curve C

Fig. 8.71. The warping function for a C-channel

78 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion
- For the lower flange (s1)
where, r0   h / 2

( s1 )   hs1 / 2  c
applying boundary condition, ( s1 )  0 at s1  0 then,

( s1 )   hs1 / 2

r0   d and r0   h / 2

( s2 )  ds2  h(b  d )
( s3 )  hs3 / 2  h(b  2d ) / 2

-2nd step: evaluate the integration constants

Et  b h/ 2
   h (b  d )
S  0  h / 2 2 2 0 3 3  2
b
c1    ( s1
)ds1
  ( s )ds   ( s )ds

- Final step: coord. of the twist center

Et  b h h/ 2 h 
H 22c  0  h / 2 2 2 2 0 3 2 ds3 
b
x2 r    ( s )(  )ds   ( s ) s ds   ( s )
2
1 1

h2 b 2 t E
 d 
4 H 22c
79 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 Et  b
( s3 )( s  d )ds3   0
h/2

  
b
x3 r    ( s )( b  d  s )ds   ( s )(  d )ds 
H 22  
c 1 1 2 2
0  h /2 0

h2 b 2 t E
 d 
4 H 22c

The warping function then follows from eq.(8.87) as

h h
 ( s1 )   s1  e  b  ; ( s2 )   es2 ; ( s3 )   s3  e 
2 2
where,

e  h2 b 2 tE / (4 H 22c )

- The location of shear center coincides that of the twist center.

Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion

8.7.5 Warping of closed sections

 Shear stress distribution → constant through the wall thickness in closed section
M1 
s   H11 1 A = area enclosed by curve C (8.62)
2 At 2 At
d s H11
 Eq. (8.83) →   rr   rr (8.94)
ds G1 2 AGt
 governing equation for  ( s ) in closed sections

 Process of integration of Eq. (8.94) → similar to that for open section

① Purely geometric function Γ(s)

d H11
  ro (8.95)
ds 2 AGt
arbitrary B.C. is used to integrate Eq.(8.95)

② c1 and (x2r, x3r) can be determined by the vanishing of F1, M2, M3

81 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.7 Warping of thin-walled beams
under torsion

8.7.6 Warping of multi-cellular sections

 Section 8.5.5 → shear flow distribution f(s) due to applied torque

1
f ( s )   ( s )1  s   ( s)
t
 Governing equation for the warping function

d   ( s)
  rr (8.97)
ds Gt
 Determination of the warping function --- exactly mirrors that for open and
closed sections, except the following

d   (s)
  ro (8.98)
ds Gt

82 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.8 Equivalence of the shear and
twist centers
 Shear center → defined by torque equipollence condition, Eq.(8.39)

 Center of twist → introduced for the analysis of thin-walled beams under torsion

Eq.(8.53) → Eq.(8.86)
d
x2k   f  ro ds    f  
3 3
C C ds
 Integrating by parts
df 3
x2k    ds   f 3 
C ds boundary

by Eq.(8.58)
Et 1
x2 k    x3 ds    E x3tds  x2 r
C H C H 22 C C
22
by Eq.(8.89)
similarly, x3k  x3r
→ Equivalence of the shear and twist center for open sections.
Equivalence also holds for closed sections direct consequence of Betti’s reciprocity
theorem. Eq.(10.117)

83 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.9 Non-uniform torsion

 Non-uniform torsion
→ both shear and axial stresses generated by differential warping
Markedly different behavior from that under uniform torsion

 Axial stress distribution → uniform across the wall thickness

axial flow nw  t 1

 Although the axial stress does not vanish, the resulting axial force and bending
moment do vanish → local equilibrium equation, Eq.(8.14), is not necessarily
satisfied

 For this local equilibrium to hold, a shear flow, fw, “warping shear flow” is generated
to satisfy the local equilibrium

nw f w
 0
x1 s

84 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.9 Non-uniform torsion
 Introducing Eq.(8.82a) for the case of open sections

f w d 21
  Et  (8.99)
s dx12
→ can be integrated
by the procedure in Section 8.3

- Simple C-channel Fig. (8.75)

• Question of overall equilibrium

→ the warping shear flow generate resultant transverse shear force?

dx2 f
Eq.(8.7) → V2 w   f w ds    x2 w ds   x2 f w boundary
C ds C s


Integrating by parts 0 since fw = 0 at the edge of the contour

Eq.(8.99) → d 21
2 C
V2 w  E x2tds  0
dx1

Similarly, V3 w  0
85 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.9 Non-uniform torsion

 Torque resultant about the shear center generated by the warping shear flow

Eq.(8.10) → d
M 1wk   f w rk ds    f w ds (8.100)
C C ds
Integrating by parts
df w
M 1wk    ds   f w  boundary (8.101)
C ds
Introducing Eq.(8.99)
d 21
M 1wk  Hw H w   E  2tds (8.102)
dx12 C “warping stiffness”

 Total torque = that by the twist rate + that due to warping

d 21
M 1k  H111  H w (8.104)
dx12
Additional contribution from the warping
generated by shear
shear flow, =0 for uniform torsion
stress distribution

 Equilibrium equation for a differential element of the beam under torsional load
→ Eq.(7.15)
d  d 1 d 1 
3
H  H   q1
dx1  dx13  (8.105)
11 w
dx1
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 8.9 Non-uniform torsion

 Example 8.23 Torsion of a cantilevered beam with free root warping

- Uniform cantilevered beam of length L subjected to a tip torque, Q

- Root condition: No twisting is allowed, but warping is free to occur
-> attaching the beam’s root to a diaphragm that prevents any root rotation,
but does not constrain axial displacement
- uniform properties along its length, Eq. (8.105) becomes

d 21 d 41
H11 2
 Hw 4
0
dx1 dx1
- at the root : no twist occurs, 1  0 d 21
- free warping at the root : axial stress must vanish, 2
0
dx1
d 1 d 31
- at the tip: torque must equal the applied torque, Q  H11  Hw
d 1
2 dx1 dx13
- at the tip: axial stress must vanish once again, 2
0
dx1
- Introduction of non-dimensional span-wise variable,   x1 L

- Governing eqn.:

1 '''' k 21  0 (8.106)

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 8.9 Non-uniform torsion

- New BC’s: at the root, 1  0, 1  0

at the tip ,
1  0, k 21  1  QL3 H w
H11L2
k (8.107)
Hw
: ratio of the torsional stiffness to the warping stiffness

- General sol. of the governing differential eqn.:

1  C1  C2  C3 cosh k   C4 sinh k  (8.108)

- Application of BC’s:
QL
1   (8.108)
H11
-> identical to the uniform torsion solution
d 1 Q
1    const
dx1 L
- torsional warping stiffness, H w , disappears from the solution.
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 8.9 Non-uniform torsion

 Example 8.24 Torsion of a cantilevered beam with constrained root warping

- Same uniform cantilevered beam, but the root section is now solidly fixed
to prevent any wapring at the root
-> at this built-in end, no twisting occurs 1  0 d 1
no axial displacement 1  0
dx1
- Governing eqn. is the same, Eq. (8.106). But BC’s are
New BC’s: at the root, 1  0, 1  0
at the tip ,
1  0, k 1  1  QL H w
2 3

- General sol. is the same as Eq. (8.108)

- Application of BC’s:
QL  sinh k  sinh k 1    
1    
H11  k cosh k 
influence of the non-uniform torsion
uniform torsion
induced by the root warping constraint

89 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

Fig. 8.76. Twist distribution for the closed Fig. 8.77. Twist distribution for the C
rectangular section under non-uniform torsion. channel section under non-uniform torsion.
k =16.54 (◊), k =8.27 (∆), k =5.04 (□), k =2.65 (◊), k =1.33 (∆), k =0.808 (□),
k =2.52(O). k =0.404(O).

Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.10 Structural idealization

 Actual thin-walled beam structures

→ “stringers” added to increase the bending stiffness

 can be idealized by separating the axial and shear stress carrying components
into distinct entities called stringers
sheets

Axial stress → assumed to be carried only in the stringers

Shear stress → assumed to be carried only in the sheets

(a)
(b)

Sheet
Stringer

“box beam”, “L” shaped longitudinal

sheet-stringer idealization
members located away from the centroid
→ considerably simplified analysis
→ much larger contribution to the procedure for stress distribution
bending stiffness
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 8.10 Structural idealization

8.10.1 Sheet-stringer approximation of a thin-walled beam

 Figure 8.80

→ no discrete “stringers” or with far smaller x-s area

 still possible to construct a sheet-stringer model

 Idealized structures
① Axial stresses are carried solely by the stringers
② Shear stresses are carried solely by the sheets

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 8.10 Structural idealization

 Approach to estimate the areas of the stringers

① Triangular equivalence method (sec. 6.8) → guarantee the same bending
stiffness and centroid location
② Linear distribution of axial stress, σ1 = σ1[1] + (σ1[1] - σ1[1] ) s/b
- σ1[1] : stresses of point A
- σ1[2] : stresses of point B
- s : local position along the contour of width b
 2
→ the areas A , and A
1
, of the stringers need to be determined.
1) Axial stresses at A and B are the same as the actual
2 constraints 2) Force and moment equivalences are maintained

 Force equivalence
1
F1    1[1]   1[2]   1[1]  s / b  tds   1[1]   1[2]  bt   1[1] A[1]   1[2] A[2]
b

0 2
 Bending moment equivalence
b 2t [1]
   s / b stds  6  1  2 1[2]   b 1[2] A[2]
b
M A    1
[1]
1
[2]
 1
[1]
0

solution
bt   1[2]  bt   1[1] 
A   2  [1] 
[1]
, A [2]
  2  [2] 
6 1  6 1  (8.110)
93 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University
 8.10 Structural idealization
 2 special cases
① Uniform axial stress σ1 [1] = σ[2] → A [1]=A[2]=bt/2 (8.111)
② Pure bending σ1 [1] = -σ1[2] → A [1]=A[2]=bt/6 (8.112)
 Different stress distributions are considered, equivalent idealized area need to be
recomputed

8.10.2 Axial stress in the stringers

 The same approach as developed in Chapter 6,

axial stress σ1 [r] acting in the r-th stringer
 N1 [ r ] H 33 M 2  H 23 M 3
C C
[ r ] H 23 M 2  H 22 M 3 
C C
 1
[r]
E [r]
 S  x3  x2  (8.113)
  H H 
Uniform stress is assumed in a small “lumped” case

→ net axial force = A[r]σ1[r]

94 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.10 Structural idealization

8.10.3 shear flow in the sheet components

 Local equilibrium condition, Eq.(8.14) → f s  0, since no axial stress

→ f = const. (8.114)
 Stringer equilibrium
 Figure 8.81
  1  [r]
 
 1 x dx1   1A  f 2 dx1  f1dx1  0
 1 

1  1
f [ r ]  f 2  f1   A[ r ] (8.115)
f2 f2 x1
f1
- Eq. (8.113) → (8.115)
 1  ( 1 / x1 )dx1  H 33V2  H 23 [ r ] H 23V2  H 22V3 
C C C C
f1 V3
f [r]
 E A 
[r] [r]
 x2 
axial equilibrium for the r-th stringer  H H 
(8.116)
H  H 22
C C
H 33  ( H 23
C 2
)

95 Active Aeroelasticity and Rotorcraft Lab., Seoul National University

 8.10 Structural idealization

{
 general thin-walled x-s → shear flow distribution is governed by a differential
equation, Eq. (8.20)
sheet-stringer idealization → shear flow distribution is governed by a difference
equation, Eq. (8.116)

 Integration constant needs to be determined

{ open section → 0 at stress-free edge
closed section → Section 8.3.7
 Shear flow resultants
 Figure 8.82 → curved sheet carrying a constant shear flow f12, and connecting
2 stringers, shear force resultant

2 2
V3   i3  f12 ds  f12  dx3  f12 ( x3[2]  x3[1] )
1 1

similarly, V2  f12 ( x2[2]  x2[1] )

V  V2 2  V32  f12 ( x2[2]  x2[1] ) 2  ( x3[2]  x3[1] ) 2  f12 L12

direction parallel to the line connecting the 2 stringers (8.118)

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 8.10 Structural idealization

 Moment resulting from the shear flow distribution w, r, t point O

2 2
M 0   f12 ro ds  f12  ro ds  f12  ˆ 2dA  f12 2 Aˆ
1 1 A

A : area of the sector defined by the 2 stringers (Fig. 8.82)

 Distance e of line of action from O

ˆ f12 2 Aˆ
e  2A  (8.119)
V L12

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 8.10 Structural idealization

8.10.4 Torsion of sheet-stringer sections

 Open section → linear shear stress distribution through thickness,

inefficient at carrying torsional loads
bt 3
H11  G
3
If different thickness for individual sheets
Gi bi ti 3
H11  H
sheets
11i  
sheets 3 (8.120)

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 8.10 Structural idealization

 Example 8.25 Shear flow in a sheet-stringer C-channel section

- C-channel section subjected to a shear load, V3, and a bending moment, M2

- i2: axis of symmetry, principal centroidal axes.

- Under the bending moment, axial stress will be const. over the top flanges
and bottom flanges, but will vary linearly in the web.
- Use Eqs. (8.111) and (8.112) to evaluate the stringers.

A   1 2 bt , A   1 2 bt  1 6 ht ,
1 2

A   1 2 bt  1 6 ht , A   1 2 bt
3 4

- This idealization yields the same bending stiffness as that for the thin-walled
section
1 1 1  h
c
H 22  Ebht 2  Eth3  Ebht 2  6  
2 12 12  b
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 8.10 Structural idealization

- Equilibrium condition for stringer A , Eq. (8.116), yields

1

f    f12  0
1

- Shear flow in the upper flange

V3 [1] h 3 V3
f12  f [1]   EA  
C
H 22 2 6h /b h
- Shear flow in the vertical web

V3 [2] h 3 V3 3  h / b V3 V3
f 23  f12  EA     
C
H 22 2 6h /b h 6h /b h h
- Shear flow in the lower flange
3 V3
f 34   ,f  f
 6  h b  h 34 12
- Observation
• shear flow is const. in each sheet in contrast with the thin-wall solution
(Fig. 8.25)
• Max. shear flow in the sheet-stringer idealization
V3
f max 
h
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 8.10 Structural idealization

Max. shear flow in the thin-wall solution

3 1  4b h  V3
f max 
2 1  6b h  h

Thus, sheet-stringer idealization underestimates the true shear flow and thus
is not conservative.

• Sheet-stringer idealization exactly satisfy overall equilibrium requirements.

• Torque equipollence about an arbitrary point of the section yields the location
of the shear center, K. This result exactly matches the location found using the
thin-wall solution.

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