0

1984

Published by the American Radio Relay League

 $17.75 U.S.
$20.00 Elsewhere

This 1984 edition of THE

RADIO AMATEUR'S HAND-
BOOK published by the
A.R.R.L. is the revised suc-
cessor to the previous
series of 60 editions, of
which over five and one-
half million copies have
been sold since the first
edition appeared in ] 926.
During 58 years, the
HANDBOOK has estab-
lished itself not only as the
standard manual of Ama-
teur Radio communication,
but also has been widely
adopted as a practical ref-
erence by radio technicians
the world over and as a
course book for radio study
by many schools. The basic
purpose of the HAND-
BOOK is to present acom-
plete treatment of every
phase of modern Amateur
Radio from elementary
theory through to ad-
vanced practical applica-
tion, with emphasis always
on ideas and methods that
have shown their worth in
the field.
The publisher of this book,
THE AMERICAN RADIO
RELAY LEAGUE, Inc., is a
non-commercial associa-
tion of radio amateurs,
bonded for the promotion
of interest in amateur radio
communication and ex-
perimentation, for the re-
laying of messages by ra-
dio, for the advancement
of the radio art and of the
public welfare, for the rep-
resentation of the radio
amateur in legislative mat-
ters, and for the mainte-
nance of fraternalism and
a high standard of con-
duct.

225 Main St
NEWINGTON, CT 06111
The
Radio Amateur's
Handbook

Published by the
AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE
Newington, CT USA 06111

Editorial Coordinator
Gerald L. Hall, K1TD

Editors
George H. Woodward, W1RN
Charles L. Hutchinson, K8CH
Paul L. Rinaldo, W4RI

Contributors
Doug DeMaw, W1FB
Robert Halprin, K1XA
Richard Palm, K10E
Steve Place, WB1EYI
Robert L. Shriner, WAOLJZO
Richard Stevens, W1QWJ
Edward E. Wetherhold, W3NQN

Photo Credits
European Space Agency
Bob Pierfelice, KA8GHG
Bob Baumer, WA1YKM

1984
Sixty- First Edition

Phelps County Library

Ho!dreg°, Nebr. 68949
Copyright CëD 1983 by

The American Radio Relay League, Inc.

Copyright secured under the Pan-American

Convention

International Copyright secured

This work is Publication No. 6 of the Radio

Amateur's Library, published by the League.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may
be reproduced in any form except by written
permission of the publisher. All rights of
translation are reserved.

Printed in USA

Quedan reservados todos los derechos

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:

41-3345
Sixty- First Edition

$12.00 in USA and Possessions

$13 in Canada, $ 14.50 elsewhere, U.S. Funds.
ISBN: 0-87259-061-5

Clothbound edition $ 17.75 in the USA and

Possessions, $20.00 in Canada and elsewhere,
U.S. Funds.
ISBN: 0-87259-161-1
 Foreword
This is the 61st edition of The Radio Amateur's Handbook
— the standard reference for radio amateurs and telecom-
munications professionals throughout the world. You will
find information of value whether you are studying for
your Novice license or are an Extra Class amateur looking
for a new challenge.
As in previous editions, this Handbook has been up-
dated to keep pace with progress in electronic
technology. There are a number of new construction pro-
jects — a kW 160- through 40- meter amplifier, and a
4-1000A amplifier for 6 meters, for example. New filter
tables give practical values for low-pass, high-pass and
band-pass passive filters. Also, look for new or expanded
glossaries and bibliographies on a number of subjects.
The Specialized Communications Techniques chapter
has been completely revised to reflect the successful
launch of AMSAT-OSCAR 10, research and development
of other satellite systems, promising Amplitude
Compandored Single Sideband technology, amateur
spread-spectrum experiments, FCC legalization of the
error-free AMTOR radioteletype system, and rapid
development in packet radio.
The Interference chapter has new material developed
since the passage of Public Law 97-259, which gives both
the FCC and radio amateurs new authority to resolve
interference problems.
A reorganized index will make it easier to find the
precise information you're looking for.
We hope you will benefit from this Handbook and the
many other ARRL publications designed to expand your
knowledge about, and enjoyment of, Amateur Radio and
telecommunications.
David Sumner, K1ZZ
General Manager
Newington, Connecticut
October 1983

25805
WF

Schematic Symbols Used in Circuit Diagrams

o
* INSERT APPRC`PR I
ATE DESIGNATIONS

A- AMMETER
0
OR
1

SINGLE
CELL
1.-
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f- 0- 1
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I Z

ASSEMBLY
OR
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V- VOLTMETER MODULE ANTENNA QUARTZ
onA- MILLIAMMETER
etc.
_till
i

EARTH
I -MD-
METERS MOTOR MULTICELL GROUNDS FUSE HAND
BATTERIES MICROPHONE SPEAKER
KEY

PHONO PHONE
COMMON
CONNECTIONS
CONTACTS ...,,JAC K n JACKvir_ o

F-EJA4("TAALE OMULTIPLE , "1---

--C> 4 -- MOVA BL E '
< I— lI AND OR
COAXIAL SHIELDED WIRE OR COAXIAL CABLE GATE GATE
RECEPTACLE COAXIAL PLUG - MIKE JACK PHONE PLUG

- - ---- - ---
I
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ET
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FIXED <I_
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OTHER
GENERAL I I , I

9
FEMALE MALE 230 V
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CONNECTORS LOGIC
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e
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DUAL- GATE MOSFET JUNCTION FE T UJT BIPOLAR

LINEAR INTEGRATED
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TRANSISTORS CIRCUITS
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BEAD
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SEMICONDUCTOR
(rYlrl FILAMENT CATHODE
DIODE/ RECTIFER TUNNEL TRI
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CAPACITIVE
( VARACTOR)
IRON CORE
ADJUSTABLE ELECTRON TUBE ELEMENTS
INDUCTORS
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PST DSp
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WJ..J - -
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-. -
- -
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IRON CORE WITH LINK RELAYS
TRANSFORMERS

---) FL — )1
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—VV\e— — ...4c-
. 0"...'-'
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FIXED VARIABLE SP ST
ELECTROLYTIC FIXED VARIABLE
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-

-0-0-- On y -/Vri- --'1N- CY-9 OR CROSSING

CONDUCTORS
±
T-
•
NOT JOINED
TAPPED ADJUSTABLE SPOT 0
-
CONDUCTORS
FE EDTHROUGH SPLIT- STATOR TOGGLE MULTIPOINT ()TERMINAL JOINED

CAPACITORS RESISTORS WIRING

PRESET SWITCHES

4
Contents
1 Amateur Radio

2 Electrical Laws and Circuits

3 Radio Design Technique and Language

4 Solid- State Fundamentals

5 AC- Operated Power Supplies

6 HF Transmitting

7 VHF and UHF Transmitting

8 Receiving Systems

9 VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques

10 Mobile, Portable and Emergency

Equipment

11 Code Transmission

12 Single-Sideband Transmission

13 Frequency Modulation and Repeaters

14 Specialized Communications Systems

15 Interference

16 Test Equipment and Measurements

17 Construction Practices and Data Tables

18 Wave Propagation

19 Transmission Lines

20 Antennas for High Frequency

21 VHF and UHF Antennas

22 Operating a Station
no)
L•.) V ULIGJ Usiuà
The Amateur's Code

ONE

The Amateur is Considerate. . . He never knowingly uses the

air in such a way as to lessen the pleasure of others.

TWO

The Amateur is Loyal. . . He offers his loyalty, encouragement

and support to his fellow radio amateurs, his local club and
to the American Radio Relay League, through which Amateur
Radio is represented.

THREE

The Amateur is Progressive. . . He keeps his station abreast

of science. It is well-built and efficient. His operating prac-
tice is above reproach.

FOUR

The Amateur is Friendly. . . Slow and patient sending when

requested, friendly advice and counsel to the beginner, kindly
assistance, cooperation and consideration for the interests
of others; these are marks of the amateur spirit.

FIVE

The Amateur is Balanced... Radio is his hobby. He never

allows it to interfere with any of the duties he owes to his
home, his job, his school, or his community.

SIX

The Amateur is Patriotic. . . His knowledge and his station

are always ready for the service of his country and his
community.

— PAUL M. SEGAL
Chapter 1

Amateur
Radio

A mateur Radio. You've heard of it.

You probably know that Amateur Radio
operators are also called " hams."
(Nobody knows quite why!) But who are
these people and what do they do?
Every minute of every hour of every
day, 365 days a year, radio amateurs all
over the world communicate with each
other. It's a way of discovering new
friends while experimenting with different
and exciting new ways to advance the art
of their hobby. Ham radio is a global
fraternity of people with common and yet
widely varying interests, able to exchange
ideas and learn more about each other
with every on-the-air contact. Because of
this Amateur Radio has the ability to
enhance international relations as does no
other hobby. How else is it possible to talk For many years, the name Hiram Percy Maxim was synonymous with Amateur Radio. The co-
founder and first President of ARRL was the first person to be inducted into the ARRL Hall of
to an engineer involved in a space pro-
Fame. Aside from his pioneering work with radio, Mr. Maxim, who held the call sign W1AW, also
gram, a Tokyo businessman, a U.S. 1WH, contributed to the development of the automobile and the movies.
legislator, a Manhattan store owner, a
camper in aCanadian national park, the
head of state of a Mediterranean-area
country, astudent at ahigh school radio
club in Wyoming, or a sailor on board a continue their long tradition of being disaster. Not only do they test their equip-
ship in the middle of the Pacific? And all among the first to use them. ment, but they also make acontest out of
without leaving your home! Only with What's in the future? Digital voice- the exercise and try to contact as many
Amateur Radio — that's how! encoding techniques? Three-dimensional other hams operating emergency-type sta-
The way communication is accom- TV? One can only guess. But if there is tions as possible (along with " ordinary"
plished is just as interesting as the people ever such a thing as a Star Trek types). Often they make Field Day aclub
you get to " meet." Signals can be sent transporter unit, hams will probably have social event while they are operating.
around the world using reflective layers of them! Traffic nets (networks) meet on the air-
the earth's ionosphere or beamed from Once radio amateurs màke sure that waves on a schedule for the purpose of
point to point from mountaintops by their gear does work, they look for things handling routine messages for people all
relay stations. Orbiting satellites that to do with the equipment and special skills over the country and in other countries
hams built are used to achieve com- they possess. Public service is avery large where such third-party traffic is permit-
munication. Still other hams bounce their and integral part of the whole Amateur ted. By so doing, amateurs stay in practice
signals off the moon! Possibilities are Radio Service. Hams continue this tradi- for handling messages should any real
almost unlimited. Not only do radio tion by becoming involved and sponsoring emergency or disaster occur which would
amateurs use international Morse code various activities in their community. require operating skill to move messages
and voice for communication, but they Field Day, just one of many public efficiently. Nets also meet because the
also use radioteletype, facsimile and service-type activities, is an annual event members often have common interests:
various forms of television. Some hams occurring every June when amateurs take similar jobs, interests in different
even have computers hooked up to their their equipment into the great outdoors languages, different hobbies (yes, some
equipment. As new techniques and modes (using elertririty generated at the opera- people have hobbies other than ham
of communication are developed, hams tion site) and test it for use in case of radio!), and a whole barrelful of other

Amateur Radio 1-1

 reasons. It is often away to improve one's ability to communicate in international
knowledge and to share experiences with Morse code. But the speed at which you
other amateurs for the good of all are required to receive it is relatively low
involved. so you should have no difficulty. Many
DX ( distance) contests are popular and grade- school students have passed their
awards are actively sought by many tests and each month hundreds of people
amateurs. This armchair travel is one of from 8 to 80 join the every-growing
the more alluring activities of Amateur number of Amateur Radio operators
Radio. There are awards for Worked All around the world.
States ( WAS), Worked All Provinces Concerning the written exam: To get a
(WAVE), Worked All Continents license you need to know some basic elec-
(WAC), Worked 100 Countries ( DXCC), trical and radio principles and regulations
and many others. governing the class of license applied for.
Mobile operation ( especially on the very The ARRL's basic beginner package,
high frequencies) holds a special attrac- Tune in the World with Ham Radio, is
tion to many hams. It's always fun to available for $ 8.50 from local radio stores
keep in touch with ham friends over the or by mail from ARRL.
local repeater (devices which receive your
Finding Help
signal and retransmit it for better coverage
of the area) or finding new friends on One of the first obstacles for a person
This is one of the Phase Ill high-orbit AMSAT-
other frequencies while driving across the OSCAR satellites in the final stages of
seriously interested in Amateur Radio is
country. Mobile units are often the vital assembly. Launched in June 1983, this finding a local amateur to provide
link in emergency communications, too, sophisticated yet relatively low- budget assistance. This volunteer amateur is
spacecraft provides predictable, reliable called an " Elmer." A nearby ham can
since they are usually first on the scene of worldwide amateur communications.
an accident or disaster. help a newcomer with technical advice,
The OSCAR ( Orbiting Satellite Carry- putting up and testing antennas, advice on
ing Amateur Radio) program is arelative- buying that first radio or just some needed
ly new challenge for the Amateur Radio activities. The fun provided by Amateur encouragement. Also, nearly all would-be
fraternity. Built by hams from many Radio is greatly enhanced when hams get amateurs attend an Amateur Radio class
countries around the world, these in- together so they can " eyeball" (see) each for code, regulations and electronic
genious devices hitch rides as secondary other. It's agood supplement to talking to theory instruction. Where do you find this
payloads on space shots for commercial each other over the radio. The swapping assistance? The ARRL Club and Training
and government communications or of tales ( and sometimes equipment), and a Department helps the prospective amateur
weather satellites. OSCAR satellites general feeling of high spirits add abit of in every possible way. It coordinates the
receive signals from the ground on one spice to club meetings along with technical work of more than 5000 volunteer
frequency and convert those signals to matters on the agenda. Clubs offer many Amateur Radio instructors throughout
Nilnother frequency to be sent back down people their first contact with Amateur the United States and Canada and pro-
to-earth. Vhf ( very high frequency) and Radio by setting up displays in shopping vides a large variety of audiovisual aids
uhf (ultra-high frequency) signals normal- centers and at such events as county fairs, and refers inquiries on Amateur Radio to
ly do not have a range much greater than Scout jamborees and parades. one of the 5000 instructors. If you are
the horizon, but when beamed to these Nearly half of all U.S. amateurs belong looking for an Amateur Radio class or ad-
satellites, a vhf/uhf signal's effective to aradio club. And nearly every amateur vice on how to get started, write the
range is greatly increased to make global radio club is affiliated with the ARRL. ARRL Club and Training Department for
communication a possibility. These Club affiliation is available to most the name and address of the nearest
OSCAR satellites also send back telemetry organized Amateur Radio groups. The Elmer.
signals either in Morse or radioteleprinter benefits are many: Use of films and slide
Looking Back
(RTTY) code, constantly giving informa- shows for club classes and meetings,
tion on the condition of equipment rebate on ARRL membership dues, How did Amateur Radio become the
aboard the satellite. special publication offers, and other ser- almost unlimited hobby it is today? The
Self-reliance has always been a vices. Complete information on the re- beginnings are slightly obscure, but elec-
trademark of the radio amateur. This is quirements and privileges of affiliation is trical experimenters around the turn of
often best displayed by the many hams available from the Club and Training the century, inspired by the experiments
who design and build their own equip- Department, ARRL Hq., Newington, CT of Marconi and others of the time, began
ment. Many others prefer to build their 06111. duplicating those experiments and at-
equipment from kits. The main point is tempted to communicate among
that hams want to know how their equip- Getting Started in Amateur Radio themselves. There were no regulatory
ment functions, what to do with it and "All of this sounds very interesting and agencies at that time and much in-
how to fix it if a malfunction should oc- seems to be alot of fun, but just how do I terference was caused by these " amateur"
cur. Repair shops aren't always open dur- go about getting into this hobby? Don't experimenters to other stations until
ing hurricanes or floods and they aren't you almost need adegree in electronics to governments the world over stepped in
always out in the middle of the Amazon pass the test and get a license?" and established licensing, laws and regula-
jungle, either. Hams often come up with Nothing could be further from the tions to control the problems involved in
variations on a circuit design in common truth. Although you are required to have this new technology. " Amateur" ex-
use so that they may perform a special alicense to operate astation, it only takes perimenter stations were then restricted to
function, or aham may bring out atotally aminimal amount of study and effort on the " useless" wavelengths of 200 meters
original electronic design, all in the in- your part to pass the basic, entry-grade and below. Amateurs suddenly found that
terest of advancing the radio art. exam and get on the air. they could achieve communication over
"But what about the code? Don't I longer distances than commercial stations
Radio Clubs have to know code to get alicense?" Yes, on the longer wavelengths. Even so,
Amateur Radio clubs often provide you do. International agreements require signals often had to be relayed by in-
social as well as operational and technical Amateur Radio operators to have the termediate amateur stations to get a

1-2 Chapter 1
message to the proper destination. Be-
cause of this, the American Radio Relay
League was organized to establish routes
of Amateur Radio communication and
serve the public interest through Amateur
Radio. But the dream of eventual
transcontinental and even transoceanic
Amateur Radio contact burned hot in the
minds of Radio Amateur experimenters.
World War Ibroke out and Amateur
Radio, still in its infancy, was ordered out
of existence until further notice. Many
former Amateur Radio operators joined
the armed services and served with distinc-
tion as radio operators, finding their skills
to be much needed.
After the close of the " War to End All
Wars," Amateur Radio was still banned
by law; yet there were many hundreds of
formerly licensed amateurs just itching to
"get back on the air." The government
had tasted supreme authority over the
radio services and was half inclined to
keep it. Hiram Percy Maxim, one of the Whether it's trekking to the North Pole or flying high in the sky, where hams go Amateur Radio
often goes as well. Japanese explorer Naomi Uemura, JG1OFW, used Amateur Radio for backup
founders of the American Radio Relay emergency communications during his solo adventure to the North Pole in 1978. Fred Hyde,
League, called the pre-war League's of- KOLIS, was one of four crew members on the Da'v'irici Trans America Balloon, which set a long-
ficers together and then contacted all the distance flight record for balloonists in the continental U.S. before crash-landing in Ohio because
old members who could be found in an at- of a severe storm. Amateur Radio kept the crew in touch with hams on the ground. ( balloon photo
courtesy WOHSK)
tempt to re-establish Amateur Radio.
Maxim traveled to Washington, DC and
after considerable effort (and untold red of war. Another asset is best described as the blizzards of 1980 and 1981. When
tape) Amateur Radio was opened up "public service." disaster strikes, amateurs are ready, with
again on October 1, 1919. The " public service" record of the equipment not needing power from the
Experiments on shorter wavelengths amateur is abrilliant tribute to his work. electric company, to carry on communica-
were then begun with encouraging results. These activities can be roughly divided tions for police, fire departments, and
It was found that as the wavelength drop- into two classes, expeditions and emergen- relief organizations. The ability of radio
ped (i.e., frequency increased) greater cies. Amateur cooperation with expedi- amateurs to help the public in emergencies
distances were achieved. The commercial tions began in 1923, when a league is one big reason Amateur Radio has sur-
stations were not about to miss out on this member, Don Mix, ITS, accompanied vived and prospered.
opportunity. They moved their stations to MacMillan to the Arctic on the schooner
the new shorter wavelengths while the bat- Bowdoin with an amateur station. Technical Developments
tle raged over who had the right to Amateurs in Canada and the U.S. provid- Amateurs started the hobby with spark-
transmit in this new area. Usually, it ed the home contacts. The success of this gap transmitters, which took up great
turned out to be the station with the stronger venture was so outstanding that other ex- hunks of frequency space. Then they
signal, able to blot out everyone else. plorers followed suit. During subsequent moved on to tubes when these devices
National and international conferences years Amateur Radio assisted perhaps 200 came along. Much later, transistors were
were called in the twenties to straighten voyages and expeditions, the several ex- utilized; now integrated circuits are apart
out the tangle of wavelength allocations. plorations of the Antarctic being perhaps of the everyday hardware in the Amateur
Through the efforts of ARRL officials, the best known. And this kind of work is Radio Shack. This is because amateurs
amateurs obtained frequencies on various not all in the distant past, either: In 1978 are constantly in the forefront of technical
bands similar to what we have today: 160 Japanese explorer Naomi Uemura, progress. Their incessant curiosity and
through 6 meters. When the amateur JG1QFW, became the first person to trek eagerness to try anything new are two
operators moved to 20 meters, the dream to the North Pole alone. Amateur Radio, reasons. Another is that ever-growing
of coast-to-coast and transoceanic com- through member stations of the National Amateur Radio continually overcrowds its
munication without a relay station was Capitol DX Association and the Polar frequency assignments, spurring amateurs
finally realized. (A more detailed history Amateur Radio Club, VE8RCS, at Alert, to the development and adoption of new
of the early days of Amateur Radio is con- NWT, Canada, provided important techniques to permit the accommodation
tained in the ARRL publication Two backup communications. of more stations.
Hundred Meters and Down by Clinton B. Sometimes Mother Nature goes on a Amateurs have come up with ideas in
DeSoto.) rampage — with earthquakes such as their shacks while at home and then taken
those in Alaska in 1964, Peru in 1970, them to industry with surprising results.
Public Service California in 1971, Guatemala in 1976 and During World War II, thousands of
Amateur Radio is agrand and glorious Italy in 1980; floods like those in Big skilled amateurs contributed their
hobby, but this fact alone would hardly Thompson Canyon, Colorado, in 1976, knowledge to the development of secret
merit the wholehearted support given it by Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, and radio devices, both in government and
nearly all the world's governments at in- Johnstown, Pennsylvania in 1977, private laboratories. Equally as impor-
ternational conferences. There are other Jackson, Mississippi in 1979; the big tant, the prewar technical progress by
reasons. One of these is a thorough ap- forest fires of California, particularly in amateurs provided the keystone for the
preciation of the value of amateurs as 1977; tornadoes, hurricanes and development of modern military com-
sources of skilled radio personnel in time typhoons. most anywhere, any year, and munications equipment.

Amateur Radio 1 -3
 In the fifties, the Air Force was faced ham equipment was used to keep in touch professionals, they may run into ideas which
with converting its long-range com- with Strategic Air Command head- they try out in ham radio. A good example
munications from Morse to voice; jet quarters in Omaha, Nebraska, from an is the OSCAR series of satellites, initially put
bombers had no room for skilled radio airplane traveling around the world. The together by amateurs who worked in the
operators. At the time, amateurs had been system worked well; the equipment need- aerospace industry, and launched as
using single sideband for about adecade, ed only slight modification to meet Air secondary payloads with other space shots.
and were communicating by voice at great Force needs, and the expense and time of At this writing 10 Amateur Radio satellites
distances with both homemade and com- normal research and development pro- have been launched by Western Hemisphere
mercially built equipment. Generals cedures was saved. hams. OSCARs 9and 10, portions of which
LeMay and Griswold, both radio Many youngsters build an early interest were built by amateurs of several different
amateurs, hatched an experiment in which in Amateur Radio into acareer. Later, as countries, are currently in space relaying the

Table 1
Canadian Amateur Bands
Band A3, A4, A5, 11) Packet transmissions shall not produce
(limita- Frequency Fl, F2, F3, signals exceeding 25 kHz.
tions) (MHz) Emissions F4, F5, PO, 12) Packet transmissions shall not produce
Pl, P2, P3, signais exceeding 100 kHz.
80 meters 3.500-3.725 Al, Fl p, p5, P9 13) Licensees performing an Amateur Ex-
(1, 3, 4, 5) 3.725-4.000 Al, A3, F3 3300.000-3500.000 AO, Al, A2, perimental Service may use such modulation
40 meters 7.000-7.050 Al, Fl A3, A4, A5, techniques or types of emission for packet
(1, 3, 4, 5) 7.050-7.100 Al, A3, F3 Fl, F2, F3, transmission as they may select by experimen-
7.100-7.150 Al, Fl F4, F5, PO, tation on conditions that they do not exceed
7.150-7.300 Al, A3, F3 Pl, P2, P3, the bandwidths established in 10, 11 and 12.
30 meters 10.100-10.150 Al, Fl P4, P5, P9 14) Only packet transmissions shall be used.
20 meters 14.000-14.100 Al, Fl 5650.000-5925.000 AO, Al, A2, 15) Final rf output power used for packet
(1, 3, 4, 5) 14.100-14.350 Al, A3, F3 A3, A4, A5, transmissions shall not exceed 100 watts peak
15 meters 21.000-21.100 Al, Fl Fl, F2, F3, power and 10 watts average power.
(1, 3, 4, 5) 21.000-21.450 Al, A3, F3 F4, F5, PO,
10 meters 28.000-28.100 Al, Fl Pl, P2, P3,
(2, 3, 4, 5) 28.100-29.700 Al, A3, F3 P4, P5, P9 Operation in frequency band 1.800-2.000 MHz
6 meters 50.000-50.050 Al 10000.000-10500.000 AO, Al, A2, shall be limited to the area as indicated in the
(3, 4) 50.050-51.000 Al, A2, A3, A3, A4, A5, following table and shall be limited to the in-
Fl, F2, F3 Fl, F2, F3, dicated maximum dc power input to the anode
51.000-54.000 AO, Al, A2, F4, F5, PO, of the final radio frequency stage of the trans-
A3, A4, Fl, Pl, P2, P3, mitter during day and night hours respectively;
F2, F3, F4 P4, P5, P9 for the purpose of this table " day" means the
2 meters 144.000-144.100 Al (9, 14, 15) 24000.000-24010.000 hours between sunrise and sunset, and " night"
4) 144.100-145.500 AO, Al, A2, 24010.000-24250.000 AO, Al, A2, means the hours between sunset and sunrise.
A3, A4, Fl, A3, A4, A5, Al, A3 and F3 emissions are permitted.
F2, F3, F4 Fl, F2, F3,
(3, 4, 7) 144.500-145.800 PO, Pl, F4, F5, PO,
AO, Al, A2, Pl, P2, P3, A BCDEFGH
A3, A4, Fl, P4, P5, P9
British Columbia 3' 3 3 1 0 0 0 0
F2, F3, F4
Alberta 3' 3 3 3 1 0 0 1
(3, 4) 145.800-148.000 AO, Al, A2,
Saskatchewan 3' 3 3 3 3 1 1 3
A3, A4, Fl,
Manitoba 3' 2 2 2 2 2 2 3'
F2, F3, F4
Ontario 3 1 1 1 1 0 0 2
(3, 4) 220.000-220.100 AO, Al, A2,
Limitations North of 50° N.
A3, A4, Fl,
1) Phone privileges are restricted to holders Ontario 3' 2 1 0 0 0 0 1
F2, F3, F4
of advanced Amateur Radio Operators Certifi- South of 50° N.
(9, 10, 13, 15) 220.100-220.500
Province of Quebec 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 2
(9, 12, 13, 15) 220.500-221.000 cates, and of Commercial Certificates.
2) Phone privileges are restricted as in foot- North of 52° N.
(11, 13, 14, 15) 221.000-223.000
note 1, and to holders of Amateur Radio Opera- Province of Quebec 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
(9, 12, 13, 15) 223.000-223.500
South of 52° N.
(3, 4) 223.500-225.000 AO, Al, A2, tors Certificates, whose certificates have been
endorsed for operation on phone in these New Brunswick 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
A3, A4, Fl,
bands. Nova Scotia 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
F2, F3, F4
3) Amplitude modulation (A2, A3, A4) shall Prince Edward Island 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
(4, 6) 430.000-433.000 AO, Al, A2,
not exceed ± 3 kHz (6A3). Newfoundland ( Island) 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
A3, A4, A5,
4) Frequency modulation ( F2, F3, F4) shall Newfoundland ( Labrador) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fl, F2, F3,
not produce a carrier deviation exceeding Yukon Territory 3 3 3 1 0 0 0 0
F4, F5
±- 3kHz, (6F3) except that in the 52-54 MHz and District of MacKenzie 3 3 3 3 1 0 0 1
(12, 13, 14, 15) 433.000-434.000
District of Keewatin 3 1 1 3 2 0 0 2
(3, 4, 8) 434.000-434.500 PO, Pl, P2, 144.1-148 MHz bands and higher the carrier
District of Franklin 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
P3, AO, Al, deviation shall not exceed ± 15 kHz (30F3).
A2, A3, A5, 5) Slow scan television (A5), permitted by
The power levels 500 day/100 night may be in-
Fl, F2, F3, special authorization, shall not exceed a band-
width greater than that occupied by a normal creased to 1000 day/200 night when authorized
F4, F5
by a Radio Inspector of the Department of Com-
(4, 6) 434.500-450.000 AO, Al, A2, single-sideband voice transmission.
munications.
A3, A4, A5, 6) Television ( A5), permitted by special
Fl, F2, F3, authorization, shall employ a system of stan- Frequency Band
F4, F5 dard interlace and scanning with a bandwidth
A 1.800-1.825 MHz E 1.900-1.925 MHz
902.000-928.000 A3, F3 of not more than 4 MHz.
B 1.825-1.850 MHz F 1.925-1.950 MHz
1215.000-1300.000 AO, Al, A2, 7) Pulse modulation with any mode of trans-
C 1.850-1.875 MHz G 1.950-1.975 MHz
A3, A4, A5, mission shall not produce signals of a band-
D 1.875-1.900 MHz H 1.975-2.000 MHz
Fl, F2, F3, width exceedinb 15 kHz.
F4, F5 8) Pulse modulation with any mode of
Power Level - Watts
2300.000-2450.000 AO, Al, A2, transmission shall not produce signais of a
bandwidth exceeding 30 kHz. O - Operation not permitted
9) Any mode may be used. 1 - 25 night 125 day
10) Packet transmissions shall not produce 2 - 50 night 250 day
signals exceeding 10 kHz. 3 - 100 night 500 day

,1 - 4 Chapter 1
 signals of amateurs. OSCAR 9can be heard
tioned flawlessly. The thousands of hours
on almost any 29-MHz receiver, and for Amateur Radio in the U.S. and
of experience that went into the design and
OSCAR 10 on a 145-MHz receiver. De- Canada, but also the largest amateur
construction of Phase III-A were used as the
velopment of third-generation Phase III organization in the world. It is strictly of,
starting point for its successor, Phase III-
satellites proceeds under the guidance of The by and for amateurs, it is noncommercial
B, now known as AMSAT-OSCAR 10. The
Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation and has no stockholders. The members of
new Phase III satellites being built by
(AMSAT) with the assistance of Project the League are the owners of the ARRL
AMSAT will continue the OSCAR program
OSCAR, Inc., the original nonprofit group, and QST, the monthly journal of
as older spacecraft are taken out of service.
both affiliated with ARRL. The Phase Ill Amateur Radio published by the League.
Write ARRL for more information.
program was temporarily set back in May The League is pledged to promote in-
of 1980 when the first satellite in the series, The American Radio Relay League terest in two-way amateur communication
Phase Ill-A, ended up in the Atlantic Ocean and experimentation. It is interested in the
Since its establishment in 1914 by
because of amalfunctioning launch vehicle. relaying of messages by Amateur Radio.
Hiram Percy Maxim and Clarence Tuska,
It is a credit to its builders that up to the It is concerned with the advancement of
the American Radio Relay League has
moment of its demise, the satellite func- the radio art. It stands for the
been and is today not only the spokesman
maintenance of fraternalism and a high

Table 2
U.S. Amateur Radio Frequency Allocations
Frequency Band Emissions Limitations Frequency Band
kHz Emissions Limitations Frequency Band Emissions Limitations
1800-1900 Al, A3 28.000-29.700 Al
1900-2000 Al, A3 1, 2 2300-2450 AO, Al, A2, A3,
28.000-28.500 Fl
3500-4000 Al A4, AS, FO, Fl,
28.500-29.700 A3, A4, A5,
3500-3775 Fl
F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5, P5, 8
3775-4000 A3, A4, A5, 3300-3500 AO, Al, A2, A3,
50.000-54.000 Al
F3, F4, F5 4 50.100-54.000 A4, A5, FO, Fl,
4383.8 A3J/A3A A2, A3, A4, AS,
13 F2, F3, F4, F5, P5, 12
7000-7300 Al Fl, F2, F3, F4,
3, 4 5650-5925 AO, Al, A2, A3,
7000-7150 Fl F5
3, 4 51.000-54.000 A4, AS, FO, Fl,
7075-7100 AO
A3, F3 11 144-148 F2, F3, F4, F5, P5, 9
7150-7300 Al
A3, A4, A5, GHz
14 4.100-148.000
F3, F4, F5 AO, A2, A3, A4,
3, 4
10100-10109 A5, FO, Fl, F2, 10.0-10.5 AO, Al, A2, A3,
10115-10150 Al, Fl F3, F4, F5 A4, A5, FO, Fl,
16 220-225
14000-14350 Al AO, Al, A2, A3, F2 5
14000-14200 Fl A4, AS, FO, Fl, 24.0-24.25 AO, Al, A2, A3,
14150-14350 A3, A4, A5, F2, F3, F4, F5 5 A4, AS, P, Fl,
420-450 AO, Al, A2, A3,
F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 5, 10
A4, AS, FO Fl, 48-50, 71-76 AO, Al, A2, A3
MHz
F2, F3, F4, F5 5, 7 165-170, 240-250 A4, AS, FO, Fl,
21.000-21.450 Al 1215-1300 AO, Al, A2, A3, F2, F3, F4, F5, P
21.000-21.250 Fl A4, AS, FO, Fl, Above 300 AO, Al, A2, A3,
21.250-21.450 A3, A4, A5, F2, F3, F4, F5 5, 17 A4, A5, FO, Fl,
F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5, P

Limitations iv) Californie and Nevada portions south of

14) All amateur frequency bands above 29.5
latitude 37°10' N., and the area within a
200-mile radius of 34°09' N., 119°11' W. MHz are available for repeater operation ex-
1,2) There are certain power and operating cept 50.0-52.0 MHz, 144.0-144.5 MHz,
v) Californie portions within a 150- mile
restrictions at 1900-2000 kHz. See Table 3 for 145.5-146.0 MHz, 220.0-220.5 MHz, 431.0-433.0
details. radius of 39°08' N., 121'26' W.
MHz, and 435.0-438.0 MHz. Both the input
vi) Massachusetts portions within a
3) Where, in adjacent regions or subregions, 100- mile radius of 41°45' N., 70°32' W. (receiving) and output (transmitting) frequen-
a band of frequencies is allocated to different cies of a station in repeater operation shall be
vii) Alaska portions within a 100- mile radius
services of the same category, the basic prin- frequencies available for repeater operation.
of 64°17' N., 149°10' W.
ciple is the equality of right to operate. 15) All amateur frequency bands above
viii) North Dakota portions within a 100- mile
Accordingly, the stations of each service in 220.5 MHz, except 431-433 MHz, and 435-438
radius of 48°43' N., 97°54' W.
one region or subregion must operate so as MHz, are available for auxiliary operation.
not to cause harmful interference to services 8) No protection in the band 2400-2450 MHz
16) Power input limited to 250 watts.
is afforded from interference due to the opera-
in the other regions or subregions ( No. 117, 17) As this material is being prepared, FCC
tion of industrial, scientific and medical
the Radio Regulations, Geneva, 1959). is planning to implement the WARC decision
devices on 2450 MHz.
4) 3900-4000 kHz and 7100-7300 kHz are not that limits this segment to 1240-1300 MHz.
available in the following U.S. possessions: 9) No protection in the band 5725-5875 MHz
is afforded from interference due to the opera-
Baker, Canton, Enderbury, Guam, Howland,
tion of industrial, scientific and medical NOTE
Jarvis, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palmyra,
devices on 5800 MHz.
American Samoa and Wake Islands. The types of emission referred to in the
10) No protection in the band 24.00-24.25
5) Amateur stations shall not cause inter- amateur rules are as follows:
GHz is afforded from interference due to the
ference to the Government radio- location Type A0 - Steady, unmodulated pure carrier.
service. operation of industriel, scientific and medical
devices on 24.125 GHz. Type Al - Telegraphy on pure continuous
6) ( Reserved) waves.
7) In the following areas dc plate input 11) The use of A3 and F3 in this band is
Type A2 - Amplitude tone-modulated
limited to amateur radio stations located out- telegraphy.
power to the final transmitter stage shall not
side Region 2.
exceed 50 watts, except, when authorized by Type A3 - A-m telephony including single
the appropriate Commission engineer in 12) Amateur stations shall not cause in-
and double sideband, with full, reduced or
terference to the Fixed-Satellite Service
charge and the appropriate military area fre- suppressed carrier.
quency coordinator. operating in the band 3400-3500 MHz.
Type A4 - Facsimile.
13) The frequency 4383.8 kHz, maximum Type A5 - Television.
i) Texas and New Mexico portions bounded
power 150 watts may be used by any station
by latitude 33°24' N., 31°53' N., and longitude lype FO - Steady, unmodulated pure carrier.
authorized under this part of communications
105°40' W. and 106° 40' W. Type Fl - Carrier- shift telegraphy.
with any other station authorized in the state
ii) Florida including the Key West area, and Type F2 - Audio frequency-shift telegraphy.
of Alaska for emergency communications. No
the areas enclosed within circles of 200-mile Type F3 - Frequency- or phase-modulated
airborne operations will be permitted on this telephony.
radii centered at 28°21' N., 80°43' W., and
30°30' N., 86°30' W. frequency. Additionally, all stations operating Type F4 - Fm facsimile.
iii) Asizona. on this frequency must be located in or within
Type F5 - Fm television.
50 nautical miles of the state of Alaska.
Typo P Pulse emission9

Amateur Radio 1-5.

 with the operating activities of League
members. A large field organization is
headed by a section communications
manager in each of the League's 73 sec-
tions. There are appointments for
qualified members in various fields, as
outlined in chapter 22. Special activities
and contests promote operating skill. A
special place is reserved each month in
QST for amateur news from every
section.
The ARRL publishes alibrary of infor-
mation on Amateur Radio. Tune in the
World with Ham Radio is written for the
person without previous contact with
Amateur Radio. It is designed to assist the
• prospective amateur to get into the hobby
in the shortest possible time. Tune in the
Assembly photo of the code practice oscillator. World comes complete with a code in-
The loudspeaker is cemented to the front struction and practice tape. For the per-
panel, as is the transformer. A single screw son seeking the General class or higher
and a dab of cement support the circuit board,
A code practice oscillator that can be con-
license, there are the License Manual and
and the battery is secured to the panel by an
structed from commonly available parts. elastic band anchored to convenient points. the ARRL Code Kit. The ARRL also
publishes aseries of question and answer
manuals for each class of license. All are
available from either your local radio
store or the ARRL.
Once you have studied, taken the test
and have received your license, you will
standard of conduct. It represents the In addition to publishing QST, the find that there is no other thrill quite the
amateur in legislative matters. ARRL maintains an active Amateur same as Amateur Radio. You may decide
One of the League's principal purposes Radio station, W1AW, which conducts to operate on the lowest amateur band,
is to keep amateur activites so well con- code practice and sends bulletins of in-
160 meters. Or you may prefer to operate
ducted that the amateur will continue to terest to amateurs the world over. ARRL in the gigahertz bands (billions of cycles
justify his existence. Amateur Radio of- sponsors an Intruder Watch Program so per second), where the entire future of
fers its followers countless pleasures and that unauthorized use of the Amateur communications may lie. Whatever your
isàlending satisfaction. It also calls for the Radio frequencies may be detected and interest, you are sure to find it in Amateur
shbuldering of responsibilities — the appropriate action taken. At the Head- Radio.
maintenance of high standards, a quarters of the League in Newington,
cooperative loyalty to the traditions of Connecticut, is a well-equipped labora-
Amateur Radio, adedication to its ideals tory to assist staff members in preparation The International Morse Code
and principles — so that the institution of of technical material for QST and The Knowledge of and some proficiency
Amateur Radio may continue to operate Radio Amateur's Handbook. Among its with the Morse code is arequirement for
"in the public interest, convenience and other activities, the League maintains a all amateur license classes in the United
necessity." Communications Department concerned States. The alphanumeric characters and

Table 3
U.S. 160-Meter Restrictions

Maximum dc plate input power in watts

1900-1925 kHz 1925-1950 kHz 1950-1975 kHz 1975-2000 kHz
States of: Day/Night Day/Night Day/Night Day/Night
Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire
Rhode Island 100/25 0 0 100/25

Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey,

New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont 200/50 0 0 200/50

Kentucky, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina,

Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia 500/100 0 0 500/100

Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,

Michigan, Wisconsin 500/100 100/25 100/25 500/100

Alabama, Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota,

Mississippi, Missouri 1000/200 200/50 200/50 1000/200

The remainder of the states and territories 1000/200 1000/200 1000/200 1000/200

1-8 Chapter 1
 • PAU6L BETWEEN
PAUSE BETWEEN 1 --- CHARACTERS I.- PAUSE BETWEEN WORDS
ELEMENTS ( ONE UNIT PULSE) ( THREE UNIT PULSES) (SEVEN UNIT PULSES)

MM Ma II • Mi MM MI MISR Ill II • NW
II 11'111 11111 IIII 11111111111111M 111111'111111111111111111 III 11111111111 1111111111111111111111[111111111i
DIDAHDIT DIDAH DAHDIDIT DIDIT DAHDAHDAH
TIME I..- DOT LENGTH -el I.- DASH LENGTH
(ONE UNIT PULSE) (THREE UNIT PULSES)

A didah • — didit S dididit

B dahdididit - • • • didahdahdah T dah
C dahdidahdit - • • dahdidah U dididah
dahdidit - • • didahdidit ✓ didididah
E dit dahdah W didandah
F dididahdit • • • N dahit X dandididah
G dahdahdit • o dahdahdah Y dandidandah
H didididit • • • • didahdahdit Z dandandidit
dahdahdidah
didahdit

1 didandandandah • — — — — 4 dididididah 8 dandandandidit

2 dididandandah — 5 dididididit 9 dandandandandit _ .
3 didididandah — 6 dandidididit O dandandandandah —
7 dandandididit

Period: didandidandidah. • • • Double dash: dandidididah. Wait: didandididit. • — • • •

Comma: dandandididandah. Colon: dandandandididit. End of message: didandidandit. . • —
Question mark: dididandandidit • • ••• • • Semicolon: dandidandidandit. Invitation to transmit: dandidah. . —
Error: didididididididit. Parenthesis: dandidandandidah End of work: didididandidah. .
Hyphen: dandididididah • • • • Fraction bar: dandididandit.

common punctuation marks and prosigns than " dot dash dot dot." In the chart, the
are reproduced symbolically above. The Morse code is rendered phonetically as
three fundamental elements of the code well as symbolically.
are the dot, dash and space. Dots and
A Code Practice Oscillator
dashes are short and long signals, re-
spectively, referenced to a constant time The simple oscillator described here is a
interval called the unit pulse. A dot and good introduction to electronic constrw >
space each occupy one unit pulse, while a tion as well as auseful tool for learniorto
dash occupies three unit pulses. Each dot send the Morse code. Radio Shack stock
or dash is separated from others within a numbers are given for all components to
character by one unit pulse. The pause simplify the parts-acquisition problem for
between characters is three unit pulses, the neophyte. However, the $15 outlay
Fig. 1 — Schematic diagram of the code prac-
and the pause between words is seven unit can be cut dramatically through intellig
tice oscillator, a useful accessory for
pulses. The chart shows the proper timing newcomers to Amateur Radio.
substitution and liberal scrounging from .
for the message " amateur radio" BT1 — 9-V battery, RS 23-553, 23-583 or equiv. ham's "junk box."
diagrammed with the Morse code. Cl, C2 — Capacitor, 0.01 mF, RS 272-131, The schematic diagram and photo-
272-1051, 272-1065. graphs show the unit in detail, but exact
Morse code communications can be ac-
C3 — Capacitor, 0.47 mF, RS 272-1054,
complished by means of flashing lights, 272-1071.
duplication is not necessary. Construction
punched paper tape and even asignal flag, LS1 — 2- in. loudspeaker, 8 II, RS 40-245. techniques are presented in Chapter 17,
but in radio the code takes the form R1 — Resistor, 10 kfl, ± 5%, 1/4 W, RS and the schematic symbols are printed
271-1335. near the front of this volume. The project
of sound. Short elements make the R2 — Rèsistor, 100 kn, ± 5%, 114 W, RS
characteristic sound dit, while long 271-1347.
can easily be assembled in an evening.
elements sound like dah. When properly R3 — Potentiometer, 5 kn, RS 271-1714, This code practice oscillator is intended
drawn, the dot and dash symbols convey 271-1720. for beginners using hand keys. Because
Ti — Audio output transformer, 1 kft CT to the circuit is keyed in the positive battery
complete information about a code 8 (I, RS 273-1380.
character, but when interpreted orally, the TB1 — Terminal strip, RS 274-663.
line, the oscillator may not be compatible
letter " L" becomes " didandidit" rather U1 — IC timer, type 555, RS 276-1723. with some electronic keyers.
Battery connector clip — RS 270-325.

Amateur Radio 1-7

 Chapter 2

Electrical Laws and Circuits

S orne of the manifestations of elec-

tricity and magnetism are familiar to
ferred from one part of the circuit to
another element by finding the numerical
there are materials that fall in between the
classifications of conductor and insulator,
everyone. The effects of static electricity values of entities called voltage and and might be labeled as semiconductors,
on adry, wintry day, an attraction by the current. the latter term is applied exclusively to
magnetic north pole to acompass needle, Finally, there is the consideration of the materials where the motion of electrons
and the propagation and reception of fundamental properties of the matter that and holes is important.
radio waves are just afew examples. Less makes up the various circuit elements or
easily recognized as being electrical in devices. It is believed that all matter is Electrostatic Field and Potentials
nature perhaps, the radiation of light and made up of complex structures called All electrical quantities can be ex-
even radiant heat from a stove are atoms which in turn are composed of pressed in the fundamental dimensions of
governed by the same physical laws that more or less unchangeable particles called time, force and length. In addition, the
describe asignal from aTV station or an electrons, protons and neutrons. Con- quantity or dimension of charge is also
amateur transmitter. The ability to trans- struction of an atom will determine the required. The metric system of units
mit electrical energy through space with- chemical and electrical properties of (SI — Systeme International d' Unites) is
out any reliance on matter that might be matter composed of like atoms. The almost exclusively used now to specify
il that space (such as in avacuum) or the periodic table of chemical elements is a such quantities, and the reader is urged to
*
e. reation of adisturbance in space that can classification of such atoms. Electrons become familiar with this system. In the
produce a force are topics that are play an important role in both the metric system, the basic unit of charge is
classified under the study of electromag- chemical and electrical properties of the coulomb. The smallest known charge
netic fields. Knowledge of the properties matter and elements where some of the is that of the electron which is
and definitions of fields is important in electrons are relatively free to move — 1.6 X 10 -19 coulombs. (The proton
understanding such devices as transmis- about. These materials are called conduc- has the same numerical charge except the
sion lines, antennas, and circuit-construction tors. On the other hand, elements where sign is positive.)
practices such as shielding. all of the electrons are tightly bonded in The concept of electrical charge is
Once a field problem is solved, it is the atomic structure are called insulators. analogous to that of mass. It is the mass
often possible to use the results over and Metals such as copper, aluminum, and of an object that determines the force
over again for other purposes. The field silver are very good conductors while of gravitational attraction between the
solution can be used to derive numerical glass, plastics, and rubber are good object and another one. A similar pheno-
formulas for such entities as resistance, insulators. menon occurs with two charged objects.
inductance and capacitance or the latter Although electrons play the principal If the charges can be considered to exist
quantities can be determined experi- role in the properties of both insulators at points in space, the force of attraction
mentally. These elements, then, form the and conductors, it is possible to construct (or repulsion if the charges have like signs)
building blocks for more complex con- matter with an apparent charge of is given by the formula
figurations called networks or circuits. opposite sign to that of the electron.
Since there is no need to describe the Actually, the electron is still the charge
physical appearance of the individual carrier but it is the physical absence of an F _ Q1Q2
elements, a pictorial representation is electron location that moves. However, it 4rcr 2
often used and it is called a schematic is convenient to consider that an actual
diagram. However, each element must be charge carrier is present and it has been where Q 1 is the numerical value of one
assigned anumerical value, otherwise the labeled a hole. Materials in which the charge, Q2 is the other charge value, ris
schematic diagram is incomplete. If the motion of electrons and holes determine the distance in meters,e is the permittivity
numerical values associated with the the electrical characteristics are called of the medium surrounding the charges,
sources of energy (such as batteries or semiconductors. Transistors, integrated and F is the force in newtons. In the case
generators) are also known, it is then circuits and similar solid-state devices are of free space of avacuum, thas avalue of
possible to determine the power trans- made up from semiconductors. While 8.854 X 10 -12 • and is the permittivity of
2-1 Chapter 2
 free space. The product of relative permit- joules of energy to bring acharge of 1cou-
tivity and Eo(the permittivity of free space) lomb from apoint of 0voltage to any point
gives the permittivity for a condition on the sphere (as indicated by the dotted
where matter is present. Permittivity is lines in Fig. 1). The direction of the force
also called the dielectric constant and rela- on acharged particle at the surface of the
tive dielectric constants for plastics such surface of the sphere must be perpendicu-
as polyethylene and Teflon are 2.26 and lar to the surface. This is because charges
2.1, respectively. (The relative dielectric are able to flow about freely on the con-
constant is also important in transmis- ductor but not off it. A force with adirec-
sion-line theory. The reciprocal of the tion other than aright angle to the surface
square root of the dielectric constant of will have acomponent that is parallel to
the material used to separate the conduc- the conductor and will cause the charges
tors in atransmission line gives the velo- to move about. Eventually, an equilibrium
city factor of the line. The effect of velo- condition will be reached and any initial
city factor will be treated in later chap- field component parallel to the surface
ters.) will be zero. This motion of charge under
Fig. 1 — Field ( solid lines) and potential ( dotted the influence of an electric field is avery
If instead of just two charges, anumber
lines) lines surrounding acharged sphere. important concept in electricity. The rate
of charged objects are present, the force
at which charge flows past a reference
on any one member is likely to be acom-
plicated function of the positions and point is defined as the current. A rate of 1
coulomb per second is defined as 1
magnitudes of the other charges. Conse-
ampere.
quently, the concept of electric-field
strength is auseful one to introduce. The Because of the symmetry involved, the
field strength or field intensity is defined as direction of the electric force and electric
5 the force on agiven charge (concentrated field can be represented by the solid
at apoint) divided by the numerical value straight lines in Fig. I. The arrows
of the charge. Thus, if aforce of 1newton indicate the direction of the force on a
4- existed on atest charge of 2coulombs, the positive charge. At points away from the
field intensity would be 0.5 newtons/ sphere, less energy will be required to
coulomb. bring up atest charge from zero reference.
Whenever aforce exists on an object, it Consequently, a series of concentric
will require an expenditure of energy to spherical shells indicated by the dashed
move the object against that force. In lines will define the equipotential surfaces
2-
some instances, the mechanical energy around the sphere. From mathematical
may be recovered (such as in acompressed considerations (which will not be dis-
spring) or it may be converted to another cussed here), it can be shown that the
form of energy (such as heat produced by potential will vary as the inverse of the
friction). As is the case for electric-field distance from the center of the sphere.
o intensity, it is convenient to express This relationship is indicated by the
a 2a ia 1143
DISTANCE SCALE energy ÷ charge as the potential or voltage numbers in Fig. 1and by the graph in Fig.
of a charged object at a point. For in- 2.
Fig. 2 — Variation of potential with distance for stance, if it took the expenditure of 5 While the electric field .gives
the charged sphere of Fig. 1. newton-meters ( 5joules) to move acharge direction and magnitude of aforce on
of 2coulombs from apoint of zero energy charged object, it is also equal to
to agiven point, the voltage or potential negative slope numerical value of thf
at that point would be 2.5 joules/coulomb. curve in Fig. 2. The slope of acurve is the
Because of the frequency of problems of rate of change of some variable with
this type, the dimension of joules/ distance and in this case, the variable is
coulombs is given a special designation the potential. This is why the electric field
and one joule/coulomb is defined as 1 is sometimes called the potential gradient
volt. Notice that if the voltage is divided (gradient being equivalent to slope). In the
by length (meters), the dimensions of field case of acurve that varies as the inverse of
intensity will be obtained and a field the distance, the slope at any point is
strength of one newton/coulomb is also proportional to the inverse of the distance
defined as one volt/meter. The relation- squared.
ship between field intensity and potential An examination of Fig. I would
is illustrated by the following example indicate that the potential variation is
shown in Fig. 1. only dependent upon the shape of the
A conducting sphere receives acharge conductor and not its actual physical size.
until its surface is at apotential of 5volts. That is, once the value of the radius aof
As charges are placed on the surface of a the sphere in Fig. 1 is specified, the
conductor, they tend to spread out into a potential at any other point a given
uniform distribution. Consequently, it will distance from the sphere is also known.
require the same amount of energy to bring Thus, Fig. 1can be used for any number
agiven amount of charge from apoint of of spheres with different radii. When it is
zero reference to any point on the sphere. changed by a certain percentage, all the
The outside of the sphere is then said to other values would change by the same
constitute an equipotential surface. Also, percentage too. However, the amount of
the amount of energy expended will be in- charge required to produce a given
Fig. 3 — Variation of field strength with distance
around a sphere charged to 5volte for spheres of dependent of the path traveled to get to voltage, or voltage change, does depend
different radii. the surface. For instance, it will require 5 upon the size of the conductor, its shape.

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-2

r
- t
i!

and its position in relation to other used on the tip of awhip antenna in order cross-sectional area, but for an important
conductors and insulators. For a given to lower the field strength under transmit- theoretical case this is assumed to be true
conductor configuration, the voltage is ting conditions. (Fig. 5).
related to the required charge by the An examination of Fig. 3 reveals that A cylinder of a material with con-
formula the field strength is zero for distances less ductivity o - is inserted between two end
than a which includes points inside the caps of infinite conductivity. The end caps
v sphere. The implication here is that the are connected to avoltage source such as
effect of fields and charges cannot abattery or generator. (A battery consists
penetrate the conducting surface and of anumber of cells that convert chemical
where the entity C is defined as the disturb conditions inside the enclosure. energy to electrical energy and agenerator
capacitance. Capacitance will be discussed The conducting sphere is said to form an converts mechanical energy of motion to
in more detail in a later section. electrostatic shield around the contents of electrical energy.) The electric field is also
Since the electric-field intensity is the enclosure. However, the converse is considered to be constant along the
related to the change in potential with not true. That is, charges inside the sphere length, 1, of the cylinder and, as a
distance, like potential, the manner in will cause or induce afield on the outside consequence, the slope of the potential
which it changes will be unaffected by the surface. This is why it is very important variation along the cylinder will also be a
absolute physical size of the conductor that enclosures designed to confine the constant. This is indicated by the dashed
configuration. However, the exact numerical effects of charges be connected to apoint lines in Fig. 5. Since the electric field is
value at any point does depend on the of zero potential. Such a point is often constant, the current density will also be
dimensions of the configuration. This is called aground. constant. Therefore, the total current
illustrated in Fig. 3 for spheres with dif- entering the end caps will just be the
ferent radii. Note that for larger radii, the Fields and Currents product of the current density and the
numerical value of the field strength at the In the last section, the motion of cross-sectional area. The value of the
surface-of the sphere (distance equal to a) charged particles in the presence of an electric field will be the quotient of the
is less than it is for smaller radii. This electric field was mentioned in connection total voltage and the length of the
effect is important in the design of with charges placed on a conducting cylinder. Combining the foregoing results
transmission lines and capacitors. ( A sphere and the concept of current was and introducing two new entities gives the
capacitor is adevice for storing charge. In introduced. It was assumed that charges following set of equations:
older terminology, it was sometimes could move around unimpeded on the
called acondenser.) Even though the same surface of the sphere. In the case of actual
J = cr (—V
T )since J = aE and E
voltage is applied across the terminals of a conductors, this is not true. The charges
transmission line or capacitor, the field appear to bump into atoms as they move crAV
strength between the conductors is going through the conductor under the influence I = J(A) —
1
to be higher for configurations of small of the electric field. This effect depends
physical size than it is for larger ones. If upon the kind of material used. Silver is a p = and V = I (- 1), )
the field strength becomes too high, the conductor with the least amount of
insulating material ( including air) can opposition to the movement of charge R = -21 -
— and V = IR
1
"break down." On the other hand, the A
while carbon and certain alloys of iron are
effect can be used to advantage in spark rather poor conductors of charge flow. A where P = the resistivity of aconducting
gaps used to protect equipment connected measure of how easily charge can flow material, R -= the resistance. The final
to an antenna which is subject to through a conductor is defined as the equation is a very basic one in circuit
atmospheric electricity. The spark-gap conductivity and is denoted by o . theory and is called Ohm's Law. Con-
conductors or electrodes are filed to sharp 'The current density J, in aconductor is figurations similar to the one shown in
points. Because the needlepoints appear the rate of charge flow or current through Fig. 5are very common ones in electrical
as conductors of very small radii, the field agiven cross-sectional area. It is related to circuits and are called resistors.
strength is going to be higher for the same the electric field and conductivity by the It will be shown in alater section that
applied potential than it would be for formula the power dissipated in aresistor is equal
blunt electrodes ( Fig. 4). This means the to the product of the resistance and the
separation can be greater and the effect of J = crE square of the current. Quite often
the spark gap on normal circuit operation resistance is an undesirable effect (such as
will not be as pronounced. However, a In general, the conductivity and electric in a wire carrying current from one
.blunt electrode such as a sphere is often field will not be constant over a large location to another one) and must be
reduced as much as possible. This can be
accomplished by using aconductor with a
r- low resistivity such as silver (or copper
which is close to silver in resistivity, but is
not as expensive) with a large cross-
sectional area and as short a length as
E, J
possible. The current-carrying capability
%IJ
decreases as the diameter of aconductor
size gets smaller.

Potential Drop and Electromotive Force

The application of the relations be-
tween fields, potential, and similar con-
TO
EQUIPMENT Ely/M) cepts to the physical configuration shown
in Fig. 5 permitted the derivation of the
Fig. 4 — Spark gaps with sharp points break
formula that eliminated further con-
down at lower voltages than ones with blunt sideration of the field problem. The idea
surfaces even though the separation is the Fig. 5— Potential and field strength along a of an electrical energy source was also
same. current-carrying conductor. introduced. A similar analysis involving
2-3 Chapter 2
 the energy consumed). Assuming the atoms having excess electrons. Thus, the
current is flowing in aclockwise direction, transfer of electrons is from negative ions
the first element encountered at point ais to positive ions. When the path for elec-
an emf, Vi, but it appears to be connected trons is an electrical circuit, the current
"backward." Therefore, it receives a flows from negative to positive around the
minus sign. The next source is V4, and it potential generator.
appears as avoltage rise so it is considered The direction of electron flow is impor-
positive. Since the current flow in all the tant in applications of thermionic and
resistors is in the same direction, all the semiconductor devices. The cathode of a
potential drops have the same sign. The vacuum tube is heated so that it will boil
potential drop is the product of the off electrons. Current will flow in the tube
Fig. 6 — A series circuit illustrating the effects of
current in amperes and the resistance in if and only if the anode is biased positive
emf and potential drop.
ohms. The sums for the emfs and potential with respect to the cathode. This is known
drops and the resulting current are given as the Edison effect. A more familiar ex-
by ample of the polarity of current flow can
mechanics and field theory would be be seen in automotive engines: When the
Sum of emf = VI + V4 = — 10 + 5 center electrode of a spark plug is made
required to determine the characteristics
of an electrical generator and an applica- = — 5volts negative with respect to the shell, the
tion of chemistry would be involved in de- voltage required to fire the gap and in-
signing achemical cell. However, it will be Sum of pot. drops = V2 + V3 + V5 itiate current flow is significantly reduced
assumed that this problem has been as aresult of the elevated temperature of
+ V6 = 1(2 + 4 + 7 + 10) = 231 the center.
solved and that the energy source can be
replaced with asymbol such as that used Most modern circuits employ achassis
I =- - = — 0.217 ampere
235
or ground plane or bus as acommon con-
in Fig. 5.
The term electromotive force ( emf) is ductor. This practice reduces the wiring or
applied to describe a source of electrical Because the sign of the current is negative, printed circuitry required and simplifies
energy, and potential drop ( or voltage it is actually flowing in a counterclock- the schematic diagram. When the negative
drop) is used for a device that consumes wise direction. The physical significance terminal of the power source is connected
electrical energy. A combination of of this phenomenon is that one source is to this "ground" system, electrons flow
sources and resistances ( or other ele- being " charged." For instance, the circuit from the negative terminal through the
ments) that are connected in some way is in Fig. 6might represent adirect current ground system and through the circuit
called a network or circuit. It is evident (dc) generator and a battery. elements to the positive terminal. While
that the energy consumed in a network this is certainly acorrect description of the
must be equal to the energy produced. Charge Polarity and Electron Flow action, it is more convenient to think of
Applying this principle to the circuit The " + " and " — " symbols assigned the common conductor as the return leg
shown in Fig. 6 gives an important to electromotive forces and potential for all circuits. To accommodate this
extension of Ohm's Law. drops are important in that they define the reasoning, electrical engineers hale'
In Fig. 6, a number of sources and polarity of voltage and direction of cur- adopted a positive-to-negative conva-
resistances are connected in tandem or in rent flow. These plus and minus tion. This convention is adhered to in
series to form acircuit loop. It is desired to (representing positive and negative) sym- most of the technical literature. The ar-
determine the current I. The current can bols were first used in the 18th century by rows in semiconductor schematic symbols
be assumed to be flowing in either a Benjamin Franklin to describe two types point in the direction of conventional cur-
clockwise or counterclockwise direction. of electric charge. Charged atoms (called rent and away from actual electron flow.
If the assumption is not correct, the sign ions) having more than the usual number In discussing network elements having
of the current will be negative when the of electrons have a negative charge, and one terminal connected to the " com-
network equations are solved and the those having less than the usual number mon," " ground" or " return" leg of the
direction can be corrected accordingly. In are said to be positively charged. If a circuit, engineers use the terms " source"
order to solve the problem, it is necessary polarizing force is applied to some matter and " sink" to describe the current flow.
to find the sum of the emfs ( which is and then removed, the atoms will tend to A device is a current source if current
proportional to the energy produced) and revert to their natural states. This means flows away from the ungrounded terminal
to equate this sum to the sum of the that atoms deficient in electrons will at- and acurrent sink if current flows into the
potential drops ( which is proportional to tract the needed particles from those ungrounded terminal.

Resistance and Conductance Table 1

Relative Resistivity of Metals
Resistivity
timeter on each edge. One of the best con- Compared to
Given two conductors of the same size Materials
Copper
and shape, but of different materials, the ductors is copper, and it is frequently con- Aluminum ( pure)1.6
amount of current that will flow when a venient, in making resistance calculations, Brass 3.7-4.9
given emf is applied will be found to vary to compare the resistance of the material Cadmium4.4
Chromium1.8
with what is called the resistance of the under consideration with that of acopper Copper ( hard-drawn)1.03
material. The lower the resistance, the conductor of the same size and shape. Copper ( annealed) 1.00
greater the current for a given value of Table 1gives the ratio of the resistivity of G onld(pure)
fro 1.4
emf various conductors to that of copper. 5.68
Lead 12.8
Resistance is measured in ohms ( 11). A The longer the path through which the Nickel 5.1
circuit has aresistance of Iohm when an current flows, the higher the resistance of Phosphor Bronze 2.8- ..
44
9

applied emf of 1volt causes acurrent of 1 that conductor. For direct current and Silver
Steel
ampere to flow. The resistivity of a low- frequency alternating currents ( up to Tin 7.6-12.7
6.7
material is the resistance, in ohms, of a a few thousand cycles per second) the Zinc 34
Lube uf the inateiial measuring one cen- iesistame is inversely proportional to the

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-4

cross-sectional area of the path the material not close to the surface carries
current must travel; that is, given two practically no current.
conductors of the same material and
having the same length, but differing in Conductance
cross-sectional area, the one with the The reciprocal of resistance ( 1/R) is
larger area will have the lower resistance. conductance. It is usually represented by
the symbol G. A circuit having high con-
Resistance of Wires ductance has low resistance, and vice
The problem of determining the resis- versa. In radio work the term is used
tance of a round wire of given diameter chiefly in connection with electron-tube
and length — or its opposite, finding a and field-effect-transistor characteristics.
suitable size and length of wire to supply a The unit of conductance is the mho, a
desired amount of resistance — can be symbol for which is O. Recently, this unit
easily solved with the help of the copper has been renamed the siemens (ab-
wire table given in a later chapter. This breviated S), although mho is more useful
table gives the resistance, in ohms per as a functionally descriptive term. A
thousand feet, of each standard wire size. resistance of 1ohm has aconductance of
Example: Suppose a resistance of 3.5 Fig. 7 — Examples of various resistors. In the 1mho or 1siemens, a resistance of 1000
ohms is needed and some no. 28 wire is on foreground are 1/4-, 1/2- and 1-watt composition ohms has aconductance of 0.001 mho or
hand. The wire table in chapter 17 shows resistors. The three larger cylindrical
0.001 siemens, and so on. A unit frequent-
components at the center are wirewound power
that no. 28 has aresistance of 66.17 ohms ly used in connection with electron devices
resistors. The remaining two parts are variable
per thousand feet. Since the desired resistors, pc- board mount at the lower left and is the micromho, or one-millionth of a
resistance is 3.5 ohms, the length of wire panel mount at the upper center. mho. It is the conductance of a one-
required will be million-ohm resistance.

Ohm's Law
66.17
3'5 x 1000 = 52.89 feet.
necessary to maintain a constant resis- The simplest form of electric circuit is a
tance under all conditions. Special materialsbattery with a resistance connected to its
Or, suppose that the resistance of the wire that have little or no change in resistance terminals, as shown by the symbols in Fig.
in the circuit must not exceed 0.05 ohm over awide temperature range are used in 8. A complete circuit must have an
and that the length of wire required for that case. unbroken path so current can flow out of
making the connections totals 14 feet. the battery, through the apparatus con-
Then Resistors nected to it, and back into the battery.
14 A " package" of resistance made up into The circuit is broken, or open, if a
R = 0.05 ohm
1000 asingle unit is called aresistor. Resistors connection is removed at any point. A
having the same resistance value may be switch is adevice for making and breaking
where R is the maximum allowable considerably different in size and con- connections and thereby closing or open-
rçsistance in ohms per thousand feet. struction ( Fig. 7). The flow of current ing the circuit, either allowing current to
Rèarranging the formula gives through resistance causes the conductor flow or preventing it from flowing.
to become heated; the higher the resis- The values of current, voltage and
tance and the larger the current, the resistance in a circuit are by no means
0. 05 x 1000
= 3.57 ohms/1000 ft. greater the amount of heat developed. independent of each other. The relation-
14 ship between them is known as Ohm's
Resistors intended for carrying large
currents must be physically large so the Law. It can be stated as follows: The cur-
Reference to the wire table shows that no. heat can be radiated quickly to the rent flowing in acircuit is directly propor-
15 is the smallest size having aresistance surrounding air. If the resistor does not tional to the applied emf and inversely
less than this value. get rid of the heat quickly it may reach a proportional to the resistance. Expressed
When the wire is not copper, the temperature that will cause it to melt or as an equation, it is
resistance values given in the wire table burn.
should be multiplied by the ratios given in I(amperes) = E(volts)
Table 1to obtain the resistance. Skin Effect R (ohms)
Example: If the wire in the first example
The resistance of aconductor is not the
were nickel instead of copper, the length
same for alternating current as it is for The equation above gives the value of
required for 3.5 ohms would be
direct current. When the current is current when the voltage and resistance
alternating there are internal effects that are known. It may be transposed so that
3.5 tend to force the current to flow mostly in
66.17 x 5.1 x 1000 = 10.37 feet each of the three quantities may be found
the outer parts of the conductor. This when the other two are known:
decreases the effective cross-sectional area
of the conductor, with the result that the E = IR
Temperature Effects
resistance increases.
The resistance of aconductor changes For low audio frequencies the increase (that is, the voltage acting is equal to the
with its temperature. Although it is in resistance is unimportant, but at radio current in amperes multiplied by the
seldom necessary to consider temperature frequencies this skin effect is so great that resistance in ohms) and
in making resistance calculations for practically all the current flow is confined
amateur work, it is well to know that the E
within afew thousandths of an inch of the R = ,
resistance of practically all metallic con- conductor surface. The rf resistance is 1
ductors increases with increasing tem- consequently many times the dc resistance, (or, the resistance of the circuit is equal to
perature. Carbon, however, acts in the and increases with increasing frequency. the applied voltage divided by the
opposite way; its resistance decreases In the rf range aconductor of thin tubing current).
when its temperature rises. The tem- will have just as low resistance as asolid All three forms of the equation are used
perature effect is important when it is conductor of the same diameter, because almost constantly in radio work. It must

g-5 Chapter 2
 ohms. There ale therefore 1,000,000
microvolts in one volt, and 0.000001
megohm in 1ohm.
=—
T BATTERY
The following examples illustrate the use
of Ohm's Law:
The current flowing in a resistance of
20,000 ohms is 150 milliamperes. What is
Fig. 8 — A simple circuit consisting of abattery the voltage? Since the voltage is to be
and resistor. found, the equation to use is E = IR. The
current must first be converted from
milliamperes to amperes, and reference to
the table shows that to do so it is
be remembered that the quantities are in necessary to divide by 1000. Therefore,
volts, ohms and amperes; other units
150
cannot be used in the equations without E = — x 20,000 = 3000 volts
first being converted. For example, if the 1000
current is in milliamperes it must be When a voltage of 150 is applied to a
changed to the equivalent fraction of an circuit, the current is measured at 2.5
ampere before the value can be sub- amperes. What is the resistance of the
stituted in the equations. circuit? In this case R is the unknown, so Fig. 9— Resistors connected in series and in
Table 2 shows how to convert between parallel.

the various units in common use. The

R = E
— = 150 = 60 ohms
prefixes attached to the basic- unit name I 2.5
indicate the nature of the unit. These the dots indicate that as many resistors as
prefixes are No conversion was necessary because the necessary may be added.
pico — one-trillionth ( abbreviated p) voltage and current were given in volts Example: Suppose that three resistors
nano — one-billionth ( abbreviated n) and amperes. are connected to asource of emf as shown
micro — one-millionth ( abbreviated bt) How much current will flow if 250 volts in Fig. 10. The emf is 250 volts. R 1is 5000
milli — one- thousandth (abbreviated m) is applied to a 5000- ohm resistor? Since 1 ohms, R2 is 20,000 ohms, and R3 is 8000
kilo — one thousand (abbreviated k) is unknown ohms. The total resistance is then
mega — one million ( abbreviated M)
, E 250 R = RI + R2 + R3
giga — one billion (abbreviated G)
= — = — 0.05 ampere = 5000 + 20,000 + 8000
R 5000
For example, 1microvolt is one- millionth = 33,000 ohms
of a volt, and I megohm is 1,000,000
Milliampere units would be more con-
venient for the current, and 0.05 ampere X The current flowing in the circuit is then
Table 2 1000 = 50 milliamperes.
Conversion Factors for Fractional and I =
E = 250 = 0.00757 ampere"
Multiple Units Series and Parallel Resistances R 33,000
Change To Divide Multiply Very few actual electric circuits are as
From By By simple as the illustration in the preceding = 7.57 mA.
Units picounits 1012 section. Commonly, resistances are found (We need not carry calculations beyon
nanounits 109 connected in a variety of ways. The two three significant figures, and often two
microunits 106
fundamental methods of connecting re- will suffice because the accuracy of
milliunits 103
kilounits 10 3 sistances are shown in Fig. 9. In the upper measurements is seldom better than afew
megaunits 10 6 drawing, the current flows from the percent.)
gigaunits 10 9 source of emf ( in the direction shown by
Picounits nanounits 10 3 the arrow, let us say) down through the Voltage Drop: Kirchhoff's First Law
microunits 10 6 first resistance, RI, then through the Ohm's Law applies to any part of a
milliunits 10 9
second, R2, and then back to the source. circuit as well as to the whole circuit.
units 1012
These resistors are connected in series. Although the current is the same in all
Nanounits picounits 103
The current everywhere in the circuit has three of the resistances in the example, the
microunits 10 3
milliunits 106
the same value. total voltage divides among them. The
units 10 9 In the lower drawing, the current flows voltage appearing across each resistor ( the
Microunits picounits 10 6
to the common connection point at the voltage drop) can be found from Ohm's
nanounits 103 top of the two resistors and then divides, Law.
milliunits 10 3 one part of it flowing through R 1and the Example: If the voltage across R 1 ( Fig.
units 106 other through R2. At the lower con- 10) is called El, that across R2 is called
Milliunits picounits 10 9 nection point these two currents again
nanounits 106 combine; the total is the same as the
microunits 103 RI
current that flowed into the upper
units 103
common connection. In this case the two 5000
Kilounits units 10 3
resistors are connected in parallel.
megaunits 10 3
R2
gigaunits 106 E.250V
Resistors in Series 20k
Megaunits units 10 6
kilounits 10 3 When a circuit has a number of
R3
gigaunits 103 resistances connected in series, the total 1—
W\i
Gigaunits units 10 9 resistance of the circuit is the sum of the 8000

kilounits 10 6 individual resistances. If these are num-

megaunits 103 bered RI, R2, R3, and su on, then R Fig. 10— An example nf resistors in series The
(total) = I + R2 + R3 + R4 + . where solution of the circuit is worked out in the text.

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-6

 '
--"711
emelfe'

E2, and that across R3 is called E3, then For convenience, the resistance will be
El= IR1 = 0.00757 X 5000 = 37.9 volts expressed in kilohms so the current will be
E2= IR2 = 0.00757 X 20,000 = 151.4 volts in milliamperes.
E3 = IR3 = 0.00757 X 8000 = 60.6 volts = E = 250
Il - - 50 mA
The applied voltage must equal the sum of RI
the individual voltage drops (Kirchhoff's E
voltage law): 12 = 2 = 250 = 12.5 mA
20

E = El + E2 + E3 = E= 250
13 - = 31.25 mA Fig. 11 - An example of resistors in parallel. The
= 37.9 + 151.4 + 60.6 R3 8 solution is worked out in the text.
= 249.9 volts

The answer would have been more nearly The total current is
exact if the current had been calculated to
more decimal places, but as explained I = I1 + 12 + 13
above avery high order of accuracy is not = 50 + 12.5 + 31.25
necessary. = 93.75 mA
In problems such as this considerable
time and trouble can be saved, when the
current is small enough to be expressed in The above example illustrates Kirchhoff's
milliamperes, if the resistance is expressed current law: The current flowing into a
in kilohms rather than ohms. When node or branching point is equal to the
resistance in kilohms is substituted direct- sum of the individual branch currents.
ly in Ohm's Law the current will be mil- The total resistance of the circuit is
liamperes if the emf is in volts. therefore

Resistors in Parallel: Kirchhoff's Second

Law E 250
R = - = 2.66 kilohms
In acircuit with resistances in parallel, 1 93.75
the total resistance is less than that of the = 2660 ohms
lowest value of resistance present. This is Fig. 12- An example of resistors in series-
because the total current is always greater parallel. The equivalent circuit is below. The

than the current in any individual resistor. Resistors in Series- Parallel: The solution is worked out in the text.

The formula for finding the total resist- Theorum

ance of resistances in parallel is An actual circuit may have resistances
both in parallel and in series. To illustrate,
1
R = we use the same three resistances again, The voltage drops across R 1and Re g are
1 1 1 1 but now connected as in Fig. 12. The El = IX RI = 23.3 X 5 = 117 volts
+ - + - + - +
RI R2 R3 R4 method of solving acircuit such as Fig. 12 E2 = IX Rey = 23.3 X 5.71 = 133 volts
is as follows: Consider R2 and R3 in
where the dots again indicate that any parallel as though they formed a single with sufficient accuracy. These total 250
number of resistors can be combined by resistor. Find their equivalent resistance. volts, thus checking the calculations so
the same method. For only two resistances Then this resistance in series with RI far, because the sum of the voltage drops
in parallel ( a very common case), the forms asimple series circuit, as shown at must equal the applied voltage. Since E2
formula becomes the right in Fig. 12. An example of the appears across both R2 and R3
arithmetic is given under the illustration. E2 133
R = RI X R2 12 = - = - = 6.65 mA
Using the same principles, and staying R2 20
RI + R2
within the practical limits, avalue for R2
Example: If a 500-ohm resistor is can be computed that will provide agiven E2 3
paralleled with one of 1200 ohms, the voltage drop across R3 or agiven current 13 = = 13 = 16.6 mA
R3 8
total resistance is through RI. Simple algebra is required.
Example: The first step is to find the
where
R2 500 x 1200 equivalent resistance of R2 and R3. From
12 = current through R2
+ R2 500 + 1200 the formula for two resistances in parallel,
13 = current through R3
600,000 The total is 23.25 mA, which checks
R2 x R3 20 X 8 _ 160
1700 closely enough with 23.3 mA, the current
Re q. = R2 + R3 = 28
through the whole circuit.
= 353 ohms
= 5.71 kfl A useful tool for simplifying electrical
It is probably easier to solve practical networks is Thevinin's Theorum, which
problems by adifferent method than the The total resistance in the circuit is then states that any two-terminal network of
"reciprocal of reciprocals" formula. Sup- resistors and voltage sources can be
pose the three resistors of the previous R = RI + Rcq = 5Id/ + 5.71 k12 replaced by a single voltage source and a
example are connected in parallel as series resistor. This transformation ex-
shown in Fig. 11. The same emf, 250 volts, = 10.71 Id/ pedites the calculation of the current in a
is applied to all three of the resistors. The parallel branch. To apply Thevinin's
current in each can be found from Ohm's The current is Theorum to the series-parallel circuit of
Law as shown below, Il being the current Fig. 12, first remove R3 and calculate the
through RI, 12 the current through R2 E 250 potential developed across R2. Now
I = = 10.71 = 23.3 mA
and 13 the current through R3. replace the battery with its internal

2-7 Chapter 2
resistance (ashort circuit). This places RI = I
2R = (0.02) 2 x 300 Po
Eff. = —
and R2 in parallel. To find the current in = 0.0004 X 300 Pi
R3 in the original circuit, add the value of = 0.12 watt where
R3 to the parallel combination of RI and
Eff. = efficiency (as adecimal)
R2, and divide the result into the R2 Note that the current was changed from Po = power output (watts)
potential derived earlier. The arithmetic milliamperes to amperes before sub- Pi = power input (watts)
proceeds this way: Neglecting R3, the cir- stitution in the formula.
cuit resistance is 25 kfl, which draws 10 Electrical power in aresistance is turned
Example: If the dc input to the tube is
mA from the 250-V battery. This current into heat. The greater the power the more
100 watts, and the rf power output is 60
develops 200 V across R2. The Thevinin rapidly the heat is generated. Resistors for watts, the efficiency is
equivalent circuit feeding R3 is now the radio work are made in many sizes, the
parallel combination of RI and R2, or 4 smallest being rated to " dissipate" (or
kfl, in series with a200-V potential source. carry safely) about 1/10 watt. The largest
Eff. =Po
— = 60
— = 0.6
Installing R3, the total circuit resistance resistors commonly used in amateur Pi 100
becomes 12 kit, which draws 16.6 mA. equipment will dissipate about 100 watts.
This value agrees with 13 as calculated by When electrical energy is converted into
the previous method. mechanical energy, and vice versa, the Efficiency is usually expressed as a
following relationship holds: 1 horse- percentage; that is, it tells what percent of
Power and Energy power = 746 watts. This formula assumes the input power will be available as useful
Power — the rate of doing work — is lossless transformation; the matter of output. The efficiency in the above
equal to voltage multiplied by current. practical efficiency is taken up shortly. example is 60 percent.
The unit of electrical power, called the Suppose amobile transmitter has an rf
watt, is equal to I volt multiplied by 1 power output of 100 W at an efficiency of
Generalized Definition of Resistance 52 percent at 13.8 V. The vehicular alter-
ampere. The equation for power therefore
is Electrical power is not always turned nator system charges the battery at a5-A
into heat. The power used in running a rate at this voltage. Assuming an alter-
P = EI motor, for example, is converted to nator efficiency of 68 percent, how much
where mechanical motion. The power supplied horsepower must the engine produce to
P = power in watts to aradio transmitter is largely converted operate the transmitter and charge the
E = emf in volts into radio waves. Power applied to a battery? Solution: To charge the battery,
I = current in amperes loudspeaker is changed into sound waves. the alternator must produce 13.8 V x 5A
But in every case of this kind the power is = 69 W. The transmitter dc input power
Common fractional and multiple units completely " used up" — it cannot be is 100 W + 0.52 = 192.3 W. Therefore,
for power are the milliwatt, one one- recovered. Also, for proper operation of the total electrical power required from
thousandth of awatt, and the kilowatt, or the device the power must be supplied at a the alternator is 192.3 + 69 = 261.3 W.
1000 watts: definite ratio of voltage to current. Both The engine load then is
Example: The plate voltage on a these features are characteristics of resis-
transmitting vacuum tube is 2000 volts tance, so it can be said that any device that
261.3
and the plate current is 350 milliamperes. dissipates power has a definite value of = 0.515 hp.
"resistance." This concept of resistance as 746 x 0.68
(The current must be changed to amperes
before substitution in the formula, and so something that absorbs power at a defi-
is 0.35 ampere.) Then nite voltage/current ratio is very useful,
since it permits substituting asimple resis- Energy
P = El = 2000 x 0.35 = 700 watts tance for the load or power-consuming In residences, the power company's bill
part of the device receiving power, often is for electrical energy, not for power.
By substituting the Ohm's Law equiva- with considerable simplification of calcu- What you pay for is the work that
lent for E and I, the following formulas lations. Of course, every electrical device electricity does for you, not the rate at
are obtained for power: has some resistance of its own in the more which that work is done. Electrical work
narrow sense, so apart of the power sup- is equal to power multiplied by time; the
E2 plied to it is dissipated in that resistance common unit is the watt-hour, which
P = —
R and hence appears as heat even though the means that a power of 1watt has been
P = 12R major part of the power may be converted used for one hour. That is,
to another form.
fhese formulas are useful in power W = PT
calculations when the resistance and Efficiency
where
either the current or voltage ( but not In devices such as motors and vactrugn W = energy in watt-hours
both) are known. tubes, the object is to obtain power in P = power in watts
Example: How much power will be some other form than heat. Therefore T = time in hours
used up in a 4000-ohm resistor if the power used in heating is considered to be
potential applied to it is 200 volts? From aloss, because it is not the useful power. Other energy units are the kilowatt-
the equation The efficiency of a device is the useful hour and the watt-second (joule). These
power output ( in its converted form) units should be self-explanatory.
= E2 = ( 200) 2 40,000 divided by the power input to the device. Energy units are seldom used in
P
R 4000 4000 In avacuum-tube transmitter, for example, amateur practice, but it is obvious that a
the object is to convert power from adc small amount of power used for a long
= 10 watts source into ac power at some radio fre- time can eventually result in a " power"
quency. The ratio of the rf power output bill that is just as large as though alarge
Or, suppose acurrent of 20 milliamperes to the dc input is the efficiency of the tube. amount of power had been used for avery
flows through a 300-ohm resistor. Then That is, short time.

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-8

Capacitance
Suppose two flat metal plates are placed
close to each other ( but not touching) and
are connected to a battery through a
switch, as shown in Fig. 13. At the instant
the switch is closed, electrons will be
attracted from the upper plate to the
positive terminal of the battery, and the
same number will be repelled into the
lower plate from the negative battery
terminal. Enough electrons move into one
plate and out of the other to make the emf Fig. 14 — A multiple- plate capacitor. Alternate
between them the same as the emf of the Fig. 13 — A simple capacitor. plates are connected together.
battery.
If the switch is opened after the plates
have been charged in this way, the top for practical work. Capacitance is usually
plate is left with adeficiency of electrons Table 3 measured in microfarads ( abbreviated uF)
and the bottom plate with an excess. The Dielectric Constants and Breakdown or picofarads ( pFi. The microfarad is
plates remain charged despite the fact that Voltages one- millionth of a farad, and the picofarad
Dielectric Puncture (formerly micromicrofarad) is one- mil-
the battery no longer is connected.
Material Constant Voltage"
However, if awire is touched between the lionth of a microfarad. Capacitors nearly
Air 1.0 240
two plates ( short-circuiting them) the always have more than two plates, the
Alsimag 196 5.7 240
excess electrons on the bottom plate will Bakelite 4.4-5.4 300 alternate plates being connected together
flow through the wire to the upper plate, Bakelite, mica-filled 4.7 325-375 to form two sets as shown in Fig. 14. This
thus restoring electrical neutrality. The Cellulose acetate 3.3-3.9 250-600 makes it possible to attain a fairly large
Fiber 5-7.5 150-180
plates have then been discharged. capacitance in asmall space, since several
Formica 4.6-4.9 450
The two plates constitute an electrical Glass, window 76-8 200-250
plates of smaller individual area can be
capacitor; a capacitor possesses the pro- Glass, Pyrex 4.8 335 stacked to form the equivalent of asingle
perty of storing electricity. (The energy Mica, ruby 5.4 3800-5600 large plate of the same total area. Also, all
Mycalex 7.4 250 plates, except the two on the ends, are ex-
actually is stored in the electric field
Paper, Royalgrey 3.0 200
between the plates.) During the time the Plexiglas 2.8 990
posed to plates of the other group on both
electrons are moving — that is, while the Polyethylene 2.3 1200 sides, and so are twice as effective in in-
capacitor is being charged or discharged— Polystyrene 2.6 500-700 creasing the capacitance.
Porcelain 5.1-5.9 40-100 The formula for calculating capacitance
a current is flowing in the circuit even
Quartz, fused 3.8 1000
though the circuit is " broken" by the gap Steatite, low-loss 5.8 150-315
is
between the capacitor plates. However, Teflon 2.1 1000-2000
the current flows only during the time of •At 1 MHz •• In volts per mil ( 0.001 inch)
C = 0.224KA— (
n — I)
charge and discharge, and this time is d
usually very short. There can be no
continuous flow of direct current " through" not constant, but is afunction of time; the where C = capacitance in pF
acapacitor, but an alternating current can average voltage over the time interval K = dielectric constant of material
pass through easily if the frequency is high determines the energy stored. The time between plates
enough. dependence of the capacitor voltage is A = area of one side of one plate in
The charge or quantity of electricity discussed in the section on time constant. square inches
that can be placed on a capacitor is pro- The larger the plate area and the smaller d = separation of plate surfaces in
portional to the applied voltage and to the the spacing between the plate the greater inches
capacitance of the capacitor: the capacitance. The capacitance also = number of plates
depends upon the kind of insulating If the plates in one group do not have the
Q = CV
material between the plates; it is smallest same area as the plates in the other, use
where with air insulation, but substitution of the area of the smaller plates.
Q = charge in coulombs other insulating materials for air may in-
C = capacitance in farads crease the capacitance many times. The Capacitors in Radio
V = potential in volts ratio of the capacitance with some The types of capacitors used in radio
material other than air between the plates, work differ considerably in physical size,
The energy stored in a capacitor is also a
to the capacitance of the same capacitor construction, and capacitance. Some rep-
function of potential and capacitance:
with air insulation, is called the dielectric resentative types are shown in the
constant of that particular insulating photograph ( Fig. 15). In variable capaci-
W =2cv material. The material itself is called a tors ( almost always constructed with air
2
dielectric. The dielectric constants of a for the dielectric) one set of plates is made
where number of materials commonly used as movable with respect to the other set so
W = energy in joules (watt- seconds) dielectrics in capacitors are given in Table that the capacitance can be varied. Fixed
V = potential in volts 3. If a sheet of polystyrene is substituted capacitors — that is, assemblies having a
C = capacitance in farads for air between the plates of acapacitor, single, nonadjustable value of capacitance
The numerator of this expression can easi- for example, the capacitance will be in- — also can be made with metal plates
ly be derived from the definitions given creased 2.6 times. and with air as the dielectric, but usually
earlier for charge, capacitance, current, are constructed from plates of metal foil
power and energy. However, the Units with athin solid or liquid dielectric sand-
denominator is not so obvious. It arises The fundamental unit of capacitance is wiched in between, so that a relatively
because the voltage across a capacitor is the farad, but this unit is much too large large capacitance can be secured in asmall

2-9 Chapter 2
 •

(A) (B)
Fig. 15 — Fixed-value capacitors are shown at A. A large computer-grade unit is at the upper left. The 40-SF unit is an electrolytic capacitor. The
smaller pieces are silver-mica, disc-ceramic, tantalum, polystyrene and ceramic chip capacitors. The small black unit (cylindrical) is a pc-board-
mount electrolytic. Variable capacitors are shown at B. A vacuum variable is at the upper left.

unit. The solid dielectrics commonly used Ctotal = CI + C2 + C3 + C4 +

are mica, paper and special ceramics. An
example of aliquid dielectric is mineral oil. However, if two or more capacitors are
The electrolytic capacitor uses aluminum- connected in series, as in the second
SOURCE I
foil plates with a semiliquid conducting OF EMF
C2

drawing, the total capacitance is less than

chemical compound between them; the that of the smallest capacitor in the group.
actual dielectric is avery thin film of insu- î The rule for finding the capacitance of a
lating material that forms on one set of number of series-connected capacitors is
PARALLEL
plates through electrochemical action when the same as that for finding the resistance
a dc voltage is applied to the capacitor. of a number of para//e/-connected resis-
.The capacitance obtained with a given tors. That is,
plate area in an electrolytic capacitor is
SOURCE
very large, compared with capacitors hav- OF EMF Ctotal =
ing other dielectrics, because the film is so o
1
thin — much less than any thickness that
is practicable with a solid dielectric. 1 1 1 1
SERI ES 4- 4-
The use of electrolytic and oil-filled CI C2 C3 + C4 4. •••
capacitors is confined to power-supply
filtering and audio-bypass applications. Fig. 16— Capacitors in parallel and in series. and, for only two capacitors in series,
Mica and ceramic capacitors are used
throughout the frequency range from
audio to several hundred megahertz. Cl X C2
Ctotal
Cl + C2
between pointed or sharp-edged surfaces
Voltage Breakdown
than between rounded and polished The same units must be used through-
When a high voltage is applied to the surfaces; consequently, the breakdown out; that is, all capacitances must be
plates of acapacitor, aconsiderable force voltage between metal plates of given expressed in either uf or pF; both kinds of
is exerted on the electrons and nuclei of spacing in air can be increased by buffing units cannot be used in the same equation.
the dielectric. Because the dielectric is an the edges of the plates. Capacitors are connected in parallel to
insulator the electrons do not become Since the dielectric must be thick to obtain a larger total capacitance than is
detached from atoms the way they do in withstand high voltages, and since the available in one unit. The largest voltage
conductors. However, if the force is great thicker the dielectric the smaller the that can be applied safely to agroup of
enough the dielectric will " break down;" capacitance for a given plate area, a capacitors in parallel is the voltage that
usually it will puncture and may char ( if it high-voltage capacitor must have more can be applied safely to the one having the
is solid) and permit current to flow. The plate area than a low-voltage one of the lowest voltage rating.
breakdown voltage depends upon the kind same capacitance. High-voltage, high- When capacitors are connected in
and thickness of the dielectric, as shown in capacitance capacitors are physically large. series, the applied voltage is divided up
Table 3. It is not directly proportional to among them, and the situation is much the
the thickness; that is, doubling the Capacitors in Series and Parallel same as when resistors are in series and
thickness does not quite double the The terms "parallel" and "series" when there is a voltage drop across each.
breakdown voltage. If the dielectric is air used with reference to capacitors have the However, the voltage that appears across
or any other gas, breakdown is evidenced same circuit meaning as with resistances. each capacitor of a group connected in
by aspark or arc between the plates, but if When a number of capacitors are con- series is in inverse proportion to its
the voltage is removed the arc ceases and nected in parallel, as in Fig. 16, the total capacitance, as compared with the capaci-
the capacitor is ready for use again. capacitance of the group is equal to the tance of the whole group.
Breakdown will occur at alower voltage sum of the individual capacitances, so Example: Three capacitors having capaci-

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-10

tances of 1, 2 and 4MF, respectively, are 0.571
El = x 2000 = 1142 volts
connected in series as shown in Fig 17.
El
The total capacitance is
Similarly, the voltages across C2 and C3 o
are E • 2000V E2

E2 = " 71 x 2000 = 571 volts E3

-C3
2 T F

0.571 Fig. 17— An example of capacitors connected in

= 7 = 7 = 0.571 le E3 = x 2000 = 286 volts series. The solution to this arrangement is
4 worked out in the text.
totaling approximately 2000 volts, the
applied voltage. shown by the previous example, the
Capacitors are frequently connected in applied voltage does not divide equally
The voltage across each capacitor is series to enable the group to withstand a among the capacitors (except when all the
proportional to the total capacitance larger voltage (at the expense of decreased capacitances are the same) so care must be
divided by the capacitance of the capacitor total capacitance) than any individual taken to see that the voltage rating of no
in question, so the voltage across C 1is capacitor is rated to stand. However, as capacitor in the group is exceeded.

Inductance
It is possible to show that the flow of henrys ( /4H, one one-millionth of ahenry)
current through a conductor is accom- at medium frequencies and higher. Al-
panied by magnetic effects; a compass though coils for radio frequencies may be
needle brought near the conductor, for wound on special iron cores (ordinary
example, will be deflected from its normal iron is not suitable), most rf coils made
north-south position. The current, in and used by amateurs are of the
other words, sets up a magnetic field. "air-core" type; that is, wound on an
The transfer of energy to the magnetic insulating support consisting of non-
field represents work done by the source magnetic material ( Fig. 18).
of emf. Power is required for doing work, Every conductor has inductance, even
and since power is equal to current Fig. 18 — Assorted inductors. A rotary
though the conductor is not formed into a
(continuously variable) coil is at the upper left.
multiplied by voltage, there must be a coil. The inductance of a short length of
Slug-tuned inductors are visible in the lower
voltage drop in the circuit during the time foreground. An rf choke (three pi windings) is straight wire is small, but it may not be
in which energy is being stored in the field. seen at the lower right. negligible because if the current through it
This voltage "drop" (which has nothing changes its intensity rapidly enough the
to do with the voltage drop in any induced voltage may be appreciable. This
resistance in the circuit) is the result of an induced emf by storing energy in the will be the case in even a few inches of
opposing voltage " induced" in the circuit magnetic field. If the current in the circuit wire when an alternating current having a
while the field is building up to its final tends to decrease, the stored energy of the frequency of the order of 100 MHz, or
value. When the field becomes cctnstant field returns to the circuit, and thus adds higher is flowing. However, at much lower
the induced emf or back emf disappears, to the energy being supplied by the source frequencies the inductance of the same
since no further energy is being stored. of emf. This tends to keep the current wire could be ignored because the induced
Since the induced emf opposes the emf flowing even though the applied emf may voltage would be negligibly small.
of the source, it tends to prevent the be decreasing or be removed entirely. The
current from rising rapidly when the energy stored in the magnetic field of an Calculating Inductance
circuit is closed. The amplitude of the inductor is given by The approximate inductance of single-
induced emf is proportional to the rate at layer air-core coils may be calculated from
which the current is changing and to a = I
—2L
the simplified formula
constant associated with the circuit itself, 2
called the inductance of the circuit. where a2n2

Inductance depends on the physical W = energy in joules L ().41-1) =

9a + 10b
characteristics of the conductor. If the I = current in amperes
conductor is formed into a coil, for L = inductance in henrys where
example, its inductance is increased. A L = inductance in microhenrys
The unit of inductance is the henry.
coil of many turns will have more a = coil radius in inches
Values of inductance used in radio
inductance than one of few turns, if both b = coil length in inches
equipment vary over a wide range.
coils are otherwise physically similar. n = number of turns
Inductance of several henrys is required in
Furthermore, if acoil is placed around an power-supply circuits (see chapter on The notation is explained in Fig. 19. This
iron core its inductance will be greater power supplies), and to obtain such values formula is aclose approximation for coils
than it was without the magnetic core. of inductance it is necessary to use coils of having a length equal to or greater than
The polarity of an induced emf is many turns wound on iron cores. In 0.8a.
always such as to oppose any change in radio-frequency circuits, the inductance Example: Assume acoil having 48 turns
the current in the circuit. This means that values used will be measured in milli- wound 32 turns per inch and adiameter of
when the current in the circuit is henrys (a mH, one one-thousandth of a 3/4 inch. Thus, a = 0.75/2 = 0.375, b =
increasing, work is being done against the henry) at low frequencies, and in micro- 48/32 = 1.5, and n = 48. Substituting,

2-11 Chapter 2
 2.0

1.0

0.7

0.6

05

Fig. 19 - Coil dimensions used in the induc-

tance formula. The wire diameter does not 04

INDUCTANCE ,NH
enter into the formula. The spacing has been A
exaggerated in this illustration for clarity. The
formula is for closewound coils. 0.3
NO 12 BARE WIRE
8 TURNS PER INCH
A INSIDE DIA. • / 2"
B INSIDE DIA. • 3/4 ,
02

L =
.375 X . 375 X 48 x 48
(9 x . 375) + ( 10 x 1.5)pH
= 17.6

To calculate the number of turns of a 0.1

single-layer coil for a required value of

inductance,
007

0.06
n = V L(9a + 10b)
a C 05

Example: Suppose an inductance of 0 04

5
10 pH is required. The form on which the 10 15 20
NUMBER OF TURNS
coil is to be wound has adiameter of one
inch and is long enough to accommodate
acoil of 1-1/4 inches. Then a = 0.5, b = Fig. 20 - Measured inductance of coils wound with no. 12 bare wire, eight turns to the inch.
The values include half-inch leads. Inches x 25.4 = mm.
1.25, and L = 10. Substituting,

n = V 10 (4.5 + 12.5) VTTO"

0.5 0.5
= 26.1 turns Machine- wound coils with the
diameters and turns per inch given in Table 4

A 26-turn coil would be close enough in Tables 4and 5are available in many radio Machine-Wound Coil Specifications
practical work. Since the coil will be 1.25 stores, under the trade names of " B&W
inches long, the number of turns per inch Miniductor," " Air- dux" and Coil Dia, No. of Turns Inductance
will be 26.1/1.25 = 20.8. Consulting the Inches Per Inch In pH
"Polycoil." Figs. 21 and 22 are used with
wire table, we find that no. 17 enameled Tables 4and 5. 1-1 4 4 2.75
wire (or anything smaller) can be used. The While forming awire into asolenoid in- 6 6.3
8 11.2
proper inductance is obtained by winding creases its inductance, this procedure also 10 17.5
the required number of turns on the form introduces distributed capacitance. Since 16 42.5
and then adjusting the spacing between each turn is at a slightly different (ac) 1-1/2 4 3.9
the turns to make auniformly spaced coil potential, each pair of turns forms a 6 8.8
1.25 inches long. parasitic capacitor. At some frequency the 8 15.6
10 24.5
effective capacitance will have areactance
16 83
Inductance Charts equal to that of the inductance, and the
1-3/4 4 5.2
Most inductance formulas lose accuracy inductor will show self-resonance. ( Reac-
6 11.8
when applied to small coils (such as are tance and resonance are treated in the sec- 8 21
used in vhf work and in low-pass filters tion on alternating current.) Above the 10 33
self-resonant frequency, a coil takes on 16 85
built for reducing harmonic interference
to television) because the conductor thick- the reactive properties of a capacitor in- 2 4 6.6
ness is no longer negligible in comparison stead of an inductor. The behavior of a 6 15
8 26.5
with the size of the coil. Fig. 20 shows the coil with respect to frequency is illustrated
10 42
measured inductance of vhf coils, and in Fig. 23. 16 108
may be used as abasis for circuit design. Sometimes it is useful to know the in-
2-1/2 4 6.6
Two curves are iven: curve A is for coils ductance of astraight wire, such as acom- 6 23
wound to an inside diameter of 1/2 inch; ponent lead. A straight, round, non- 8 41
curve B is for coils of 3/4 inch inside di- magnetic wire in free space has an induc- 10 64

ameter. In both curves the wire size is no. tance approximated by the formula 3 4 14
12, winding pitch eight turns to the inch 6 31.5
8 56
(1/8 inch center-to-center turn spacing).
10 89
The inductance values given include leads
L = 0.0002b -2b -) - 0.75] Inches y 254 mm
1/2 inch long. a

ElAntritsal IAWA and Circuits 2.12

 or
Table 5
2b
Machine•Wound Coil Specifications L = 0.0002b [(2.303 log 10 -) - 0.71
a
Coil Die, No. of Turns Inductance where
Inches Per Inch in
L = inductance in pH
1/2 4 0.18
a = wire radius in mm
(A) 6 0.40
8 0.72 b = wire length in mm
10 1.12
16 2.9 If the dimensions are expressed in inches
32 12 the length coefficient ( outside the
5/8 4 0.28 brackets) becomes 0.00508. These for-
(A) 6 0.62 mulas are valid for low frequencies; the
8 1.1
10 1.7 skin effect reduces the inductance at vhf
16 4.4 and above. As the frequency approaches
32 18 infinity, the constant within the brackets
3/4 4 0.6 approaches unity. As a practical matter,
(B) 1.35 the skin effect won't reduce the induc-
8 2.4
tance by more than afew percent.
10 3.8
16 9.9 As an example, let a = 2mm and b =
32 40 100 mm. Most pocket calculators can
1 4 1.0 compute either natural or common
(B) 6 2.3 logarithms. Using the natural logarithm
8 4.2 function, the problem is formulated as
10 6.6
follows:
16 16.9
32 68
Inches x 254 = mm L = 0.0002(100)Pn 2(100) ) 0.75]
2

= 0.02[(in 100) - 0.75]

Fig. 23 - The proximity of the turns on a
= 0.02 (4.606 - 0.75)
solenoid forms parasitic capacitors, as
= (0.02) (3.855) = 0.077 pH sketched in A. The net effect of these
capacitors is called the distributed
capacitance, and causes the coil to exhibit a
Fig. 24 is a graph of the inductance for self-resonance, illustrated in B.
wires of various radii as a function of
length.
A vhf or uhf tank circuit can be
fabricated from a wire parallel to a and the formula includes the inductance
ground plane, with one end grounded. A of the 40-mm grounding link.) A person
formula for the inductance of such an ar- skilled in the use of a sophisticated
rangement is calculator could produce the answer with
only afew key strokes, but to demonstrate
L = 0.0004605b log 10 the use of the formula, begin by
evaluating these quantities:
b + \rb 2 + a2

‘Tb2 b + \rb 2 + a2 = 100 + 100.02 =

a (b
Fig. 21 - Factor to be applied to the induc- 200.02
tance of coils listed in Table 4for coil lengths
up to five inches. + 0.0002 ( v/b 2 + 4h 2 - b2 + a2 b + b2 + 4h 2 = 100 + 128.06 =
b 228.06
+ -
4 - 2h + a)

where
L = inductance in pH
a = wire radius in mm
b = wire length parallel to ground
plane in mm
h = wire height above ground plane
in mm Substituting these figures into the
formula yields:
If the dimensions are in inches, the
numerical coefficients become 0.0117 for
L = 0.0004605(100) flog io
the first term and 0.00508 for the second
term.
Suppose it is desired to find the induc- [
40 ( 200
228 ..0
06 2)1}
tance of awire 100 mm long and 2mm in
Fig. 22 - Factor to be applied to the induc-
tance of coils listed in Table 5, as a function of
radius, suspended 40 mm above aground
coil length. Use curve A for coils marked A, plane. (The inductance is measured be- + 0.0002 ( 128.06 - 100.02 + 25
and curve B for coils marked B. tween the free end and the ground plane, - 80 + 2) = 0.066 µH.

2-13 Chapter 2
 Fig. 25 — Typical construction of an iron-core
inductor. The small air gap prevents magnetic
saturation of the iron and thus maintains the
inductance at high currents.

tance, but makes it practically constant

regardless of the value of the current.
For radio- frequency work, the losses in
iron cores can be reduced to asatisfactory
figure by grinding the iron into apowder
and then mixing it with a "binder" of
insulating material in such away that the
individual iron particles are insulated
Fig. 24 — Inductance of various conductor sizes when arranged as straight members. from each other. By this means cores can
be made that will function satisfactorily
even through the vhf range — that is, at
Another conductor configuration that by inserting the iron core since, other frequencies up to perhaps 100 MHz.
is frequently used for inductors is the things being equal, the inductance will be Because alarge part of the magnetic path
"flat" strip. This configuration has lower proportional to the magnetic flux through is through a nonmagnetic material, the
skin-effect loss at high frequencies than the coil. permeability of the iron is low compared
round wire because it has ahigher surface The permeability of amagnetic material with the values obtained at power-supply
area-to-volume ratio. The inductance of varies with the flux density. At low flux frequencies. The core is usually in the
such astrip can be found from densities (or with an air core) increasing form of a " slug" or cylinder that fits
the current through the coil will cause a inside the insulating form on which the
L = 0.00508b[2.303 log107 % -2b
=
1. h proportionate increase in flux, but at very coil is wound. Despite the fact that with
high flux densities, increasing the current this construction the major portion of the
may cause no appreciable change in the magnetic path for the flux is in air, the
+ 0.5 + 0.2235 w--- -L
/
flux. When this is so, the iron is said to be slug is quite effective in increasing the coil
where saturated. Saturation causes a rapid inductance. By pushing the slug in and out
L = inductance in microhenrys decrease in permeability, because it of the coil, the inductance can be varied
b = length in inches decreases the ratio of flux lines to those over aconsiderable range.
w = width in inches obtainable with the same current and an
air core. Obviously, the inductance of an Eddy Currents and Hysteresis
h = thickness in inches
iron-core inductor is highly dependent When alternating current flows through
Iron-Core Coils: Permeability upon the current flowing in the coil. In an acoil wound on an iron core an emf will
Suppose that the coil in Fig. 25 is air-core coil, the inductance is indepen- be induced, as previously explained, and
wound on an iron core having a dent of current because air does not satu- since iron is a conductor a current will
cross-sectional area of 2 square inches. rate. flow in the core. Such çurrents (called
When acertain current is sent through the Iron core coils such as the one sketched eddy currents) represent awaste of power
coil it is found that there are 80,000 lines in Fig. 25 are used chiefly in power-supply because they flow through the resistance
of force in the core. Since the area is two equipment. They usually have direct of the iron and thus cause heating.
square inches, the flux density is 40,000 current flowing through the winding, and Eddy-current losses can be reduced by
lines per square inch. Now suppose that the variation in inductance with current is laminating the core; that is, by cutting it
the iron core is removed and the same usually undesirable. It may be overcome into thin strips. These strips or laminations
current is maintained in the coil, and that by keeping the flux density below the must be insulated from each other by
the flux density without the iron core is saturation point of the iron. This is done painting them with some insulating
found to be 50 lines per square inch. The by opening the core so that there is asmall material such as varnish or shellac.
ratio of the flux density with the given "air gap," as indicated by the dashed There is also another type of energy
core material to the flux density (with the lines. The magnetic " resistance" intro- loss: The iron tends to resist any change in
same coil and same current) with an air duced by such a gap is so large — even its magnetic state, so a rapidly-changing
core is called the permeability of the though the gap is only asmall fraction of current such as ac is forced continually to
material. In this case the permeability of an inch — compared with that of the iron supply energy to the iron to overcome this
the iron is 40,000/50 = 800. The induc- that the gap, rather than the iron, controls "inertia." Losses of this sort are called
tance of the coil is increased 800 times the flux density. This reduces the induc- hysteresis losses.

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-14

 Fig. 28 — Illustrating the time constant of an
RC circuit.

100

% VOLTAGE ACROSS CAPACITOR

Fig. 27 — Mutual inductance. When the switch,
S, is closed current flows through coil no. 1, 80
setting up a magnetic field that induces an CHARGE
Fig. 26 — Inductances in series and parallel. emf in the turns of coil no. 2. 60 —

40

20
Eddy-current and hysteresis losses in the emf of self-induction, but since it
iron increase rapidly as the frequency of appears in the second coil because of o
o RC 2RC 3RC
the alternating current is increased. For current flowing in the first, it is a TIME
this reason, ordinary iron cores can be used "mutual" effect and results from the
only at power and audio frequencies — mutual inductance between the two coils. 100

up to, say, 15,000 hertz. Even so, a very If all the flux set up by one coil cuts all
o
good grade of iron or steel is necessary if the turns of the other coil, the mutual ▪
o
80
DISCHARGE
the core is to perform well at the higher inductance has its maximum possible
audio frequencies. Iron cores of this type value. If only asmall part of the flux set
are completely useless at radio frequencies. up by one coil cuts, the turns of the other 40

the mutual inductance is relatively small.

Inductances in Series and Parallel Two coils having mutual inductance are 20

When two or more inductors are said to be coupled. •

t o
2RC 3RC
connected in series ( Fig. 26) the total The ratio of actual mutual inductance O
• 0 RC

inductance is equal to the sum of the to the maximum possible value that could e TIME

individual inductances, provided the coils theoretically be obtained with two given
are sufficiently separated so that no coil is coils is called the coefficient of coupling Fig. 29 — How the voltage across a capacitor
rises, with time, when charged through a
in the magnetic field of another. between the coils. It is frequently ex-
resistor. The lower curve shows the way in
That is, pressed as a percentage. Coils that have which the voltage decreases across the
nearly the maximum possible (coefficient capacitor terminals on discharging through the
Ltotal = Li + L2 + L3 + L4 + . . .
= 1or 100 percent) mutual inductance are same resistor.
If inductors are connected in parallel said to be closely, or tightly, coupled, but
(Fig. 26) — and the coils are sepa- if the mutual inductance is relatively small
rated sufficiently, the total inductance is the coils are said to be loosely coupled. instantaneously, if there is no resistance in
given by The degree of coupling depends upon the the circuit. However, if the circuit
physical spacing between the coils and contains resistance, as in Fig. 28A, the
1
Ltotal how they are placed with respect to each resistance limits the current flow and an
1 1 other. Maximum coupling exists when appreciable length of time is required for
LI L2 L3 L4 they have acommon axis and are as close the emf between the capacitor plates to
together as possible ( one wound over the build up to the same value as the emf of
and for two inductances in parallel, other). The coupling is least when the coils the source. During this " building- up"
are far apart or are placed so their axes are period, the current gradually decreases
L = Li x L2
at right angles. from its initial value, because the in-
LI + L2
The maximum possible coefficient of creasing emf stored on the capacitor offers
Thus the rules for combining inductances coupling is closely approached only when increasing opposition to the steady emf of
in series and parallel are the same for the two coils are wound on aclosed iron the source.
resistances, if the coils are far enough core. The coefficient with air-core coils The voltage as afunction of time while
apart so that each is unaffected by may run as high as 0.6 or 0.7 if one coil is the capacitor is being charged is given by
another's magnetic field. When this is not wound over the other, but will be much —t
so the formulas given above cannot be less if the two coils are separated.
used. Although unity coupling is suggested by V(t) = E(1 — e )

Fig. 27, such coupling is possible only where

Mutual Inductance when the coils are wound on a closed V(t) = capacitor emf in volts at time t
If two coils are arranged with their axes magnetic core. E = potential of charging source in
on the same line, as shown in Fig. 27, a volts
Time Constant:
current sent through coil 1will cause a t = time in seconds after initiation of
Capacitance and Resistance
magnetic field which " cuts" coil 2. charging current
Consequently, an emf will be induced in Connecting a source of emf to a e = natural logarithmic base 2.718
coil 2 whenever the field strength is capacitor causes the capacitor to become R = circuit resistance in ohms
changing. This induced emf is similar to charged to the full emf practically C = capacitance in farads

2-15 Chapter 2
 resistance and inductance are in series. In
Fig. 30, first consider L to have no
resistance and also assume that R is zero.
Then closing S would tend to send a
current through the circuit. However, the
instantaneous transition from no current
to afinite value, however small, represents
avery rapid change in current, and aback
emf is developed by the self-inductance of
Lthat is practically equal and opposite to
the applied emf. The result is that the
initial current is very small.
The back emf depends upon the change
in current and would cease to offer
opposition if the current did not continue
to increase. With no resistance in the
circuit ( which would lead to an infinitely
large current, by Ohm's Law) the current
would increase forever, always growing
Fg 30 — Time constant of an LR circuit
just fast enough to keep the emf of
self-induction equal to the applied emf.
When resistance is in series, Ohm's Law Fig. 31 — Placing the switch in position B will
This exponential equation can be worked sets a limit to the value that the current "discharge" the inductor as shown in the
on an inexpensive calculator by using the can reach. The back emf generated in L graph. This is a theoretical model only; a
mechanical switch cannot change state instan-
inverse / n function for e. Theoretically, has only to equal the difference between E
taneously. A make-before-break switch could
the charging process is never really fin- and the drop across R, because that generate the current curve shown, but would
ished, but eventually the charging current difference is the voltage actually applied short-circuit the battery.
drops to an unmeasurable value. When to L. This difference becomes smaller as
t = RC, the above equation becomes the current approaches the final Ohm's
Law value. Theoretically, the back emf
V(RC) = E(I — e-1 ) = 0.632E.
never quite disappears and so the current spark or arc forms at the switch contacts
The RC product is called the time cons- never quite reaches the Ohm's Law value, at the instant of opening. If the induc-
tant of the circuit and is the time required but practically the differences become tance is large and the current in the circuit
to charge the capacitor to 63.2% of the unmeasurable after a time. is high, agreat deal of energy is released in
supply voltage. After two time constants The current at any time after the switch avery short time. It is not at all unusual
(t = 2RC) the capacitor will be charged to in Fig. 30 has been closed can be found for the switch contacts to burn or melt
another 63.2% of the remaining 36.8% of from under such circumstances. The spark or
the supply voltage for a total charge of —tg arc at the opened switch can be reduced or
86.5%. After three time constants the E suppressed by connecting a suitable
1(0 — (1 — e )
capacitor reaches 95% of the supply capacitor and resistor in series across the
voltage, and so on, as illustrated in the contacts. Such an RC combination is call-
upper curve of Fig. 29 where ed a " snubber" network.
If a charged capacitor is discharged 1(t) = current in amperes at time t If the excitation is removed without
through a resistor, as indicated in Fig. E = power supply potential in volts breaking the circuit, as diagrammed in
28B, the same time constant applies. If t = time in seconds after initiation of Fig. 31, the current will decay according
there were no resistance, the capacitor current to the formula
would discharge instantly when S was e = natural logarithmic base ez 2.718 —tR
closed. However, since R limits the R = circuit resistance in ohms
current flow the capacitor voltage cannot L = inductance in henrys 1
( = —
E [
R
1 — (1 — e )]
instantly go to zero, but it will decrease The time required for the current to build
just as rapidly as the capacitor can rid up to 63.2% of the maximum value is cal- where t = time in seconds after removal
itself of its charge through R. When the led the time constant and is equal to L/R. of emf. After one time constant the cur-
capacitor is discharging through a resis- After each time interval equal to this con- rent will lose 63.2% of its steady-state
tance, the time constant (calculated in stant the circuit conducts an additional value (decay to 36.8% of the steady-state
the same way as above) is the time, in 63.2% of the remaining current. This value). The graph in Fig. 31 shows the
seconds, that it takes for the capacitor to behavior is graphed in Fig. 30. current decay waveform to be identical to
lose 63% of its voltage; that is, for the An inductor cannot be " discharged" in the voltage discharge waveform of a
voltage to drop to 37% of its initial value. the simple circuit of Fig. 30 because the capacitor. However, one should be
The voltage as afunction of time while the magnetic field disappears as soon as cur- careful about applying the terms
capacitor is being discharged is given by rent flow ceases. Opening Sdoes not leave "charge" and "discharge" to an induc-
— the inductor " charged." The energy tive circuit. These terms refer to energy
stored in the magnetic field instantly storage in an electric field. An inductor
V(,
) = E[1 — ( 1 — e RC )]
returns to the circuit when S is opened. stores energy in amagnetic field.
The rapid disappearance of the field Time constants play an important part
causes avery large voltage to be induced in numerous devices, such as electronic
where in the coil — ordinarily many times larger keys, timing and control circuits, and
t = time in seconds after initiation of than the voltage applied, because the shaping of keying characteristics of
discharge. induced voltage is proportional to the vacuum tubes. The time constants of cir-
speed with which the field changes. The cuits are also important in such applica-
Inductance and Resistance
common result of opening the switch in a tions as automatic gain control and noise
A comparable situation exists when circuit such as the one shown is that a

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-16

Alternating Currents

In picturing current flow it is natural to

think of a single, constant force causing
the electrons to move. When this is so, the
electrons always move in the same direc-
tion through apath or circuit made up of
conductors connected together in a con-
tinuous chain. Such a current is called a
direct current, abbreviated dc. It is the
type of current furnished by batteries and
by certain types of generators.
It is also possible to have an emf that
periodically reverses. With this kind of
emf the current flows first in one direction
through the circuit and then in the other.
Such an emf is called an alternating emf,
and the current is called an alternating
current ( abbreviated ac). The reversals
(alternations) may occur at any rate from
afew per second up to several billion per
second. Two reversals make a cycle; in
one cycle the force acts first in one direc-
tion, then in the other, and then returns to
Fig. 33 — A complex waveform. A fundamental
the first direction to begin the next cycle. (top) and second harmonic (center) added
The number of cycles in one second is together, point by point at each instant, result
called the frequency of the alternating in the waveform shown at the bottom. When
the two components have the same polarity at
current. The inverse of frequency, or the a selected instant, the resultant is the simple
time duration of one cycle is the period of sum of the two. When they have opposite
the current. Fig. 32 — Three types of current flow. polarities, the resultant is the difference;
The difference between direct current A— direct current; B— intermittent direct cur- if the negative-polarity component is larger, the
rent; C— alternating current. resultant is negative at that instant.
and alternating current is shown in Fig.
32. In these graphs the horizontal axis
measures time, increasing toward the right
away from the vertical axis. The vertical In Fig. 32 the current starts at zero, in- higher frequencies are called harmonics.
axis represents the amplitude or strength creases in amplitude as time goes on until Fig. 33 shows how afundamental and a
of the current, increasing in either the up it reaches the amplitude AI while flowing second harmonic (twice the fundamental)
or down direction away from the horizon- in the + direction, then decreases until it might add to form acomplex wave. Sim-
tal axis. If the graph is above the horizon- drops to zero amplitude once more. At ply by changing the relative amplitudes of
tal axis the current is flowing in one direc- that time ( X) the direction of the current the two waves, as well as the times at
tion through the circuit (indicated by the flow reverses; this is indicated by the fact which they pass through zero amplitude,
+ sign) and if it is below the horizontal that the next part of the graph is below the as infinite number of waveshapes can be
axis the current is flowing in the reverse axis. As time goes on the amplitude in- constructed from just afundamental and
direction through the circuit (indicated by creases, with the current now flowing in second harmonic. More complex wave-
the — sign). Fig. 32A shows that, if we the — direction, until it reaches amplitude forms can be constructed if more har-
close the circuit — that is, make the path A2. Then the amplitude decreases until monics are used.
for the current complete — at the time in- finally it drops to zero ( Y) and the direc- When two or more sinusoidal or com-
dicated by X, the current instantly takes tion reverses once more. This is an alter- plex signals that are not necessarily har-
the amplitude indicated by the height A. nating current. monically related are applied to a com-
After that, the current continues at the mon load resistor, the resultant waveform
Waveforms is the sum of the instantaneous voltages.
same amplitude as time goes on. This is an
ordinary direct current. The type of alternating current shown If the two signals have significantly dif-
If Fig. 32B, the current starts flowing in Fig. 32C is known as asine wave. An ferent frequencies and amplitudes, they
with the amplitude A at time X, continues electrodynamic machine called an alter- are easily distinguishable as components
at that amplitude until time Yand then in- nator generates this waveshape because of a composite wave. The illustration in
stantly ceases. After an interval YZ the the current induced in the stator winding Fig. 34 is an example of this phenomenon.
current again begins to flow and the same is proportional to the sine of the angle the Two signals having equal amplitudes and
sort of start-and-stop performance is winding makes with the magnetic flux nearly equal frequencies combine to pro-
repeated. This is an intermittent direct lines produced by the rotating field. It is duce acomposite wave that is not so sim-
current. We could get it by alternately also possible to generate asine wave elec- ply analyzed. Shown in Fig. 35 are two
closing and opening aswitch in the circuit. tronically. The variations in many ac signals having afrequency relationship of
It is adirect current because the direction waves are not so smooth, nor is one half- 1.5:1. When the positive peaks coincide,
of current flow does not change; the cycle necessarily just like the preceding the resultant amplitude is twice that of
graph is always on the + side of the one in shape. However, these complex either tone. Similarly, when the maximum
horizontal axis. The intermittent direct waves can be shown to be the sum of two negative excursion of one signal cor-
current illustrated has an ac component, or more sine waves of frequencies that are responds with the maximum positive ex-
however, which can be isolated by an elec- exact integral (whole-number) multiples cursion of the other, the resultant
trical circuit called a filter. Filtering is of some lower frequency. The lowest fre- amplitude is the algebraic sum, or zero.
discussed in greater detail in later sections. quency is called the fundamental, and the The negative peaks never coincide;

2-17 Chapter 2
 Example: The wavelength correspon-
ding to a frequency of 3650 kilohertz is
300,000
= 3650 = 82.2 meters

Phase
The term phase essentially means
"time," or the time interval between the
instant when one thing occurs and the in-
Fig. 35 — The graphic addition of equal stant when a second related thing takes
amplitude signals fairly close in frequency il- place. The later event is said to lag the
lustrates the phenomenon of beats. The beat earlier, while the one that occurs first is
note
said to lead. In ac circuits the current
(2 F — F = — 1 F)
amplitude changes continuously, so the
2 2
concept of phase or time becomes
is visible in the resultant waveform.
important. Phase can be measured in the
ordinary time units, such as the second,
but there is a more convenient method:
Since each ac cycle occupies exactly the
frequency
same amount of time as every other cycle
Classification Abbrev.
10 to 30 kHz
of the same frequency, we can use the
Very-low frequencies sil
10 to 300 kH7 Low frequencies If cycle itself as the time unit. Using the
100 to 3000 kHz Medium frequencies nif cycle as the time unit makes the specifica-
Ito 30 MHz High frequencies hf tion or measurement of phase indepen-
30 to 300 MHz very-high frequencies % hf
300 to 3000 MHz
dent of the frequency of the current, so
Ultrahigh frequencies uhf
3to 30 GHz. Superhigh frequencies shf long as only one frequency is under con-
30 to 300 GH, Extremely-high freq. eh f sideration at a time. When two or more
frequencies are to be considered, as in the
Wavelength
Fig. 34 — Two tones of dissimilar frequency case where harmonics are present, the
and amplitude (A) are easily recognizable in Radio waves travel at the same speed as phase measurements are made with re-
the composite waveform (B). light — 300,000,000 meters or about spect to the lowest, or fundamental, fre-
186,000 miles per second in space. They quency.
can be set up by aradio-frequency current The time interval or "phase difference"
flowing in a circuit, because the rapidly under consideration usually will be less
therefore this composite waveform is not changing current sets up a magnetic field than one cycle. Phase difference could be
symmetrical about the zero axis. Notice that changes in the same way, and the measured in decimal parts of acycle, but
the periodic variation in the amplitude or varying magnetic field in turn sets up a it is more convenient to divide the cycle
envelope of the composite waveform. varying electric field. And whenever this into 360 parts or degrees. A phase degree
This variation has a frequency equal to happens, the two fields radiate at the is therefore 1/360 of acycle. The reason
the difference or beat between the two speed of light. for this choice is that with sine-wave
tones. Suppose an rf current has a frequency alternating current the value of the
of 3,000,000 cycles per second. The field current at any instant is proportional to
FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
will go through complete reversals (one the sine of the angle that corresponds to
Frequencies ranging from about 15 to cycle) in 1/3,000,000 second. In that same the number of degrees — that is, length of
15,000 cycles per second (cps, hertz or Hz) period of time the fields — that is, the time — from the instant the cycle began.
are called audio frequencies, because the wave — will move 300,000,000/3,000,000 There is no actual "angle" associated
vibrations of air particles that our ears meters, or 100 meters. By the time the with an alternating current. Fig. 36 should
recognize as sounds occur at a similar wave has moved that distance the next cy- help make this method of measurement
rate. Audio frequencies (abbreviated a)) cle has begun and anew wave has started clear.
are used to actuate loudspeakers and thus out. The first wave, in other words, covers
create sound waves. adistance of 100 meters before the begin- Measuring Phase
Frequencies above about 15,000 cps are ning of the next, and so on. This distance The phase difference between two cur-
called radio frequencies ( r)) because they is the wavelength. rents of the same frequency is the time or
are useful in radio transmission. Frequen- The longer the time of one cycle — that
cies all the way up to and beyond it, the lower the frequency — the greater
100,000,000,000 cps have been used for the distance occupied by each wave and
radio purposes. At radio frequencies it hence the longer the wavelength. The rela-
becomes convenient to use a unit larger tionship between wavelength and frequen-
than the cycle. Three such units are the cy is shown by the formula
kilohertz, which is equal to 1000 cycles (or
Hz) and is abbreviated kHz, the 300,000
A —
megahertz, which is equal to 1,000,000
hertz or 1000 kilohertz, and is abbreviated where
MHz, and the gigahertz, which is equal to A = wavelength in meters
1,000,000,000 hertz or 1000 MHz and is f frequency in kilohertz
abbreviated GHz. or
Various radio frequencies are divided 300
A —
into classifications. These classifications,
listed below, constitute the frequency where
Fig. 36 — An ac cycle is divided off into 360
spectrum as far as it extends for radio pur- = wavelength in meters degrees that are used as a measure of time or
poses at thc present time. f = frequency in megahertz phase.

Electrlcal Laws and Circuits 2-18

 total or resultant current (or voltage) also
is asine wave, because adding any number
of sine waves of the same frequency
always gives asine wave also of the same
frequency.

Phase in Resistive Circuits

When an alternating voltage is applied
to aresistance, the current flows exactly in
Fig. 37 — When two waves of the same fre- step with the voltage. In other words, the
quency start their cycles at slightly different
voltage and current are in phase. This is
times, the time difference or phase difference
is measured in degrees. In this drawing wave B true at any frequency if the resistance is
starts 45 degrees (one-eighth cycle) later than "pure" — that is, is free from the reactive
wave A, and so lags 45 degrees behind A. effects discussed in the next section.
Practically, it is often difficult to obtain a
purely resistive circuit at radio frequencies,
because the reactive effects become more
angle difference between corresponding pronounced as the frequency is increased.
parts of cycles of the two currents. This is In a purely resistive circuit, or for
purely resistive parts of circuits, Ohm's Fig. 38 — Two important special cases of
shown in Fig. 37. The current labeled A
phase difference. In the upper drawing, the
leads the one marked B by 45 degrees, Law is just as valid for ac of any frequency phase difference between A and B is 90
since A's cycles begin 45 degrees earlier in as it is for dc. degrees; in the lower drawing the phase dif-
time. It is equally correct to say that B lags ference is 180 degrees.
Reactance: Alternating Current in
A by 45 degrees.
Capacitance
Two important special cases are shown
in Fig. 38. In the upper drawing B lags 90 In Fig. 39 asine-wave ac voltage having
degrees behind A; that is, its cycle begins a maximum value of 100 is applied to a In the fourth interval, CB, the voltage
just one-quarter cycle later than that of A. capacitor. In the period OA, the applied increases only 8volts; the charge added is
When one wave is passing through zero, voltage increases from 0to 38; at the end smaller than in any preceding interval and
the other is just at its maximum point. of this period the capacitor is charged to therefore the current also is smaller.
In the lower drawing A and B are 180 that voltage. In interval AB the voltage By dividing the first quarter cycle into a
degrees out of phase. In this case it does increases to 71; that is, 33 volts additional. very large number of intervals, it could be
not matter which one is considered to lead In this interval a smaller quantity of shown that the current charging the
or lag. B is always positive while A is charge has been added than in OA, capacitor has the shape of a sine wave,
negative, and vice versa. The two waves because the voltage rise during interval just as the applied voltage does. The
are thus completely out of phase. AB is smaller. Consequently the average current is largest at the beginning of the
The waves shown in Figs. 38 and 39 current during AB is smaller than during cycle and becomes zero at the maximum
could represent current, voltage, or both. OA. In the third interval, BC, the voltage value of the voltage, so there is a phase
A and B might be two currents in separate rises from 71 to 92, an increase of 21 volts. difference of 90 degrees between the
circuits, or A might represent voltage and This is less than the voltage increase voltage and current. During the first
B current in the same circuit. If A and B during AB, so the quantity of electricity quarter cycle the current is flowing in the
represent two currents in the same circuit added is less; in other words, the average normal direction through the circuit, since
(or two voltages in the same circuit) the current during interval BC is still smaller. the capacitor is being charged. Hence the

Fig. 39 — Voltage and current phase relationships when an alternating Fig. 40 — Phase relationships between voltage and current when an
voltage is applied to a capacitor. alternating voltage Is applied to an inductance.

2-19 Chapter 2
 ' "'","1
11IIRIF

current is positive, as indicated by the 1 1 series with the coil.

dashed line in Fig. 39. X =
2nfC 6.28 x 7.15 x 0.00047
In the second quarter cycle — that is, in Ohm's Law for Reactance
the time from D to H, the voltage applied = 47.4 ohms
Ohm's Law for an ac circuit containing
to the capacitor decreases. During this only reactance is
time the capacitor loses its charge. Inductive Reactance
Applying the same reasoning, it is plain When an alternating voltage is applied E E
that the current is small in interval DE to a pure inductance (one with no I = E = IX X =
and continues to increase during each resistance — all practical inductors have
succeeding interval. However, the current resistance) the current is again 90 degrees where
is flowing against the applied voltage out of phase with the applied voltage. E = emf in volts
because the capacitor is discharging into However, in this case the current lags 90 I = current in amperes
the circuit. The current flows in the degrees behind the voltage — the opposite X = reactance in ohms
negative direction during this quarter of the capacitor current-voltage relation-
cycle. ship. The reactance in the circuit may, of
The third and fourth quarter cycles The primary cause for this is the back course, be either inductive or capacitive.
repeat the events of the first and second, em! generated in the inductance, and since Example: If a current of 2 amperes is
respectively, with this difference — the the amplitude of the back emf is flowing through the capacitor of the
polarity of the applied voltage has proportional to the rate at which the earlier example ( reactance = 47.4 ohms) at
reversed, and the current changes to current changes, and this in turn is 7150 kHz, the voltage drop across the
correspond. In other words, an alter- proportional to the frequency, the ampli- capacitor is
nating current flows in the circuit because tude of the current is inversely propor-
of the alternate charging and discharging tional to the applied frequency. Also, E = IX = 2 x 47.4 = 94.8 volts
of the capacitance. As shown in Fig. 39, since the back emf is proportional to
the current starts its cycle 90 degrees inductance for a given rate of current If 420 volts at 120 hertz is applied to the
before the voltage, so the current in a change, the current flow is inversely 8-henry inductor of the earlier example,
capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90 proportional to inductance for a given the current through the coil will be
degrees. applied voltage and frequency. (Another
E 420
way of saying this is that just enough I = .0697 A
Capacitive Reactance X 6029
current flows to generate an induced emf
The quantity of electric charge that can that equals and opposes the applied
be placed on acapacitor is proportional to voltage.) = 69.7 mA
the applied emf and the capacitance. This The combined effect of inductance and
Reactance Chart
amount of charge moves back and forth in frequency is called inductive reactance,
the circuit once each cycle, and so the rate The accompanying chart, Fig. 41,
also expressed in ohms, and the formula
of movement of charge — that is, the cur- shows the reactance of capacitances from
for it is
rent — is proportional to voltage, capa-
1 pF to 100 e iF, and the reactance of
XL = 2nfL inductances from 0.1 el to 10 henrys, for
citance and frequency. If the effects of
frequencies between 100 hertz and 100
capacitance and frequency are lumped
where megahertz. The approximate value of
together, they form aquantity that plays a
XL = inductive reactance in ohms reactance can be read from the chart or,
part similar to that of resistance in Ohm's
f = frequency in hertz where more exact values are needed, the
Law. This quantity is called reactance,
L = inductance in henrys chart will serve as acheck on the order of
and the unit for it is the ohm, just as in the
n = 3.14 magnitude of reactances calculated from
case of resistance. The formula for it is
the formulas given above, and thus avoid
Example: The reactance of acoil having
"decimal-point errors."
an inductance of 8henrys, at afrequency
1
of 120 hertz, is
= 2nfC Reactances in Series and Parallel
XL = 2nfL = 6.28 x 120 X 8 When reactances of the same kind are
where = 6029 ohms connected in series or parallel the resultant
Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms reactance is that of the resultant inductance
f = frequency in hertz In radio- frequency circuits the in- or capacitance. This leads to the same rules
C = capacitance in farads ductance values usually are small and the that are used when determining the
n = 3.14 frequencies are large. If the inductance is resultant resistance when resistors are
expressed in millihenrys and the frequency combined. That is, for series reactances of
in kilohertz, the conversion factors for the the same kind the resultant reactance is
two units cancel, and the formula for
Although the unit of reactance is the reactance may be used without first X = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4
ohm, there is no power dissipation in converting to fundamental units. Similarly,
reactance. The energy stored in the no conversion is necessary if the in- and for reactances of the same kind in
capacitor in one quarter of the cycle is ductance is in microhenrys and the parallel the resultant is
simply returned to the circuit in the next. frequency is in megahertz.
The fundamental units (cycles per X =
Example: The reactance of a 15- 1
second, farads) are too cumbersome for microhenry coil at afrequency of 14 MHz
practical use in radio circuits. However, if
1 1 1
is
the capacitance is in microfarads ( mF) 1ZT + 11T + 117— + • '
and the frequency is in megahertz (MHz), XL = 2nfL = 6.28 X 14 x 15 or for two in parallel,
the reactance will come out in ohms in the = 1319 ohms
x = XI x X2
formula. The resistance of the wire of which the
XI + X2
Example: The reactance of acapacitor coil is wound has no effect on the
of 470 pF (0.00047 ALF) at afrequency of reactance, but simply acts as though it The situation is different when reac-
7150 kHz (7.15 MHz) is were a separate resistor connected in tances of opposite kinds are combined.

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-20

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Fig. 41— Inductive and capacitive reactance vs. frequency. Heavy lines represent multiples of 10, intermediate light lines multiples of five: e.g., the
light line between 10 pH and 100 pH represents 50 pH; the light line between 0.1 pF and 1uF represents 0.5 uF, etc. Intermediate values can be
estimated with the help of the interpolation scale. Reactances outside the range of the chart may be found by applying appropriate factors to values
within the chart range. For example, the reactance of 10 henrys at 60 Hz can be found by taking the reactance to 10 henrys at 600 Hz and dividing by
10 for the 10-times decrease in frequency.

Since the current in a capacitance leads the series circuit of Fig. 42A the voltage and in the parallel case (Fig. 42B),
the applied voltage by 90 degrees and the EL across the inductive reactance XL is of
current in an inductance lags the applied opposite polarity to the voltage Ec across —XLXc
voltage by 90 degrees, the voltages at the the capacitive reactance X. Thus if we X — v v

terminals of opposite types of reactance call XL " positive" and Xc " negative" (a
are 180 degrees out of phase in a series common convention) the applied voltage Note that in the series circuit the total
circuit ( in which the current has to be the EAC is EL — Ec .In the parallel circuit at reactance is negative if Xc is larger than
same through all elements), and the B the total current, I, is equal to I
L — l c, XL;this indicates that the total reactance
currents in reactances of opposite types since the currents are 180 degrees out of is capacitive in such acase. The resultant
are 180 degrees out of phase in aparallel phase. reactance in a series circuit is always
circuit ( in which the same voltage is In the series case, therefore, the resul- smaller than the larger of the two in-
applied to all elements). The 180-degree tant reactance of XL and Xc is dividual reactances.
phase relationship means that the currents In the parallel circuit, the resultant
or voltages are of opposite polarity, so in X = XL — Xc reactance is negative (i.e., capacitive) if

2-21 Chapter 2
 with (generally) different voltages appear-
ing across the resistance and reactance. In
the parallel circuit the same voltage is ap-
plied to both elements, but different cur-
rents flow in the two branches.
Since in a resistance the current is in
phase with the applied voltage while in a
reactance it is 90 degrees out of phase with
the voltage, the phase relationship be-
tween current and voltage in the circuit as
a whole may be anything between zero
Fig. 42 — Series and parallel circuits contain- and 90 degrees, depending on the relative Fig. 43 — Series and parallel circuits contain-
ing opposite kinds of reactance. amounts of resistance and reactance. ing resistance and reactance.

Series Circuits
When resistance and reactance are in
series, the impedance of the circuit is
XL is larger than Xc ,and positive (induc- parallel elements, depending on which
tive) if XL is smaller than Xc ,but in every Z= -s/ R2 + X2
happens to be most convenient in the
case is always larger than the smaller of where particular case. Typical applications are
the two individual reactances. Z -= impedance in ohms considered later in connection with tuned
In the special case where XL = Xc ,the R -= resistance in ohms circuits and transmission lines.
total reactance is zero in the series circuit X = reactance in •ohms A series RX circuit can be converted in-
and infinitely large in the parallel circuit. The reactance may be either capacitive or to its parallel equivalent by means of the
inductive. If there are two or more formula
Reactive Power
reactances in the circuit they may be
In Fig. 42A the voltage drop across the combined into a resultant by the rules R = Rs
' + X52 and
inductor is larger than the voltage applied previously given, before substitution into Rs
to the circuit. This might seem to be an the formula above; similarly for resis-
impossible condition, but it is not; the tances. x = Rs
' + X s'
explanation is that while energy is being The " square root of the sum of the p

stored in the inductor's magnetic field, squares" rule for finding impedance in a
energy is being returned to the circuit series circuit arises from the fact that the where the subscripts p and srepresent the
from the capacitor's electric field, and vice voltage drops across the resistance and parallel- and series-equivalent values,
versa. This stored energy is responsible for reactance are 90 degrees out of phase, and respectively. If the parallel values are
the fact that the voltages across reactances so combine by the same rule that applies known, the equivalent series circuit can be
in series can be larger than the voltage in finding the hypotenuse of a right- found from
applied to them. angled triangle when the base and altitude
In a resistance the flow of current are known. RP and
11 5 =
causes heating and apower loss equal to
Parallel Circuits 1
I2R. The power in areactance is equal to

I2X, but is not a "loss"; it is simply With resistance and reactance in

power that is transferred back and forth parallel, as in Fig. 43B, the impedance is XS =
between the field and the circuit but not
RX
used up in heating anything. To dis- Z —
•,/ R2-1- X2
tinguish this " nondissipated" power from Circuits containing reactance and
the power which is actually consumed, the where the symbols have the same meaning resistance in any series or parallel com-
unit of reactive power is called the as for series circuits. bination are called complex circuits. The
volt-ampere-reactive, or var, instead of the Just as in the case of series circuits, a term " complex" means that the
watt. Reactive power is sometimes called number of reactances in parallel should be numerical resistance and reactance values
"wattless" power. combined to find the resultant reactance can't be combined arithmetically because
before substitution into the formula above; the voltages (in series circuits) and cur-
Impedance
similarly for a number of resistances in rents ( in parallel circuits) are not in phase.
When acircuit contains both resistance parallel. Complex notation for aseries RX circuit
and reactance the combined effect of the has the form R ± jX, where j =
two is called impedance, symbolized by the Equivalent Series and Parallel Circuits The reactive portion of the impedance is
letter Z. (Impedance is thus amore gene- The two circuits shown in Fig. 43 are called the imaginary component, because
ral term than either resistance or reac- equivalent if the same current flows when the square root of anegative number can
tance, and is frequently used even for a given voltage of the same frequency is be represented only by a mathematical
circuits that have only resistance or applied, and if the phase angle between operator. This is so because squaring a
reactance although usually with aqualifi- voltage and current is the same in both positive or negative number always pro-
cation — such as " resistive impedance" to cases. It is in fact possible to " transform" duces apositive result.
indicate that the circuit has only resis- any given series circuit into an equivalent If the reactance is inductive, .the sign of
tance, for example.) parallel circuit, and vice versa. the joperator is positive; a negative sign
The reactance and resistance compris- Transformations of this type often lead indicates a capacitive reactance. The
ing an impedance may be connected either to simplification in the solution of resistive part of the impedance is called
in series or parallel, as shown in Fig. 43. complicated circuits. However, from the the real component.
In these circuits the reactance is shown as standpoint of practical work the useful- The magnitudé of the impedance (in
abox to indicate that it may be ejther in- ness of such transformations lies in the series-equivalent form) is represented by
ductive or capacitive. In the series circuit fact that the impedance of acircuit may be z =‘,/k2 4. X2. Magnitude is simply a
the current is the same in both elements, modified by the addition of either series or numerical quantity expressing the ratio of

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-22

 — Mr:71Kr

An equivalent definition of power fac-

voltage to current at the terminals of the
complex circuit — it provides no informa- tor is
tion about the type or amount of reac-
tance present.
If parallel circuits are to be expressed in
or cos O. Since power factor is always
R ± jX form, the R and X components
rendered as a positive number, the value
must first be transformed into their series-
equivalent values. A useful complex nota- must be followed by the words " leading"
tion for parallel circuits expresses thc or " lagging" to identify the phase of the
components in terms of conductance and voltage with respect to the current. Speci-
susceptance, the resultant being admit- fying the numerical power factor is not
tance. These concepts are treated in detail always sufficient. For example, many dc-
Fig. 44 — Circuit used as an example for im-
in the section on radio frequency circuits. to-ac power inverters can safely operate
pedance calculations.
For a thorough explanation or complex loads having a large net reactance of one
circuits with practical examples, see Hall, sign but only asmall reactance of the op-
"A Simple Approach to Complex Cir- posite sign.
cuits," July 1977 QST. Reactance and Complex Waves
Another way to represent acomplex im- If the applied voltage is 250, then
pedance is to indicate the magnitude and It was pointed out earlier in this chapter
the phase angle in the polar form ZLA. E 250 that a complex wave (a " nonsinusoidal"
I = Z = 125 = 2amperes wave) can be resolved into afundamental
Given any two of the three quantities R, X
frequency and a series of harmonic
and Z, the phase angle can be determined
This current flows through both the frequencies. When such acomplex voltage
by
resistance and reactance, so the voltage wave is applied to a circuit containing
X drops are reactance, the current through the circuit
= arctan — or
will not have the same wave shape as the
ER = IR = 2 x 75 = 150 volts applied voltage. This is because the
X
8 = arcsin 7 or EXL = IX L = 2 x 100 = 200 volts reactance of an inductor and capacitor
depend upon the applied frequency. For
8 = arccos The simple arithmetical sum of these two the second-harmonic component of a
drops, 350 volts, is greater than the complex wave, the reactance of the
Inductive reactances are assigned positive applied voltage because the two voltages inductor is twice and the reactance of the
X values which lead to positive values of are 90 degrees out of phase. Their actual capacitor one-half their respective values
8. Conversely, capacitive reactance causes resultant, when phase is taken into at the fundamental frequency; for the
eto be negative. Since the current in an in- account, is third harmonic the inductor reactance is
ductor lags the applied voltage ( voltage three times and the capacitor reactance
leads the current), defining 61 as the angle (l50) 2-14200) 2 = 250 volts one-third, and so on. Thus the circuit
by which the voltage at the terminals of impedance is different for each harmonic
the complex impedance leads the current component.
Power Factor
makes for consistency — anegative value Just what happens to the current wave
of 8 indicates the angle by which the In the circuit of Fig. 44 an applied emf shape depends upon the values of
voltage lags the current. Note that the arc of 250 volts results in a current of 2 resistance and reactance involved and
cosine formula will not produce asign for amperes, giving an apparent power of 250 how the circuit is arranged. In a simple
the phase angle unless the sign of the reac- X 2 = 500 watts. However, only the circuit with resistance and inductive
tance is known. resistance actually consumes power. The reactance in series, the amplitudes of the
power in the resistance is harmonic currents will be reduced because
the inductive reactance increases in pro-
Ohm's Law for Impedance P = IR = ( 2) 2 x 75 = 300 watts portion to frequency. When capacitance
and resistance are in series, the harmonic
Ohm's Law can be applied to circuits
The ratio of the power consumed to the current is likely to be accentuated because
containing impedance just as readily as to
apparent power is called the power factor the capacitive reactance becomes lower as
circuits having resistance or reactance
of the circuit, and in this example the the frequency is raised. When both
only. The formulas are
power factor would be 300/500 = 0.6. inductive and capacitive reactance are
E Power factor is frequently expressed as a present the shape of the current wave can
I be altered in avariety of ways, depending
percentage; in this case, it would be 60
percent. upon the circuit and the "constants," or
E =.1Z the relative values of L, C and R, selected.
"Real" or dissipated power is measured
This property of nonuniform behavior
E in watts; apparent power, to distinguish it
from real power, is measured in volt- with respect to fundamental and har-
monics is an extremely useful one. It is the
where E = emf in volts amperes. It is simply the product of volts
and amperes and has no direct relation- basis of " filtering," or the suppression of
I = current in amperes undesired frequencies in favor of asingle
Z = impedance in ohms ship to the power actually used up or dis-
sipated unless the power factor of the cir- desired frequency or group of such
cuit is known. The power factor of apure- frequencies.
Fig. 44 shows asimple circuit consisting
of aresistance of 75 ohms and areactance ly resistive circuit is 100 percent or 1,
while the power factor of apure reactance AC Waveform Measurements
of 100 ohms in series. From the formula
previously given, the impedance is is zero. In this illustration, the reactive The time dependence of alternating cur-
power is rent raises questions about defining and
Z = .„/ R2+x L2 measuring values of voltage, current and
VAR = 12X = (2) 2 x 100 power. Because these parameters change
= ( 75) 2A-( 10(
J) 2 = 125 = 400 volt-amperes from one instant to the next, one might

'2'23 Chapter 2
wonder, for example, which point on the tant in calculating the power in a
cycle characterizes the voltage or current modulated signal, such as that from an
for the entire cycle. Viewing asingle-tone amateur ssb voice transmitter.
(that is, a pure sine wave) signal on an All that has been said about voltage
oscilloscope, the easiest dimension to measurements applies also to current
measure is the total vertical displacement, (provided the load is resistive) because the
or peak-to-peak voltage. This value, ab- waveshapes are identical. However, the
breviated pk-pk, is important in terms rms, average and peak have dif-
evaluating the signal- handling capability ferent meanings when they refer to ac
of a linear processing device such as an power. The reason is that while voltage
electronic amplifier or ferromagnetic and current are sinusoidal functions of
transformer. If the steepest part of the time, power is the product of voltage and
waveform has a potential of zero, the current, and this product is asine squared
signal has equal positive and negative ex- function. The mathematical operations
cursions and no dc bias. The oscilloscope that define rms, average and so on will
measurement of the maximum positive or naturally yield different results when ap-
negative excursion, or maximum instan- plied to this new function. The relation-
taneous potential, is called the peak ( pk) ships between ac voltage, current and
Fig. 45 — Ac voltage and current measure-
voltage, and in asymmetrical waveform it ments. The sine- wave parameters are il- power follow:
has half the value of the peak-to-peak lustrated at A, while B shows the peak
amplitude. Insulators, air gaps and envelope voltage for a composite waveform. Rms voltage X rms current = average
capacitor dielectrics must withstand the power # rms power
peak value of an ac voltage. In a well- The average power used to heat aresistor
designed ac- to-dc power supply the rec- is equal to the dc power required to pro-
formulas:
tified dc output voltage will be nearly duce the same heat. Rms power is a
equal to the peak ac voltage. Vayg Vpk x 0.636 = Vrms x 0.899 mathematical curiosity only and has no
When an ac voltage is applied to a physical significance. Many audio
resistor, the resistor will dissipate energy and amplifiers have power ratings in rms
in the form of heat, just as if the voltage watts, but this is a misnomer; the figures
V ayg
were dc. The dc voltage that would cause V k 0.636 = V„ g X 1.572. specified are really average watts.
identical heating in the ac-excited resistor P—
Peak voltage X peak current = peak
is the root-mean-square ( rms) value of the power = 2 x average power. Unfor-
ac voltage. The rills voltage of any Thus, our 117 Vac outlet provides an tunately, the definition given above for
waveform can be determined with the use average voltage of 105.2. peak power conflicts with the meaning of
of integral calculus, but for a pure sine Part A of Fig. 45 illustrates the four the term when it is used in radio work.
wave the following relationships hold: voltage parameters of a sine wave. The Peak power output of a radio transmitter
most accurate way to determine the rms is the power averaged over the rf cycle
V p k = V rms X fi 2•
•V rms
- X 1.414
voltage of a complex wave is to measure having the greatest amplitude. Modulated
V nk the heat produced by applying the com- signals are not purely sinusoidal because
and Vrms = Vpk x 0.707. plex voltage to a known resistance and they are composites of two or more tones.
measure the dc voltage required to pro- However, the cycle-to-cycle variation is
Unless otherwise specified or obvious duce the same heat. However, some small enough that sine-wave measurement
from context, ac voltage is rendered as an modern electronic voltmeters provide ac- techniques produce accurate results. In
rms value. For example, the household curate rms readings by performing the context of radio signals then, peak
117- Vac outlet provides 117 Vrms , 165.5 mathematical operations on the wave- power means " maximum average"
V pk and 331 V p k_ pk. form. The ratio of peak voltage to rms power. Peak envelope power ( PEP) is the
An electrodynamic instrument such as a voltage of an ac signal is called the crest parameter most often used to express the
meter movement responds to the average factor. From the relationships presented maximum signal- handling capability of a
value of an ac waveform. Again, integral earlier, the crest factor of a sine wave is linear amplifier. To compute the PEP of a
calculus is required for computation of \R. waveform such as that sketched in Fig.
the average value of the general ( complex) The significant dimension of a multi- 45B, multiply the PEV by 0.707 to obtain
wave, but for asinusoidal signal the peak, tone signal is the peak envelope voltage, the rms value, square the result and divide
rms and average signals are related by the shown in part B of Fig. 45. PEV is impor- by the load resistance.

Transformers

Two coils having mutual inductance without direct connection, and in the since no voltage will be induced in the
constitute a transformer. The coil con- process can be readily changed from one secondary if the magnetic field is not
nected to the source of energy is called the voltage level to another. Thus, if adevice changing. If dc is applied to the primary
primary coil, and the other is called the to be operated requires, for example, 7 of atransformer, avoltage will be induced
secondary coil. volts ac and only a 440- volt source is in the secondary only at the instant of
The usefulness of the transformer lies in available, a transformer can be used to closing or opening the primary circuit,
the fact that electrical energy can be change the source voltage to that required. since it is only at these times that the field
transferred from one circuit to another A transformer can he used only with ac. is changing.

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-24

 2800 Although the secondary voltage is higher
= X 117 = 7 x 117
400 than the primary voltage, the secondary
current is lower than the primary current,
= 819 volts and by the same ratio.

Power Relationships; Efficiency

Also, if an emf of 819 volts is applied to
the 2800-turn winding (which then be- A transformer cannot create power; it
comes the primary) the output voltage can only transfer it and change the emf.
from the 400-turn winding will be 117 Hence, the power taken from the secon-
volts. dary cannot exceed that taken by the pri-
Either winding of atransformer can be mary from the source of applied emf.
used as the primary, provided the There is always some power loss in the
winding has enough turns (enough induc- resistance of the coils and in the iron core,
tance) to induce a voltage equal to the so in all practical cases the power taken
applied voltage without requiring an from the source will exceed that taken
excessive current flow. from the secondary. Thus,
Fig. 46 — The transformer. Power is transfer-
red from the primary coil to the secondary by
Effect of Secondary Current Po = n13,
means of the magnetic field. The lower symbol
at left indicates an iron-core transformer, the The current that flows in the primary
right one an air-core transformer. when no current is taken from the
where Po = power output from secondary
secondary is called the magnetizing current
PI= power input to primary
of the transformer. In any properly
n = efficiency factor
designed transformer the primary induc-
The Iron-Core Transformer tance will be so large that the magnetizing The efficiency, n, always is less than I. It
As shown in Fig. 46, the primary and current will be quite small. The power is usually expressed as apercentage; if nis
secondary coils of a transformer may be consumed by the transformer when the 0.65, for instance, the efficiency is 65
wound on a core of magnetic material. secondary is "open" — that is, not deliver- percent.
This increases the inductance of the coils ing power — is only the amount necessary Example: A transformer has an effi-
so that arelatively small number of turns to supply the losses in the iron core and in ciency of 85 percent as its full-load output
may be used to induce a given value of the resistance of the wire with which the of 150 watts. The power input to the pri-
voltage with asmall current. A closed core primary is wound. mary at full secondary load will be
(one having acontinuous magnetic path) When power is taken from the secon-
such as that shown in Fig. 41 also tends to dary winding, the secondary current sets P 150
P , = p — = 176.5 watts
ensure that practically all of the field set up amagnetic field that opposes the field n O. 85
up by the current in the primary coil will set up by the primary current. But if the
cut the turns of the secondary coil. induced voltage in the primary is to equal A transformer is usually designed to
However, the core introduces apower loss the applied voltage, the original field must have the highest efficiency at the power
because of hysteresis and eddy currents, be maintained. Consequently, the primary output for which it is rated. The efficiency
so this type of construction is normally must draw enough additional current to decreases with either lower or higher
practicable only at power and audio fre- set up afield exactly equal and opposite to outputs. On the other hand, the losses in
quencies. The discussion in this section is the field set up by the secondary current. the transformer are relatively small at low
confined to transformers operating at In practical calculations on trans- output but increase as more power is
such frequencies. formers it may be assumed that the entire taken. The amount of power that the
primary current is caused by the secondary transformer can handle is determined by
Voltage and Turns Ratio "load." This is justifiable because the its own losses, because these heat the wire
For agiven varying magnetic field, the magnetizing current should be very small and core. There is a limit to the
voltage induced in acoil in the field will be in comparison with the primary " load" temperature rise that can be tolerated,
proportional to the number of turns in the current at rated power output. because atoo-high temperature either will
coil. If the two coils of atransformer are If the magnetic fields set up by the melt the wire or cause the insulation to
in the same field (which is the case when primary and secondary currents are to be break down. A transformer can be
both are wound on the same closed core) equal, the primary current multiplied by operated at reduced output, even though
it follows that the induced voltages will be the primary turns must equal the secon- the efficiency is low, because the actual
proportional to the number of turns in dary current multiplied by the secondary loss will be low under such conditions.
each coil. In the primary the induced turns. From this it follows that The full-load efficiency of small power
voltage is practically equal to, and transformers such as are used in radio
ns
opposes, the applied voltage, as described receivers and transmitters usually lies
) Is
earlier. Hence, between about 60 and 90 percent,
depending upon the size and design.
where 1p = primary current
ES = _i
n ) Is = secondary current Leakage Reactance
np = number of turns on primary
In apractical transformer not all of the
where E, = secondary voltage n, = number of turns on secondary
magnetic flux is common to both windings,
Ep = primary applied voltage although in well-designed transformers
n, = number of turns on secondary Example: Suppose that the secondary
the amount of flux that "cuts" one coil
= number of turns on primary of the transformer in the previous
and not the other is only asmall percen-
example is delivering a current of 0.2
tage of the total flux. This leakage flux
ampere to a load. Then the primary
The ratio, nsinp is called the secondary- causes an emf of self-induction; conse-
current will be
to-primary turns ratio of the transformer. quently, there are small amounts of leakage
Example: A transformer has aprimary inductance associated with both windings
2800 x 0.2 = 7 x 0.2
of 400 turns and a secondary of 2800 400 of the transformer. Leakagç inductance
turns, and an emf of 117 volts is applied to acts in exactly the same way as an equiva-
the primary. = 1.4 ampere lent amount of ordinary inductance in-

2-25 Chapter 2
 where
Np/N, = required turns ratio, primary
to secondary
4 = primary impedance required
= impedance of load connected
to secondary
Fig. 47 — The equivalent circuit of a transformer includes the effects of leakage inductance and
resistance of both primary and secondary windings. The resistance Fi c is an equivalent resistance
representing the core losses. Since these are comparatively small, their effect may be neglected Example: A vacuum-tube af amplifier
in many approximate calculations.
requires aload of 5000 ohms for optimum
performance, and is to be connected to a
loudspeaker having an impedance of 10
ohms. The turns ratio, primary to
serted in series with the circuit. It has, Example: A transformer has aprimary- secondary, required in the coupling
therefore, a certain reactance, depending to-secondary turns ratio of 0.6 (primary transformer is
upon the amount of leakage inductance has 6/10 as many turns as the secondary)
and the frequency. This reactance is called and aload of 3000 ohms is connected to
leakage reactance. the secondary. The impedance looking _ ZP j0
500 •,n-CTK = 22.4
Current flowing through the leakage into the primary then will be Ns zs 10
reactance causes a voltage drop. This

[
ZP.
voltage drop increases with increasing The primary therefore must have 22.4
current, hence it increases as more power Zp = Z, ; = 3000 x (0.6) 2 times as many turns as the secondary.
is taken from the secondary. Thus, the Impedance matching means, in general,
greater the secondary current, the smaller adjusting the load impedance — by means
= 3000 x 0.36 = 1080 ohms
the secondary terminal voltage becomes. of a transformer or otherwise — to a
The resistances of the transformer wind- desired value. However, there is also
ings also cause voltage drops when cur- By choosing the proper turns ratio, the another meaning. It is possible to show
rent is flowing; although these voltage impedance of a fixed load can be that any source of power will deliver its
drops are not in phase with those caused transformed to any desired value, within maximum possible output when the
by leakage reactance, together they result practical limits. If transformer losses can impedance of the load is equal to the
in a lower secondary voltage under load be neglected, the transformed or "reflected" internal impedance of the source. The
than is indicated by the turns ratio of the impedance has the same phase angle as impedance of the source is said to be
transformer. the actual load impedance; thus, if the "matched" under this condition. The
At power frequencies ( 60 Hz) the load is a pure resistance, the load pre- efficiency is only 50 percent in such acase;
voltage at the secondary, with a reason- sented by the primary to the source of just as much power is used up in the
ably well-designed transformer, should power also will be a pure resistance. source as is delivered to the load. Because
not drop more than about 10 percent from The above relationship may be used in of the poor efficiency, this type of
open-circuit conditions to full load. The practical work even though it is based on impedance matching is limited to cases
drop in voltage may be considerably more an " ideal" transformer. Aside from the where only a small amount of power is
than this in a transformer operating at normal design requirements of reasonably available and heating from power loss in
audio frequencies because the leakage low internal losses and low leakage the source is not important.
reactance increases directly with the fre- reactance, the only requirement is that the
quency. The various transformer losses primary have enough inductance to Transformer Construction
are modeled in Fig. 47. operate with low magnetizing current at Transformers usually are designed so
the voltage applied to the primary. that the magnetic path around the core is
Impedance Ratio The primary impedance of a transfor- as short as possible. A short magnetic
In an ideal transformer — one without mer — as it appears to the source of power path means that the transformer will
losses or leakage reactance — the follow- — is determined wholly by the load con- operate with fewer turns, for a given
ing relationship is true: nected to the secondary and by the turns applied voltage, than if the path were
2 ratio. If the characteristics of the trans- long. A short path also helps to reduce
N former have an appreciable effect on the flux leakage and therefore minimizes
impedance presented to the power source,
Zp =

N, leakage reactance.
the transformer is either poorly designed Two core shapes are in common use, as
where shown in Fig. 48. In the shell type both
or is not suited to the voltage and
Zp =impedance looking into windings are placed on the inner leg, while
frequency at which it is being used. Most
primary terminals from transformers will operate quite well at in the core type the primary and sec-
source of power
voltages from slightly above to well below ondary windings may be placed on
Zs = impedance of load con-
the design figure. separate legs, if desired. This is sometimes
nected to secondary
done when it is necessary to minimize
Np/N, = turns ratio, primary to Impedance Matching
capacitive effects between the primary
secondary
Many devices require aspecific value of and secondary, or when one of the win-
That is, aload of any given impedance load resistance ( or impedance) for op- dings must operate at very high voltage.
connected to the secondary of the timum operation. The impedance of the Core material for small transformers is
transformer will be transformed to a actual load that is to dissipate the power usually silicon steel, called " transformer
different value " looking into" the primary may differ widely from this value, so a iron." The core is built up of laminations,
from the source of power. The impedance transformer is used to change the actual insulated from each other ( by a thin
transformation is proportional to the load into an impedance of the desired coating of shellac, for example) to prevent
square of the primary-to-secondary turns value. This is called impedance matching. the flow of eddy currents. The laminations
ratio. 1- rom the preceding, are interleaved at the rnds to make the

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-26

 core. As a rough indication, windings of
small power transformers frequently have
about six to eight turns per volt on acore
of I-square-inch (645 sq. mm) cross sec-
tion and have a magnetic path 10 or 12
inches (254 or 305 mm) in length. A longer
path or smaller cross section requires
more turns per volt, and vice versa.
LAMINATION SHAPE
In most transformers the coils are
wound in layers, with a thin sheet of
treated-paper insulation between each
layer. Thicker insulation is used between Fig. 50 — An assortment of toroid cores. A fer-
coils and between coils and core. rite rod is placed at the top of the picture for
comparison. The two light-colored, plastic en-
Autotransformers cased toroids at the upper left are tapewound
types ( Hypersil steel) are suitable for audio and
The transformer principle can be dc-to-dc converter transformers. The wound
utilized with only one winding instead of toroid at the right center contains two toroid
SHELL TYPE
cores which have been stacked atop one
two, as shown in Fig. 49; the principles
another to increase the power capability.
just discussed apply equally well. A
one-winding transformer is called an
autotransformer. The current in the com-
mon section (A) of the winding is the

•
difference between the line ( primary) and
the load ( secondary) currents, since these
currents are out of phase. Hence, if the
CORE TYPE line and load currents are nearly equal,
the common section of the winding may
Fig. 48 — Two common types of transformer be wound with comparatively small wire.
construction. Core pieces are interleaved to This will be the case only when the
provide a continuous magnetic path. primary ( line) and secondary ( load)
voltages are not very different. The
autotransformer is used chiefly for boost- Fig. 51 — Breakaway view of a pot-core
--IRON CORE
ing or reducing the power-line voltage by assembly (left) and an assembled pot core
relatively small amounts. Continuously (right).
variable autotransformers are commer-
cially available under a variety of trade
names; " Variac" and " Powerstat" are
typical examples.

Ferromagnetic Transformers and Inductors

The design concepts and general theory

1
LINE
of transformers which is presented earlier
in this chapter apply also to transformers
which are wound on ferromagnetic core
materials ( ferrite and powdered iron). As
is the case with stacked cores made of
laminations in the classic Iand E shapes,
Fig. 52 — A bc-band ferrite rod loop antenna is
the core material has aspecific permeabi- at the top of the picture (J.W. Miller Co.). A
lity factor which determines the inductance blank ferrite rod is seen at the center and a
of the windings versus the number of wire flat bc-band ferrite loop antenna is in the lower
turns used. Both ferrite and powdered- foreground.
iron materials are manufactured with a
wide range of AL; (initial permeability)
LOAD
characteristics. The value chosen by the
designer will depend upon the intended type of core is the self-shielding charac-
Fig. 49 — The autotransformer is based on the operating frequency and the desired band- teristic. Another feature is the compact-
transformer principle, but uses only one width of agiven broadband transformer. ness of a transformer or inductor, which
winding. The line and load currents in the com- is possible when using atoroidal format.
mon winding (A) flow in opposite directions, so Core- Types in Common Use
that the resultant current is the difference bet- Therefore, toroids are excellent not only
ween them. The voltage across A is propor- For use in radio-frequency circuits in dc-to-dc converters, but at audio and
tional to the turns ratio. especially, a suitable core type must be radio frequencies up to at least 1000 MHz,
chosen to provide the Q required by the assuming the proper core material is selected
designer. The wrong core material destroys for the range of frequencies over which the
magnetic path as continuous as possible the Q of an rf type of inductor. device must operate. Toroid cores are
and thus reduce flux leakage. Toroid cores are useful from a few available from micro-miniature sizes well
The number of turns required in the hundred hertz well into the uhf spectrum. up to several inches in diameter. The latter
primary for agiven applied emf is deter- Tape-wound steel cores are employed in can be used, as one example, to build a20-
mined by the size, shape and type of core some types of power supplies — notably kW balun for use in antenna systems.
material used, and the frequency. The dc-to-dc converters. The toroid core is Another form taken in ferromagnetic
number of turns required is inversely pro- doughnut shaped, hence the name toroid transformers and inductors is the " pot-
portional to the cross-sectional area of the (Fig. 50). The principal advantage to this core" or "cup-core" device. Unlike the

2,27
toroid, which has the winding over the L1/L2 and L3/L4 lines must be 3 x R1
outer surface of the core material, the pot- LI L2
(30 ohms in this example).
core winding is inside the ferromagnetic 3
Ll
material (Fig. 51). There are two cup- HHZ LO- Z
shaped halves to the assembly, both made
of ferrite or powdered iron, which are
connected tightly together by means of a
screw which is passed through a center BRASS
TUBE TOROIDS
hole. The wire for the assembly is wound
1 3
on an insulating bobbin which fits inside
the two halves of the pot-core unit. The HI- Z L1 LO- Z

advantage to this type of construction is 2 5

that the core permeability can be chosen (A) •INDICATES PHASING
BRASS PC
to ensure a minimum number of wire TUBE BOARD
91 UNBALANCED TO
turns for agiven value of inductance. This REMOVE
UNBALANCED TRANI.
COPPER
reduces the wire resistance and increases
the Q as opposed to an equivalent induc-
tance which is wound on acore that has
HI- Z
END
0
relatively low permeability. By virtue of LO- Z END
4
the winding being contained inside the fer- (L2 cl)
SOLDER ALL TUBE ENDS
rite or powdered-iron pot core, shielding TO COPPER FOILS.
is excellent.
Still another kind of ferromagnetic-core Fig. 53 — Schematic and pictorial representa- (B) 9:1

inductor is found in today's technology — tions of one type of "conventional"

the solenoidal type (Fig. 52). transformer. This style is used frequently at
L111_2 pair are twice the length of L3/L4.
Transformers and inductors fabricated in the input and output ports of rf power
amplifiers which use transistors. The magnetic
this manner consist of acylindrical, oval material consists of two rows of 950-mu toroid Fig. 55 — Schematic and pictorial presenta-
or rectangular rod of material over which cores for use from 1.8 to 30 MHz. The primary tions of a transmission-line transformer in
the wire winding is placed. This variety of and secondary windings are passed through which the windings need to be configured for a
the center holes of the toroid-stack rows as specific impedance.
device does not have aself-shielding trait.
shown.
Therefore it must be treated in the same
manner as any solenoidal-wound inductor broadband amplifier. In such an example
(using external shield devices). An exam- the reactance of the windings should be at
ple of aferrite-rod inductor is the built-in least four times the impedance the
loop antennas found in portable radios winding is designed to look into. There-
and direction finders. fore, a transformer which has a300-ohm
primary and a 50-ohm secondary load
Core Size
should have winding reactances ( XL) of at
The cross-sectional area of ferromagne- least 1200 ohms and 200 ohms, respec-
tic core is chosen to prevent saturation tively. The windings, for all practical pur-
from the load seen by the transformer. poses, can be regarded as rf chokes, and
This means that the proper thickness and the same rules apply. The permeability of
diameter are essential parameters to con- the core material plays avital role in de-
sider. For a specific core the maximum signing a good broadband transformer.
operational ac excitation can be dete- The performance of the transformer at the
mined by low- frequency end of the operating range
Erros x 10 8 depends on the permeability. That is, the
Bmax (ac) = 4.44 fNpA, (gauss) pe (effective permeability) must be high
enough in value to provide ample winding
where reactance at the low end of the operating
A, = equivalent area of the mag- range. As the operating frequency is in-
netic path in cm' creased, the effects of the core tend to
Erms = applied voltage disappear progressively until there are
N = number of core turns Fig. 54 — Another conventional transformer. scarcely any core effects at the upper limit
f = operating frequency in Hz Primary and secondary windings are wound of the operating range. For this reason it is
Bop = flux density in gauss over the outer surface of atoroid core.
common to find avery low frequency core
The foregoing equation is applicable to material utilized in a transformer that is
inductors which do not have dc flowing in Types of Transformers contained in a broadband circuit which
the winding along with ac. When both ac The most common ferromagnetic trans- reaches well into the upper hf region, or
and dc flows formers used in amateur radio work are even into the vhf spectrum. By way of
the narrow-band, broadband, conven- simple explanation, at high frequency the
Enos x 10' Npi dcA
tional and transmission-line varieties. low-frequency core material becomes in-
Bmax(total) = 4.444 fN A 10A,
P e Narrow-band transformers are used when efficient and tends to vanish electrically.
where selectivity is desired in a tuned circuit, This desirable trait makes possible the use
= the dc current through the such as an audio peaking or notching of ferromagnetics in broadband applica-
winding circuit, a resonator in an rf filter, or a tions.
AL = the manufacturer's index for tuned circuit associated with an rf Conventional transformers are those that
the core being used amplifier. Broadband transformers are are wound in the same manner as apower
The latter can be obtained for the core in employed in circuits which must have transformer. That is, each winding is
use by consulting the manufacturer's data uniform response over a. substantial made from aseparate length of wire, with
sheet. spread of frequency, as in a2- to 30- MHz one winding being placed over the

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-28

 Table 6
Powdered-Iron Toroidal Cores - AL Values ($411/100 turns)
41-Mix 3-Mix 15-Mix 1-Mix 2- Mix 6-Mix 10- Mix 12- Mix 0-Mix
Green Grey Rd & Wh Blue Red Yellow Black Gn & Wh Tan
Core p = 75 p = 35 m = 25 1.4 = 20 p = 10 Fa = 8 y= 6 m = 3 p. = 1
Size 0.05-0.5 MHz 0.1-2 MHz 0.5-5 MHz 1-30 MHz 10-90 MHz 60-150 MHz 100-200 MHz 150-300 MHz

T-200 755 360 NA 250 120 100 • NA NA NA

T-184 1640 720 NA 500 • 240 195 NA NA NA
T-157 970 420 360' 320' 140 115 NA NA NA
T-130 785 330 250' 200 110 96 NA NA 15.0
T-106 900 405 345* 325' 135 116 NA NA 19.0'
T- 94 590 248 200' 160 84 70 58 32 10.6
T- 80 450 180 170 115 55 45 32' 22 8.5
T- 68 420 195 180 115 57 47 32 21 7.5
T- 50 320 175 135 100 49' 40 31 18 6.4
T- 44 229 180 160 105 52' 42 33 NA 6.5
T- 37 308 120' 90 80 40' 30 25 15 4.9
T- 30 375 140* 93 85 43 36 25 16 6.0
T- 25 225 100 85 70 34 27 19 13 4.5
T- 20 175 90 65 52 27 22 16 10 3.5
T- 16 130 61 NA 44 22 19 13 8 3.0
T- 12 112 60 50' 48 20' 17'12 7.5 3.0

NA - Not available in that size.

Turns = 100V LoH ALValue (above.)
All frequency figures optimum. 'Updated values ( 1979) from Micrometals, Inc.

Number of Turns vs. Wire Size and Core Size

Approximate maximum of turns - single layer wound enameled wire

Wire Size T-200 T-130 T-106 T-94 T-80 T-68 T-50 T-37 T-25 T-12

10 33 20 12 12 10 6 4 1
12 43 25 16 16 14 9 6 3
14 54 32 21 21 18 13 8 5 1
16 69 41 28 28 24 17 13 7 2
18 88 53 37 37 32 23 18 10 4 1
20 111 67 47 47 41 29 23 14 6 1
22 140 86 60 60 53 38 30 19 9 2
24 177 109 77 77 67 49 39 25 13 4
26 223 137 97 97 85 63 50 33 17 7
28 281 173 123 123 108 80 64 42 23 9
30 355 217 154 154 136 101 81 54 29 13
32 439 272 194 194 171 127 103 68 38 17
34 557 346 247 247 218 162 132 88 49 23
36 683 424 304 304 268 199 162 108 62 30
38 875 544 389 389 344 256 209 140 80 39
40 1103 687 492 492 434 324 264 178 102 51

Physical Dimensions

Cross Cross
Outer Inner Sect. Mean Outer Inner Sect Mean
Core Dia. Dia. Height Area Length Core Dia. Dia. Height Area Length
Size (in.) (in.) (in.) cm , cm Size (in.) (in.) (in.) cm , cm

T-200 2.000 1.250 0.550 1.330 12.97 T- 50 0.500 0.303 0.190 0.121 3.20
1-184 1.840 0.950 0.710 2.040 11.12 T- 44 0.440 0.229 0.159 0.107 2.67
T-157 1.570 0.950 0.570 1.140 10.05 T- 37 0.375 0.205 0.128 0.070 2.32
T-130 1.300 0.780 0.437 0.73,3 8.29 T- 30 0.307 0.151 0.128 0.065 1.83
T-106 1.060 0.560 0.437 0.706 6.47 T- 25 0.255 0.120 0.096 0.042 1.50
T- 94 0.942 0.560 0.312 0.385 6.00 T- 20 0.200 0.088 0.067 0.034 1.15
T- 80 0.795 0.495 0.250 0.242 5.15 T- 16 0.160 0.078 0.060 0.016 0.75
T- 88 0.690 0.370 0.190 0.196 4.24 T- 12 0.125 0.062 0.050 0.010 0.74

Inches x 25.4 = mm. Courtesy of Amidon Assoc., N Hollywood, CA 91607 and Micrometals, Inc.

previous one with suitable insulation in known as trifilar one, and so forth ( Fig. Ruthroff. 2
between ( Figs. 53 and 54). A transmission- 55). It can be argued that a transmission-
line transformer is, conversely, one that line transformer is more efficient than a Ferrite Beads
uses windings which are configured to conventional one, but in practice it is dif- Another form of toroidal inductor is
simulate a piece of transmission line of a ficult to observe asignificant difference in the ferrite bead. This component is
specific impedance. This can be achieved the performance characteristics. An in- available in various u, values and sizes,
by twisting the wires together a given teresting technical paper on the subject of but most beads are less than 0.25- inch
number of times per inch, or by laying the toroidal broadband transformers was (6.3- mm) diameter. Ferrite beads are used
wires on the core ( adjacent to one another) published by Sevick, W2FM1. 1The classic principally as vhf/uhf parasitic sup-
at adistance apart which provides atwo- reference work on the subject is by
wire line impedance of aparticular value.
In some applications these windings are
'Sevick, " Simple Broadband Matching Networks," Ituthroff, " Some Broadband Transformers," Proc.
called bifilar. A three- wire winding is QST, January 1976. IRE, Vol. 47, August 1959, p. 137.

2-29 Chapter 2
pressors at the input and output tetitillials
Iable
of amplifiers. Another practical applica- AL - Chart ( mH per 1000 turns) Enameled Wire
Ferrite Torolds
tion for them is in decoupling networks
43- Mix 72- Mix 75- Mix
which are used to prevent unwanted mi- Core 63- Mix 61- Mix
Size u..125 u..950 u-2000 u.5000
gration of rf energy from one section of a
circuit to another. They are used also in FT- 23 7.9 24.8 189.0 396 0 990.0
suppressing RFI and TVI in hi-fi and tele- FT- 37 17.7 55.3 420.0 884.0 2210.0
vision sets. In some circuits it is necessary 22.0 68.0 523.0 1100 0 2750.0
FT- 50
557.0 1172.0 2930.0
only to place one or more beads over ashort Fr- 82 23.4 73.3
1268.0 3170.0
FT- 114 25.4 79.3 603.0
length of wire to obtain ample inductive
reactance for creating an rf choke. A Number turns = 1000,j-desired L ( mH) + AL value (above)
few turns of small-diameter enameled wire
can be looped through the larger beads to Ferrite Magnetic Properties
increase the effective inductance. Ferrite 61- Mix 43- Mix 72- Mx 75- Mix
Property Unit 63- Mix
beads are suitable as low-Q base imped-
ances in solid-state vhf and uhf amplifiers. Initial Perm. (
ai) 40
125 950 2000 5000
The low-Q characteristics prevents self- 450 3000 3500 8000
Maximum Perm. 125
oscillation that might occur if a high Q
Saturation flux
solenoidal rf choke were used in place of Density re 13 oer Gauss 1850 2350 2750 3500 3900
one made from beads. Miniature broad-
Residual Flux
band transformers are sometimes fash- Density Gauss 750 1200 1200 1500 1250
ioned from ferrite beads. For the most 130 150 160
Curie Temp. °
C 500 300
part, ferrite beads can be regarded as
Vol. Resistivity ohm/cm 1x 10 8 1x 108 1x10 5 1x102 5x102
small toroid cores.
Opt. Freq. Range MHz 15-25 .2-10 01-1 .001-1 001-1
Number of Turns 47 4.7 4.5 4.8 48
Specific Gravity
The number of wire turns used on a Loss 1 9.0 x 10 -5 2.2 x 10 -5 2.5 x10 -5 9.0 x 10 -6 5os 10
H:

@I 25 MHz. 2.5 MHz H 2MHz 4. 1MHz Hl m

toroid core can be calculated by knowing Factor u0
the AL of the core and the desired 1.60 0.30 0.18 018
Coercive Force Oer. 2.40
inductance. The AL is simply the induc- Temp. Co-eff %/° C
tance index for the core size and permeabi- of initial Perm. 20-70°C 0 10 0.10 0.20 060
lity being used. Table 6 provides infor-
mation of interest concerning a popular Ferrite Torolds - Physical Properties

assortment of powdered-iron toroid cores. Core OD ID Height Ac le V

e
The complete number for agiven core is Size
composed of the core-size designator in
FT- 23 0.230 0.120 0.060 0.00330 0.529 0.00174 0.1264 001121
the upper left column, plus the correspond- Fr- 37 0.375 0.187 0.125 0.01175 0.846 0.00994 0.3860 002750
ing mix number. For example, ahalf-inch Fr- 50 0.500 0.281 0.188 0.02060 1.190 0.02450 0.7300 0.06200
diameter core with ano. 2mix would be Fr- 82 0.825 0.520 0.250 0.03810 2.070 0.07890 1.7000 0.21200
designated at aT-50-2 unit. The AL would FT- 114 1.142 0.748 0.295 0.05810 2.920 0.16950 2.9200 0.43900
be 49 and the suggested operating fre- Ac - Effective magnetic cross-sectional area (
in) 2
OD - Outer diameter ( inches)
quency would be from 1to 30 MHz. The l
e - Effective magnetic path length ( inches)
ID - Inner diameter ( inches)
for that core is 10. Ve - Effective magnetic volume ( in)3
Hgt - Height ( inches)
The required number of wire turns for a
Aw - Total window area ( in)3 As - Surface area exposed for cooling ( in)3
specified inductance on a given type of
core can be determined by Inches x 25.4 = mm. Courtesy of Amidon Assoc., N. Hollywood, CA 91607

Turns = 100 V desired L (uH) + AL

where AL is obtained from Table 6. The

table also indicates how many turns of a Turns = 1000 V desired L (mH) AL This will prevent the rough edges of the
particular wire gauge can be close wound core from abrading the enameled wire.
to fill a specified core. For example, a where the AL for a specific core can be The inductance of a toroidal coil with
T-68 core will contain 49 turns of no. 24 taken from Table 7. Thus, if one required known AL is
enameled wire, 101 turns of no. 30 a 1-mH inductor and chose a no.
enameled wire, and so on. Generally ,
FT-82-43 toroid core, the number of turns L = AL ( -)
N -
speaking, the larger the wire gauge the 100
would be
higher the unloaded Q of the toroidal L and AL must be in the same units.
inductor. The inductance values are based Turns = 1000 V 1 557 Tables 8and 9cross-reference the ferrite
on the winding covering the entire
toroidal cores offered by several sources.
circumference of the core. When there is = 1000 V 0.001795
space between the turns of wire, some Checking RF Toroidal Devices
control over the net inductance can be = 1000 x 0.0424 = 42.4 turns
The equations given previously will
effected by compressing the turns or
For an FT-82 size core no. 22 enameled provide the number of wire turns needed
spreading them. The inductance will
wire would be suitable as indicated in for aparticular inductance, plus or minus
increase if compression is used and will
Table 6 (using the T-80 core size as the 10 percent. However, slight variations in
decrease when the turns are spread farther core permeability may exist from one
apart. nearest one to an FT-82). If the toroid
core has rough edges (untumbled), it is production run to another. Therefore, for
Table 7contains data for ferrite cores.
suggested that insulating tape ( 3M glass circuits which require exact values of
The number of turns for a specified
epoxy tape or Mylar tape) be wrapped inductance it is necessary to check the
inductance in mH versus the AL can be
through the core before the wire is added. toroid winding by means of an RdL
determined by
Electrical Laws and Circuits 2.30
Table 8
Ferrite Toroid Cores - Size Cross- Reference

(inches)
OD ID Thickness Amidon Fair- Rite Indiana General Ferroxcube Magnetics, Inc.
0.100 0.050 0.050 -- -- -- 40200TC
0.100 0.070 0.030 701 F426-1 --
0.155 0.088 -- 801 F2062-1 -- 40502
0.190 0.090 0.050 -- -- -- 2137050 --
0.230 0.120 0.060 FT-23 101 F303-1 1041T060 40601
0.230 0.120 0.120 -- 901 -- -- --
0.300 0.125 0.188 -- -- F867-1 -- 40705
0.375 0.187 0.125 FT- 37 201 F625-9 266T125 41003 Fig. 56 - Method for checking the inductance
0.500 0.281 0.188 FT- 50 301 -- 7687188 -- of a toroid winding by means of a dip meter,
0.500 0.312 0.250 -- 1101 F627-8 41306 known capacitance value and a calibrated
0.500 0.312 0.500 -- 1901 receiver. The self-shielding properties of a
0.825 0.520 0.250 FT-82 601 toroidal inductor prevent dip meter readings
0.825 0.520 0.468 -- 501 when the instrument is coupled directly to the
0.870 0.500 0.250 401 -- -- toroid. Sampling is done by means of a cou-
0.870 0.540 0.250 1801 F624-19 846T250 42206 pling link as illustrated.
1.000 0.500 0.250 1501 F2070-1 -- 42507
1.000 0.610 0.250 -- 1301 - -
1.142 0.748 0.295 FT- 114 1001 K300502 42
- 908 Fig. 57 - ( A) Illustation of a homemade win-
1.225 0.750 0.312 -- 1601 -- -- ding shuttle for toroids. The wire is stored on
1.250 0.750 0.375 1701 F626-12 - - the shuttle and the shuttle is passed through
1.417 0.905 0.591 K300501 the center hole of the toroid, again and again,
1.417 0.905 0.394 K300500 -- until the required number of turns is in place.
1.500 0.750 0.500 5287500 43813 (B) It is best to leave a 30° gap between the
2.000 1.250 0.750 400T750 ends of the toroid winding. This will reduce the
2.900 1.530 0.500 -- 1447500 distributed capacitance considerably. ( C)
3.375 1.925 0.500 F1707-15 Edgewise view of a toroid core, illustrating the
3.500 2.000 0.500 F1707-1 method for counting the turns accurately. ( D)
5.835 2.50 0.625 F1824-1 The low- impedance winding of a toroidal
transformer is usually wound over the large
winding, as shown. For narrow-band applica-
tions the link should be wound over the cold
Table 9 end of the main winding (see text).

Ferrite Toroid Cores - Permeability Cross- Reference

NOTCH

Amidon Fair- Rite Indiana General Ferroxcube Magnetics, Inc.

16 03 (Al
20 68
40 FT
- - 63 63, 67 02 WIRE

100 65
125 FT
- - 61 61 Q1 4C4
175 62
250 FT
- - 64 64
300 83
375 31 (C)

400 G START
750 3D3 A
800 33
4 TURNS
850 43
950 FT
- - 43 - TC-3
FINISH
1400 -
(Eh
1200 34 END
1500 TC-7 VIEW

1800 FT
- - 77 77 3B9 3
Ti
2000 FT - 72 72 TC-9 S, V, D Ti
L2
2200 05
2300 387 G
2500 FT
- - 73 73 TC-12 ID)
2700 3E (3C8)
3000 05P 3C5 4

4700 06
5000 FT - 75
- 75 3E2A
10,000
12,500 3E3

XL
. 2 rfc and L(0.
1) = -
bridge or an RX meter. If these in- illustration is necessary because the toroid 2nf
struments are not available, close approxi- has a self-shielding characteristic. The where X, is the reactance of the known
mations can be had by using a dip latter makes it difficult, and often capacitor value, fis in MHz and C is in
meter, standard capacitor ( known value, impossible, to secure a dip in the meter 1.4F. Using an example, where fis 3.5 MHz
stable type, such as a silver mica) and a reading when coupling the instrument (as noted on adip meter) and C is 100 pF,
calibrated receiver against which to check directly to the toroidal inductor or L is determined by
the dipper frequency. Fig. 56 shows how transformer. The inductance can be
to couple a dip meter to a completed determined by XL since XL = Xc at 1
- 455 ohms
toroid for testing. The coupling link in the resonance. Therefore, Xc - 6.28 x 3.5 X 0.0001

2-31 Chapter 2
 L= Xc at resonance, of the AL factors discussed earlier in this built. It is better to place the low-
section. The greater the distributed impedance winding (LI of Fig. 57D at the
455
41,
H) = 6.28 X = 20.7 µH capacitance the more restrictive the "cold" or grounded end of L2 on the cor-
3.5
transformer or inductor becomes when e. This is shown in pictorial and schematic
It is assumed, for the purpose of accuracy, applied in abroadband circuit. In the case form at Fig. 57D. The windings are placed
that the dip-meter signal is checked for of a narrow-band application, the Q can on the core in the same rotational sense,
precise frequency by means of acalibrated be affected by the distributed capacitance. and LI is wound over L2 at the grounded
receiver. The pictorial illustration at Fig. 57B end of L2. The purpose of this winding
shows the inductor turns distributed method is to discourage unwanted
Practical Considerations uniformly around the toroid core, but a capacitive coupling between the windings
Amateurs who work with toroidal in- gap of approximately 30° is maintained — an aid to the reduction of spurious
ductors and transformers are sometimes between the ends of the winding. This energy (harmonics, etc.) which might be
confused by the winding instructions method is recommended to reduce the present in the circuit where T1 is
given in construction articles. For the distributed capacitance of the winding. employed.
most part, winding atoroid core with wire The closer the ends of the winding are to In circuits which have a substantial
is less complicated than it is when winding one another, the greater the unwanted amount of ac and/or dc voltage present in
acylindrical single-layer coil. capacitance. Also, in order to closely ap- the transformer windings, it is prudent to
When many turns of wire are required, proximate the desired toroid inductance use alayer of insulating material between
ahomemade winding shuttle can be used when using the AL formula, the winding the toroid core and the first winding.
to simplify the task. Fig. 57A illustrates should be spread over the core as shown. Alternatively, the wire can have high-
how this method may be employed. The When the turns of the winding are not dielectric insulation, such as Teflon. This
shuttle can be fashioned from a piece of close wound, they can be spread apart to procedure will prevent arcing between the
circuit-board material. The wire is wound decrease the effective inductance (this winding and the core. Similarly, alayer of
on the shuttle after determining how many lowers the distributed C). Conversely, as insulating tape (3-M glass tape, mylar or
inches are required to provide the desired the turns are pushed closer together, the Teflon) can be placed between the
number of toroid turns. (A sample turn effective inductance is increased by virtue primary and secondary windings of the
around the toroid core wil reveal the wire of the greater distributed capacitance. toroidal transformer (Fig. 57D). Normal-
length per turn.) Once the shuttle is load- This phenomenon can be used to advan- ly, these precautions are not necessary at
ed, it is passed through the toroid center tage during final adjustment of narrow- impedance levels under a few hundred
again and again until the winding is com- band circuits in which toroids are used. ohms at rf power levels below 100 watts.
pleted. The edges of the shuttle should be The proper method for counting the Once the inductor or transformer is
kept smooth to prevent abrasion of the turns on a toroidal inductor is shown in wound and tested for proper perfor-
wire insulation. Fig. 57C. The core is shown as it would mance, acoating or two of high-dielectric
appear when stood on its edge with the cement should be applied to the wind-
How to Wind Toroids narrow dimension toward the viewer. In ing(s) of the toroid. This will protect the
The effective inductance of atoroid coil this example afour-turn winding has been wire insulation from abrasion, hold the
or atransformer winding is dependent in placed on the core. turns in place and seal the assembly
part upon the distributed capacitance be- Some manufacturers of toroids recom- against moisture and dirt. Polystyrene Q
tween the coil turns and between the ends mend that the windings on toroidal Dope is excellent for the purpose.
of the winding. When a large number of transformers be spread around all of the The general guidelines given for
turns are used (e.g., 500 or 1000), the core in the manner shown in Fig. 57B. toroidal components can be applied to pot
distributed capacitance can be as great as That is, the primary and secondary wind- cores and rods when they are used as
100 pF. Ideally, there would be no ings should each be spread around most foundations for inductors or trans-
distributed or " parasitic" capacitance, of the core. This is aproper method when formers. The important thing to remem-
but this is not possible. Therefore, the un- winding conventional broadband trans- ber is that all of the powdered-iron and
wanted capacitance must be kept as low as formers. However, it is not recommended ferrite core materials are brittle. They
possible in order to take proper advantage when narrow band transformers are being break easily under stress.

The Decibel
It is useful to appraise signal strength in P, V2
dB = 10 log io dB = 20 log — or 20 log 2-
2
terms of relative loudness as registered by pl VI
the ear. For example, if aperson estimates
that asignal is "twice as loud" when the where V = voltage
transmitter power is increased from 10 Voltage and Current Ratios
= current
watts to 100 watts, he or she will also Note that the decibel is based on power
estimate that a1000-watt signal is twice as ratios. Voltage or current ratios can be If the voltage formula above is applied
loud as a 100-watt signal: The human ear used, but only when the impedance is the to an amplifier, where V2 is output
has alogarithmic response. same for both values of voltage, or cur- voltage and VI is the input voltage, a
This fact is the basis for the use of the rent. The gain of an amplifier cannot be positive decibel value indicates amplifier
relative-power unit called the decibel (dB). expressed correctly in dB if it is based on gain. On the other hand, applying the for-
A decibel is one-tenth of abel, the unit of the ratio of the output voltage to the input mula to aresistor network would result in
sound named for Alexander Graham Bell. voltage unless both voltages are measured anegative decibel value, signifying aloss.
A change of one decibel in power level is across the same value of impedance. When the decibel value is known, the
just detectable as a change in loudness When the impedance at both points of numerical ratio can be calculated from:
under ideal conditions. The number of measurement is the same, the following
decibels corresponding to a given power fnrmula may be used for voltage or cur- —P2 = antilogdB—
rent ratios: P 10
ratio is given by:
Elactrinnl Laws and Circuits 2-32
 to all losses or gains. Only the algebraic
20dB 14 dB OdB 3dB 42 dB signs need to be changed; that is, losses
AMPLIFIER ATTENUATOR ATTENUATOR AMPLIFIER
become negative gains or gains become
negative losses. The overall decibel gain or
OUTPUT
loss is the algebraic sum of the individual
0 P2
figures, and this can be converted to a
numerical ratio if desired. Fig. 58 il-
lustrates both methods.
GAINS + 20dB - 14 dB OdB - 3d8 + 42dB . 45dB
The decibel is a relative unit. When us-
100 X 0.039 X X 05 15849 = 30905.5 ing decibels to specify an absolute voltage,
LOSSES - 20dB +I4dB OdB +3dB — 42 dB . - 45dB
current or power level, the decibel value
must be qualified by areference level. For
0.01 X 25.12 X X 2 X 0.000063 . 0.00003165
example, when discussing sound intensity,
VERIFICATION: 10 Log 30905 5 = 45dB areference ' vet of 0dB corresponds to an
acoustical field strength of 10 — 16 W /CM 2,
10 Leg 0 00003165. - 45dB
the normal human hearing threshold at
600 Hz. A lion's roar at 20 feet might have
a sound intensity of 90 dB, and the
Fig. 58 — How to compute the composite gain of a system. Either numerical ratios or decibels
may be used, but all units must be consistent in gain or loss. The method is explained in the text. threshold of pain occurs at 130 dB. Thus,
the human ear/brain has adynamic range
of 130 dB, or aratio of ten trillion to one.
In radio work, power is often rendered
V2 dB estimate again or loss within one decibel. in dBW (0dBW = 1watt) or dBm (0dBm
or v,— = anti log Inverting anumerical ratio simply reverses = 1 milliwatt). With this system, 2
20
the algebraic sign of the decibel value. For kilowatts equals + 63 dBm or + 33 dBW,
example, avoltage gain of 10 corresponds and 5 microwatts equals — 23 dBm or
Many mathematics textbooks contain to 20 dB, while again of 1/10 (which is a — 53 dBW. Voltages are sometimes given
tables of logarithms, but these numbers loss of 10) corresponds to — 20 dB. as decibel values with respect to one volt
can be produced very quickly with aslide In a system of cascaded gain and loss or one microvolt; 2millivolts equals + 66
rule or inexpensive calculator. In any case, blocks where numerical ratios are dBmV or — 54 dBV. Antenna gain is
it is convenient to memorize the decibel specified for each block, the overall specified with respect to some standard
values for a few of the common power system gain or loss can be calculated this reference element such as an isotropic
and voltage ratios. For power changes, a way: Convert the ratios to all gains or all radiator or a dipole. The measurement
numerical ratio of 2is 3dB, 4is 6dB, 10 is losses ( gains become fractional losses or units are the dBi and dBd. In spectrum
10 dB, 100 is 20 dB, 1000 is 30 dB, and so losses become fractional gains). The analysis, noise, spurious signals and
on. When voltage changes are considered, overall numerical gain or loss will be the distortion products can be referenced to
doubling the voltage causes a 6-dB in- product of the individual figures, and the the carrier ( if one exists), dBc. A certain
crease, a numerical ratio of 10 is worth decibel value can be derived as before. If frequency synthesizer might have aphase-
20 dB, 100 is 40 dB and so on. One can in- the individual gains and losses are given in noise specification of — 40 dBc 100 Hz
terpolate between known ratios to decibels, the procedure is again to convert removed from the carrier.

Radio Frequency Circuits

The designer of amateur equipment The principle of resonance finds its
needs to be familiar with radio- frequency most extensive application in radio-
circuits and the various related equations. frequency circuits. The reactive effects
This section provides the basic data for associated with even small inductances
most amateur circuit development. and capacitances would place drastic
limitations on rf circuit operation if it
Resonance in Series Circuits EAC were not possible to " cancel them out" by
Fig. 59 shows a resistor, capacitor and supplying the right amount of reactance
inductor connected in series with asource of the opposite kind—in other words,
of alternating current, the frequency of "tuning the circuit to resonance."
which can be varied over awide range. At
Resonant Frequency
some / ow frequency the capacitive reac-
tance will be much larger than the The frequency at which a series circuit
resistance of R, and the inductive reac- is resonant is that at which XL = X .
Fig. 59 — A series circuit containing L, C and
tance will be small compared with either R is " resonant" at the applied frequency when
Substituting the formulas for inductive
the reactance of C or the resistance of R. the reactance of C is equal to the reactance and capacitive reactance gives
(R is assumed to be the same at all fre- of L.

quencies.) On the other hand, at some

=
very high frequency the reactance of C out of phase. Therefore, they cancel each 2
will be very small and the reactance of L other completely and the current flow is
where
will be very large. In either case the cur- determined wholly by the resistance, R.
f = frequency in hertz
rent will be small, because the net reac- At that frequency the current has its
L = inductance in henrys
tance is large. largest possible value, assuming the
C = capacitance in farads
At some intermediate frequency, the source voltage to be constant regardless of
ner. 3.14
reactances of C and L will be equal and frequency. A series circuit in which the in-
the voltage drops across the coil and ductive and capacitive reactances are These units are inconveniently large for
capacitor will be equal and 180 degrees equal is said to be resonant. radio- frequency circuits. A formula using

2-33 Chapter 2
more appropriate units is tance. When maximum sharpness or selec-
1.0
tivity is needed the object of design is to
10 6 reduce the inherent resistance to the low-
f =
2r Nr—LC est possible value.
The value of the reactance of either the R•10
where inductor or capacitor at the resonant
f = frequency in kilohertz (kHz) frequency of a series-resonant circuit,
L = inductance in microhenrys (uH) divided by the series resistance in the R. 20
C = capacitance in picofarads (pF) circuit, is called the Q (quality factor) of
= 3.14 the circuit, or
X
Example: The resonant frequency of a R•50
series circuit containing a 5-uH inductor 0.2
and a 35-pF capacitor is where
Q = quality factor
10 6 106 x = reactance of either coil or o
f = capacitor in ohms -20 - 10 0 + 0 + 20
2r -
%,n LC
— 6.28 X .
15 x 35 r = series resistance in ohms
PERCENT CHANGE FROM
RESONANT FREQUENCY

10 6 106 Example: The inductor and capacitor in

— 6.28 x 13.23 83.08kHz
— 12,036 a series circuit each have a reactance of Fig. 60 — Current in a series-resonant circuit
with various values of series resistance. The
350 ohms at the resonant frequency. The
The formula for resonant frequency is not values are arbitrary and would not apply at all
resistance is 5ohms. Then the Q is circuits, but represent atypical case. It is
affected by resistance in the circuit.
assumed that the reactances (at the resonant
350 frequency) are 1000 ohms. Note that at fre-
Q X— = 70
r 5 quencies more than plus or minus 10 percent
Resonance Curves
away from the resonant frequency, the current
If aplot is drawn on the current flowing is substantially unaffected by the resistance in
The effect of Q on the sharpness of the circuit.
in the circuit of Fig. 59 as the frequency is resonance of a circuit is shown by the
varied (the applied voltage being constant) curves of Fig. 61. In these curves the fre-
it would look like one of the curves in Fig. quency change is shown in percentage
60. The shape of the resonance curve at above and below the resonant frequency.
frequencies near resonance is determined Qs of 10, 20, 50 and 100 are shown; these
by the ratio of reactance to resistance. values cover much of the range commonly
If the reactance of either the coil or used in radio work. The unloaded Q of a
capacitor is of the same order of circuit is determined by the inherent
magnitude as the resistance, the current resistances associated with the com-
decreases rather slowly as the frequency is ponents.
moved in either direction away from
resonance. Such a curve is said to be
Voltage Rise at Resonance
broad. On the other hand, if the reactance
is considerably larger than the resistance When a voltage of the resonant
the current decreases rapidly as the frequency is inserted in series in a
frequency moves away from resonance resonant circuit, the voltage that appears
and the circuit is said to be sharp. A sharp across either the inductor or capacitor is
circuit will respond a great deal more considerably higher than the applied
readily to the resonant frequency than to voltage. The current in the circuit is
frequencies quite close to resonance; a limited only by the resistance and may
broad circuit will respond almost equally have arelatively high value; however, the
well to a group or band of frequencies same current flows through the high Fig. 61 — Current in series-resonant circuits
centering around the resonant frequency. reactances of the inductor and capacitor having different Qs. In this graph the current at
and causes large voltage drops. The ratio resonance is assumed to be the same in all
Both types of resonance curves are
cases. The lower the 0, the more slowly the
useful. A sharp circuit gives good selec- of the reactive voltage to the applied
current decreases as the applied frequency is
tivity — the ability to respond strongly (in voltage is equal to the ratio of reactance to moved away from resonance.
terms of current amplitude) at one desired resistance. This ratio is also the Q of the
frequency and discriminate against others. circuit. Therefore, the voltage across
A broad circuit is used when the either the inductor or capacitor is equal to
apparatus must give about the same QE, where E is the voltage inserted in
response over aband of frequencies rather series. This fact accounts for the high
than to a single frequency alone. voltages developed across the components
of series-tuned antenna couplers.

Resonance in Parallel Circuits

Most diagrams of resonant circuits
show only inductance and capacitance; no When a variable-frequency source of
resistance is indicated. Nevertheless, resis- constant voltage is applied to a parallel
Fig. 62 — Circuit illustrating parallel
tance is always present. At frequencies up circuit of the type shown in Fig. 62 there is
resonance.
to perhaps 30 MHz this resistance is most- a resonance effect similar to that in a
ly in the wire of the coil. Above this fre- series circuit. However, in this case the
quency energy loss in the capacitor (prin- "line" current (measured at the point the out-of-phase current through C, so
cipally in the solid dielectric which must indicated) is smallest at the frequency for that only the current taken by R flows in
be used to form an insulating support for which the inductive and capacitive reac- the line. At frequencies below resonance
the capacitor plates) also becomes a fac- tances are equal. At that frequency the the current through L is larger than that
tor. This energy loss is equivalent to resis- current through L is exactly canceled by through c. because the reactance of L is

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-34

 circuit with a high-Q capacitor, at the
1.0
resonant frequency the parallel impedance
is
0.8
0•100
ZR = QX
0.6

where ZR = resistive impedance at reso- a.

0.50
nance 0.4
Q = quality factor of inductor
X = reactance (in ohms) of either
gi
O. 20

0.2
the inductor or capacitor
Example: The parallel impedance of a
0. 10 1
circuit with a coil Q of 50 and having O
—20 —10 0 + 10 + 20
Fig. 63 — Series and parallel equivalents when inductive and capacitive reactance of 300 PER CENT CHANGE FROM RESONANT FREQUENCY
the two circuits are resonant. The series
ohms will be
resistance, r, in A is replaced in B by the
equivalent parallel resistance ( R.X 2c/r = X2L/r) ZR = QX = 50 x 300 = 15,000 ohms Fig. 64 — Relative impedance of parallel-
and vice versa. resonant circuits with different Qs. These
At frequencies off resonance the impe- curves are similar to those in Fig. 61 for cur-
rent in a series-resonant circuit. The effect of
dance is no longer purely resistive because
smaller and that of C higher at low 0 on impedance is most marked near the reso-
the inductive and capacitive currents are nant frequency.
frequencies; there is only partial cancel-
not equal. The off-resonant impedance
lation of the two reactive currents and the
therefore is complex, and is lower than the
line current therefore is larger than the
resonant impedance for the reasons pre-
current taken by R alone. At frequencies
viously outlined.
above resonance the situation is reversed
The higher the circuit Q, the higher the
and more current flows through C than
parallel impedance. Curves showing the
through L, so the line current again
variation of impedance (with frequency) of
increases. The current at resonance, being
aparallel circuit have just the same shape
determined wholly by R, will be small if R
as the curves showing the variation of cur-
is large and large if R is small.
rent with frequency in aseries circuit. Fig.
The resistance R shown in Fig. 62 is not
64 is aset of such curves. A set of curves Fig. 65 — The equivalent circuit of a resonant
necessarily an actual resistor. In many
showing the relative response as a func- circuit delivering power to a load. The resistor
cases it will be the series resistance of the R represents the load resistance. At B the load
tion of the departure from the resonant
coil " transformed" to an equivalent Is tapped across part of L, by which
frequency would be similar to Fig. 61. The
parallel resistance (see later). It may be transformer action is equivalent to using a
— 3 dB bandwidth (bandwidth at 0.707 higher load resistance across the whole
antenna or other load resistance coupled
into the tuned circuit. In all cases it relative response) is given by circuit.

represents the total effective resistance in Bandwidth — 3dB = f

o/Q

the circuit. where f c,is the resonant frequency and Q itself. At frequencies below 30 MHz most
Parallel and series resonant circuits are the circuit Q. It is also called the " half- of this resistance is in the coil. Within
quite alike in some respects. For instance, power" bandwidth, for ease of limits, increasing the number of turns in
the circuits given at A and B in Fig. 63 will recollection. the coil increases the reactance faster than
behave identically, when an external it raises the resistance, so coils for circuits
voltage is applied, if ( 1) L and C are the Parallel Resonance in Low-Q Circuits in which the Q must be high are made
same in both cases, and (2) R multiplied The preceding discussion is accurate for with relatively large inductance for the
by r, equals the square of the reactance (at Qs of 10 or more. When the Q is below 10, frequency.
resonance) of either L or C. When these resonance in a parallel circuit having However, when the circuit delivers
conditions are met the two circuits will energy to a load (as in the case of the
resistance in series with the coil, as in Fig.
have the same Q. (These statements are resonant circuits used in transmitters) the
63A, is not so easily defined. There is aset
approximate, but are quite accurate if the energy consumed in the circuit itself is
of values for L and C that will make the
Q is 10 or more). The circuit at A is a usually negligible compared with that con-
parallel impedance a pure resistance, but
series circuit if it is viewed from the sumed by the load. The equivalent of such
with these values the impedance does not
"inside" — that is, going around the loop acircuit is shown in Fig. 65A, where the
have its maximum possible value. Another
formed by L, C and r — so its Q can be parallel resistor represents the load to
set of values for L and C will make the
found from the ratio of X to r. which power is delivered. If the power
parallel impedance a maximum, but this
Thus, acircuit like that of Fig. 63A has dissipated in the load is at least ten times
maximum value is not a pure resistance.
an equivalent parallel impedance ( at as great as the power lost in the inductor
Either condition could be called "reso-
resonance) of and capacitor, the parallel impedance of
nance," so with low-Q circuits it is neces-
sary to distinguish between maximum im- the resonant circuit itself will be so high
X2
R = — pedance and resistive impedance parallel compared with the resistance of the load
r
resonance. The difference between these L that for all practical purposes the im-
and C values and the equal reactances of a pedance of the combined circuit is equal
where X is the reactance of either the induc-
series-resonant circuit is appreciable when to the load resistance. Under these
tor or the capacitor. Although R is not an
the Q is in the vicinity of 5, and becomes conditions the Q of a parallel resonant
actual resistor, to the source of voltage the
more marked with still lower Q values. circuit loaded by aresistive impedance is
parallel-resonant circuit "looks like" a
pure resistance of that value. It is "pure"
resistance because the inductive and Q of Loaded Circuits Q = 7
3
capacitive currents are 180 degrees out of In many applications of resonant where
phase and are equal; thus there is no circuits the only power lost is that R = parallel load resistance (ohms)
reactive current in the line. In apractical dissipated in the resistance of the circuit X = reactance (ohms)

2-35 Chapter 2
 Example: A resistive load of 3000 ohms some applications. For instance, the
is connected across a resonant circuit in common connection provides no de NETWORK

which the inductive and capacitive reac- isolation and the common ground is
tances are each 250 ohms. The circuit Q is sometimes troublesome in regards to
then ground-loop currents. Consequently, a
network in which only mutual magnetic
R 3000 coupling is employed is usually preferable.
Q = X = 250 12 — However, no impedance step-up will
result unless the two coils are coupled
The "effective" Q of acircuit loaded by tightly enough. The equivalent resistance
aparallel resistance becomes higher when seen at the input of the network will
the reactances are decreased. A circuit always be lower regardless of the turns
loaded with arelatively low resistance (a ratio employed. However, such networks
few thousand ohms) must have low- are still useful in impedance-transformation
reactance elements (large capacitance and applications if the appropriate capacitive
small inductance) to have reasonably high elements are used. A more detailed
Q. treatment of matching networks and
similar devices will be taken up in the next
Impedance Transformation section.
An important application of the parallel- Unfortunately, networks involving reac- (B)
resonant circuit is as an impedance- tive elements are usually narrowband in
matching device in the output circuit of a nature and it would be desirable if such
vacuum-tube rf power amplifier. There elements could be eliminated in order to Fig. 66 — A representative coupling circuit (A)
is an optimum value of load resistance for increase the bandwidth. With the advent and ladder network ( B).
each type of tube or transistor and set of of ferrites, this has become possible and it
operating conditions. However, the resis- is now relatively easy to construct actual
tance of the load to which the active impedance transformers that are both capacitors, inductors, and even transmis-
device is to deliver power usually is broadband and permit operation well up sion lines. However, it will be assumed
considerably lower than the value required into the vhf portion of the spectrum. This that the network can be reduced to a
for proper device operation. To transform is also accomplished in part by tightly combination of series and shunt elements
the actual load resistance to the desired coupling the two (or more) coils that consisting only of inductors and capaci-
value the load may be tapped across part make up the transformer either by tors as indicated by the circuit shown in
of the coil, as shown in Fig. 65B. This is twisting the conductors together or wind- Fig. 66B. For obvious reasons, the circuit
equivalent to connecting ahigher value of ing them in aparallel fashion. The latter is often called aladder network. In addi-
load resistance across the whole circuit, configuration is sometimes called abifilar tion, if there are no resistive elements pre-
and is similar in principle to impedance winding, as discussed in the section on sent, or if such elements can be neglected,
transformation with an iron-core trans- ferromagnetic transformers. the network is said to be dissipationless.
former. In high-frequency resonant cir- If a network is dissipationless, all the
cuits the impedance ratio does not vary Coupled Circuits and Filters power delivered to the input of the
exactly as the square of the turns ratio, Two circuits are said to be coupled network will be dissipated in the load
because all the magnetic flux lines do not when avoltage or current in one network resistance Rs.This effect leads to im-
cut every turn of the coil. A desired re- produces avoltage or current in the other portant simplifications in computations
flected impedance usually must be ob- one. The network where the energy involved in coupled networks. The as-
tained by experimental adjustment. originates is often called the primary sumption of a dissipationless network is
When the load resistance has avery low circuit and the network that receives the usually valid with transmitting circuits
value (say below 100 ohms) it may be con- energy is called the secondary circuit. Such since even a small network loss (0.5 dB)
nected in series in the resonant circuit (as coupling is often of a desirable nature will result in considerable heating at the
in Fig. 63A, for example), in which case it since in the process, unwanted frequency higher power levels used in amateur
is transformed to an equivalent parallel components or noise may be rejected or applications. On the other hand, coupled
impedance as previously described. If the isolated and power transferred from a circuits used in some receiving stages may
Q is at least 10, the equivalent parallel im- source to aload with greatest efficiency. have considerable loss. This is because the
pedance is On the other hand, two or more circuits network may have some advantage and its
may be coupled inadvertently and un- high loss can • be compensated by ad-
ZR = desirable effects produced. While agreat ditional amplification in another stage.
number of coupling-circuit configurations However, such devices form a relatively
are possible, one very important class small minority of coupled networks
where ZR = resistive parallel impedance covers so many practical applications that commonly encountered and only the
at resonance analysis of it will be covered in detail. dissipationless case will be considered in
X = reactance ( in ohms) of either this section.
the coil or capacitor Ladder Networks
r = load resistance inserted in Any two circuits that are coupled can be Effective Attenuation and Insertion Loss
series drawn schematically as shown in Fig. The most important consideration in
If the Q is lower than 10 the reactance 66A. A voltage source represented by Eac any coupled network is the amount of
will have to be adjusted somewhat, for the with a source resistance Rp and asource power delivered to the load resistance, Rs,
reasons given in the discussion of low-Q reactance Xp is connected to the input of from the source, Eac, with the network
circuits, to obtain aresistive impedance of the coupling network, thus forming the present. Rather than specify the source
the desired value. primary circuit. At the output, a load voltage each time, acomparison is made
While the circuit shown in Fig. 65B will reactance Xs and aload resistance Rs are with the maximum available power from
usually provide an impedance step-up as connected as shown to form the secondary any source with a given primary resis-
with an iron-core transformer, the net- circuit. The circuit in the box could tance, Rp. The value of Rp might be con-
work has some serious disadvantages for consist of an infinite variety of resistors, sidered as the impedance level associated

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-36

 network in the circuit to the power
delivered to the load with the network
absent. Unlike the effective attenuation
which is always positive when defined by
the previous formula, the insertion loss
can take on negative values if Rp is not
equal to Rs or if Xp and Xs are not zero.
In effect, the insertion loss would rep-
resent a power gain under these con-
ditions. The interpretation of this effect is
that maximum available power does not
Fig. 68 — Application of conversion formulas
occur with the coupling network out of can be used to transform a shunt conductance
the circuit because of the unequal source and susceptance to a series-equivalent circuit
and load resistances and the non-zero A. The converse is illustrated at B.
reactances. With the network in the
circuit, the resistances are now " matched"
and the reactances are said to be " tuned resistances in the network and the total
out." The action of the coupling network reactance is the sum of the reactances.
in this instance is very similar to that of a However, it is important to note the sign
transformer ( which was discussed in a of the reactance. Since capacitive reac-
previous section) and networks consisting tance is negative and inductive reactance
of " pure" inductors and capacitors are is positive, it is possible that the sum of
often used for this purpose. Such circuits the reactances might be zero even though
are often referred to as matching net- the individual reactances are not zero. In a
works. On the other hand, it is often series circuit, it will be recalled that the
Fig. 67 — Resistances and reactances add in
desired to deliver the greatest amount of network is said to be resonant at the
series circuits while conductances and suscep-
tances add in parallel circuits. ( Formulas power to aload at some frequencies while frequency where the reactances cancel.
shown are for numerical values of X and B.) rejecting energy at other frequencies. A A complementary condition exists in a
device that accomplishes this action is parallel combination of circuit elements
called a filter. In the case of unequal and it is convenient to introduce the
source and load resistance, it is often concepts of admittance, conductance and
with a complex combination of sources, possible to combine the processes of susceptance. In the case of a simple
transmission lines, coupled networks, filtering and matching into one network. resistance, the conductance is just the
and even antennas. Typical values of reciprocal. That is, the conductance of a
Rp are 52, 75, 300 and 600 ohms. The Solving Ladder-Network Problems 50-ohm resistance is 1/50 or 2 X 10 -2 .
maximum available power is given by From the last section it is evident that if The reciprocal unit of the ohm is the mho.
the values of Ri n and ?Chi of Fig. 66A can For simple inductances and capacitances,
Eac 2 be determined, the effective attenuation the formulas for the respective reciprocal
Pm" — 4R o and possibly the insertion loss are also entities are
easily found. Being able to solve this
If the network is also dissipationless, the problem has wide applications in rf B — —1 Bc = 2rfC
power delivered to the load resistance, Rs, circuits. For instance, design formulas for 2rfl.
is just the power " dissipated" in Rm. This filters often include a simplifying as-
and are defined as susceptances. In a
power is related to the input current by sumption that the load resistance is
parallel combination of conductances and
constant with frequency. In the case of
susceptances, the total conductance is the
Po =." l Rin many circuits, this assumption is not true.
sum of the individual conductances, and
However, if the value of Rs and Xs at any
the total susceptances is the sum of the
and the current in terms of the other particular frequency is known, the at-
individual susceptances, taking the res-
variables is tenuation of the filter can be determined
pective signs of the latter into account. A
even though it is improperly terminated.
E at:
comparison between the way resistance
lin Unfortunately, while the solution to
v (
Rp Rip )
2 + ( X, + X, p)
2 and reactance add and the manner in
any ladder problem is possible from a
which conductance and susceptance add is
Combining the foregoing expressions theoretical standpoint, practical difficul-
shown in the example of Fig. 67. An entity
gives avery useful formula for the ratio of ties are encountered as the network com-
called admittance can be defined in terms
power delivered to aload in terms of the plexity increases. Many computations
of the total conductance and total suscep-
maximum available power. This ratio to a high degree of accuracy may be
tance by the formula
expressed in decibels is given by required, making the process a tedious
P one. Consequently, the availability of a
Attn = — 10 log o= Y = —T2 -I
- BT2
calculator or similar computing device is
recommended. The approach used here is
4RR p
adapted readily to any calculating method and is often denoted by the symbol Y. If
—10 log [(R, R, n)2 X, n121
including the use of an inexpensive pocket the impedance of acircuit is known, the
calculator. admittance is just the reciprocal. Like-
and is sometimes called the effective wise, if the admittance of a circuit is
attenuation. Susceptance and Admittance known, the impedance is the reciprocal of
In the special case where Xp and Xs are the admittance. However, conductance,
The respective reactances of an in-
either zero or can be combined into a reactance, resistance and susceptance are
coupling network, and where Rp is equal ductor and acapacitor are given by
not so simply related. If the total
to Rs, the effective attenuation is also —1 resistance and total reactance of a series
XL = 2rfL Xc
equal to the insertion loss of the network. 2rfC
circuit are known, the conductance and
The insertion loss is the ratio of the power In a simple series circuit, the total susceptance of the circuit are related to
delivered to the load with the coupling resistance is just the sum of the individual the latter by the formulas

2-37 Chapter 2
 52-ohm primary resistance (both X, and Hz. To change a " one-radian" filter to a
(10411) X, are zero). Since this is acase where the new frequency f, (in Hz), all that is
2 759mH
5211 effective attenuation is equal to the inser- necessary is to multiply the inductances
tion loss, the previous formula for effec- and capacitances by 0.1592/f..
EAC 510 1pF
(0049230) tive attenuation applies. Therefore, it is In a similar manner, if one resistance
510 1pF 5211.
(0.01923U) (0.01923U)
required to find Rin and X. (or conductance) is multiplied by some
Starting at the output, the values for the factor n, all the other resistances (or
conductance and susceptance of the conductances) and reactances ( or sus-
(A) parallel RC circuit must be determined ceptances) must be multiplied by the same
104n..
first. The conductance is just the factor in order to preserve the network
78 0111

_ _
-2611
reciprocal of 52 ohms and the previous characteristics. For instance, if the secon-
formula for capacitive susceptance gives dary resistance, R, is multiplied by n,
2611
G• 0.0038 45 V
8.0.01154v
the value shown in parentheses in Fig. all circuit inductances must be multiplied
2614.
69A. (The upside-down 12 is the symbol by n and the circuit capacitances divided
for mho.) The next step is to apply the by n (since capacitive reactance varies as
(B) (C) formulas for resistance and reactance in the inverse of C). If, in addition to con-
terms of the conductance and susceptance verting the filter of Fig. 69A to 7 MHz
0 003845V 0 007693v and the results give a26-ohm resistance in from 6MHz, it was also desired to change
series with a — 26-ohm capacitive reac- the impedance level from 52 to 600 ohms,
tance as indicated in Fig. 69B. The reac- the inductance would have to be
tance of the inductor can now be added to multiplied by (6/7)(600/52) and the capac-
give atotal reactance of 78.01 ohms. The itances by (6/7)(52/600).
conductance and susceptance formulas Using Filter Tables
0 01923V 0.003845 r can now be applied and the results of both
RIN • 51.98 /1.. In aprevious example, it was indicated
XIN• -104 of these operations is shown in Fig. 69C.
that the frequency response of a filter
(D) (E) Finally, adding the susceptance of the

j
RP could be derived by solving for the
52n. 510.1-pF capacitor (Fig. 69D) gives the
insertion loss of the ladder network for a
circuit at Fig. 69A and applying the for-
Eisc
XIN
number of frequencies. The question
mulas once more gives the value of Ri n
-104 11.
3.01d13 might be asked if the converse is possible.
and Xi n ( Fig. 69F). If the latter values are
51.9811. That is, given a desired frequency
substituted into the effective attenuation
response, could a network be found that
formula, the insertion loss and effective
would have this response? The answer is a
attenuation are 3.01 dB, which is very
(F) qualified yes and the technical nomen-
close to the value specified. The reader
clature for this sort of process is network
might verify that the insertion loss is
Fig. 69 — Problem illustrating network reduc- synthesis. Frequency responses can be
0.167, 0.37 and 5.5 dB at 3.5, 4.0 and 7.0 "cataloged" and, if asuitable one can be
tion to find insertion loss.
MHz respectively. If a plot of insertion
found, the corresponding network ele-
loss versus frequency was constructed it ments can be determined from an asso-
would give the frequency response of the ciated table. Filters derived by network
RT filter. synthesis and similar methods (such as
G = , B —
RT2 XT' optimized computer designs) are often
Frequency Scaling
referred to as " modern filters" even
and Normalized Impedance
On the other hand, if the total con- though the theory has been in existence
ductance and total susceptance of a Quite often, it is desirable to be able to for years. The term is useful in dis-
parallel combination are known, the change a coupling network at one tinguishing such designs from those of an
equivalent resistance and reactance can be frequency and impedance level to another older approximate method called image-
found from the formulas one. For example, suppose it was desired parameter theory.
to move the 3-dB point of the filter in the
GT preceding illustration from 6 to 7 MHz. Butterworth Filters
—B T
R — , X — Filters can be grouped into four general
ur oT -
, GT2 + Br' An examination of the reactance and
susceptance formulas reveals that multi- categories as illustrated in Fig. 70A. Low-
The relations are illustrated in Fig. 68A plying the frequency by some constant k pass filters have zero insertion loss up to
and Fig. 68B respectively. While the and dividing both the inductance and some critical frequency ( f e)or cutoff fre-

derivation of the mathematical expres- capacitance by the same value of kleaves quency and then provide high rejection
sions will not be given, the importance of the equations unchanged. Thus, if the above this frequency. (The latter condi-
the sign change cannot be stressed too capacitances and inductance in Fig. 63A tion is indicated by the shaded lines in Fig.
highly. Solving network problems with a are multiplied by 6/7, all the reactances 70.) Band-pass filters have zero insertion
calculator is merely a matter of book- and susceptances in the new circuit will loss between two cutoff frequencies with
keeping, and failure to take the sign now have the same value at 7 MHz that high rejection outside of the prescribed
change associated with the transformed the old one had at 6 MHz. "bandwidth." ( Band-stop filters reject a
reactance and susceptance is the most It is common practice with many filter band of frequencies while passing all
common source of error. tables especially, to present all the circuit others.) And high-pass filters reject all fre-
components for a number of designs at quencies below some cutoff frequency.
A Sample Problem some convenient frequency. Translating The attenuation shapes shown in Fig.
The following example illustrates the the design to some desired frequency is 70A are ideal and can only be approached
manner in which the foregoing theory can simply accomplished by multiplying all or approximated in practice. For instance,
be applied to apractical problem. A filter the components by some constant factor. if the filter in the preceding problem was
with the schematic diagram shown in Fig. The most common frequency used is the used for low-pass purposes in an 80-meter
69A is supposed to have an insertion loss value of fsuch that 2nf is equal to 1.0. transmitter to reject harmonics on 40
at 6 MHz of 3 dB when connected be- This is sometimes called a radian fre- meters, its performance would leave alot
tween a52-ohm load and asource with a quency of 1.0 and corresponds to 0.1592 to be desired. While insertion loss at 3.5

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-38

 L2 L4

03 05

(A)

L3 05

02 04

' [51

Fig. 70 - Ideal filter response curves are

shown at A and characteristics of practical
Fig. 71 - Schematic diagram of a Butterworth low-pass filter. ( See Table 10 for element values.)
filters are shown at B.

MHz was acceptable, it would likely be 20-element filter designed for a 3.01-dB next to the load (Fig. 71A) or aseries ele-
too high at 4.0 MHz and rejection would cutoff frequency of 4.3 MHz, would have ment next to the load (Fig. 71B) Either
probably be inadequate at 7.0 MHz. an insertion loss at 4MHz of 0.23 dB and filter will have the same response.
Fortunately, design formulas exist for 84.7 dB at 7 MHz. However, practical After the values for the 1-ohm, 1-
this type of network and form aclass called difficulties would make such afilter very radian/second "prototype" filter are found,
Butterworth filters. The name is derived hard to construct. Therefore, some com- the corresponding values for the actual
from the shape of the curve for insertion- promises are always required between a frequency/impedance level can be deter-
loss vs. frequency and is sometimes called theoretically perfect frequency response mined (see the section on frequency and
amaximally flat response. A formula for and ease of construction. impedance scaling). The prototype in-
the frequency response curve is given by ductance and capacitance values are
Element Values
multiplied by the ratio (0. l592/) where
Once the number of elements, k, is fc is the actual 3.01-dB cutoff frequency.
A = 10 log ic, determined, the next step is to find the Next, this number is multiplied by the
network configuration corresponding to load resistance in the case of an inductor
k. ( Filter tables sometimes have sets of and divided by the load resistance if the
where curves that enable the user to select the element is acapacitance. For instance, the
fc = the frequency for an insertion desired frequency response curve rather filter in the preceding example is for a
loss of 3.01 dB than use a formula. Once the curve with three-element design ( kequal to 3) and the
k = the number of circuit elements the fewest number of elements for the reader might verify the values for the
specified passband and stop-band inser- components for an f c of 6 MHz and load
The shape of aButterworth low-pass filter tion loss is found, the filter is then resistance of 52 ohms.
is shown in the left-hand portion of Fig. fabricated around the corresponding
70B. (Another type that is similar in value of k.) Table 10 gives normalized ele- High-Pass Butterworth Filters
nature, only one that allows some "rip- ment values for values of k from 1to 10. The formulas for change of impedance
ple" in the passband, is also shown in Fig. This table is for 1-ohm source and load and frequency from the I-ohm, 1- radian/
70B. Here, a high-pass characteristic il- resistance (reactance zero) and a 3.01-dB second prototype to some desired level
lustrates aChebyshev response.) cutoff frequency of 1 radian/second can also be conveniently written as
As can be seen from the formula, (0.1592 Hz). There are two possible circuit
increasing the number of elements will configurations and these are shown in Fig.
result in a filter that approaches the 71. Here, a five-element filter is given as 1
L = R Lprototyp5 C 2r f- cR - prototype
"ideal" low-pass shape. For instance, a an example with either a shunt element

Table 10
Prototype Butterworth Low- Pass Filters

Fig. 7M L2 C3 L4 C5 L6 C7 L8 C9 L10
Fig. 71B C2 L3 C4 L5 C6 L7 C8 L9 C10

20000
14142 1.4142
3 10000 20000 1.0000
4 0 7654 18478 1.8478 0.7654
5 06180 1.6180 2.0000 1.6180 0.6180
6 05176 1.4142 1.9319 1.9319 1.4142 0.5176
7 04450 1.2470 1.8019 2.0000 1.8019 12470 04450
8 03902 1.1111 1.6629 1.9616 1.9616 16629 11111 03902
9 0.3473 10000 1.5321 1.8794 2.0000 18794 1.5321 10000 034 73
10 03129 0.9080 1.4142 1.7820 1.9754 1.9754 17820 14142 09080 03129

2-39 Chapter 2
where
R = the load resistance in ohms
fc = the desired 3.01-dB
frequency in Hz

Then L and C give the actual circuit-

element values in henrys and farads in
terms of the prototype element values
from Table 10.
However, the usefulness of the low-pass
prototype does not end here. If the
following set of equations is applied to the
prototype values, circuit elements for a
high-pass filter can be obtained. The filters
are shown in Fig. 72A and Fig. 72B which
correspond to Fig. 71A and Fig. 71B in
Table 10. The equations for the actual
high-pass circuit values in terms of the
low-pass prototype are given by

1
C = L —
R2 rfcCprot 2rf,E, pr „, Fig. 72 — Network configuration of a Butter-
worth high-pass filter. The low-pass prototype Fig. 73 — A Butterworth band-pass filter.
and the frequency response curve can be can be transformed as described in the text. (Capacitance values are in picofarads.)
obtained from

and fci) are then given by will become apparent. Consequently,

I 4. \ 2k
A = 10 log using a logarithmic plot is helpful in
designing filters of this type.
— 13W, + (BW)2 40'
= Examination of the component values
For instance, ahigh-pass filter with three 2 reveals that while the filter is practical, it
elements, a 3.01-dB f of 6 MHz and 52 fci + BW c is a bit untidy from a construction
ohms, has aC Iand C3 of 510 pF and an standpoint. Rather than using a single
L2 of 0.6897 ¡ill. The insertion loss at 3.5 A somewhat more convenient method 340.1-pF capacitor, paralleling anumber
and 7 MHz would be 14.21 and 1.45 dB is to pick a3.01-dB bandwidth (the wider of smaller valued units would be ad-
respectively. the better) around some center frequency visable. Encountering difficulty of this
and compute the attenuation at other sort is typical of most filter designs;
Butterworth Band-Pass Filters frequencies of interest by using the consequently, some tradeoffs between
Band-pass filters can also be designed transformation: performance, complexity and ease of
through the use of Table 10. Unfortunate- construction are usually required.
ly the process is not as straightforward as (f fo\ fo
foT7 BWc Additional Modern Filters
it is for low- and high-pass filters if aprac- fc =
tical design is to be obtained. In essence, a Butterworth filters are used where flat
low-pass filter is resonated to some which can be substituted into the insertion- passband response, well-behaved phase
"center frequency" with the 3.01-dB loss formula or table of curves. shift characteristics and exact impedance
cutoff frequency being replaced by the As an example, suppose it is desired to matching are important. They are subject
filter bandwidth. The ratio of the band- build a band-pass filter for the 15- meter to two limitations, however. For agiven
width to center frequency must be rela- Novice band in order to eliminate the number of elements, the rate of attenua-
tively large, otherwise component values possibility of radiation on the 14- and tion (roll-off) in the transition band is not
tend to become unmanageable. 28- MHz bands. For astarting choice, 16 as great as can be obtained with some other
While there are many variations of and 25 MHz will be picked as the 3.01-dB designs of the same complexity. In addi-
specifying such filters, a most useful points giving a3-dB bandwidth of 9MHz. tion, the ratio of capacitances is fixed at
approach is to determine an upper and For these two points, f o will be 20 MHz. It anumber that may not result in standard
lower frequency for a given attenuation. is common practice to equate the number component values. The values can by syn-
The center frequency and bandwidth are of branch elements or filter resonators to thesized by connecting several capacitors in
then given by certain mathematical entities called "poles" parallel, but this practice may set up
and the number of poles is just the value parasitic resonances that greatly distort the
of kfor purposes of discussion here. For a band-pass and band-stop characteristics.
= ./7f7 BW f
2— f
1
three-pole filter ( kof 3), the insertion loss In applications requiring sharper cut-off
will be 12.79 and 11.3 dB at 14 and 28 or where some response ripple and pass-
If the bandwidth specified is not the MHz, respectively. band impedance mismatch can be
3.01 -dB bandwidth (BWc), the latter can CI, C3 and L2 are then calculated for a tolerated, a Chebyshev design should be
be determined from 9-MHz low-pass filter and the elements considered. A variety of capacitance ratios
for this filter are resonated to 20 MHz as is possible, depending on the allowable rip-
BW shown in Fig. 73A. The response shape is ple. Many of these ratios result in standard-
BM!, =
plotted in Fig. 73B and it appears to be value capacitors, which greatly simplies and
1 10 1A_ 2K
unsymmetrical about f o.In spite of this economizes the circuit.
fact, such filters are called symmetrical Another type of modern filter, the ellip-
in the case of a Butterworth response or band-pass filters and f o is the " center fre- tic, is used in situations requiring extreme-
from tables of curves. A is the required quency." ly sharp cut-off with one or more " infinite-
attenuation at the cutoff frequencies. The If the response is plotted against a ly deep" notches in the stopband. Like the
upper and lower cutoff frequencies ( fou logarithmic frequency scale, the symmetry Chebyshev, the design parameters can be

glibetrimal tawn and Circuits 2-40

 divided by 100, and is designated by the
Table 11
Greek letter p (rho). (These concepts are
7- Element Low- Pass Chebyshev Designs
discussed in detail in the chapter on
Z = 50 ohms, inductive input
transmission lines.)
Fittr Frequency (MHz) - VSWR Cl,C7 L2,L6 C3,C5 L4 The relationship between p and VSWR is
No. AP-db 3- dB 20- dB 50-dB (pF) (RH) (pF) (µH)

1.401
I ' IP a
1 1.03.. 1.162 2.050 5600 12.57
VSWR = I - IPI d - VSWR - 1
n IPI
1.033 1. 299 1.533 2.48u 4700 11. 8: - VSWR + 1
3 1.208 1. 368 1.558 2.45H 2200 „.. 2l
ii 4700 10. 7'
1.250 1.566 1.967 2.9'94 1500 7 901 39:0û 9.845
1.440 1.541 1.993 2.95 l 1800 7 .- 3900 9.825
3. 1.682 1.929 .... .513 1500 5.577 3300 7.721 Design no. 5of Table 14 has an R.C. listed
1.;'45 2.248 2. a44 1000 3.447 >
2 700 5.894 as 3.71%, which corresponds to a p of
2. :
34 1 ' 1200 5.414 2700 6.402 0.0371. The VSWR would be 1.0371/
..155 3. 490 820 4.442 2200 5.507 0.9629, or 1.077:1. This figure, when
1...1 .2.524 2.894 1000 4.384 .2 2e0 5. 147
11 - 655 4. 1:154 1800 4.570
multiplied by and divided into the filter
12 .
-9 4.310 1800 4.205 load impedance, gives the maximum and
166 4.051 5.118 560 3.029 1500 minimum impedance values seen at the
14 3.694 4.340 5.158 6:30 2 992 1500 3.▪515 filter input when the output is terminated
15 4.15 5.108 6.394 470 2.433 1200 2.011 in the design impedance. Since the design
16 4.719 5.354 6.491 60 2.369 1200 2.759
1" 4.923 5.125 39 2.027 impedance in this example is 50 ohms, the
1000
12 5.6 9 4 6.442 7.1301 47û 1.969 1000 '.▪287 maximum and minimum impedances
1-.172 7.516 9.361 230 1.554 820 2.0 .
37 presented by the input terminals are 53.85
.0 7.007 7.892 9.535 1.605 820 1.859 and 46.42 ohms.
1. 352 9 .02? 11. 29 270 1.379 6: 2:0
4 . 1,:4
The insertion loss variation (ripple)
11.55 220 1.318 6 8C1 1.517
10.95 1 70 0 1.135 560 1.403 within the passband of afilter is always of
¿4 10.37 11.52 14.01 ,>•,'0 1.089 560 1.255 interest, and is related to the impedance
25 10.22. 12. 99 L.Yt 0.951 1'0 1.1".10 variation by A pog) = - 10 • log(1 - P2).
Again using the example of design 5 of
L4 L6 A50 1.
Table 14, the ripple is - 10 • log(I -
L2
(0.0371) 2) = 0.00598 dB.
For radio frequency filtering, use designs
.0-5011. with reflection coefficients less than about
7% (VSWR = 1.151) to minimize
C5 C7 3
undesired reflections. For audio-frequency
4 Ap applications, the attenuation ripple in the
FREQUENCY ( Hz) I F50
passband is of more concern than reflec-
1F-3dB tions, and designs with reflection coeffi-
F-A p
cients up to 30% (Ap = 0.41 dB) are used
to obtain amore abrupt rise in band-stop
attenuation.

Selected Filter Bibliography

The following texts and articles are
recommended for more in-depth study of
manipulated to produce circuits having at pedance levels, are available for $4 from filter theory and application.
least some standard-value capacitors. Ed Wetherhold, W3NQN, 102 Archwood Allen, W. H. "Modern Filter Design for
%Tables 11 through 15 were prepared by Ave., Annapolis, MD 21401. the Radio Amateur." Radio Communi-
Ed Wetherhold and John Barge, both of cation, August 1971.
Honeywell Inc. Tables 11 and 12 are Using the Tables
Blinchikoff, H. and A. Zverev. Filtering
designs for Chebyshev low-pass filters, one The Chebyshev tables span the 1- to in the Time and Frequency Domains.
for 7-element capacitive-input filters and 10-MHz decade, while the elliptic tables New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1976.
one for 5-element inductive-input filters. cover different, somewhat larger, ranges. Christian, E. LC-Filters: Design, Testing,
The inductive-input filters are called for The usefulness of the tables extends far and Manufacturing. New York: John
when acapacitive-input design destabilizes beyond the published frequency ranges, Wiley and Sons, 1983.
the associated electronic circuit. Chebyshev however. For example, if you need a Geffe, P. Simplified Modern Filter Design.
7-element high-pass filters are listed 7-element low-pass filter with atransition Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden Publishing
in Table 13. Tables 14. and 15 treat the band beginning at 30.9 MHz, simply select Co., 1963.
elliptic low- and high-lfass designs. design no. 12 from Table 11 and scale all Graf, R. Electronic Databook, 3rd Ed.,
The tables are baste on standard-value of the values by afactor of 10. Thus, the Passive LC Filter Design, pp. 117-143,
10-percent-tolerance capacitors and asowee 3-dB roll-off frequency would be 35.39 Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books,
and load impedance of 50 ohms. For some MHz and the component values would be 1983.
applications, the spacing between cut-off 82 pF, 180 pF, 0.3585 µH and 0.4205 µH. Webb, J. " High-Pass Filters for Receiving
frequencies from one design to the next The band-pass impedance variation is Applications." QST, October 1983.
may be too coarse. Such cases are covered described by VSWR in some of the tables Wetherhold, E. " Modern Filter Design for
by catalogs of designs based on 5-percent- and by reflection coefficient percentage the Radio Amateur." QST, September
tolerance, standard-value capacitors. These (R.C.) in others. Reflection coefficient is 1969.
tables, as well as those covering other im- simply the R.C. (%) value in the table Wetherhold. " Low-Pass Filters for Ama-

2- 41 Chapter 2
 teur Radio Transmitters." QST,
Table 12
December 1979.
5- Element Low- Pass Chebyshev Designs
Wetherhold. " Modern Design of a CW
Z = 50 ohms, inductive input Filter Using 88- and 44-mH Surplus
VSWR Inductors." QST, December 1980.
Fltr Frequency (MHz) Ll,L5 C2,C4 L3
Wetherhold. " Low- Pass Chebyshev Filters
No. AP-dB 3-dB 20-dB 50-dB (µH) (pF) (pH)
Use Standard- Value Capacitors."
1.120 1.326 1.809 3. :21 1.22 6.914 3900 12.81 Engineer's notebook, Electronics,
1.109 1.347 1.856 3.431 1.17 6.436 3900 12.38 June 19, 1980.
3 1.069 1.D,_ 1. 9 32 3.1617 1.11 5.702 3900 11.82 Wetherhold. " Design 7-element Low- Pass
1.009 1.386 1.988 3.764 1.06 5.173 3900 11.52 Filters Using Standard-Value Capaci-
1.324 1.568 2.137 3.925 1.22 5.s50 3300 10.84 tors." EDN, Vol. 26, No. 1, January
1.311 1.592 2.193 4.055 1.17 5.446 3.300 10.48 7, 1981.
1.264 1.623 4.275 1.11 4.825 3300 10.00 Wetherhold. " Elliptic Lowpass Filters for
1.1 9 2 1.638 2.349 4.448 1.06 4.377 3300 9.747 Transistor Amplifiers." Ham Radio,
1.012 1.635 2.423 4.674 1.02 3300 9.632 January 1981.
10 1.618 1.916 2.612 4.797 1.22 4.787 2700 8.869
Wetherhold. " High- Pass Chebyshev Filters
11 1.602 1.945 2.681 4.956 1.17 4.455 2700 8.573
Use Standard- Value Capacitors."
12 1.545 1. 9 84 2.791 5.25 1.11 3.948 2700 8.182
13 Engineer's notebook, Electronics,
1.457 2.002 2.871 5.437 1.06 3.581 2700 7.975
14 1. 1. 999 2.962 5.13 1.02 3.131 January 27, 1981.
2700 7.881
15 1..71E5 4.351 3.206 1.22 D.900 2200 7.2 2 7 Wetherhold. " Low- Pass Filters - Table of
16 1.967 3.2 9 . II83 1 . 1 ;" 3.63 o 22 00t., 986 Precalculated Chebyshev Low- Pass
17 1.8 9 6 2.435 3.425 6.412 1.11 3.216 2200 6.667 Filters with Inductive Input and Out-
18 1.789 2.457 3.524 6.67 , 1.06 2.913 2200 6.498 put." RF Design, July/August,
19 1.519 2.453 3.635 7.012 1.02 2.551 2200 6.421 Sept./Oct. 1981.
ii 2.427 2.874 3.918 7.196 1.22 3.191 1800 5.913 Wetherhold. " Practical 75- and 300-Ohm
21 2.404 2.918 4.021 7.435 1.17 2.970 1800 5.715 High- Pass Filters." QST, February
2. sF' . 9'15 4 . 186 7 . 837 1 . 11 2. b 1800 5.455 1982.
2.186 ...003
7 4.307 8.155 1.06 2.38, 1800 5.316 Wetherhold. " Table Picks Standard Ca-
24 1.856 4.998 4.443 R.570 1.02 2.087 1800 5.254 pacitors for Low- Pass Elliptic Filters."
4.912 3.44 9 4.7112 8_635 1_72,7 . 1500 4.927
Designer's casebook, Electronics,
)1:C. 2.884 3.502 4.825 1.17 2.475 1500 4.763
, November 30, 1982.
.781 3.571 5.023 9.405 1.11 2.19 1500 4.545
.623 . 603 5.168 9.786 1.06 1.989 Wetherhold. " Table Picks Standard Ca-
1500 4.430
3.598 5-331 10.28 1.02 1., -.39 1500 4.378 pacitors for High- Pass Elliptic Filters."
30 J.▪64171 4.311 5.878 10.7 9 1.2' . 1200 3.942 Designer's casebook, Electronics,
31 .7-.6017:: 4.377 6.0 -.4 11.15 1.17 1.980 1200 3.810 February 24, 1983.
3.476 4.464 6.27 9 11.76 1.11 1.754 1200 7. - 7 Wetherhold. " Simplified Elliptic Lowpass
"" ::. 9 4.504 6.460 12.23 1.06 1.591 1200 3.544 Filter Construction using Surplus 88-mH
>34 1.734 4.497 6.664 12.85 1.02 1.391 1200 3.501 Inductors." Radio Communication,
2' 4.368 5.173 7.053 12.95 1.22 1.772 1000 . 285 April 1983.
4.327C e" 13.30 1.17 1.650 1000 8.175 Wilkinson, J. " An Introduction to Elliptic
4.171 14.11 1.1.1 1.46: 117100 3.030 Filters for the Radio Amateur." Radio
3.935 5.405 14.68 1.06 1...:26 1000 2.953 Communication, February 1983.
39 3.341 = * De2.1- 15.43 1.02 1.15? 1000 2.918
Williams, A. B. Electronic Filter Design
▪ 5._ 6. -
309 8.601 15.80 1.2.7. 1.45i 8. 20 4.6,3
Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill
41 J.2,6 c.4c15 8.827 16.32 1.17 1.353 8- 20 2.603
42 5.086 6.532 9.1u9 17.20 1.11 1.199 820 2.485 Book Co., 1981.
4.: 4.7 9 9 6.591 9 .453 17.90 1.06 1.087 820 2.422 Zverev, A. Handbook of Filter Sythesis.
44 4.074 6.58:. 9.753 18.81 1.02 0.950 820 ' 2 .$93 New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1967.
- 6.424 7.608 10.37 19 .05 1.22 1.205 580
• 6.363 7.724 10.64 19.68 1.17 1.122 680 2.159
• 6.134 . 877 11.08 20.75 1.11 0.994 680 2.060
4u 5.787 7.948 11.40 21.59 1.06 0.902 6R0 2.nO8
49 4.913 7. 1.02 0.78u 6F.:0 1.984
50 7.800 9.238 12.59 ._ 1 I 0.9 9 560 1.839
51 9.379 12. 9 3 . 90 1.17 0.924 560 1.778
52 7.448 9.565 13.46 25.19 1.11 0.81u 560 1.697
53 7.027 9.651 13.84 26.21 1.06 560 1.654
54 5.966 9.637 14.28 : .7.55 1.02 0.64 9 560 1.634
L„. 470 1.543
9.294 11.01 15.01 4,.J6 1.22 0.63
56 9 .206 11.18 15.40 28.47 1.17 0.775 470 1.492
J, 8.874 11.40 16.03 30.01 1.11 0.6R," 4713 1.424 .2 50
R.372 11.50 16.49 .31...L.D 1.06 0.62.: 470 1.388 o
▪ 7.108 11.48 17.02 32.82 1.02 0.545 470 1.371
2
▪c1 10.69 13.73 1-' 1-1 -' 1.11 0.570 390 1.181 DENO , ES E. OF

61 10.09 13.86 19.88 37.64 1.06 0.51T 390 1.152

h' 13.84 1.02 0.4°..,,s . .
1:91:. ,
1 1.138
63 10.
▪ 12 16.35 24.23 46.74 1.02 0.- 3:7:1:71 0.963
Ap
o

FREQUENCY ( Hz)

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2.42

Table 13
7- Element High- Pass Chebyshev Designs
Z = 50 ohms, capacitive input

Filtr Frequency (MHz) VSWR Cl,C7 L2,L6 C3,C5 L4

No. AP-dB 3-dB 20-dB 50-dB (pF) (
µH) (
pF) (µH)

1 1.002 0.880 0.724 0.48D 1.11 ... D00 5.673 1800 4.855
1.159 0.92 2 0.734 0.482 1.02 4700 5.554 1800 4.449
1.217 1.061 111.871 0.587 1.10 3300 4.703 1500 4.006
4 1.386 1.106 0.880 0.578 1.03 3900 4.627 1500 3.713
5 1.546 1.336 1.092 0.734 1.09 2700 3.7.1 - 1200 3.162
6 1.825 1.592 1.307 0.881 1.10 22 00 3.135 1000 2.671
7 2.150 1.659 1.320 0.852 1.02 2700 3.097 1000 2.447
8 1.940 1.593 1.074 1.10 1800 2.573 820 2.193
9 2.606 2.034 1.610 1.053 1.02 22 00 2.538 820 2.rilo
lo 2.689 2.343 1.922 1.295 1.10 1500 2.130 680 1.813
11 3.105 2.447 1.941 1.272 1.03 1800 2.101 680 1.573
12 3.195 2.815 2.3 2 3 1.572 1.12 1200 1.772 560 1.522
13 3.810 2.977 2.357 1.542 1.02 1500 1.7... 550 1.373
14 3.786 3.347 2.754 1.872 1.12 1000 1.491 470 1.282
15 4.355 3.517 2.810 1.851 1.04 1200 1.448 470 1.170
16 4.521 4.015 3.32 2 2 .255 1.13 82 0 1.244 390 1.074
A7 5. 2 67 4.242 3.385 2.230 1.03 101110 1.202 390 0.969
18 5.260 4.706 3.908 2.660 1.15 680 1.063 330 0.924
19 6.067 4.981 4.000 2.546 1.04 820 1.015 330 0.829
20 5.462 5.767 4.784 3. 2 53 1.14 550 0.867 270 0.752
21 7.496 6.105 4.890 - .22 9 1. 114 680 0.831 270 0.675
8.113 7.161 5.909 4.000 1.12 470 0.697 ;
a' 20 0.599
FREQUENCY ( FUI
9. 2 80 7.509 6.00 2 1.04 550 0.577 7' 211
' ii548
24 10.02 8.796 7.241 4.891 1.11 390 0.557 180 0.485

Table 14
50- Ohm Low- Pass Elliptic Filter Designs with 10% Standard-Value Capacitors for Cl, C3 and C5

Filtr F- CO F-3dB F-AS AS R.C. Cl C3 C5 C2 C4 L2 L4 F2 F4

(MHz) - - - - - (dB) (YO) (
pF) - - - - - (µH) - - - - (MHz) - - -

1 0.0 0.99 1.57 47.4 4.40 2 700 F.F:.00 Z200 324 937 12.1 10.1 2.54 1.64
2 1.06 1.20 1.77 46.2 10.5 2 700 47111.1 2200 341 982 9.36 7.56 2.32 1.85
1.47 1.7 2.15 45.4 22.7 2 700 2900 2200 365 1045 6.32 4.88 3.32 2.23
2.15 2.21 2.85 45.5 42.7 2 700 2300 2200 392 1121 3.55 2.61 4.27 2.94

0.93 1.18 1.91 48.0 3.71 22 00 4700 1:::00 257 743 10.2 8.59 3.11 1.99
1.27 1.45 2.17 46.7 9.69 2 200 3900 1800 271 779 7.85 6.39 3.45 2.26
1.69 1.32 2.54 45.9 19.7 22 00 3300 1800 287 821 5.64 4.42 3.96 2.64
2.63 2.71 3.51 45.9 42.5 7.7.00 2700
. 1:::00 312 890 2.91. 2.16 5.29 3.53

9 1.49 1.73 2.70 48.7 8.40 1800 2:200 1500 200 570 5.75 5.62 4.33 2.81
10 2.11 3.27 47.8 2 0.2 1800 2700 1500 213 eo4 4.55 3.54 5.1 2 3.40
11 3.41 :3.50 4.66 48.1 45.3 1800 2200 1503 230 651 2. 2 0 1.67 7.07 4.82

12 1.79 2.05 2.99 44.8 8.89 1500 2700 1200 204 592 5.52 4.42 4.74 3.11
13 2.52 2.1 70 3.63 43.8 2 0.8 1500 2200 1200 22 0 1
2.31. 3.71 2 .82 E3.76
14 3.39 3.99 5.01 43.6 43.7 15on 13oo 17.oci 241 697 1.90 1.35 7.43 17

15 2.23 2.59 4.04 48.7 8.40 1200 2200 1000 133 380 4.50 3.75 6.50 4.22
16 3.17 :3.41_ 4.90 47.8 2 0.2 12 00 1800 1000 142 402 3.03 2.42
17 4.79 4. 6.62 47.9 41.5 1200 1500 Inn° 152 430 1.64 1. 2 5 10.1

18 2.73 3.14 4.73 47.0 9.05. 1000 1800 320 121 348 3.55 2.99 7.56 4.93
19 4.0 2 5.63 46.1 19.7 1000 1500 82 0 129 369 2.56 2.01 8.76 5.85
0 5.12 6.37 8.23 45.3 46.5 1000 1200 320 141 403 1.18 0.7 12.3 8.50

21 2.39 3.11 5.20 49.4 3.15 82 0 1800 630 89.3 256 3.91 3.35 8.51 5.43
22 3.26 3.79 5.05 48.2 3.4e 82 0 1500 92:.6 2iLT.7 3.07 2.54 9.39 6.10
23 4:83 5 17 7.30 47.2 22.1 82 0 1200 6:::0 101 286 1.95 1.54 11.4
24 7.44 7:64 10.1 47.5 45.1 820 1000 1:.80 10S 306 1.01 0.76 15.2 10.4

2.43 Chapter2
Filtr F- CO F-3dB F-AS AS R.C. Cl C3 C5 C2 C4 L2 L4 F2 F4
No. - (
MHz) - - - (dB) (%) (pH) - - - - (MHZ) -

25 4.16 4.74 7.14 47.3 9.94 680 1200 5613 81.3 233 2.40 1.97 11.4 7.44
26 5.72 6.13 8.58 46.5 21.5 680 1000 5613 86.3 246 1.65 1.30 13.3 P..90
27 9.12 9.35 12.2 46.8 46.2 5813 820 51:.0 93.7 26E. 0.81 0.60 18.3 12.6

28 5.02 5.77 9.01 49.4 9.57 5611 1000 470 60.2 171 2.01 1.68 14.5 9.40
29 7.18 7.68 11.1 22.5 560 820 470 64.1 181 1.32 1.06 17.3 11.5
11.4 11.7 15.7 49.1 47.5 5613 G80 470 68.9 194 0.64 0.49 23.9 16.3
31 5.02 5.779.01 49.4 9.57 560 1000 470 60.3 171 8 .01 1.68 14.5 9.40
32 7.18 7.68 11.1 48.6 22.5 550 88 0 470 64.1 181 1.32 1.0g. 17.3 11.5
33 11.4 11.7 15.7 49.1 47.5 5613 680 470 69.9 194 0.64 0.49 23.9 16.3

34 4.40 5.60 9.24 49.3 3.81 470 1000 290 51.4 147 2.16 1.84 15.1 9.66
35 6.17 7.01 10.6 48.0 10.5 470 820 290 54.2 155 1.63 1.34 17.0 11.1
36 8.63 9.20 12.9 47.3 23.2 470 680 390 oli.b 1E4 1.09 0.86 20.1 13.4
37 14.0 14.3 18.8 47.8 49.5 470 560 390 62.4 177 0.51 0.38 28.3 19.4

38 5.47 6.91 11.8 51.3 4.11 390 820 230 38.5 109 1.76 1.52 19.3 12.3
39 7.55 8.59 13.5 50. 2 10.8 39 n 680 220 40.4 14 1.34 1.12 21.7 14.1
40 10.9 11.5 16.7 49.5 24.8 390 560 23n 42.8 120 0.86 0.70 26.2 17.4
41 17.3 17.7 24.0 50.3 50.1 390 470 230 45.7 128 0.41 0.32 36.g. 24.9

42 5.59 8.17 13.0 47.7 4.57 320 680 270 39.0 112 1.46 1.22 21.1 13.6
43 9.10 10.2 15.0 46.5 11.8 330 550 270 41.2 118 1.09 23.7 15.6
44 12.4 13.2 18.1 45.8 24.1 320 470 8 70 43.9 125 0.74 0.57 27.9 la.;
45 19.7 20.1 25.7 46.2 49.0 330 390 270 47.6 126 0.36 0.26 38.5 26.6

F4 F2
L2
nnrr mnr
F2 •-•-• F4 11- 1P--0

,)+?"
50
-T- CI
02
,03
1
04
cg
I
50
11

01 1 o
ATTENUATION WM

MINIMUM STOPBAND
ATTENUATION, As

TRANSITION BAND STOPBAND

PASSBAND
RELATIVE

3
MAXIMUM PASSBAND
RIPPLE AMPLITUDE,

o FA,
FCO F3

FREQUENCY ( Hz)

Note: Tune L2 and C2 to F2: tune L4 and C4 to F4.

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-44

Table 15
5th- Degree Elliptic High- Pass Designs
Impedance level = 50 ohms

Filtr F-CO F-3 dB F-AS AS RC Cl C3 C5 C2 C4 L2 L4 F2 F4

No. (MHz) (dB) (%) (pF) (PH) (MHz)

6.38 5.99 4,26 47.3 23.4 390 270 470 3178 1119 1.06 1.34 2.74 4.10
7.34 6.47 4.18 49.2 10.8 470 270 560 4332 1528 0.86 1.03 2.61 4.01
8.39 6.73 4.17 48.4 4.41 560 270 680 4900 1705 0.78 0.93 2 .57 4.00
10.0 I p:: r, 50.4 1.15 680 21.'0 Li 6428 2235 0.77 0.89 6 6fr 3.57

H: 4. 5 H 2H.' : 3H 2:H -:90 .: 05u 1084 0.83 1.02 3.17 4,79

H.H!:5 H. ' 1' 4::.1 I• Ii 40 22H 470 .: 39H 1191 0.h 9 0.83 3.30 . 06
1H.4 H.I8 1 I HH.LI I, II LI ' 0..0 4562 1601 u.h4 0.74 2.95 ..1.h2
4.h1 FI I 1.▪0H , Y0 I LI E1 1.‘':'8 0.h: 0.;": 2.80 4.4":

H [0.1 H.:I:. t..Ï'H 45.9 19 .,' P3H :) 0 O.UU 0.84 4.2:1 6.46
1H 11.4 6.08 50.1 ':. HH Li 18H 39 0 3231 1.11-: 0.55 0.65 3.77 5.82
II I4.0 lu.1 6..0 ,
4 45 .4 I ILl lku 4,11 E1 LI 1. ,1 5 II H 0.61 3.69 5.;"r:

12 11.9 11.1 8,10 45.4 220 150 270 1639 571 0.56 0.73 5.23 7.80
13 13.8 12.0 7.97 46.8 9.03 270 150 330 2202 766 0.46 0.56 4.99 7.65
14 15.6 11.9 P
- .85 51.6 3.11 330 150 390 3372 1187 0.43 0.50 4.17 6.55
15 18.8 12.0 p . 61 50.7 0.85 390 150 470 3721 1293 0.43 0.49 3.97 6.31

16 15.1 it,0 10.1 4H. 9 ▪ Iku 1c,u :L 38 :L 482 0.44 11,517. 6.46 9.68
.1;" 1. 1..1 10.1J F
I Li 1 LI Li 1:68 614 O. : h 0.4'1 6.2? 9.61
18 Li ir I II 4H. : rf.r.
r1 O. : 4 0.40 H.6::
7 H.80

19 17.8 16.5 11.5 47.8 20.2 150 100 180 1268 447 0.37 0.46 7.33 11.0
20 20.7 18.0 12.0 46.8 9.03 180 100 220 1468 511 0.31 0.38 7.49 11.5
21 23.8 18.3L I 47.8 3.11 220 100 270 1859 643 0.29 0.34 6.89 10.8

22.2 20.8 15.5 43.7 21.0 120 82 150 819 283 0.31 0.40 10.1 14.9
23 25.2 21.7 13.9 48.e 8.49 150 82 180 1349 473 0.25 0.30 8.65 13.3
24 28.9 22.3 13.6 48.2 3.15 180 82 220 1549 537 0.24 0.28 8.33 13.0

25 25.7 24.0 16.8 47.8 21.9 100 68 120 840 296 0.26 0.33 10.8 16,2
30.5 26.8 18.5 tI i 9.72 120 68 150 877 302 0.21 0.26 11.7 17.8
34.8 26.6 15.7 49.9 3.06 150 68 180 1413 494 0.20 0.23 9.57 15.0

2E: 31.7 29.6 21.3 46.1 21.7 82 56 100 631 221 0.21 0.27 13.7 20.5
36.2 31.6 20.5 48.6 9.51 100 56 120 893 314 0.17 0.21 12.8 19.6
›? 41.9 33.0 21.1 46.1 3.64 120 56 150 930 319 0.16 0.19 13.0 20.?

▪ 68 47 H.: 55: 19 5 n.18 0.2.: 15.8 2.-3.6

lh.q 10.4 47 100 6'.«. 4 2":3 0.1 1.
, 0.18 [ 6.0 24.5
:H.4 '.. 1 1 i:.81 Inu 47 l:u u.14 0.1t, 14.1 22.1
4:'.4 1 LiH 1.'11 47 Piu q,"1 j32 0.1 7j. 0.16 13.9 22.171

35 44.4 41.7 30.1 46.5 23,6 56 39 68 437 153 0.15 0. 2 0 19.4 29.0
36 51.4 45.2 29.9 48.0 10.6 68 39 82 588 206 0.12 0.15 18.7 28.7
3? 58.8 46.7 29.0 48.0 4.08 82 39 100 705 245 0.11 0.13 17.8 27.8
38 70.9 46.0 25.4 51.1 0.97 100 39 120 972 338 0.11 0.13 15.2 24.2

39 50.7 47.7 33.5 48.5 25.2 33 56 407 144 0.13 0.17 21.5 32.2
40 59.9 53.4 36.0 47.1 11.8 56 33 68 463 162 0.11 0.13 22.7 34.6
41 68.1 54.8 33.7 49.0 4.58 68 33 82 615 215 0.10 0.11 20.7 32.2
42 80.7 55..0 31.7 49.3 1.30 82 33 100 733 254 0.09 0.11 19.1 30. 2

2-45 Chapter 2
 Table 15
5th- Degree Elliptic High- Pass Designs, continued

F2
F4

MINIMUM STOPBAND ATTENUATION, As

TRANSITION BAND

STOPBAND PASS BAND

MAXIMUM PASSBAND
RIPPLE AMPLITUDE. Ap

AP
—f
O As F3 F„

FREOUENCY ( HZ)

Coupled Resonators Substituting the foregoing values into the required inductance value for Lr will be
formulas for input conductance gives 80.1 H. In order to obtain a perfect
A problem frequently encountered in rf
match, the input susc eptance must be zero
circuits is that of a coupled resonator.
10 and the value of Bum can be found from
Applications include simple filters,
oscillator tuned circuits, and even anten- 52 — 10 2 + X2
O 20.49
nas. The circuit shown in Fig. 74A is il- Solving for X ( which is the total series = fkrn — 102 + (20.49)2
lustrative of the basic principles involved. reactance) gives a value of 20.49 ohms.
A series RLC circuit and the external ter- giving asusceptance value of 0.04 mhos,
The reactance of a 21-pF capacitor at
minals ab are " coupled" through acom- 3900 kHz is 1943.3 ohms so the inductive which corresponds to a capacitance of
mon capacitance, Cm. Applying the for- reactance must be 1963.7 ohms. While 1608 pF.
mulas for conductance and susceptance in either apositive or negative reactance will
terms of series reactance and resistance Coefficient of Coupling
satisfy the equation for Gab, a positive
gives value is required to tune out Bern. If the If the solution to the mobile whip-
coupling element was a shunt inductor, antenna problem is examined, it can be
Rr the total reactance would have to be seen that for agiven frequency R„ L, and
G ab — Rr2 + x2 capacitive or negative in value.) Thus, the C„ only one value of Cm results in an in-
put load that appears as apure resistance.
While such acondition might be defined
X as resonance, the resistance value ob-
= B crn 12 12 -4- X2 tained is not necessarily the one required
for maximum transfer of power.
The significance of these equations can A definition that is helpful in deter-
be seen with the aid of Fig. 74B. At some mining how to vary the circuit elements
point, the series inductive reactance will in order to obtain the desired input
cancel the series capacitive reactance (at a resistance is called the coefficient of
point slightly below f o where the con- coupling. The coefficient of coupling is
ductance curve reaches apeak). Depend- defined as the ratio of the common or
ing upon the value of the coupling mutual reactance and the square root of
susceptance, B„,, it is possible that apoint the product of two specially defined
can be found where the total input suscep- reactances. If the mutual reactance is
. tance is zero. The input conductance at capacitive, one of the special reactances is
this frequency, f o,is then Go.
the sum of the series capacitive reactances
Since Go is less than the conductance at of the primary mesh ( with the resonator
the peak of the curve, 1/Go or Ro is going disconnected) and the other one is the sum
of the series capacitive reactances of the
to be greater than Rr. This effect can be
applied when it is desired to match a resonator (with the primary discon-
low- value load resistance ( such as found nected). Applying this definition to the
in amobile whip antenna) to amore prac- circuit of Fig. 74A, the coefficient of
tical value. Suppose R, and Crin Fig. 74A coupling, k, is given by
are 10 ohms and 21 pF, respectively, and
represent the equivalent circuit of a
mobile antenna. Find the value of Lr and Fig. 74 — A capacitively coupled resonator is
Cm which will match this antenna to a52- k = Cr
shown at A. See text for explanation of figure
Cr C,„
ohm feed line at afrequency of 3900 kHz. shown at B.
Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-46
 o —
11 52 T

10 100 1000
RIN

Fig. 75 — Variation of k with input resistance

for circuit for Fig. 74.

How meaningful the coefficient of

Fig. 76 — Two types of magnetically coupled circuits. At A, only mutual magnetic coupling exists
coupling will be depends upon the while the circuit at B contains a common inductance also. Equivalents of both circuits are shown
particular circuit configuration under at the right which permit the application of the ladder-network analysis discussed in this section.
consideration and which elements are (If the sign of voltage is unimportant, Ti can be eliminated.)
being varied. For example, suppose the
value of LT in the mobile-whip antenna
problem was fixed at 100 44,11 and Cm and lustrate how they are changing. Such in- the rf range, many practical circuits work
Cr were allowed to vary. ( It will be formation is important in practical ap- at values of k that are considerably less
recalled that Cr is 21 pF and represents plications and even a simple table of Cn, than 1.0. A general solution is rather
the antenna capacitance. However, the and C, vs. Ft n,for aparticular 12, would be complex but many practical applications
total resonator capacitance could be much more valuable than aplot of k. can often be simplified and solved
changed by adding a series capacitor Similar precautions have to be taken through use of the ladder- network method.
between Cm and the antenna. Thus, Cr with the interpretation of circuit Q. In particular, the sign of the mutual in-
Selectivity and Q are simply related for ductance must be taken into account if
could be varied from 21 pF to some lower
value but not a higher one.) single resonators and circuit components, there are anumber of coupled circuits or if
A calculated plot of k versus input but the situation rapidly deteriorates with the phase of the voltage between two
complex configurations. For instance, coupled circuits is important.
resistance, R1 ,is shown in Fig. 75. Note
adding loss or resistance to circuit The latter consideration can be il-
the unusually high change in kwhen going
from resistance values near 10 ohms to elements would seem to contradict the lustrated with the aid of Fig. 76A. An ex-
idea that low- loss or high-Q circuits act circuit for the two mutually coupled
slightly higher ones.
provide the best selectivity. However, this coils on the left is shown on the right. Ti
Similar networks can be designed to
is actually done in some filter designs to is an " ideal" transformer that provides
work with any ratio of input resistance
improve frequency response. In fact, the the " isolation" between terminals ab and
and load resistance but it is evident small
filter with the added loss has identical cd. If the polarity of the voltages between
ratios are going to pose difficulties. For
characteristics to one with " pure" ele- these terminals can be neglected, the
larger ratios, component tolerances are
ments. The method is called predistortion transformer can be eliminated and just the
more relaxed. For instance, Cm might
and is very useful in designing filters circuit before terminals cd substituted. A
consist of switchable fixed capacitors with
where practical considerations require the second circuit is shown in Fig. 76B. Here,
Cr being variable. With a given load
use of circuit elements with parasitic or it is assumed that the winding sense
,Cm essentially sets the value of
undesired resistance. doesn't change between LIand L2. If so,
the, ce and thus the input resistance
As the frequency of operation is then the circuit on the right of Fig. 76B
Whili4 and Lr provide the required
increased, discrete components become can be substituted for the tapped coil
react :for the conductance formula.
smaller until a point is reached where shown at the left.
Howe if Id is varied, k varies also.
other forms of networks have to be used. Coefficients of coupling for the circuits
Generally speaking, higher values of LI"
Here, entities such as k and Q are in Fig. 76A and 76B are given by
(and consequently circuit Q) require lower
sometimes the only means of describing
values of k.
such networks. Another definition of Q k
At this point, the question arises as to
that is quite useful in this instance is that it • L1 L2
the significance and even the merit of such
is equal to the ratio of 2n (energy stored
definitions as coefficient of coupling and
per rf cycle)/(energy lost per rf cycle.) Li M
Q. If the circuit element values are
k =
known, and if the configuration can be • LI(L I + L2 + 2M)
resolved into aladder network, important Mutually Coupled Inductors
properties such as input impedance and A number of very useful rf networks If LIand L2 do not have the same value,
attenuation can be computed directly for involve coupled inductors. In a previous an interesting phenomenon takes place as
any frequency. On the other hand, circuit section, there was some discussion on the coupling is increased. A point is
information might be obscured or even iron- core transformers which represent a reached where the mutual inductance ex-
lost by attempting to attach too much im- special case of the coupled- inductance ceeds the inductance of the smaller coil.
portance to an arbitrary definition. For problem. The formulas presented apply to The interpretation of this effect can be il-
example, the plot in Fig. 75 merely in- instances where the coefficient of coupling lustrated with the aid of Fig. 77. While all
dicates Cm and Cr are changing with is very close to 1.0. While it is possible to the flux lines (as indicated by the dashed
respect to one another. But it doesn't il - approach this condition at frequencies in lines) associated with Li also encircle

2-47 Chapter 2
 susceptance of the series resonator is just
equal to the susceptance of the crystal
holder, Be,. Here the total susceptance is
zero. Since Bcm is usually very small, the
equivalent series susceptance is also small.
This means the value for X in the suscep-
tance formula will be very large and con-
sequently G ab will be small, which cor-
responds to ahigh input resistance. A plot
of the magnitude of the impedance is
shown in Fig. 78. The dip at F1 is called
the series-resonant mode and the peak at
f2 is referred to as the parallel-resonant or

"anti-resonant" mode. When specifying Fig. 78 — Frequency response of aquartz.

crystals for oscillator applications, the crystal resonator. The minimum value Is only
Fig. 77 — Diagram illustrating how M can be approximate since holder capacitance is
type of mode must be given along with ex- neglected.
larger than one of the self inductances. This
ternal capacitance across the holder or
represents the transition from lightly coupled
circuits to conventional transformers since an type oscillator circuit to be used. Other-
impedance step-up is possible without the wise, considerable difference in actual
addition of capacitive elements. oscillator frequency will be observed. The of L along with the value for Cl could be
effect can be used to advantage and the determined from formulas (Fig. 79A).
frequency of a crystal oscillator can be Adding the two inductive components
turns of L2, there are additional ones that
"pulled" with an external reactive ele- would give the actual inductive reactance
encircle extra turns of L2, also. Thus,
ment or even frequency modulated with a required for match in the circuit of Fig.
there are more flux lines for M than there
device that converts voltage or current 79C.
are for LI. Consequently, M becomes
fluctuations into changes in reactance. As mentioned before, it is evident an in-
larger than L1 . Normally, this condition is
finite number of networks of the form
difficult to obtain with air-wound coils
Matching Networks shown in Fig. 79C exist since C2 can be
but the addition of ferrite material greatly
assigned any value. Either aset of tables
increases the coupling. As k increases so
In addition to filters, ladder networks or a family of curves for Cl and L in
that M is larger than L1 (Fig. 77), the net-
are frequently used to match one im- terms of C2 could then be determined
work begins to behave more like atrans-
pedance value to another one. While there from the foregoing method and as il-
former and for akof I, the equivalent cir-
are many such circuits, afew of them of- lustrated in Fig. 80. However, similar data
cuit of Fig. 77A yields the transformer
fer particular advantages such as simplicty along with other information can be ob-
equations of a previous section. On the
of design formulas or minimum number tained by approaching the problem
other hand, for small values of k, the net-
of elements. Some of the more popular somewhat differently. Instead of setting
work becomes merely three coils arranged
ones are shown in Fig. 79. Shown at Fig. one of the element values arbitrarily and
in a "T" fashion. One advantage of the
79A and 79B, are two variations of an finding the other two, a third variable is
circuit of Fig. 76A is that there is no direct
"L" network. These networks are contrived and in the case of Fig. 79C and
connection between the two coils. This
relatively simple to design. Fig. 79D is labeled N. All three reactances
property is important from an isolation
The situation is somewhat more com- are then expressed in terms of the variable
standpoint and can be used to suppress
plicated for the circuits shown at 79C and N.
unwanted currents that are often responsi-
79D. For agiven value of input and out- The manner in which the reactances
ble for RFI difficulties.
put resistance, there are many networks change with variation in N for two
that satisfy the conditions for a perfect representative circuits of the type shown
Piezoelectric Crystals
match. The difficulty can be resolved by in Fig. 79C is shown in Fig. 81.• The solid
A somewhat different form of resonator introducing the " dummy variable" la- curve is for an RI of 3000 ohms and R2
consists of a quartz crystal between two beled N. equal to 52 ohms. The dashed curve is for
conducting plates. If a voltage is applied From apractical standpoint, N should the same R2 (52 ohms) but with R
to the plates, the resultant electric field be selected in order to optimize circuit to 75 ohms. For values of N ve
causes a mechanical stress in the crystal. component values. Either values of N that the minimum specified by t y
Depending upon the size and "cut" of the are too low or too high result in networks (Fig. 79C), Xc2 becomes i. ch
crystal, afrequency will exist at which the that are hard to construct. means C2 approaches zero
crystal begins to vibrate. The effect of this The reason for this complication is as expected, the values of XL Iat this
mechanical vibration is to simulate aseries follows. Only two reactive elements are point are approximately those df an L net-
RLC circuit as in Fig. 74A. There is a required to match any two resistances. work ( Fig. 79A) and could be determined
capacitance associated with the crystal Consequently, adding a third element by means of the formulas in Fig. 79A for
plates which appears across the terminals introduces aredundancy. This means one the corresponding values of RI and R2.
(C, in Fig. 74A). Consequently, this cir- element can be assigned avalue arbitrarily The plots shown in Fig. 81 should give a
cuit can also be analyzed with the aid of and the other two components can then be general idea of the optimum range of
Fig. 74B. At some frequency (fi in Fig. found. For instance, suppose C2 in Fig. component values. The region close to the
78), the series reactance is zero and G abin 79C is set to some particular value. The left-hand portion should be avoided since
the preceding formula will just be 1/Rr. parallel combination of C2 and R2 can there is little advantage to be gained over
Typical values for Rr range from 10 then be transformed to aseries equivalent an L network, while an extra component
k-ohm and higher. However, the (see Fig. 80). Then, L could be found by is required. For very high values of N, the
equivalent inductance of the mechanical breaking it down into two components, L' capacitance values become large without
circuit is normally extremely high (over and L". One component (L") would tune producing any particular advantage either.
10,000 henrys in the case of some low- out the remaining capacitive reactance of A good design choice is an N afew per-
frequency units) which results in a very the output series equivalent circuit. The cent above the minimum specified by the
high circuit Q (30,000). Above f1,the network is then reduced to the one shown inequality.
reactance is " inductive" and at f 2,the in Fig. 79A and the other component ( L') Quite often, one of the elements is fixed

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-48

 R1 > R2 R2 > R1
o
RI
XL = VR IR2 - R2'
R2 X 1 = R2 - R1
R2
RIR2 RiR2
Xc = Xc =
XL XL
(A)

(B)

R1 < R2,N > VR 2/12 1 - I

R1 > R2,N > '/ Ri/R2 - I
R2
XL = -r
-
Nr
R
xc , = rj
R1
R2 xc2 =
Ri(
N' + I)
Xc2 - Vf R1 R2
(
R2/R1)(1 + N2) - I R2 R4— 4-

XL = R1
N +

N2 + I
(
C) Xci =
R
1)
(.0( c2
(
D)

Fig. 79 — Four matching networks that can be used to couple a source and load with different resistance values. ( Although networks are drawn with
R1appearing as the source resistance, all can be applied with R2 at the source end. Also, all formulas with capacitive reactance are for the
numerical or absolute value.)

with either one or the other or both of the somewhat, it is still a very useful ap- small values of X2 ( very large C2), the
remaining two elements variable. In many proach. For instance, the plot shown in transformed resistance is very high. Con-
amateur transmitters, it is the inductor Fig. 82 indicates the range of input sequently, a source that was designed for
that remains fixed (at least for a given resistance values that can be matched for a much lower resistance would deliver
band) while Cl and C2 (Fig. 79C) are an R2 of 52 ohms. The graph is for an in- relatively little power. However, as the
made variable. While this system limits ductive reactance of 219 ohms. Xci varies resistance is lowered, increasing amounts
the bandwidth and matching capability from 196 to 206 ohms over the entire of current will flow resulting in more
range of RI ( or approximately 20 power output. Then, the source is said to
percent). However, Xc2 varies from 15 to be " loaded" more heavily.
almost 100 ohms as can be seen from the Similar considerations such as those
graph. discussed for the network of Fig. 79C also
Since C2 more or less sets the exist for the circuit of Fig. 79D. Only the
transformed resistance, it is often referred limiting L network for the latter is the one
to as the " loading" control on transmit- shown in Fig. 79B. The circuit of Fig. 79C
ters using the network of Fig. 79C, with is usually called a pi network and as
Cl usually labeled " Tune." While the pointed out, it is used extensively in the
meaning of the latter term should be clear, output stage of transmitters. The circuit
the idea of loading in amatching applica- of Fig. 79D has never been given any
tion perhaps needs some explanation. For special name, but it is quite popular in

1000
XC2

500
I
XL

1 XC I
1

100

50

XL
XC I_
I
I

XC
--....
2 ,

10
e 10 11
o 2
90 30 40
N

Fig. 81 — Network reactance variation as a

function of dummy variable N. Solid curves
and values of N from 8 to 11 are for an input
resistance of 3000 ohms and an output
Fig. 80 — Illustration of the manner in which resistance of 52 ohms. The dashed curves are
the network of Fig. 79C can be reduced to the for a similar network with an input and output Fig. 82 — Input resistance vs. output reac-
one of Fig. 79A assuming C2 is assigned some resistance of 75 and 52 ohms, respectively. tance for an output resistance of 52 ohms. The
arbitrary value. (The formulas shown are for Values of N from 1to 4 are for the latter curve is for a fixed inductor of 219 ohms ( Fig.
numerical reactance values.) curves. 79C). X,1 varies from 196 to 206 ohms.

2-49 Chapter 2
 lumped-constant analog of the quarter-
wavelength transformer. It has identical
phase shift ( 90 degrees) along with the
same impedance- transforming properties.

Frequency Response

In many instances, a matching network

performs a dual role in transforming a
resistance value while providing frequency
rejection. Usually, matching versatility,
component values, and number of ele•
Fig. 83 — Frequency response of the network ments are the most important considera-
of Fig. 79C for two values of N. tions. But amatching network might also Fig. 84 — Frequency response of the circuit of
be able to provide sufficient selectivity for Fig. 790 ( see text).
some application, thus eliminating the
need for aseparate circuit such as afilter.
both antenna and transistor-matching ap- It will be recalled that Q and selectivity decreases and approaches 2.55 dB. This
plications. are closely related for simple RLC series plot is for aresistance ratio of 5:1, and the
The plot shown in Fig. 81 is for fixed in- and parallel circuits. Bandwidth and the low- frequency loss is just caused by the
put and output resistances with the reac- parameter N of Fig. 79 are approximately mismatch in source and load resistance.
tances variable. Similar figures can be related in this manner. For values of N Thus, while increasing N improves the
plotted for other combinations of fixed much greater than the minimum specified selectivity near resonance, it has little ef-
and variable elements. An interesting case by the inequality N and Q can be con- fect on response for frequencies much far-
is for XL and RIfixed with R2, X°, and sidered to mean the same thing for all ther away.
Xc2 variable. A lower limit for N also ex- practical purposes. However, the fre- A somewhat different situation exists
ists for this plot only instead of an L net- quency response of networks that are for the circuit of Fig. 79D. At frequencies
work, the limiting circuit is a network of more complex than simple RLC types is far from resonance, either a series
three equal reactances. A feature of this usually more complicated also. Conse- capacitance provides decoupling at the
circuit is that the output resistance is the quently, some care is required in the inter- lower fequencies or a shunt capacitance
ratio of the square of the reactance and pretation of N or Q in regard to frequency causes additional mismatch at the higher
the input resistance. An analogous situa- rejection. For instance, a simple circuit ones. This circuit, then, has a response
tion exists with a quarter-wavelength has afrequency response that results in in- resembling those of simple circuits unlike
transmission- line transformer. The output creasing attenuation for increasing excur- the pi network. Curves aand bof Fig. 84
resistance is the ratio of the square of the sions from resonance. That is not true for are for a resistance ratio of 5:1 with N
characteristic impedance of the line and the pi network as can be seen from Fig. equal to 2.01 for curve a. Curve bis for,an
the input resistance. Consequently, the 83. For slight frequency changes below N of 10. Curves c and d are for a
special case where all the reactances are resonance, the attenuation increases as in resistance ratio of 50:1 with N equal to
equal in the circuit of Fig. 79C is the the case of a simple RLC network. At 7.04 and 10 respectively.
lower frequencies, the attenuation

Electrical Laws and Circuits 2-50

Chapter 3

Radio Design Technique

and Language

M any amateurs desire to construct

their own radio equipment and some know-
mated by a " pure" element such as a
resistor, capacitor, inductor or a short
frequency of acapacitor is lower for high-
capacitance units than it is for smaller-
ledge of design procedures becomes im- circuit in the case of an interconnecting value ones. Thus, Clin Fig. 2provides a
portant. Even when some commercially conductor. In other cases, the unwanted low reactance for low frequencies such as
manufactured equipment is used, these component must be taken into account. those in the audio range while C2 acts as a
techniques may still be required in setting However, it may be possible to break the bypass for frequencies above the self-
up peripheral equipment. Also, an appli- element down into a simple circuit resonant frequency of Cl.
cant for an Amateur Radio license might consisting of single elements alone. Then,
RF Leakage
be tested on material in this area. the actual circuit may be analyzed by
means of the basic laws discussed in the Although the capacitor combination
"Pure" vs. " Impure" Components previous chapter. It may be also possible shown in Fig. 2provides alow-impedance
to make aselection such that the effects of path to ground, it may not be very
In the chapter on electrical laws and
the residual element are negligible. effective in preventing rf energy that
circuits, it is assumed that the components
in an electrical circuit consist solely of However, there are other parasitic travels along the conductor from point 1
elements that can be reduced to a elements that may not only be difficult to from reaching point 2. At dc and low-
resistance, capacitance or inductance. remove but will affect circuit operation frequency applications, a circuit must
However, such elements do not exist in adversely as well. In fact, such con- always form aclosed path in order for a
nature. An inductor always has some siderations often set a limit on how current to flow. Consequently, two con-
resistance associated with its windings and stringent adesign criterion can be tolerated. ductors are required if power is to be
acarbon-composition resistor becomes a For instance, it is a common practice to delivered from asource to aload. In many
complicated circuit as the frequency of connect small-value capacitors in various instances, one of the conductors may be
operation is increased. Even conductor parts of a complex circuit, such as a common to several other circuits and con-
reshitance must be taken into account if transmitter or receiver, for bypassing stitutes alocal ground.
long runs of cable are required. purposes. A bypass capacitor permits However, as the frequency of operation
In many instances, the effects of these energy below some specified frequency to is increased, a second type of coupling
"parasitic" components can be neglected pass a given point while providing mechanism is possible. Power may be
and the actual device can be approxi- rejection to energy at higher frequencies. transmitted along a single conductor.
In essence, the capacitor is used in acrude (Although the same effect is possible at
form of filter. In more complicated filter low frequencies, unless circuit dimensions
designs, capacitors may be required for are extremely large, such transmission
complex functions (such as matching) in effects can be neglected.) The conductor
addition to providing a low reactance to acts as a waveguide in much the same
ground. manner as a large conducting surface,
An equivalent circuit of acapacitor is such as the earth, will permit propagation
shown in Fig. IA. Normally, the series of aradio wave close to its boundary with
resistance, Rs, can be neglected. On the the air. This latter type of propagation is
other hand, the upper frequency limit of often called a ground wave and is
the capacitor is limited by the series important up to and slightly above the
inductance, L. In fact, above the point standard a-m broadcast band. At higher
where Ls and Cp form aresonant circuit, frequencies, the conductivity of the earth
the capacitor actually appears as an is such to attenuate ground-wave propa-
inductor at the external terminals. As a gation.
result, it becomes useless for bypassing A mode similar to ground-wave propa-
purposes. This is why it is common gation that can travel along the boundary
practice to use two capacitors in parallel of asingle conductor is illustrated by the
for bypassing, as shown in Fig. 2. At first dashed lines in Fig. 2. As with the wave
inspection, this might appear as super- traveling close to the earth, a poor con-
Fig. 1 — Equivalent circuit of acapacitor is
shown at A. and for an inductor in B.
fluous duplication. But the "self-resonant" ducting boundary will cause attenuation.

31 Chapter 3
 ..... -.. ....
...-. ,.. RF
/ N. FERRITE
ENERGY \ BEAD
/ \
/ \
/ .....«. `..
/ / \ \
/ / \

/ / ---, \,

STAND-OFF
•••••.. •••1
1
INSULATOR
0.00IuF
DISC- CERAMIC
CAPACITOR
ELECTROLYTIC
CAPACITOR LS
Rs
- -n e rn_ - - -/N/V\,- -

CD

CI
C2
10pF
15V

/
-1-7 /- 7- 7

Fig. 2 — A bypassing arrangement that affords some measure of isolation ( with the equivalent circuit
shown in the inset). Dashed lines indicate amode of wave travel that permits rf energy to leak past the
bypass circuitry and should be taken into account when more stringent suppression requirements are
necessary. ( Ls and Rs in the inset represent the equivalent circuit of the ferrite bead.)

This is why aferrite bead is often inserted A different type of bypass-capacitor

over the exit point of a conductor from configuration is often used with as-
an area where rf energy is to be contained sociated shielding for such applications,
or excluded. In addition to loss ( particu- as shown in Fig. 3. In order to reduce the
larly in the vhf range), the high permea- series inductance of the capacitor, and to
bility of the ferrite introduces a series- provide better isolation between points 1
inductive reactance as well. Finally, the and 2, either a disc-type ( Fig. 3A) or a
shield wall provides further isolation. coaxial configuration ( Fig. 3B) is Fig. 3— A superior type of bypassing
While the techniques shown in Fig. 2 employed. The circuit diagram for either arrangement to that shown in Fig. 2. Concentric
get around some of the deficiencies of conductors provide a low- inductance path to
configuration is shown in the inset. While
ground and better rejection of unwanted single-
capacitors that are used for bypass such " feedthrough" capacitors are always wire wave modes.
purposes, the resulting suppression is connected to ground through the shield,
inadequate for a number of applications. this connection is often omitted on draw-
Examples would be protection of aVFO ings. Only a connection to ground is
to surrounding rf energy, alow- frequency shown, as in the inset in Fig. 3 represented by Rp as shown in Fig. IA.
receiver with a digital display, and However, if a dc ohmmeter was placed
suppression of radiated harmonic energy Dielectric Loss across the terminals of the capacitor, the
from atransmitter. In each of these cases, Even though capacitors are usually reading would be infinite. This is because
avery high degree of isolation is required. high-Q devices, the effect of internal loss dielectric loss is an ac effect. Whenever an
For instance, a VFO is sensitive to can be more severe than in the case of a alternating electric field is applied to an
voltages that appear on dc power supply coil. This is because good insulators of insulator, there is a local motion of the
lines and atransmitter output with anote electricity are usually good insulators of electrons in the individual atoms that
that sounds " fuzzy" or rough may result. heat also. Therefore, heat generated in a make up the material. Even though the
Digital displays usually generate copious capacitor must be conducted to the out- electrons are not displaced as they would
rf energy in the low- frequency spectrum. side via the conducting plates to the be in a conductor, this local motion
Consequently, areceiver designed for this capacitor leads. In addition, most requires the expenditure of energy and
range presents asituation where astrong capacitors are covered with an insulating results in a power loss.
source of emission is in close proximity to coating that further impedes heat conduc- Consequently, some care is required in
very sensitive receiving circuits. A similar tion. The problem is less severe with the application of capacitors in moderate
case exists with transmitters operating on capacitors using air as adielectric for two to high-power circuits. The applied vol-
a frequency that is a submultiple of a reasons. The first advantage of air over tage should be such that rf-current ratings
fringe-area TV station. In the latter two other dielectrics is that the loss in the are not exceeded for the particular
instances, the problem is not so severe if presence of an alternating electric field is frequency of operation. This is illustrated
the desired signal is strong enough to extremely small. Secondly, any heat in Fig. 4. A parallel- resonant circuit
"override" the unwanted energy. Un- generated by currents on the surface of consisting of Lp, cp and RLis connected to
fortunately, this is not the case normally the conducting plates is either drawn away a voltage source, Vs, through acoupling
and stringent measures are required to by air currents or through the mass of the capacitor, G. It is also assumed the RLis
isolate the sensitive circuits from the metal. much greater than either the inductive or
strong source. Thc dielectric loss in acapacitor can be capacitive reactance taken alone. This

Radio Design Technique and Language •

 condition would be typical of that found formed" avoltage or an impedance from this reason, variable-coupling matching
in most rf-power amplifier circuits em- one level to another one, the term is networks or those using "link coupling"
ploying vacuum tubes. usually reserved for circuits incorporating have been popular for many years. In
Since the inductive and capacitive mutual magnetic coupling. Examples addition to matching flexibility, these
reactance of Lp and Cp cancel at would be i -
ftransformers, baluns, broad- circuits are good band-pass filters and can
resonance, the load presented to the band transformers, and certain antenna also provide isolation between antenna
source would be just RI. .This would matching networks (see chapter 2). Of circuits and those of the transmitter.
mean the current through Cc would be course, many devices used at audio and
much less than the current through either power frequencies are also transformers in Design Formulas
Cp or L. The effect of such "current rise" the sense used here and have been covered A basic two-mesh circuit with mutual
is similar to the voltage rise at resonance in aprevious chapter. magnetic coupling is shown in Fig. 6. The
discussed in the previous chapter. Even Networks that use mutual magnetic reactance, X, is arbitrary and could be
though the current at the input of the coupling exclusively have attractive ad- either inductive or capacitive. However, it
parallel-resonant circuit is small, the vantages over other types in many is convenient to combine it with the
currents that flow in the elements that common applications. A principal ad- secondary reactance (XL.$) since this
make up the circuit can be quite large. vantage is that there is no direct makes the equations somewhat more
The requirements for Cc then, would be connection between the input and output compact. Hence, the total secondary
rather easy to satisfy in regards to current terminals. Consequently, dc and ac com- reactance is defined by
rating and power dissipation. On the ponents of current are separated easily
other hand, Cp would ordinarily be thus eliminating the need for coupling X, = hrfL,-1- X
restricted to air-variable types although« capacitors. Perhaps even more impor-
some experiments have been successful tantly, it is also possible to isolate rf
using Teflon as a dielectric.' Generally currents because of the lack of acommon The primary reactance and mutual reac-
speaking, the coupling capacitor should conductor. Quite often, an hf receiver in tance are also defined respectively as
have a low reactance (at the lowest an area where strong local broadcast
frequency of operation) in comparison to stations are present will suffer from
the load presented by the tuned circuit. "broadcast harmonics" and possibly even
The effect of the coupling-capacitor rectified audio signals getting into sen-
reactance could then be compensated by sitive af circuits. In such cases, com-
slightly retuning the parallel-resonant plicated filters sometimes prove inef-
circuit. fective while asimple tuned rf transformer
clears up the problem completely. This is
Inductors because the unwanted bc components are
prevented from flowing on the receiver
Similar considerations to those dis-
chassis along with being rejected by the
cussed in the previous sections exist with
tuned-transformer filter characteristic.
inductors also, as shown in Fig. 1B. Since
an inductor usually consists of a coil of A second advantage of coupled circuits Fig. 4 — Consideration of capacitor voltage and
wire, there will be aresistance associated using mutual magnetic coupling exclu- current ratings should be kept in mind in

with the wire material and this component sively is that analysis is relatively simple moderate- power applications.

is represented by Rs (Fig. 1B). In addition, compared to other forms of coupling

there is always a capacitance associated although exact synthesis is somewhat
with conductors in proximity as il- complicated. That is, finding a network
strated in Fig. 5. While such capacitance with some desired frequency response
istributed throughout the coil, it is a would be quite difficult in the general
venient approximation to consider an case.
uivalent capacitance, Ci,, exists between However, circuits using mutual-magnetic
t- terminals ( Fig. 1B). Finally, inductors coupling usually have very good out-of-
itte often wound on materials that have band rejection characteristics when com-
high permeability in order to increase the pared to networks incorporating other
inductance. Thus, it is possible to build an forms. (A term sometimes applied to
inductor with fewer turns and smaller in transformer or mutual-magnetic coupling
size than an equivalent coil with an " air is indirect coupling. Circuits with asingle
core." resistive or reactive element for the
Unfortunately, high-permeability mate- common impedance are called direct-
rials presently available have considerable coupled networks. Two or more elements
loss in the presence of an rf field. It will be in the common impedance are said to
recalled a similar condition existed with comprise complex coupling.) For in-
the dielectric in acapacitor. Consequently, stance, relatively simple band-pass filters Fig. 5 — Distributed capacitance ( indicated by
in addition to the wire resistance, a loss are possible with mutual-magnetic coup- dashed lines) affects the operation of acoil at
high frequencies.
resistance is associated with the core and ling and are highly recommended for
represented by R. (See Fig. 1B.) Since vhf-transmitter multiplier chains. For
this loss is more or less independent of the receiving, such filters are often the main
current through the coil but dependent upon source of selectivity. Standard a-m and fm
the applied voltage, it is represented by a broadcast receivers would be examples
parallel resistance. where intermediate-frequency (i -f) trans-
formers derive their band-pass charac-
RF Transformers teristics from mutually coupled inductors.
Although the term transformer might A third advantagé of mutually coupled
be applied to any network that " trans- networks is that practical circuits with
'DeMaw and Dorbuck, "Transmitting Variables," great flexibility particularly in regard to
QST February 1975. matching capabilities are possible. For Fig 6 — Basic magnetically coupled circuit

3-3 Chapter 3
 = 2r111„X„, = 22rfM subtracted from the actual resistance 9. Critical coupling gives the flattest
desired and the transformed resistance response although greater bandwidth can
A set of equations for the input resistance made equal to this difference. As an be obtained by increasing k to ap-
and reactance is given by example, suppose an amplifier required a proximately 1.5 kc.At higher values, a
load resistance of 3000 ohms, and the pronounced dip occurs at the center or
— Rs
X M2
primary-coil resistance was 100 ohms. resonant frequency.
R15
Then, the transformed resistance must be In the undercoupled case, apeak occurs
equal to 2900 ohms. ( In either case, the at the resonant frequency of the primary
secondary coil resistance is merely added and secondary circuit but the transformed
X„, 2X, to the secondary load resistance and the resistance is too low and results in a
)( In = Xi,— sum substituted for Rs.) mismatch. As the coupling is decreased
R, 2
still further, very little power is transferred
Coefficient of Coupling to the secondary circuit and most of it is
This permits reducing the two-mesh Although the equations for the input dissipated in the primary-loss and generator-
circuit of Fig. 6to the single-mesh circuit impedance can be solved in terms of the source resistances. On the other hand, an
of Fig. 7. mutual reactance, the transforming mecha- interesting phenomenon occurs with the
nism involved becomes somewhat clearer overcoupled case. It will be recalled that
Double- Tuned Circuits•
if the coefficient of coupling is used the transformed resistance is too high at
A special case occurs if the value of Xs instead. The coefficient of coupling, k, in resonance because the coefficient of
is zero. This could be accomplished easily terms of the corresponding reactances of coupling is greater than the critical value.
by tuning out the inductive reactance of inductances is However, a special case occurs if the
the secondary with an appropriate capaci- primary and secondary circuits are iden-
X„, Lm
tor or by varying the frequency until a k tical which also means the transformed
fixed capacitor and the secondary in- /
•)
- 77, X, ,
NTT resistance, Ri n must equal Rs.
ductance resonated. Under these con- The behavior of the circuit under these
ditions, the input resistance and reactance Then, the input resistance becomes conditions can be analyzed with the aid of
would be Fig. 7. Assuming the Q of both circuits is
k1X,X,
Rip — Rs high enough, the reactance, Xs, increases
very rapidly on either side of resonance. If
Rip = X m2 Xin = Xp this variation is much greater than the
R, The primary and secondary Qs are variation of Xm with frequency, a,
defined as frequency exists on each side of resonance
where the ratio of Xm 2 and Rs' + Xs' is
Then, in order to make the input,
1.0. Consequently, Rin is equal to Rs and
impedance purely resistive, asecond series Qp = Qs = Rs
the transformed reactance is — Xs. Since
capacitor could be used to cancel the
the primary and secondary resonators are
reactance of X. The completed network
identical, the reactances cancel because of
is shown in Fig. 8with Cl and C2 being the where a " loaded" Q is assumed. This
the minus sign. The frequency plot for ak
primary and secondary series capacitors. would mean Rs included any secondary-
of 0.2 (kc is 0.1) is shown in Fig. 9. If the
If Xm could be varied, it is evident that coil loss. For maximum-power transfer,
primary and secondary circuits are not
the secondary resistance could be trans- Rg would be the total primary resistance
identical, a double-hump response still
formed to almost any value of input resis- which consists of the generator and coil
tance. Usually, the desired resistance, resistance.
would be made equal to the generator re- The coefficient of coupling under these
sistance, Rg,for maximum power transfer. conditions reduces to a rather simple
It might also be selected to satisfy some formula
design goal, not necessarily related to maxi-
mum power transfer. This brings up a 1
minor point but one that can cause con- k —
c •/-71 )
siderable confusion. Normally, in transmit-
ting circuits, the " unloaded Q" of the re-
However, if it is desired to make the input
active components would be very high
resistance some particular value (as in the
and the series parasitic resistances (dis-
case of the previous example), the
cussed in aprevious section) could be ne-
coefficient of coupling is then
glected. However, if it is not desired to do
so, how should these resistances be taken jR ip —
into account?. If maximum power transfer — Fig. 7— Equivalent single-mesh network of the
XpQ,
is the goal, the series resistance of the two- mesh circuit of Fig. 6.
primary coil would be added to the
generator resistance, Rg, and the trans- If the primary " loss" resistance is zero,
formed secondary resistance would be both formulas are identical.
made equal to this sum. At values of k less than Icc,the input
On the other hand, a more common resistance is lower than either the pre-
case requires the total input resistance to scribed value or for conditions of maxi-
be equal to some desired value. For mum power transfer. Higher values of k
instance, an amplifier might provide result in ahigher input resistance. For this
optimum efficiency or harmonic sup- reason, k Q is called the critical coefficient
pression when terminated in a particular of coupling. If kis less than kc,the circuit
load resistance. Transmission lines also is said to be undercoupled and for k
require agiven load resistance in order to greater than kc, an overcoupled condition
be "matched." In such cases, the series results. A plot of attenuation vs. fre-
Fig. 8 — Double-tuned series circuits with
resistance of the primary coil would be quency for the three cases is shown in Fig. magnetic coupling.

Radio Design Technique and Language 3-4

 Fig. 10— Coupled network with parallel-tuned
circuits or " i
-f" transformer.

Fig. 11 — Equivalent series circuit of the parallel

Fig. 9 — Response curves for various degrees of coupling coefficient k. The critical coefficient of network shown in Fig. 10. This transformation is
coupling for the network shown in the inset is 0.1. Lower values give asingle response peak ( but less only valid at single frequencies and must be
than maximum power transfer) while "tighter" coupling results in adouble- peak response. revalued if the frequency is changed.

occurs but the points where the trans- stances, where one high- impedance load is type shown in Fig. 10 are widely used in
formed resistance is equal to the desired matched to another one, Rs in Fig. 10 is radio circuits. Perhaps the most common
value, the reactances are not the same much greater than the reactance of Cs and example is the i -ftransformer found in
numerically. Consequently, there is at- Cp. This simplifies the transformations a-m and fm bc sets. Many communica-
tenuation at peaks unlike the curve of Fig. and approximate relations are given by tions receivers have similar transformers
9. although the trend has been toward
R„(S) X 7e Fts somewhat different circuits. Instead of
Other Circuit Forms achieving selectivity by means of i -
f
While the coupled network shown in transformers (which may require a num-
X„(C s) X, ber of stages), a single filter with
Fig. 8 is the easiest to analyze, it is not
commonly encountered in actual circuits. quartz-crystal resonators is used instead.
As the resistance levels are increased, the As an example, suppose it was desired (The subject of receivers is treated in a
corresponding reactances become very to match a3000-ohm load to a5000-ohm later chapter.)
large also. In transmitting circuits, ex- source using a coupled inductor with a
Single- Tuned Circuits
tremely high voltages are then developed 250-ohm (reactance) primary and secon-
across the coils and capacitors. For dary coil. Assume the coupling can be In the case of double-tuned circuits,
high-impedance circuits, the circuit shown varied. Determine the circuit configura- separate capacitors are used to tune out
in Fig. 10 is often used. Although the tion and the critical coefficient of coupling. the inductive components of the primary
frequency response is somewhat different Since the load and source resistance and secondary windings. However, exami-
than the circuit of Fig. 8 (in fact, the have amuch higher numerical value than nation of the equivalent circuit of the
out-of-band rejection is greater), amatch- the reactance of the inductors, aparallel- coupled coil shown in Fig. 7suggests an
ing network can be designed based upon tuned configuration must be used. In alternative. Instead of a separate capaci-
the previous analysis for the series circuit. order to tune out the inductive reactance, tor, why not " detune" a resonant circuit
This is accomplished by changing the the equivalent series capacitive reactance slightly and " reflect" a reactance of the
parallel primary and secondary circuits to must be — 250 ohms. Since both Rs and Rp proper sign into the primary in order to
series equivalents. ( It should be are known, the exact formulas could be tune out the primary inductance. Since
phasized that this transformation is good solved for y and Req. However, because the transformation function (shown in the
at one frequency only.) The equivalent the respective resistances are much greater box in Fig. 7) reverses the sign of the
circuit of the one shown, in Fig. 10 is than the reactance, the simplified ap- secondary reactance, it is evident Xs must
illustrated in Fig. 11 where the new proximate formulas can be used. This be inductive in order to tune out the pri-
resistance and reactance of the secondary means the primary and secondary equiva- mary inductance.
are given by lent capacitive reactances are — 250 ohms. This might seem to be astrange result
The equivalent secondary resistance is but it can be explained with the following
R. (250) 2/3000 or 20.83 ohms, resulting in a reasoning. From amathematical point of
R„(S) — oy ,
view, the choice of the algebraic sign of
secondary Q of 250/20.83 or 12. (A
formula could be derived directly for the the transformed reactance is perfectly
—R sy Q from the approximate equations.) The arbitrary. That is, aset of solutions to the
X„(C s) =
+ equivalent primary resistance and Q are equations governing the coupled circuit is
12.5 ohms and 20, respectively. Sub- possible assuming either a positive or
RVX, stituting the values for Q into the formula negative sign for the transformed reac-
for the critical coefficient of coupling tance. However, if the positive sign is
A similar set of transformations exists for gives 1/ Nri) or 0.065. chosen, the transformed resistance would
the primary circuit also. In most in- Double-tuned coupled circuits of the be negative. But from a physical point of

3-5 Chapter 3
Fig. 12 — A coil coupled magnetically to a
"shorted" turn provides insight to coils near solid
shield walls.

Fig. 17— " Reflected" reactance into the primary of asingle-tuned circuit places restraints on
resistances that can be matched. This gives rise to ageneral rule that high- 0 secondary circuits
require a lower coefficient of coupling than low-0 ones.

Fig. 13— " Link" coupling can be used to analyze view, this is a violation of the con- resonators can be coupled in this manner
anumber of important circuits.
servation of energy since it would imply although there may be considerable
the secondary resistance acts as a source separation ( and no mutual coupling
of energy rather than an energy " sink." between the larger coils) hence the term
Consequently, the solution with the nega- "link" coupling. While this particular
tive resistance does not result in aphysi- method is seldom used nowadays, the
cally realizable network. term is still applied to the basic con-
The foregoing phenomenon has im- figuration shown in Fig. 13. Applications
plications for circuits one might not would be antenna-matching networks,
normally expect to be related to coupled output stages for amplifiers and, es-
networks. For instance, consider coil 1 pecially important, many circuits used at
(Fig. 12) in proximity to the one-turn vhf that have no direct hf equivalent.
"shorted" coil 2. A time-varying current The cavity resonators used in repeater
in coil 1will induce acurrent in coil 2. In duplexers are one form of vhf circuit that
turn, the induced current will set up a uses link coupling. A cross-sectional view
magnetic field of its own. The question is of a representative type is shown in Fig.
will the induced field aid or oppose the 14. Instead of ordinary coils and capaci-
primary field. Since the energy in a tors, a section of coaxial transmission
magnetic field is proportional to the line comprises the resonant circuit. The
square of the flux, the induced field must frequency of the resonator may be varied
oppose the primary field, otherwise the by adjusting the tuning screw which
principle of the conservation of energy changes the value of the capacitor. Energy
would be violated as it was with the is coupled into and out of the resonator by
Fig. 14— A vhf/uhf circuit which can be
"negative" resistance. Consequently, the means of two small, one-turn loops.
approximated by alink-coupled network using
"conventional" components. induced current must always be in a Current in the input loop causes a
direction such that the induced field magnetic field (shown by dashed lines)„ If
opposes changes in the generating field. the frequency of the generating field is
This result is often referred to as Lenz's near one of the resonant " modes" of the
Law. configuration, an electric field will also be
If, instead of a one-turn loop, a solid generated (shown by solid lines). Finally,
shield wall was substituted, a similar energy may then be coupled out of the
phenomenon would occur. Since the total resonator by means of asecond loop.
flux (for a given current) would be less A low-frequency equivalent circuit of
with the shield present than it would be in the resonator is shown in Fig. 15.
the absence of the shield, the equivalent However, the circuit can only be used to
coil inductance is decreased. That is why it give an approximate idea of the actual
Fig. 15— Equivalent low- frequency analog of the is important to use ashield around acoil frequency response of the cavity. At
circuit shown in Fig 14 that is big enough to reduce the effect of frequencies not close to the resonant
such coupling. Also, ashield made from a frequency, the mathematical laws gover-
metal with a high conductivity such as ning resonant circuits are different from
copper or aluminum is advisable, other- those of " discrete" components used at
wise aloss resistance will be coupled into hf. Over a limited frequency range, the
the coil as well. resonator can be approximated by the
series LC circuit shown in Fig. 15.
Link Coupling Applying the formulas for coupled
An example of avery important class of networks shown in Fig. 7to the two-link
single-tuned circuits is shown in Fig. 13. circuit of Fig. 15, the output link and load
The primary inductor consists of asmall can be transformed to an equivalent series
Fig. 16— The network of Fig. 15 can be reduced coil either in close proximity or wound resistance and reactance as shown in Fig.
with the transformation shown in Fig. 7. over one end of a larger coil. Two 16. In most instances, the feactance, Xs,in

Radio Design Technique and Language 3-6

 present. A plot of the reflected reactance W — 200
t.)
as a function of Xs is shown in Fig. 17. X •0 z
a
From mathematical considerations (which e-
tn —150
will not be discussed) it can be shown that c7.1
ea
the maximum and minimum of the curve e — 100

have a value equal to Xm 2/2Rs. Con- •o

sequently, this value must be greater than
or equal to Xp in order that avalue of Xs
exists such that the reflected reactance will 0.95 0.9 0.95
Fig. 18— Single-tuned circuit with aparallel RC to 1.05
secondary. cancel Xp. In the usual case where Xm 2/ 2.nt ( Hz)
2Rs is greater than Xp, it is interesting to
note that two values of Xs exist where Xp
Fig. 20— Input resistance of the Fig. 19 circuit as
and the reflected reactance cancel. This afunction of frequency.
means there are two cases where the input
impedance is purely resistive and Rs could
be matched to either one of two source
resistances if so desired. The value of Xs at
these points is designated as Xsi and Xs2.
On the other hand, a high value of Rs
Fig. 19— Text example of asingle-tuned circuit.
requires Xm to be large also. This could
be accomplished by increasing the coeffi-
cient of coupling or by increasing the
the formula is just the reactance of the turns on the secondary coil. Increasing the
output link. Since the two-link network turns on the primary also will cause Xm to
has been reduced to a single coupled be higher but Xp will increase also. This
circuit, the formulas can be applied again is somewhat self-defeating since Xff, 2 is
to find the input resistance and reactance. proportional to Xp.
An alternate approach is to use the paral-
Analysis of Single-Tuned Circuits lel configuration of Fig. 18. The approxi-
Single-tuned circuits are very easy to mate equivalent series resistance of the
construct and adjust experimentally. If parallel combination is then X(Cs) 2/11,

desired, the tuned circuit consisting of Ls, and the reactance is approximately
Cs, and perhaps the load, Rs, can be con- X(Cs). (See diagram and text for Fig. 11.)
structed first and tuned to the " natural" This approach is often used in multiband
resonant frequency antenna systems. On some frequencies,
the impedance at the input of the feed line
is high so the circuit of Fig. 18 is
= 2r Nn
L,C,
—
employed. This is referred to as parallel
Then, the primary inductor, which may be tuning. If the impedance is very low, the
a link or a larger coil, is brought into circuit of Fig. 13 is used and is called
proximity of the resonant circuit. The series tuning.
resonant frequency will usually shift As an example, suppose asingle-tuned
upward. For instance, acoil and capacitor circuit is to be used to match a1-ohm load Fig. 21 — Input reactance of the Fig. 19 network
combination was tuned to resonance by to a50-ohm source as shown in Fig. 19. It Note two -resonant" frequencies ( where
means of a grid-dip oscillator (see the might be pointed out at this juncture that reactance is zero)

chapter on measurements) at afrequency coupling networks using mutual magnetic

of 1.8 MHz. When a two-turn link was coupling can be scaled in the same manner
wound over the coil, and coupled to the that filter networks are scaled (as dis-
grid-dip oscillator the resonant frequency cussed in chapter 2). For instance, the cir-
had increased to 1.9 MHz. A three-turn cuit of Fig. 19 could be scaled in order to
link caused achange to 2 MHz. match a 50-ohm load to a 2500-ohm
Quite often an actual load may be an source merely by multiplying all the
unknown quantity, such as an antenna, reactances by a factor of 50.
eend
, some insight into the effects of the The input resistance and reactance of
various elements is helpful in predicting the circuit of Fig. 19 are plotted in Figs. 20
single-tuned circuit operation. Usually, as and 21, respectively. As pointed out
in the case of most matching networks, Its earlier, there are two possible points
(Fig. 7) and the input resistance are speci- where the reactance is zero and this circuit
fied with the reactive components being could be used to match the 1-ohm load to
the variables. Unfortunately, the variables either a 50-ohm or 155-ohm source.
in the case of mutually coupled networks Assuming a 50-ohm source was being
are not independent of each other which used, the attenuation plot as afunction of
complicates matters somewhat. frequency would be given by the solid
Examination of the equivalent circuit curve in Fig. 22.
shown in Fig. 7 would indicate the first With slight modification to include the
condition is that the reactance reflected effect of the source, the transformation of
from the secondary into the primary be Fig. 7can be applied to the primary side
sufficient to tune out the primary reac- of the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 19.
tance. Otherwise, even though the proper This is illustrated in Fig. 23. The complete
resistance transformation is obtainable, a circuit is shown at Fig. 23A and the Fig. 22— Response of the circuit shown in Fig
reactive component would always be network with the transformed primary 19.

3 -7 Chapter 3
resistance and reactance is shown in Fig. a I-ohm resistance (shown as a dashed cifLuit of Fig. 24A is
23B. line in Fig. 23B) must be the same as that
In alossless transformer, the maximum delivered to a 50-ohm load in Fig. 23A. u`tri
available power at the secondary must be This assumes that the rest of the circuit k —
Nr—X-IX2
the same as that of the original source on has been disconnected in either case. In
the primary side, neglecting the effects of order to fulfill this requirement, the
reactance. That is, the power delivered to original source voltage must be multiplied and the network shown in Fig. 24B in
by the square root of the ratio of the new terms of the coefficient of coupling is
and old source resistance. illustrated in Fig. 24C. For kequal to 1.0,
The single- mesh transformed network the input reactance is zero and the input
is shown in Fig. 23C and it is interesting to resistance is given by
compare the response of an RLC series
circuit that actually possessed these
Rin =( X 1) R _( L1 )R2 )` R2
element values at resonance with the
circuit of Fig. 19. For comparison, the
EP
response of such acircuit is shown in Fig.
(A)
22 as a dashed curve and it can be seen where Niand N2 are the number of turns
-2/1 IOn
that it differs only slightly from the on coil 1 and 2, respectively. From
-8/1
coupled-circuit curve. The reason for the maximum- power transfer considerations,
similarity is that even though the trans- such as those discussed for the circuit of
formation of the primary resistance and Fig. 23, the voltage transfer ratio becomes
reactance also changes with frequency, the
effect is not that great in the present case.
N 2

EP '
Broadband RF Transformers e2
=(— e
) I

The " sensitivity" of the frequency

characteristic of the transformation shown It will be recalled that the foregoing
in Fig. 7depends mostly on the ratio of Xs equations occurred in the discussion of
to R. However, if Xs is much greater than the " ideal transformer" approximation in
Rs, the transformed reactance can be ap- Chapter 2. It was assumed then that the
1/1 proximated by leakage reactance and magnetizing cur-
rent were negligible. The effects on circuit
operation of these variables are shown in
-X 2
m
Fig. 25. The curves were computed for
Rs2 + Xs, — X, various load resistances ( Rs) using the
(C
exact equations shown in Fig. 7.
and the resistance becomes Xi and X2 are assumed to be 100 and 10
Fig. 23— The transformation of Fig. 7applied to
the primary side of the circuit of Fig. 19. ohms, respectively, with the solid curves
for a k of 1.0 and the dashed reactance
R,X n,
2
R x 71
X curve for k equal to 0.99 ( the resistance
Rs2 + Xs-, _ curve for the latter value is the same as the
one for k equal to 1.0). The ideal-
Applying this approximation to the transformer representation can be modi-
general coupled circuit shown in Fig. 24A fied slightly to approximate the curve of
results in the transformed network of Fig. Fig. 25 as shown in Fig. 26. The shunt
24B. The coefficient of coupling for the reactance, Xmag is called the magnetizing

100
tt
Xi

RIN

10/
/ ;
/
/
Z /
>C
-- /
N•0.99 _ - - •-• ..., RIN
z - •1.0
CC

Xi
td

01
001 0.1 10 100 1000

R2

fig. 24— Equivalent circuit approximation of two rig .25_ input resistance and reactance as afunction of output load resistance for X1 and X2 equal to
coupled coils. 100 ohms and 10 ohms respectively ( Fig. 24).

Radio Design Technique and Language 3-8

reactance and XL is referred to as the 28. Since only three lines link coil 2, the especially true at af and power frequencies
leakage reactance. mutual inductance is 3X 4/28 or 43 per- with transformers using iron cores where
Unfortunately, the two reactances are cent of maximum. the permeability is extremely high. This
not independent of each other. That is, Assuming both coils are "perfect," if a means the magnetizing reactance can be
attempts to change one reactance so that current II produced 7 flux lines in a made very high without increasing the
its effect is suppressed causes difficulties five-turn coil, then the same current in a leakage reactance accordingly as is the
in eliminating the effects of the other four-turn coil would produce (4/5)(7) flux case with the circuit in Fig. 24C.
reactance. For instance, increasing Xi, lines, since the flux is proportional to the Therefore, ideal transformer conditions
Xm, and X2 will increase Xmag which is magnetizing current times the number of are considered to exist in the core and the
desirable. However, examination of Fig. turns. Consequently, the maximum flux final circuit can be approximated by the
24C reveals that the coefficient of coup- linkages in coil 1from a current of the one shown in Fig. 29C.
ling, k, will have to be made closer to 1.0. same value as 11 but in coil 2 instead
Otherwise, the leakage reactance increases would be (4/5)(7)(5) or 28. Therefore, it Bear and Twisted-Pair Windings
since it is proportional to Xi. can be seen that the mutual inductance is Although the core helps alleviate some
independent of the choice of coil used for of the problems with leakage and mag-
High-Permeability Cores the primary or secondary. That is, a
As a consequence of the interaction voltage produced in one coil by acurrent
between the leakage reactance and the in the other one would be the same if the
magnetizing reactance, transformers that coils were merely interchanged. (This
approach ideal conditions are extremely result has been used implicitly on anum-
difficult (if not impossible) to build using ber of previous occasions without proof.)
techniques common in air-wound or In addition, the maximum flux linkages in
low-permeability construction. In order to coil 2produced by acurrent, Ii, would be
build a network that will match one (4/5)(7)(4). As an exercise, substitute the
resistance level to another one over awide maximum inductance values into the for-
range of frequencies, ideal-transformer mula for the coefficient of coupling and
conditions have to be approached quite show that k is 1.0.
closely. Otherwise, considerable inductive The next step is to consider the effect of Fig. 26— Approximate network for the curves of
winding coils on a form with a magnetic Fig. 25.
reactance will exist along with the resistive
component as shown in Fig. 25. permeability much higher than that of air.
One approach is to use a core with a An example is illustrated in Fig. 28 and 'Jo
higher permeability than air. Familiar the configuration shown is called a 4
1
examples would be power transformers toroidal transformer. Since the flux is
4
and similar types common to the af range. proportional to the product of the , it
However, when an inductor configuration permeability and the magnetizing current,
contains materials of more than one the flux in the core shown in Fig. 28 will
permeability, the analysis relating to Fig. be much greater than the coil con-
24C has to be modified somewhat. The figuration of Fig. 27. However, not all of COIL 1

manner in which the core affects the the flux is confined to the core. As can be
circuit is abit complicated although even seen in Fig. 28, some of the flux lines , 1 ,

a qualitative idea of how such trans- never penetrate the core (see lines marked
formers work is very useful. a in Fig. 28) while others enclose all the
First, consider the coupled coils shown windings of coil 1but not coil 2 (see line
in Fig. 27. For agiven current, I I, anum- marked b). The significance of these
ber of " flux lines" are generated that link effects is as follows. The total flux linkage
both coil 1and coil 2. Note that in coil 1, produced by the current, Ii, is COIL 2
not all of the flux lines are enclosed by all
the turns. The inductance of acoil is equal ATOTAL = Aair + A core
to the ratio of the sum of flux lines linking
each turn and the generating current or and dividing both sides of the equation by
Ir gives
_ A TOTAL,
LT = Lair + L„„ Fig. 27 — Coupled coils showing magnetic flux
lines.
'Where for the example shown in Fig. 27, Consequently, the circuit of Fig. 24 can be
'T'OTAL is given by represented as shown in Fig. 29A. For X2
much greater than the load resistance, the
ATOT AL = A1 A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 approximate network of Fig. 29B can
replace the one of Fig. 29A.
Counting up the number of flux linkages At first sight, it might seem as though
in coil Igives little advantage has been gained by
introducing the core since the formulas
ATOTAL = 5 + 5 + 7 + + 5 29
are much the same as those of Fig. 24C.
However, the reactances associated with
If all the flux lines linked all the turns, the core can be made very high by using a
it.TOTAL would be 35 so Li is 29/35 or 83 material with a high permeability. Also,
percent of its maximum possible value. even though there may be some "leakage"
Likewise, if all the flux ( 7lines) generated from the core as indicated by line bin Fig.
in coil one linked all the turns of coil 2, the 28, it is ordinarily low and the coefficient
maximum number of flux linkages would of coupling in the core can be considered
be the number of turns on coil 2times 7or 1.0 for all practical purposes. This is Fig. 28— Toroidal transformer

3-9 Chapter 3
 netizing reactance, the residual parasitic voltage- standing- wave ratio ( VSWR). twist the wires together. Either way, there
elements must still be made as low as These results are based on the exact are a number of advantages (and some
possible. This is especially important in equations and it can be seen that the disadvantages) to be gained. Referring to
matching applications as the following approximate relations shown in Fig. 29C Fig. 27, the fact that not all the flux lines
example illustrates. A transformer has a are valid up to 1ohm or so. Curve A ( Fig. linked all of the turns of aparticular coil
primary and secondary leakage reactance 30) only includes the effect of the meant the self inductance was lower than
of Iohm and 0.1 ohm, respectively, with a secondary reactance and illustrates the if all the turns were linked. Since the
coefficient of coupling of 1.0 in the core. manner in which the reactance is trans- separation between turns of aparticular
Xi and X2 are 1000 ohms and 100 ohms. formed. Curve B is the total input coil is quite large in the configuration of
A plot similar to the one of Fig. 25 is reactance which merely requires the Fig. 31, the flux linkage between turns is
shown in Fig. 30 along with acurve for addition of 1 ohm. The VSWR curve quite low. This means the corresponding
includes the effect of the latter. Useful leakage inductance is reduced according-
range of the transformer is between 1and ly. However, the coupling between both
10 ohms with rapid deterioration in coils is increased because of the bifilar
VSWR outside of these values. (The winding ( flux line A) in Fig. 31 which also
VSWR curve is for a characteristic tends to reduce the leakage inductance of
impedance equal to 10 times the secon- either coil.
dary resistance. For instance, the transfor- On the other hand, the capacitance
mer would be useful in matching a5-ohm between windings is increased considerably
load to a 50-ohm line.) as indicated by B in Fig. 31. As aresult,
As mentioned previously, these dif- the coupling between windings is both
ficulties are less pronounced at audio electrical and magnetic in nature. Generally
frequencies since the permeabilities nor- speaking, analysis of the problem is quite
mally encountered in iron-core trans- complicated. However, a phenomenon
formers are so high, the actual inductance usually associated with such coupling is
of the winding itself is small in com- that it tends to be directional. That is,
parison to the component represented by energy transferred from one winding to
the core. That is, asmall number of turns another one propagates in a preferred
of wire wound on acore may actually be direction rather than splitting equally.
the equivalent of a very large coil.
However, materials suitable for rf ap- Directional Coupling
plications have much lower permeabilities
and anarrower range of matching values Two conductors are oriented side by
side over aconducting plane as shown in
is likely to be the result (such as in the
example of Fig. 30). Therefore, other Fig. 32. A current Iin conductor Iwill
induce a current Im in conductor 2
means are required in keeping the
because of magnetic coupling. The actual
parasitic elements as low as possible.
value of the current will depend upon the
Either that, or less conventional trans-
former designs are used. external circuitry attached to the con-
ductors but it will be assumed that the two
One approach is shown in Fig. 31.
of them extend to infinity in both
Instead of separating the windings on the
directions.
core as shown in Fig. 28, they are wound
Since capacitive coupling exists also, a
in parallel fashion. This is called abifilar
second set of current components denoted
Fig. 29— Effect of ahigh-permeability core on winding although a more common ap-
by Ic will also flow. The result is that a
transformer equivalent circuit. proach to achieve the same purpose is to
wave traveling toward the right in
conductor 1will produce awave traveling
100 100 ,1 toward the left in conductor 2. Such
coupling is called contradirectional coup-
VSWR ling since the induced wave travels in the
opposite direction to the generating wave.
RIN
This is the principle behind many
practical devices and ones that are quite
10
common in amateur applications. In
adjusting aload such as an antenna, it is
, desirable to insure that energy is not
/
"
reflected back to the transmitter. Other-
XIN ( B) .......- -- ...., , ." wise, the impedance presented to the
— _
transmitter output may not be within
range of permissible values. A directional
XIN ( A/
1
,0 coupler is useful in determining how much
power is reflected as indicated in Fig. 33.
Energy originating from the transmitter
and flowing to the right causes avoltage
to be produced across the resistor at the
left. On the other hand, awave traveling
0.1
from the right to the left produces a
0.01 0.1 10 100 voltage across the right-hand resistor. If
both of these voltages are sampled, some
Rs1111
idea of the amount of power reflected can
be determined. (The subject of reflected-
Fig 30— Curve for 1rengformar problem discussed in the text power is taken up in more detail in the

Radio Design Technique and Language 3-10

 chapter on transmission lines.) of the same phase and amplitude.
In some situations, the coupling de- Consequently, no additional current would
scribed can be very undesirable. For flow if the two resistors were paralleled or
instance, the lines shown in Fig. 33 might combined into a single resistor of R/2.
be conductors on acircuit board in apiece
of equipment. As a result, the coupling Extending the Low-Frequency Range
between lines can cause " feedback" and
As might be expected, the coupling
because of its directional nature, it can be
mechanism illustrated in Figs. 32 through
very difficult to suppress with con-
34 is highly dependent on dimensions such
ventional methods. Therefore, it is good
as conductor spacing and line length. For
design practice to use " double- sided"
instance, maximum coupling of power
board ( board with conductive foil on both
from the primary wave to the induced
sides) so that aground plane of metal is in
wave occurs when the " secondary" line is
close proximity to the conductors. This
a quarter-wavelength long' or some odd
tends to confine the fields to the region in
multiple of a quarter-wavelength. This
the immediate vicinity of wires.
Fig. 31 — Bifilar-wound transformer on toroidal would normally make such couplers
core. impractical for frequencies in the hf range.
Transmission-Line Transformers However, by running the leads through a
In effect, sections of transmission line in ferrite core as shown in Fig. 35, lower-
close proximity act as transformers with frequency operation is possible. Although
the unique feature that the coupling is the transformer of Fig. 35A is seldom
directional. For instance, if only magnetic used, it illustrates the manner in which the
coupling was present in the configuration conductors are employed electrically in
of Fig. 33, power would be divided the more complicated configurations of
equally between the resistors at either end Fig. 31 and Fig. 35B. Also, the relationship
of the " secondary" section of transmis- between the parallel- line coupler in Fig.
sion line. As another example of direc- 34 and the " loaded" version of Fig. 35A is
tional effects, the network shown in Fig. easier to visualize.
34 can be used to couple two sources Recalling an earlier problem discussion
to a common load without " cross- (Fig. 28), aset of coupled coils wound on
coupling" of power from one source to a high- permeability core can be broken
the other one. ( This assumes the sources down into combinations of two series
have the same frequency and phase. inductances. One inductance represents
Otherwise, aresistance of value 2R must the path in air while the other one includes
Fig. 32— Effect of distributed capacitance on
transformer action.
be connected from points ato d.) Such a the effects of the flux in the core. As
configuration is called ahybrid combiner
and is often used to combine the outputs 'Oliver, " Directional Electromagnetic Couplers,"
Proceedings of the IRE., Vol. 42, p. 1686-1692;
of two solidstate amplifiers in order to
November, 1954.
increase the powerhandling capability.
This permits the use of less expensive
low-power devices rather than very ex-
pensive high- power ones. Even though
more devices are required, it is still
simpler since the difficulties in producing
ahigh-power transistor increase in agreater
proportion as the power level is raised.
The manner in which the circuit shown
in Fig. 34 operates is as follows. A wave
from the generator on the left end of line 1
travels toward the right and induces a
wave in line 2that travels toward the left
Fig. 33— Basic configuration for adirectional- and on into the load. No wave is induced
coupler type VSWR detector. in line 2 that travels toward the right
except for a small fraction of power.
A similar situation exists with the
second generator connected at the right
end of line 2. A wave is induced in line 1
that travels toward the right. Since the
load is also connected to the right end of
line 1, power in the induced wave will be
dissipated here with little energy reaching
the generator at the left end of line 1. In
order to " simulate" a single load ( since
there are two generators involved), the
value of the load resistance must be half of
the generator resistance. Assuming that
two separate resistors of value R were
connected to the ends of the line, it would
be possible to connect them together
without affecting circuit operation. This is
Fig. 35— Transmission- line transformers with
Fig. 34— Directional-coupler hybrid combiner. because the voltage across both resistors is ferrite cores.

3-11 Chapter 3
 phase, currents 11 and 12 must be identical
because of the symmetry involved. How-
• ever, if the coefficient of coupling is 1.0,
the self and mutual- reactance must be
equal. Therefore, the voltage across either
Vi
coil is zero since the terms subtract and a
low- impedance path exists between both
sources and the load.

Other Transformer Types

The hybrid combiner is only one
application of acombination transmission-
V2
line or directional-coupler transformer
and conventional coupled-coil arrange-
ment. With other variations, the low-
frequency isolation is accomplished in the
same manner. Mutual- reactance terms
Fig. 36— Equivalent circuit of transmission- line transformer in the presence of the core. Dots indicate
add to the self reactance to provide
winding sense of coils. A positive current into adotted end of one coil will produce avoltage in the
isolations for some purpose with cancel-
other coil because of mutual coupling. The polarity of this voltage will be such that dotted end of the
"secondary" coil will be positive. ( See text for crossed- arrow symbol in the middle of the parallel lation of reactive components in the path
lines.) for the desired coupling. Very good
bandwidth is possible with a range from
before, it is assumed that the coefficient of usually too short to provide much bc frequencies to uhf in the more esoteric
coupling in the core is 1.0. coupling or isolation. Therefore, the designs. Models that cover all the amateur
If the hybrid combiner of Fig. 34 is circuit can be represented by the set of hf bands can be constructed easily.'
wound on acore (such as those of Fig. 31 coupled coils shown in Figs. 37 and 38. Unfortunately, there is also atendency
or Fig. 35), the low- frequency range of the For acurrent 112 flowing from asource to expect too much from such devices on
entire system is increased considerably. 1over to the mesh that includes source 2, occasion. Misapplication or poor design
The equivalent circuit showing the effect the mutual- reactance components add to often results in inferior performance. For
of the core on the air- wound coupler is the self inductance of each coil. Con- instance, as indicated in an earlier
illustrated in Fig. 36. (The symbol in the sequently, a large reactance appears in example ( Fig. 30), actual impedance levels
middle of the parallel lines is the standard series between the two sources which were important along with the desired
one for a directional coupler.) At the effectively isolates them. On the other transforming ratio. Using a transformer
higher frequencies, most core materials hand, currents from both sources that for an impedance level that it was not
decrease in permeability so the operation flow through the load resistor R/2 intended for resulted in undesirable
approaches that of the original air- wound produce fluxes that cancel and the reactive components and improper trans-
coupler and the inductance produced by voltages produced by the self- and forming ratio. However, when applied
the core can be neglected. At the low end mutual- reactance terms subtract. If both properly, the transformers discussed in
of the frequency range, the line lengths are sources have the same amplitude and the previous sections can provide band-
width characteristics that are obtainable
in no other way.
Another transformer type is shown in
Fig. 39A. The windings of the coils are
such that the voltages across the inductors
caused by the desired current are zero.
This is because the induced voltages
produced by the current in the mutual-
reactance terms just cancel the voltage
drop caused by the current flowing in the
self reactances of either coil. ( Assuming
that the coefficient of coupling is 1.0.)
However, an impedance connected to
ground at point cwould be in series with
Fig. 37— Low-frequency equivalent circuit of
hybrid combiner showing isolation of sources. the self reactance ( XL) of the coil
connected between points a and c. B
there would be no induced voltag
counter the voltage drop across this
Therefore, if XLis large, very little curre
would flow in the impedance Z and it
would effectively be isolated from the
source.
Infact, terminal ccould be grounded as
shown in Fig. 39B. The voltage drop
across the coil from ato cwould then be
equal to Vi. However, the induced voltage
in the coil connected between points band
d would also be Vi assuming unity
coupling ( k equal to 1.0). Although the

,Ruthroff, Some Broad- Band Transformers," Pro-

Fig. 38— Desired coupling mode of hybrid Fig. 39— Other applications of transmission- line ceedings of the I.R.E.. Vol. 97, pp. 1337-1342;
combiner. trancform ors. August, 1959.

Radio Design Technique and Language 3-12

voltage drop produced by the inductors series with the load. This problem can be
Table 1
around the mesh through which I Iflows is offset somewhat by reducing XL slightly
still zero, point d is now at potential -VI Impedance ( Ohms) (by using fewer turns) but this is counter
and aphase reversal has taken place. For to the requirement of large XL in the
this reason, the configuration shown in Twists per Inch circuit of Fig. 39C. Isolation is reduced in
Wire
Fig. 39B is called a phase-reversal trans- both cases although no detrimental effect
Size 2-1/2 5 7-1/2 10 12-1/2
former. on input impedance results in the trans-
no. 20 43 39 35
39 former of Fig. 39A by reducing XL.
Baluns no. 22 46 41 37 32
no. 24 60 45 44 43 41
The circuit shown in Fig. 39A is useful Twisted Pairs - Impedance and
no. 26 65 57 54 48 47
in isolating a load from a grounded no. 28 74 53 51 49 47 Attenuation
source. This is often required in many no. 30 49 46 47 Twisted pairs of wire are often used in
applications and the device that ac- Measured at 14.0 MHz the construction of broadband rf trans-
complishes this goal is called a balun formers. The question often arises as to
This chart illustrates the impedance of various
(balanced to unbalanced) transformer. what size conductors and what number of
two-conductor lines as a function of the wire
Baluns may also be used in impedance size and number of twists per inch.
twists per inch should be used. To help
transforming applications along with the answer these questions the information
function of isolation and a " 1:1 balun" contained in Tables 1and 2 was devel-
such as the one shown in Fig. 39A means oped. Table 1illustrates the approximate
Table 2
the impedance at the input terminals ab impedance for various sized conductors
Attenuation (
dB) per Foot
will be the same as the load connected with different numbers of twists per inch.
across terminals cd. Other transforming These values are based on laboratory
Twists per Inch
ratios are possible such as 4:1 with the measurements and should be accurate to
Wire
appropriate circuit connections. Size 2-1/2 5 7-1/2 10 12-1/2 within an ohm or two. Enameled copper
One disadvantage of the network of wire was used for each pair. The informa-
no. 20 0.11 0.11 0.12
Fig. 39A is that although the load is no. 22 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 tion shown in Table 2 is the attenuation
isolated from the source, the voltages at no. 24 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 per foot for the same twisted pairs of wire.
the output are not balanced. This is no. 26 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 Information is not included for twists per
no. 28 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.16 0.16
important in some applications such as inch greater than 7-1/2 for the no. 20 wire
no. 30 0.25 0.27 0.27
diode- ring mixers where a "push-pull" Measured at 14.0 MHz
since this results in an unusable tight pair.
input is required and so the circuit of Fig. Likewise, the information for twists per
39C is used. A third coil connected inch less than 7-1/2 for no. 30 wire is
between points e and fis wound on the Attenuation in dB per foot for the same lines omitted since these pairs are extremely
as shown in Table 1
same core as the orignal transformer ( Fig. loose.
39A). This coil is connected so that a As a general rule the wire size can be
voltage across it produces aflux that adds polarity shown. Therefore, this circuit not selected based on the size core to be used
to that produced by the coil between aand only isolates the load from the source but and the number of turns that are required.
c. Assuming that both coils are identical, provides a balanced voltage also. The number of twists per inch can be
the voltage drop across either one must be Either the circuit of Fig. 39A or Fig. selected according to the impedance level
the same or half the applied voltage. 39C can be used if only isolation is desired. of transmission line that is needed. For
However, since the coil between band dis However, the network shown in Fig. 39C applications where moderate levels of
also coupled to this combination (and is is more difficult to design and construct power are to be handled (such as in the
an identical coil), the induced voltage since the reactance of the coils between low- and medium-level stages of a solid-
must also be VI /2. Consequently, the end points aand fmust be very high through- state transmitter), smaller wire sizes
of the load connected to points cand eis out the frequency range of the transform- should be avoided. For receiver applica-
at a potential of + VI /2 with respect to er. With both transformers, the coefficient tions, very small wire can be used. It is not
ground while point dis -V1/2 with respect of coupling must also be very close to 1.0 uncommon to find transformers wound
to ground when the input voltage has the in order to prevent undesirable reactance in with pairs of no. 32 wire and smaller.

Nonlinear and Active Networks

Al most all the theory in previous output, it is convenient to consider certain element such as a resistor is said to be
sections has dealt with so-called passive elements as controllable sources of power. bilateral since it doesn't matter which way
cimponents. r'esive networks and com- Such devices are called amplifiers and are it is connected in acircuit. Semiconductor
ponents carCeé represented solely by part of a more general class of circuits and vacuum-tube devices such as triodes,
combinations of resistors, capacitors and called active networks. An active network diodes, transistors and integrated circuits
inductors. As a consequence, the power generally possesses characteristics that are (ICs) are all examples where the concept
output at one set of terminals in apassive different than those of simple RLC of a bilateral element breaks down. (For
network cannot exceed the total power circuits although the goal in many readers with limited backgrounds in the
input from sources connected to other instances is to attempt to represent them basic operation of vacuum tubes, recom-
terminals in the circuit. This assumes all in terms of passive elements and genera- mended study would be The Radio
the sources are at one frequency. Similar tors. Amateur's License Manual and Under-
considerations hold true for any network, standing Amateur Radio. Both publica-
however, it is possible for energy to be Nonlinearity
tions contain fundamental treatments of
converted from one frequency (including Two other important attributes of vacuum-tube principles and are available
dc) to other ones. While the total power passive RLC elements are that they are from The American Radio Relay League.)
input must still equal the total power linear and bilateral. A two-terminal The manner in which the device is
3-1 3 Chapter 3
 connected in acircuit and the polarity of
the voltages involved are very important.
An implication of the failure to satisfy
the bilateral requirements is that such
devices are nonlinear in the strictest sense.
Linearity means that the amplitude of a
voltage or current is related to other
voltages and currents in a circuit by a
single proportionality constant. For in-
stance, if all the voltages and currents in a
circuit were doubled, a single remaining
voltage or current would be doubled also.
That is, it couldn't change by afactor of
one half or three no matter how complex
the network might be. Likewise, if all the
polarities of the currents and voltages in a
circuit are reversed, the polarity of a
remaining voltage or current must be
reversed also. Finally, if all the generators
or sources in a linear network are sine
waves at asingle frequency, any voltage or Fig. 40— Nonlinear transfer characteristic ( see
current produced by these sources must text discussion).
also be asine wave at the same frequency
too.
Consequently, if adevice is sensitive to
the polarity of the voltage applied to its have energy at frequencies that could
terminals, it doesn't meet the require- cause interference to nearby receiving
ments of a bilateral element or a linear equipment. Filters and similar devices
one either. However, because of the must he used to suppress this energy as
extreme simplicity of the mathematics of much as possible.
linear circuits as compared to the general The manner in which this energy is
nonlinear case, there is tremendous produced is shown in Fig. 40. A sine-wave
motivation in being able to represent a at the input of anonlinear network (Vm) is
nonlinear circuit by a linear approxima- "transformed" into the output voltage
tion. Many devices exhibit linear pro- waveform ('lout )illustrated. If the actual Fig. 41 — Harmonic analysis and Spectrum

perties over part of their operating range device characteristic is known, the wave-
or may satisfy some but not all of the form could be constructed graphically. It
requirements of linear circuits. Such de- could also be tabulated if the output P • lOrnA

vices in these categories are sometimes voltage as afunction of input voltage was PLATE LOAD

termed piece-wise linear. Either that, or available in either tabular or equation GRID lo

they are just referred to simply as linear. form. (Only one-half of the period of a INPUT G
100V

For instance, alinear mixer doesn't satisfy sine-wave is shown in Fig. 40 for clarity.) SIGNAL

the rule that avoltage or current must be Although the new waveform retains EUH
\ et

at the same frequency as the generating many of the characteristics of the original =380V
source(s). However, since the desired sine-wave, some transformations have
output voltage (or current) varies in direct taken place. It has zero value when tis BI AS -I
PLATE
SUPPLY
proportion to the input voltage (or either 0or T/2 and attains amaximum at SUPPLY
(A)
current), the term linear is applied to 1/4. However, the fact that the curve is
distinguish the mixer from types without flattened somewhat means energy at the
this "quasi-linear" property. original sine-wave frequency has been
converted to other frequencies. It will be
Harmonic-Frequency Generation recalled that the sum of anumber of sine
waves at one frequency result in another
In a circuit with only linear com-
sine-wave at the same frequency. There-
ponents, the only frequencies present are fore, it must be concluded that the
those generated by the sources them- waveform of Fig. 40 has more than one EIS
selves. However, this is not true with
frequency component present since it is
nonlinear elements. One of the properties no longer a sine-wave.
of nonlinear networks mentioned earlier is One possible " model" for the new
that energy at one frequency (including (8)
waveform is shown in Fig. 41A. Instead of
dc) may become converted to other one sine-wave at asingle frequency, there
frequencies. In effect, this is how devices are two generators in series with one
such as transistors and vacuum tubes are generator at three times the " fundamen-
able to amplify radio signals. Energy from tal" frequency°, where cu is 2rf(Hz). If the
the dc power supply is converted to energy
two sine waves are plotted point by point,
at the desired signal frequency. Therefore, the dashed curve of Fig. 41B results. While Es
o
a greater amount of signal power is
this curve doesn't resemble the one of Fig.
available at the output of the network of 40 very closely, the general symmetry is
an active device than at the input. the same. It would take an infinite number (C)
On the other hand, such frequency of generators to represent the desired
generation may be undesirable. For
curve exactly, but it is evident all the
instance, the output of atransmitter may frequencies must be odd multiples of the
Fig. 42— Basic triode amplifier and equivalent
circuit.

Radio Design Technique and Language 3-14

 fundamental. Even multiples would pro- note that the amplification factor is
duce a lopsided curve which might be negative. This means that for an increase
useful for representing other types of in the signal voltage (em), the controlled
waveforms. generator decreases in voltage. Con-
In either case, the multiples have a sequently, there is a180 degree phase shift
specific name and are called harmonics. between the input voltage and the
There is no " first" harmonic (by defini- controlled source. (Note the polarity of
tion) with the second, third and fourth the generator shown in Fig. 42B.)
multiples designated as the second, third In order to complete the equivalent
and fourth harmonics. Thus the dashed generator circuit, the source " impedance"
curve of Fig. 41 is the sum of the must be computed. This is accomplished
fundamental and third harmonic. by determining how the plate voltage var-
Analyzing waveforms such as those of ies with plate current at constant grid vol-
Fig. 40 is avery important subject. A plot tage as shown in Fig. 43B. The plate resist-
of harmonic amplitude such as that shown ance is then
in Fig. 41C is called the spectrum of the
waveform and can be displayed on an 325 — 240
instrument called aspectrum analyzer. If rP ( 15 — 5) X 10-3ohms
— 8500
the mathematical equation or other data
for the curve is known, the harmonics can
also be determined by means of aprocess which must be considered to be in series
called Fourier Analysis. with the controlled source of Fig. 42B.
It should be pointed out at this juncture
that the reasoning why the foregoing
Linear Approximations
procedure is valid has not been presented.
of Nonlinear Devices
That is, why was the amplification factor
Nonlinear circuits may have to be defined as the ratio of achange in plate
analyzed graphically as in the previous voltage to change in grid voltage at con-
example. There are many other instances stant current? Unfortunately, the mathe-
where only a graphical method may be Fig. 43— Triode characteristics and derivation of matics involved although not difficult is
small- signal parameters.
practical such as in power-amplifier somewhat sophisticated. Some knowledge
problems. However, a wide variety of of the subject of partial differential
applications permit adifferent approach. Fig. 43A. (Other areas are often picked equations is required for the theoretical
A model is derived from the nonlinear for power-amplifier operation but the derivation of these parameters. However,
characteristics using linear elements to goal here is to find a point where the an intuitive idea can be obtained from the
approximate the more difficult nonlinear maximum voltage swing is possible with- following.
problem. This model is then used in more out entering regions where the non- If the characteristics were completely
complicated networks instead of the linearities affect the linear approxima- linear, instead of being nonlinear as
nonlinear characteristics which simplifies tion.) shown, the equivalent generator would be
analysis considerably. In the particular operating point cho- unaffected by changes in plate current but
The following example illustrates how sen, the cathode-to-grid voltage is — 3, the only by changes in grid voltage. For
this is accomplished and although a cathode-to-plate voltage is 280, and the instance, if the plate current was increased
vacuum-tube application is considered, a plate current is 10 mA. It is assumed that from 10 to 17 mA (Fig. 43A), the
similar process is employed in solving the input-signal source in Fig. 42A is a amplification factor would be the equiva-
semiconductor problems as well. However, "short circuit" at dc and a 3-V battery lent of the change in voltage represented
there are some additional factors involved connected as shown results in adc voltage by the line cd divided by — 2. However,
in semiconductor design that do not apply of — 3being applied to the grid at all times. since the length of cd is almost the same as
to vacuum tubes. Device characteristics of Such a battery is called abias battery or that of ab (the difference in plate voltage
early transistors were less uniform than bias supply. for a — 2-V change at 10 mA), it can be
those of tubes although this is much less The next step is to determine how the concluded u doesn't change very much.
of aproblem than it was formerly. In fact, plate voltage varies with grid voltage (eg) Not at least in the center region of the
much of the analysis required with vacuum for a constant plate current. Assuming characteristics.
tubes is unnecessary with modern solid- that the characteristic curves were com- Similar considerations hold for the
state components since many of the prob- pletely linear, this would permit evalua- plate resistance, rp. It wouldn't matter if
lems have already been "solved" before tion of an equivalent ac voltage generator the curve for — 4or — 2V was picked ( Fig.
the device leaves the counter at the radio as shown in Fig. 42B. For aconstant plate 43B), since the change in plate voltage vs.
store. That is, amplifiers such as those in current of 10 mA, the plate voltage chan- plate current would be approximately the
integrated ciircuits ha\ ethe peripheral ele- ges from 325 (point b) to 230 (point a) same. Entities such as u and rp are often
ments built in arid there is no need to de- when the grid voltage is changed from — 4 called incremental or small-signal para-
termine the gain or other parameters such to — 2 ( Fig. 43A). meters. This means they are valid for
as the values of bias resistors. These numbers can be used to compute small ac voltages or currents around some
the amplification factor (u) of the triode operating point but less so for large
The Triode Amplifier
which is variations in signal or for regions removed
A simple network using a triode from the specified operating point. Also,
vacuum type is shown in Fig. 42A and a such parameters are not closely related to
typical set of characteristic curves is 325 — 230
illustrated in Fig. 43A. The first chore in Li ( — 4)- -
2- ( ) 473
dc voltage characteristics. For instance, a
"static" plate resistance could be defined
finding a suitable linear approximation as the ratio of plate voltage to plate
for the triode is to determine an optimum Quite often, a set of characteristics will current. For the — 3-V operating point
operating point. Generally speaking, a not be published for atriode and only the chosen, the static plate resistance would
point in the center of the set of curves is amplification factor will be given along be 280 divided by 10 -3 or 2.8 Mg. This
desirable and is indicated by point Q in with a typical operating point. However, is considerably different from the
3-1 5 Chapter 3
sniall-signal plate resistance determined output energy of an amplifier is returned
previously which was 8500 ohms. to the input circuit and gets amplified
again. Since energy is being " fed back"
Amplifier Gain into the input, the general phenomenon is
The ratio of the variation in voltage called feedback. The manner in which
across the load resistance to change in feedback problems are analyzed is il-
input voltage is defined as the gain of the lustrated in Fig. 44. The output voltage is
amplifier. For the equivalent circuit "sampled" by a network in the box
shown in Fig. 42B, this ratio would be marked beta and multiplied by this term.
This transformed voltage then appears in
series with the input voltage,e o,which is
A = e° applied to the input terminals of the
amplifier ( triangle with Ao). Ao is defined
as the open- loop gain. It is the ratio of the
In order to solve for the gain, the first step voltage that appears between terminals 3
is to determine the incremental plate and 4 when a voltage is applied to
current. This is just the source voltage terminals 1and 2. The circuit of Fig. 44 is
divided by the total resistance of the an example of voltage feedback and a
circuit mesh or similar analysis holds for networks in-
corporating current feedback.
47.5e 1 mA
The closed- loop gain, Ac, can then be
P = 10 + 8.5 found by inspection of Fig. 44. From the
diagram, the output voltage must be
The output voltage is then
eo = A, (e,„ f1e 0)
e„ = i
p 10
rearranging terms gives Fig. 45— Feedback example of an amplifier with
and combining the two foregoing equa- cathode bias.
tions gives eo ( 1 — ØA 0) =

and the closed-loop gain is defined by 0 is then

eo (
47.5) ( 10)
A = — = 25.67
e 10 + 8.5
A, eo
A, =i3A0 — _ i
rR _ c
/
3=
It is somewhat inconvenient to have the i
PRL RL
input and output voltages defined with
Cathode Bias
opposite polarities as shown in Fig. 42B. Note that (3is positive since if the path 1
Therefore, the gain becomes negative as As an application of the feedback to 2is considered, the feedback voltage is
illustrated in the triangle in Fig. 42C. A concept, consider the amplifier circuit added to the input signal. Substituting the
triangle is the standard way of rep- shown in Fig. 45. It will be recalled that a values of 0 and Ao into the feedback
resenting an amplifier stage in " block- bias battery was required in the previous equation gives
diagram" form. The amplifier gain de- example and amethod of eliminating this
A0
pends of course on the load resistance, extra source is to insert a small-valued A. —
Ri., and ageneral formula for the gain of resistor in series with the cathode lead to , R
1—
the circuit of Fig. 42B is ground ( Fig. 45A). In terms of the RL °
amplifier block diagram, the circuit of
which after some manipulation becomes
Fig. 45B results. The next task is to
evaluate the open- loop gain and the value —1.4,11 L
A — A, —
of i3 . r, + RL + ( 1 + et)R,
rp+ RL
With the exception of the cathode
resistor, the circuit of Fig. 45 is the same Comparison of this equation with the one
as that of Fig. 42. Consequently, the ac for the previous circuit with no cathode
Feedback plate current must be resistor reveals that the gain has decreased
because of the term ( I + it ) Rc in the
Being able to eliminate the equivalent
denominator. Such an effect is called
circuit and use only one parameter such as — — eel2
I negative or degenerative feedback.
•

the gain permits analysis of more com- P rp RL R,

On the other hand, if Ihe feedback was
plicated networks. A very important
such that the gain incre4sed„regenerative
application occurs when part of the
or positive feedback w ,:ev
' ' ' . Positive
The open- loop gain can then be de-
feedback can be el e ecial or
termined and is
detrimental in nature ait ',ilk 'study of
eo feedback is an important one in elec-
—IhR L
= A0 —
r
p + RL + R,
tronics. For instance, frequency genera-
e12
tion is possible in a circuit called an
oscillator. But on the other hand, un-
Next, is determined from the expression
wanted oscillation or instability in an
for output voltage
amplifier is very undesirable.

eo = i
oRL Oscillators
A special case of feedback occurs if the
and the feedback voltage which is
term

Fig. 44— Network illustrating voltage feedback. er = i,R, 1 — OA °

Radio Design Technique and Language 3-10

 prevents the theoretical maximum efficien-
cy from being realized is that a practical
amplifying device cannot be aperfect con-
ductor — it will have a finite minimum
voltage drop that prevents the full power
supply potential from being impressed
across the load. The operating point for a
Class A amplifier is chosen to permit power
supply current to flow over the entire 360
degrees of the input signal cycle, and the
Fig 46— Tuned- plate tuned- grid oscillator average supply current does not vary with
the signal level.
An advantage of a Class A amplifier,
aside from nearly perfect input waveform
becomes zero. This would mean the reproduction (linearity), is that it requires
minimal energy from the signal source. So
closed-loop gain would become infinite.
An implication of this effect is that avery while the power efficiency is poor, the
small input signal would be amplified and power gain can be extremely high. The
fed back and amplified again until the amplifier described in Figs. 42 and 43
output voltage became infinite. Either operates in Class A.
that, or amplifier output would exist with An amplifier operating in Class B is
no signal input. Random noise could biased so that no power supply current
"trigger" the input into producing output. flows without an input signal applied. Cur-
Of course, an infinite output voltage is a rent is taken from the supply over exactly
physical impossibility and circuit limi- 180 degrees of the input signal cycle. A
tations such as the nonlinearities of the single-ended Class B amplifier that works
active device would alter the feedback only into aresistor for aload is, in effect,
equation. For instance, at high output a half-wave rectifier (see power supply
voltage swings, the amplifier would either
Fig. 47— Hartley and Colpitts oscillators. ' chapter), because one half of the input cy-
"saturate" (be unable to supply more cle is duplicated in the output and the other
current) or "limit" ( be cutoff because the half is absent. This type of circuit finds
grid was too negative) and Ao would some application as arectifier or detector
decrease. small-valued 0 and the conditions for in radio work (see receiving chapter), but
It should be stressed that it is the oscillations will not be fulfilled. However, the distortion would be intolerable if used
product of 0Ao that must be 1.0 for for conditions near f., both the amplitude as an audio amplifier. Class B amplifiers
oscillations to occur. In the general case, and phase of the fi A. product will be cor- can be used in low-distortion applications,
both fi and Ao may be complex numbers rect for oscillations to occur. however. Two Class B devices can be com-
unlike those of the cathode-bias problem Under some conditions, the voltage bined in apush-pull circuit. The two input
just discussed. That is, there is a phase across the tank circuit may be sufficient to terminals are driven 180 degrees out of
shift associated with A. and p with the cause the grid to be driven positive with phase, so that the amplifying devices con-
phase shift of the product being equal to respect to the cathode and grid current duct on opposite half cycles of the input
the sum of the individual phase shifts as- will flow through Cg. During the rest of signal. The output terminals are similarly
sociated with each entity. the rf cycle, Cg will discharge through Rg coupled out of phase (usually by means of
Therefore, if the total phase shift is 180 causing a negative bias voltage to be ap- a transformer) to reproduce the input
degrees and if the amplitude of the plied to the grid. This bias voltage sets the waveform faithfully.
product is 1.0, oscillations will occur. At operating point of the oscillator and A single-ended Class B stage is suitable
low frequencies, these conditions normal- prevents excessive current flow. for linear rf amplification if the load is a
ly are the result of the effects of reactive Two other common type of oscillators tuned circuit having aQ of five or better.
components. A typical example is shown are shown in Fig 47. In Fig. 47A, feedback Theflywheel ( ringing) effect of the tank cir-
in Fig. 46 and the configuration is called a voltage is applied across a tapped cuit supplies the missing half of the output
tuned-plate tuned-grid oscillator. If the inductor while in Fig 47B, the voltage is cycle. The efficiency of this type of
input circuit consisting of Li and C 1is applied across a capacitor instead. Quite amplifier is typically 60 percent.
tuned to a frequency fo, with the output often, a tuned plate circuit is not An amplifier that is biased so as to con-
.
circuit (L2, C2) tuned to the same fre- employed and an rf choke coil provides a duct over the entire cycle for small input
uency, a high impedance to ground will high impedance load instead. signals but at a reduced angle for large
ist at the input and output of the ampli- signals is a Class AB amplifier. The
fier. Consequently, a small capacitance Classes of Amplifier Service
operating point is adjusted for the desired
value represented by Cf is capable of sup- The amplifiers discussed so far have been compromise among efficiency, power gain
plying sufficient voltage feedback from described mostly in terms of ideal linear and linearity.
the plate to the grid. gain blocks. Class A amplifiers, with or The output terminal of a single-device
At other frequencies, or if either circuit without negative feedback, reproduce the Class A, AB or B amplifier operated
is detuned, oscillations may not occur. input signal with the greatest fidelity or without negative feedback acts as acurrent
For instance, off- resonant conditions in least distortion. They accomplish this at the source. This means that the instantaneous
the output tank will reduce the output expense of poor power efficiency, meaning power supply current is essentially indepen-
voltage and in effect, reduce the open- the signal power delivered to the load is dent of the supply potential and is deter-
loop gain to the point where oscillations usually only a small fraction of the dc mined by the input signal amplitude. When
will cease. On the other hand, if the input power taken from the power supply. The an amplifying device is driven into satura-
circuit is detuned far from f., it will remainder must be dissipated as heat. The tion, that is, increasing the input amplitude
present alow impedance in series with the maximum theoretical efficiency for aClass causes no further increase in output, the
relatively high reactance of Cf. The A amplifier is 50 percent, with 25 percent output terminal no longer approximates a
voltage divider thus formed will result in a being amore typical figure. One factor that current source. Instead, the output terminal

3-17 Chapter 3
becomes " ohmic," meaning that the supply above and below that frequency band. predetermined characteristic of awave
current varies approximately linearly with band-reject — A circuit or device which at each occurrence so that the voltage or
the supply voltage. The signal output rejects aspecified frequency band while current is "clamped" or held at aspeci-
voltage also varies linearly with the supply passing those frequencies which lie fied value.
voltage. This effect is highly useful in above and below the rejected band (op- clipper — A device or circuit which limits
posite of band-pass). Sometimes called the instantaneous value of awave form
amplitude modulation, which is an im-
"band-rejection," as applied to afilter. or pulse to apredetermined value (see
portant mode of radiotelephony. The
saturated amplifier described in this bandwidth — The frequency width of blanker).
circuit or component, such as a band- closed loop — A signal path which in-
paragraph is called Class C. Its operating
pass filter or tuned circuit. Usually cludes a forward route, a feedback
point is selected to allow power-supply cur-
measured at the half-power points of path, and asumming point which pro-
rent to flow only in narrow pulses cor-
the response curve (- 3dB points). vides a closed circuit. In broad terms,
responding to the peaks of the input signal.
base loading — Applies to vertical anten- an amplifying circuit which is providing
Class C amplifiers are extremely nonlinear,
nas for mobile and fixed-location use; voltage or power gain while being ter-
and the harmonics produced in the wave-
an inductance placed near the ground minated correctly at the input and out-
form-distortion process make the Class C
end of avertical radiator to change the put ports, inclusive of feedback.
amplifier useful as afrequency multiplier.
electrical length. With variations the cold end — The circuit end of a com-
High-Q tank circuits are required to sup-
inductor aids in impedance matching. ponent which is connected to ground or
press unwanted frequency components
bifilar — Two conducting elements used is bypassed for ac or rf voltage (the
generated by aClass C stage. Apart from grounded end of acoil or capacitor).
in parallel; two parallel wires wound on
its utility as an amplitude-modulated
acoil form, as one example. common-mode signal — The instantane-
amplifier or a frequency multiplier, the
bilateral — Having two symmetrical sides ous algebraic average of two signals
principal asset of aClass C amplifier is high
or terminals; a filter ( as one example) applied to abalanced circuit, both sig-
power efficiency. The practical efficiency
which has a 50-ohm characteristic at nals referred to acommon reference.
in straight amplifier service can run as high
each port, with either port suitable as composite — Made up of acollection of
as 85 percent, but considerable drive power distinct components; acomplete ("com-
the input or output one.
is required from the signal source, so the posite") circuit rather than a discrete
bias — To influence current to flow in a
power gain is not as high as can be obtained part of an overall circuit.
specified direction by means of dc vol-
in Class A or B. In multiplier service the conversion loss gain — Relating to a
tage; forward bias on atransistor stage,
maximum theoretical efficiency is the recip- mixer circuit from which less output
or grid bias on atube type of amplifier.
rocal of the harmonic number. energy is taken than is supplied at the
binary — Relating to two logical ele-
Still higher efficiency can be obtained input-signal port (loss); when a mixer
ments; asystem of numbers having two
from Class D and Class E amplifiers. In delivers greater signal output than is
as its base.
these circuits the active devices act as supplied to the input-signal port ( gain).
bit — An abbreviation of abinary digit;
saturated switches that are controlled by the converter — A circuit used to convert one
a unit of storage capacity. Relates pri-
input signal. The Class E rf circuit is are- frequency to another frequency. In are-
marily to computers.
cent development ( 1970s) by WA1HQC blanker — A circuit or device which ceiver the converter stage converts the
that achieves high efficiency in an in- momentarily removes apulse or signal incoming signals to the imtermediate
teresting way: The single active device so that it is not passed to the next part frequency.
switches the supply current through the of acircuit; anoise blanker. Not to be core — An element made of magnetic ma-
load at critical points of the waveform. The confused with aclipper, which clips part terial, serving as part of a path for
output waveform is such that the electronic magnetic flux.
of a pulse or waveform.
switch does not conduct current and with- bridge — An electrical instrument used damping — A progressive reduction in
stand voltage simultaneously, resulting in for measuring or comparing induc- the amplitude of awave with respect to
very little energy waste. As in the Class C tance, impedance, capacitance or resis- time (usually referenced to microseconds
case, this output waveform is rich in har- tance by comparing the ratio of two op- or milliseconds); a device or network
monics, which must be filtered carefully. posing voltages to a known ratio; to added to acircuit to " damp" unwanted
place one component in parallel with oscillations.
another; to join two conductors or decay time — The period of time during
Glossary of Radio Terms which the stored energy or information
components by electrical means.
The Terms broadband — A device or circuit that "decays" to aspecified value less than
active — As used in active filter or active is broadband has the capability of being its initial value, such as the discharge
operated over abroad range of frequen- time of a timing network.
device: A device or circuit which requires
an operating voltage. ( See passive.) cies. A broadband antenna is one example. decibel (dB) — One tenth of a bel. The
analog — A term used in computer byte — A sequence of adjacent binary number of decibels denotes the ratio of
digits operated upon as aunit — usual- two amounts of power being 10 tim
work, meaning asystem which operates
ly shorter than a word. the logarithm to the base 10 of this
with numbers represented by directly
ratio. Also, the number of decibels de-
measurable quantities (analog readout- cascade — One device or circuit which
directly follows another; two or more noting the ratio of two amounts of
mechanical dial system. See digital).
similar devices or circuits in which the voltage being 20 times the logarithm to
attenuator — A passive network that re-
output of one is fed to the input of the the base 10 of this ratio.
duces the power level of asignal with-
succeeding one (tandem). decoder — A device used for decoding an
out introducing appreciable distortion.
cascode — Two-stage amplifier having a encoded message. One such circuit
balun — Balanced to unbalanced- line
would be a decoder used for decoding
transformer. grid-driven (or common-emitter or
source) input circuit and a grounded- the output signal of aTouch-Tone pad.
bank wound — Pertaining to a coil ( in -
differential amplifier — An amplifier that
ductor) which has two or more layers grid (or common base or gate) output
has an output signal which is propor-
of wire, each being wound over the top circuit.
chip — Slang term for an integrated tional to the algebraic difference be-
of the preceeding one. (See solenoid.)
circuit, meaning achip of semiconduc- tween two input signals (sometimes
bandpass — A circuit or component
tor material upon which an IC is called a "difference amplifier").
characteristic which permits the passage
formed. digital — Relating to data which is
of asingle band of frequencies while at-
rendered in the form of digits; digital
tenuating those frequencies which lie clamp — A circuit which maintains a
Radl o Design Technique and Language 318
 readout or display ( see analog). effect occurs when signals traverse hot end — see high end.
diplexing — The simultaneous transmis- the ionosphere. hybrid — A combination of two general-
sion or reception of two signals while feedback — A portion of the output ly unlike things; a circuit which con-
using a common antenna, made pos- voltage being fed back to the input of tains transistors and tubes, for example.
sible by using a " diplexer." Used in an amplifier. Description includes ac ideal — A theoretically perfect circuit or
TV broadcasting to transmit visual and and dc voltage which can be used sepa- component; a lossless transformer or
aural carriers by means of a single rately or together, depending on the device that functions without any faults.
antenna. particular circuit. insertion loss — That portion of asignal,
discrete — A single device or circuit ( a feedthrough — Energy passing through a current or voltage which is lost as it
transistor as opposed to an IC) ( see circuit or component, but not usually passes through acircuit or device. The
composite). desired. A type of capacitor which loss of power through afilter or other
dish — An antenna reflector for use at can be mounted on a chassis or panel passive network.
vhf and higher which has a concave wall to permit feeding through a interpolate — To estimate a value be-
shape. For example, apart of asphere dc voltage while bypassing it to ground tween two known values.
or paraboloid. at ac or rf. Sometimes called a "coaxial leakage — The flow of signal energy
Doppler — The phenomenon evidenced capacitor." beyond a point at which it should not
by the change in the observed frequen- ferromagnetic — Material which has a be present. Example: Signal leakage
cy of a wave in a transmission system relative permeability greater than unity across a filter because of poor layout
caused by atime rate of change in the and requires amagnetizing force. ( Fer- (stray coupling) or inadequate shielding.
effective length of the path of travel be- rite and powdered-iron rods and to- linear amplification — The process by
tween the source and the point of ob- roids). which a signal is amplified without
servation. finite — Having a definable quantity; a altering the characteristic of the input
drift — A change in component or circuit finite value of resistance or other elec- waveform. Class A, AB and B ampli-
over time. trical measure. fiers are generally used for linear ampli-
drive — Rf energy applied at the input flip-flop — An active circuit or device fication.
of an rf amplifier ( rf driving power or which can assume either of two stable load — A circuit or component that
voltage). states at agiven time, as dictated by the receives power; the power which is
dummy load — A dissipatise but essen- nature of the input signal. delivered to such acircuit or component.
tially nonradiating des ice has in2 impe- floating — A circuit or conductor which Example: A properly matched antenna
dance characteristics simulating those is above ac or dc ground for aparticular is a load for a transmitter.
of the substituted des ice. reason. Example: A floating ground bus loaded — A circuit is said to be loaded
duplex — Simultaneous two-way indepen- which is not common to the circuit when the desired power is being deli-
dent transmission and reception in both chassis. vered to a load.
directions. gate — A circuit or device, depending logic — Decision-making circuitry of the
duplexer — A device which permits simul- upon the nature of the input signal, type found in computers.
taneous transmission and reception of which can permit the passage or long wire — A horizontal wire antenna
related signal energy while using acom- blockage of a signal or dc voltage. which is one wavelength or greater in
mon antenna ( see diplexing) GDO — Abbreviation for a grid-dip or size. A long piece of wire (less than
dynamic range — Difference in dB be- gate-dip oscillator (test instrument). one wavelength) does not qualify as
tween the overload level and minimum ground loop — A circuit-element con- along wire.
discernible signal level ( MDS) in a dition (pc-board conductor, metal chas- low end — See cold end.
system, such as a receiver. Parameters sis or metal cabinet wall) which permits low level — Low-power stage or stages of
include desensitization point and distor- the unwanted flow of ac from one cir- a circuit as referenced to the higher-
tion products as referenced to the re- cuit point to another. power stages (see high level).
ceiver noise floor. half-power point — The two points on a low pass — A circuit property which
EME — Earth- moon-earth. Communi- response curve which are 3dB lower in permits the passage of frequencies be-
cations carried on by bouncing signals level than the peak power. Sometimes low a specified frequency, but atte-
off the lunar surface. Commonly refer- called the " 3dB bandwidth." nuates or blocks those frequencies
red to as moonbounce. Hall effect — The change of the electric above that frequency (see high pass).
empirical — Not based on mathematical conduction caused by the component of low-Z — Low impedance (see high-Z).
design procedures; experimental en- the magnetic field vector normal to the mean — A value between two specified
deavor during design or modification current density vector, which instead of values; an intermediate value.
of a circuit. Founded on case-history being parallel to the electric field,
experience or intuition. master oscillator — The primary oscilla-
forms an angle with it.
enabling — The preparation of a circuit tor for controlling a transmitter or
high end — Refers generally to the " hot"
for a subsequent function (enabling receiver frequency. Can be a VFO
(rf or dc) end of acomponent or circuit;
pulse or signal). (variable-frequency oscillator), VXO
the end opposite the grounded or by-
encoder — A device for enabling a (variable crystal oscillator), PTO (per-
passed end (see cold end).
circuit; to express a character or mes- meability-tuned oscillator), PLL (phase
high level — The part of acircuit which is
sage by means of acode while using an locked loop), LMO (linear master oscil-
relatively high in power output and
encoder. Using atone or tones to acti- lator) or frequency synthesizer.
consumption as compared to the small-
vate a repeater, as one example, in signal end of a circuit. Example: A microwaves — AC signals having fre-
which case aTouch-Tone pad could be transmitter PA stage is the high-level quencies greater than about 1000 MHz.
the encoder. amplifier, as might be the driver also. modulation index — The ratio of the fre-
excitation — Signal energy used to drive high-pass — Related mainly to filters or quency deviation of the modulated
a transmitter stage (see drive). Voltage networks which are designed to pass wave to the frequency of the modu-
applied to a component to actuate it, energy above aspecified frequency, but lating signal.
such as the field coil of a relay. attenuate or block the passage of energy narrowband — A device or circuit that
Faraday rotation — Rotation of the plane below that frequency. can be operated only over a narrow
of polarization of an electromagnetic high-Z — The high-impedance part of a range of frequencies. Low-percentage
wave when traveling through amagne- circuit; a high-impedance microphone; bandwidth.
tic field. In space communications this ahigh- impedance transformer winding. network — A group of components con-
3.19 Chapter 3
 nected together to form $
3circuit which when the Q is extremely high (electrical, mechanical or acoustical) to
will conduct power, and in most ripple — Pulsating current. Also, the another. Example: A loudspeaker or
examples effect an impedance match. gain depressions which exist in the flat phonograph pickup.
Examples: An LC matching network portion of a band-pass response curve transceiver — A combination transmit-
between stages of atransistorized trans- (above the — 3 dB points on the ter and receiver which uses some parts
mitter. curve). Example: Passband ripple in the of the circuit for both functions.
noise figure — Of atwo-port transducer nose of an i
-ffilter response curve. Transmatch — An LC network used to
the decibel ratio of the total noise rise time — The time required for apulse effect an impedance match between a
power to the input noise power, when or waveform to reach aspecified value transmitter and a feed line to an
the input termination is at the standard from some smaller specified value. The antenna.
temperature of 290 K. specified values are typically 10 and 90 transmission line — One or more conduc-
nominal — A theoretical or designated percent of the peak amplitude, tors used to convey ac energy from
quantity which may not represent the rms — Root mean square. The square one point to another, as from a radio
actual value. Sometimes referred to as root of the mean of the square of the station to its antenna.
the " ball-Park value." voltage or current during a complete transverter — A converter that permits
op amp — Operational amplifier. A high- cycle. trans mitting and receiving at asp ecified

gain, feedback -contro ll ed amplifier. rotor — A moving rotary component frequency apart from the capability of
Performance is controlled by external within a rotation-control device. Ex- the transceiver to which it is connected
circuit elements , amples include the moving plates of a as a basic signal source. Example: A
open loop — A signal path which does variable capacitor and the armature of 2-meter transverter used in combina-
not contain feedback (see closed loop), an alternator. Not to be confused with tion with an hf-band transceiver.
parameter — The characteristic behavior an antenna rotator which is the total trap — A device consisting of L and C
of adevice or circuit, such as the cur- assembly. components that permits the blockage
rent gain of a2N5109 transistor. saturation — A condition which exists of aspecified frequency while allowing
parametric ampler — Synonym for " re- when a further change in input pro- the passage of other frequencies.
actance amplifier." An inverting para- duces no additional output (asaturated Example: A wave trap or an antenna
metric device for amplifying a signal amplifier), trap.
without frequency translation from in- selectivity — A measure of circuit capa- trlar — Same as bifilar, but with three
put to output. Used for low-noise uhf bility to separate the desired signal from parallel conductors.
and microwave amplification , those at other frequencies. trigger — To initiate action in a circuit
parasitic — Unwanted condition or shunt — A device placed in parallel by introducing an energy stimulus from
quantity, such as parasitic oscillations with or across part of another device, an external source, such as a scope
or parasitic capacitance; additional to Examples: Meter shunts, shunt- fed ver- trigger.
the desired characteristic tical antennas and a capacitor placed U — Symbol for unrepairable assembly,
passive — Operating without an opera- (shunted) across another capacitor. such as an integrated circuit. (U1, U2,
ting voltage. Example: An LC filter solenoidal — A single-layer coil of wire etc.)
which contains no amplifiers, or a configured to form along cylinder. unloaded — The opposite condition of
diode mixer, spectral purity — The relative freedom of loaded.
PEP — Peak envelope power; maximum an emission from harmonics, spurious varactor — A two-terminal semiconduc-
amplitude that can be achieved with signals and noise. tor device (diode) which exhibits a
any combination of signals. standing- wave ratio — The ratio of the voltage-dependent capacitance. Used
permeability — A term used to express maximum to minimum voltage or cur- primarily as a tuning device or fre-
relationships between magnetic induc- rent on a transmission line at least a quencY multiplier at vhf and uhf.
tion and magnetic force. quarter-wavelength long. VCO — Voltage-controlled oscillator.
fa circuit which in combina- Uses tuning diodes
dc applied whic htheir
to change have junction
variable
pill — Slang expression for a transistor strip — General term for two or more
g capacitances.
or an IC. tion perform a partic ular function. VSWR — Voltage standing-wave ratio.
PL e — Private Line , such as a repeater Exa mples: A local- osc illator strip, an (See SWR).
which is accessed by me ans of a speci- au dio strip or an i-fstrip. VU — Volume unit.
fied tone. su bh ar monic — A frequency that is an VXO — Variable crys tal oscillator.
PLL Phase-l
oc ked loop.
integr al submultiple of a freq uenc y to wave — A periodica ll y varying elec-
port — The input or out put terminal of a w hich it is referred. A m i sl
ea ding term tromagnetic field radiated from aco n-
circuit or device. w hi ch implies that subharmo nic energy ductor.
pro totype — A first full -s cale working
can be created along with harmonic waveg uide — A hollow con ducting tube?. .,
ver sion of acircuit design .
energy (not true). Mor e aptl y, a 3.5- used to convey micro wave energy. .
QL — Loaded Q of a circuit. MHz VFO driving a40-meter transmit- wave l
ength — The distanc e between the b.4'
Qu — Unloaded Q of acirc uit. two points of correspon ding phase of
ter, with 3. 5- MH z leakage at the out-
q uagi — An antenna consisting of both put, qualifying as as ubharmonic. two consecutive cycles of an electro-
full- wave l
en gth loops (quad) and Ya gi tank — A circuit cons isting of inductance magn etic signal.
elements. an d capacitance, capabl e of storing X — The symbo l for reactance.
reso nator— A general te rm for a high-Q electr i
cal energy over a band of fre- Zener diode — Named after the inventor.
reson ant circuit, such as an element of quencies cont inuous ly distributed about
A diode used to reg ulate voltage or
afilter. a single frequency at which the circuit fun ction as aclamp or clipp er.
return — That portion of a circuit which is said to be resonant ,or tuned. Z — Symbol for a dcvice or circuit that
per mits the completion of current flow, toroidal — Doughnut-shaped physical con tains two or more comp onents. Ex-
usu ally to ground — a "ground
return." format, such as atoroid core. ample: A parasitic supp ressor which

contains a resistor and an inductor in

ringing — The generatio n of an audible transducer — A device which is used to
or visual signal by means of oscillation transport energy from one system par allel (Z1, Z2, etc.). Z is also the
symbol for impedance .
or pulsating current; the annoying
sound developed in some audio filters
Radio Design Technique and Language 3-20
 Chapter 4

Solid-State Fundamentals

h
e electrical characteristics of solid-
state devices such as diodes and transis-
quite important when an electron is either
raised or falls between two different
between the two circuits and the current
then consists of components at two slight-
tors are dependent upon phenomena that energy " states." For instance, when an ly different frequencies. The effect is simi-
take place at the atomic level. While semi- electron drops from one level to a lower lar to the splitting of electron energy levels
conductors can be employed without a one, energy is emitted in the form of when two atoms are close enough to in-
complete knowledge of these effects, some electromagnetic radiation. This is the teract.
understanding is helpful in various appli- effect that gives the characteristic glow to
cations. Electrons, which are the principal neon tubes, mercury-vapor rectifiers, and Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
charge carriers in both vacuum tubes and even light-emitting diodes. The frequency Solids are examples of large numbers of
semiconductors, behave much differently of the emitted radiation is given by the atoms in close proximity. As might be
in either of the two circumstances. In foregoing formula where E is the dif- expected, the splitting of energy levels
free space, an electron can be considered ference in energy. However, if an elec- continues until a band structure is
as asmall charged solid particle. On the tron receives enough energy such that reached. Depending upon the type of
other hand, the presence of matter affects it is torn from an atom, aprocess called atom, and the physical arrangement of the
this picture greatly. For instance, an elec- ionization is said to occur ( although the component atoms in the solid, three basic
tron attached to an atom has many prop- term is also loosely applied to transitions conditions can exist. In Fig. 3A, the two
erties similar to those of rf energy in between any two levels). If the energy is discrete energy levels have split into two
tuned circuits. It has a frequency and divided by the charge of the electron bands. All the states in the lower band are
wavelength that depend upon atomic ( — 1.6 x 10- 19 coulombs), the equivalent "occupied" by electrons while the ones in
parameters just as the frequency associat- in voltage is obtained. the higher energy band are only partially
ed with electrical energy in atuned circuit A common way of illustrating these filled.
depends upon the values of inductance energy transitions is by means of the In order to impart motion to an
and capacitance. energy- level diagram shown in Fig. 1A. It electron, the expenditure of energy is
A relation between the energy of an should be noted that unlike ordinary required. This means an electron must
electron in an atomic " orbit" and its graphical data, there is no significance to then be raised from one energy state to a
associated frequency is given by the horizontal axis. In the case of asingle higher one. Since there are many permit-
atom, the permitted energy can only exist ted states in upper level of Fig. 3A that are
at discrete levels ( this would be charac- both unoccupied and close together,
E (joules)
f(Hz) — teristic of agas at low pressure where the electrons in this level are relatively free to
6.625 x 10 — 34
atoms are far apart). However, if asingle move about. Consequently, the material is
atom is brought within close proximity of a conductor. In Fig. 3B, all the states in
where the constant in the denominator is another one of similar type, the single the lower level are occupied, there is abig
called Planck's constant. This equation is energy levels split into pairs of two that gap between this level and the next higher
are very close together ( Fig. 1B). The ana- one, and the upper level is empty. This
logy between tuned circuits and electron means if motion is to be imparted to an
energy levels can be carried even further electron, it must be raised from the lower
E2 E2'
E2 in this case. level to the upper one. Since this requires
Consider the two identical circuits that considerable energy, the material is an
El' are coupled magnetically as shown in Fig. insulator. (The energy-level representa-
El
El 2A. Normally, energy initially stored in tion gives an insight into the phenome-
Cl would oscillate back and forth between non of breakdown. If the force on an
LIand C1at asingle frequency after the electron in an insulator becomes high
(Al ( B) switch was closed. However, the presence enough because of an applied field, it can
of the second circuit consisting of L2 and acquire enough energy to be raised to the
Fig. 1 — Energy- level diagram of asingle atom is C2 (assume LIequals L2 and C1equals C2) upper level. When this happens, the
shown at A. At B, the levels split when two atoms are results in the waveform shown in Fig. 2B. material goes into aconducting state.)
in close proximity. Energy also oscillates back and forth A third condition is shown in Fig. 4. In

4-1 Chapter 4
 C2

(A) (A) (B)

Fig 3— The energy level of aconductor is illustrated

at A A similar level for an insulator is depicted at B.

Fig. 4— Semiconductor energy-level representation. 1111

(B)

N
Fig. 2— Electrical-circuit analog of coupled atoms.
CONDUCTION BAND

wi
"--DONOR
---.7 LEVEL
the material associated with this diagram, excess of mobile electrons is called an
the upper level is unoccupied but is very n-type semiconductor.
close to the occupied one. Hence, under By introducing an element with an
conditions where the random electron empty or unoccupied energy level near the
motion is low (low temperature), the lower partially filled level (such as boron),
material acts as an insulator ( Fig. 4A). a somewhat different transformation in
However, as the random or thermal conductivity occurs. This is shown in Fig.
motion increases, some electrons acquire 5B. Electrons from the lower level can
enough energy to move up to states in the move into the new unoccupied level if the
upper level. Consequently, both levels are thermal energy is sufficient. This means
partially occupied as shown in Fig. 4B. there is an excess of unoccupied states in
(A
The line marked Wf represents astatisti- the germanium lower energy level. Ger-
cal entity related to the " average" energy manium treated this way is called ap-type
of electrons in the material and is called semiconductor.
the Fermi Level. At absolute zero (no A physical picture of both effects is
thermal motion), Wf is just at the top of shown in Fig. 6. The trace elements or
the lower energy level. As electrons attain impurities are spread throughout the
enough energy to move to the upper level, intrinsic crystal. Since the distance of
Wf is approximately halfway between the separation is much greater for atoms of FERMI
E

two levels. the trace elements than it is for ones of the Vdt
ACCEPTOR
intrinsic crystal, there is little interaction LEVEL
The PN Junction between the former. Because of this lack VALENCE
The material for the diagram shown in of "coupling," the distribution of energy BAND

Fig. 4is called an intrinsic semiconductor states is asingle level rather than aband.
and examples are the elements germanium In Fig. 6A, atoms of the trace element are
and silicon. As such, the materials do not represented by the + signs since they have
have any rectifying properties by them- lost an electron to the higher energy level.
selves. However, if certain elements are Consequently, such elements are called
(B)
mixed into the intrinsic semiconductor in donors. In Fig. 6B, the impurity atoms
trace amounts, a mechanism for rec- that have "trapped" an electron in the
Fig. 5— The effects on the energy level if impurity
tification exists. This is shown in Fig. 5A. new state are indicated by the — signs.
atoms are introduced.
If an element with an occupied energy Atoms of this type are called acceptor
level such as arsenic is introduced into impurities.
germanium, a transformation in con- While it is easy to picture the extra free
ductivity takes place. Electrons in the new electrons by the circled " minus" charges N

occupied level are very close to the upper in Fig. 6A, a conceptual difficulty exists
partially filled band of the intrinsic with the freed "positive" charges shown in
germanium. Consequently, there are many Fig. 6B. In either case, it is the motion of
extra charge carriers available when ther- electrons that is actually taking place and
(8)
mal energy is sufficient to raise some of the factor that is responsible for any
the electrons in the new level to the current. However, it is convenient to
partially filled one. Germanium with an consider that a positive charge carrier Fig. 6— N- and p-type semiconductors.

Solid State Fundamentals 4-2

exists called a hole. It would seem as terminal. Note that the diagram indicates is not the same for p- and n-type materials
though a dislocation in the crystal- lattice not all the carriers reach the terminals. at the same temperature. At the Fermi
structure was moving about and con- This is because some carriers combine Level, the probability that a particular
tributing to the total current. with ones of the opposite sign while energy state is occupied is one half. For
If asection of n-type material is joined enroute. In the case of adiode, this effect n-type material, the Fermi Level is shifted
to another section made from p- type, a doesn't present much of aproblem since upward toward the " conduction band"
one-way current flow results. This is the total current remains the same. Other (Fig. 5A). In ap-type material, it is shifted
shown in Fig. 7. A positive potential carriers take the place of those originally downward toward the " valence band."
applied to the p- type electrode attracts injected from the opposite regions. How- Although the theory behind the Fermi
any electrons that diffuse in from the ever, such recombination degrades the Level and definitions concerning the
n-type end. Likewise, holes migrating performance of transistors considerably conduction and valence bands won't be
from the p-type end into the n-type and will be discussed shortly. dealt with here, it is sufficient to know
electrode are attracted to the negative If avoltage of the opposite polarity to that the band structure shifts so that the
that of a Fig. 7A is applied to the Fermi Levels are the same in both parts of
terminals, the condition in Fig. 7B results. the joined sections ( Fig. 10).
The mobile charge carriers migrate to The reasoning behind this effect is as
N each end as shown leaving only the fixed follows. Consider conditions for hole flow
charges in the center near the junction. only for the moment. Since there is an
Consequently, little current flows and the excess of holes in the p region ( Fig. 10),
0--
.-40 Cfr•- pn junction is " back biased." It can be there is atendency for them to move over
-.-C) 0-• /
7'""
4
1 seen that the pn junction constitutes a into the adjacent n region because of
diode since current can flow readily only diffusion. The process of diffusion is
in one direction. While this simple picture demonstrated easily. If asmall amount of
suffices for introductory purposes, proper dye is dropped into some water, it is
treatment of many important effects in concentrated in a small area at first.
(A) semiconductors requires amore advanced However, after a period of time has
N analysis than the elementary model passed, it spreads out completely through
affords. Returning to Figs. 3, 4 and 5, it the entire volume.
would be convenient if the diagrams were Once the holes diffuse into the nregion,
in terms of voltage rather than energy. As they recombine with the electrons present
pointed out earlier, the relation between and produce a current in the external
energy and voltage associated with an terminals denoted by I D( Fig. 10). But a
electron is given by paradox results because of this current. If
Si is opened so that I D flows through R,
where does the energy that is transferred
W= eV = (- 1.6 x 10-1 9)V (irreversibly) to this resistance come from?
In effect, it represents aperpetual-motion
Fig. 7— Elementary illustration of current flow in a Because the electron has been assigned a dilemma or else the semiconductor will
semiconductor diode. cool down since the diffusion process is
minus charge, a somewhat upside-down
world results. However, if it is kept in the result of a form of thermal motion.
mind that it requires the expenditure of Both conclusions are against the laws of
energy to move an electron from apoint physics, so athird alternative is necessary.
of higher potential to one at alower value, It is then assumed that the Fermi Levels
this confusion can be avoided. As an align so that the potential across the
illustration, suppose an electron is moved terminals becomes zero, and no current
from an atomic orbit indicated by Iin Fig. will flow in the external circuit.
8to orbit II. This would mean the electron However, if the Fermi Levels are the
would have had to been moved against the same, the conduction and valence bands
force of attraction caused by the positive in either section will no longer align. As a
nucleus resulting in an increase in consequence, a difference in potential
potential energy. ( In other words, orbit II between the two levels exists and is
is at a higher energy level than orbit I.) indicated by Va in Fig. 10. The formation
However, note that the electrostatic of this junction or barrier voltage is of
potential around the nucleus decreases prime importance in the operation of
with distance and that orbit II is at alower pn-junction devices. Note that holes in the
potential than orbit I. p region must overcome the barrier
Consequently, the energy- level diagram voltage which impedes the flow of the
Fig. 8— Potential diagram of an electron in atomic
in terms of voltage becomes inverted as diffusion current. It will also be recalled
orbit.
shown in Fig. 9. It is now possible to that both holes and electrons were
approach the problem of the pn junction generated in the intrinsic semiconductor
N
diode in terms of the energy- level dia- because of thermal effects ( Fig. 4B). The
grams presented previously. If a section addition of either donor or acceptor
of n-type and p- type material is con- atoms modifies this effect somewhat. If
sidered separately, the respective energy donor atoms are present ( n-type material),
(or voltage) levels would be the same. fewer holes are generated. On the other
However, if the two sections were joined hand, if acceptor atoms represent the
together and connected by an external impurities, fewer electrons are generated
conductor as shown in Fig. 10, acurrent in comparison to conditions in an intrinsic
would flow initially. This is because the semiconductor. In the case of p- type
voltage corresponding to the statistical material, holes predominate and are
Fig. 9— Energy-level diagram in terms of potential. entity referred to previously ( Fermi Level) termed the majority carriers. Since there

4-3 Chapter 4
are fewer electrons in p-type material,
they are termed the minority carriers.
Referring to Fig. 10A, there are some
holes in the n region (indicated by the + N

signs) because of the foregoing thermal —11> IT

effects. Those near the junction will

experience a force caused by the electric
field associated with the barrier voltage. +++++

This field will produce aflow of holes into

the pregion and the current is denoted by Vi
_t Vf

IT. Such acurrent is called adrift current VIt

as compared to the diffusion current I D.

Under equilibrium conditions, the two
currents are equal and just cancel each
other. This is consistent with the assump-
tion that no current flows in the external •
circuit because of the fact that the Fermi (A) /- 7-7

Levels are the same and no voltage is (8)

produced.
So far, only conditions for the holes in
the upper (or conduction) band have been
considered, but identical effects take place
N
with the motion of electrons in the lower
energy band (valence band). Since the ID
flow of charge carriers is in opposition,
but because holes and electrons have
opposite signs, the currents add.
Vf
The Forward-Biased Diode
If an external emf is applied to the
diode terminals as shown in Fig. 10B, the
equilibrium conditions no longer exist and
the Fermi Level voltage in the right-hand
region is shifted upward. This means the
barrier voltage is decreased and con-
siderable numbers of carriers may now
diffuse across the junction. Consequently,
ID becomes very large while I T decreases (D)
in value because of the decrease in barrier
voltage. The total current under
Fig. 10 — Energy- level diagrams for unbiased (A), forward-biased ( 8), and reversed- biased diode
"forward-bias" conditions then becomes
(C). Illustration D shows the resultant characteristics of the diode.
qV x
kt
I = I
s(

where
q = 1.6 x 10 -19 coulombs (the
fundamental charge of an electron),
k = 1.38 x 10 —' 3 joules/Kelvin increased. Consequently, charge carriers as possible in a practical diode since it
(Bolt7mann's constant), must overcome a large " potential hill" would only degrade rectifier action. Also,
t = junction temperature in Kelvins, and the diffusion current becomes very since it is the result of the generation of
e = 2.718 (natural logarithmic base) small. However, the drift current caused thermal carriers, it is quite temperature
V„ = applied emf, and I s = reverse- by the thermally generated carriers returns sensitive which is important when the
bias saturation current. to the value it had under equilibrium con- diode is part of atransistor. If the reverse
ditions. For large values of V„, the current voltage is increased further, an effect
This equation is discussed in greater detail approaches I s, defined as the reverse called avalanche breakdown occurs as in-
in th,e section dealing with common silicon saturation current, I s is the sum of IT and dicated by the sudden increase in current
diodes. its counterpart in the lower or " valence" at Vb. In such an instance, the diode
band. Finally, the characteristic curves of might be damaged by excessive current.
The Reverse-Biased Diode the forward- and reversed-bias diode can However, the effect is also useful for
If the source, V„, is reversed as shown be constructed and are shown in Fig. 10D. regulator purposes and devices used for
in Fig. IOC, the barrier voltage is It is obvious that L should be as small this purpose are called Zener diodes.

Semiconductor Devices and Practical Circuits

The radio amateur may be more in- treatment of how diodes, transistors and State Design for the Radio Amateur (an
terested in the practical aspects of ICs perform in actual circuits. Greater ARRL publication) is recommended as a
semiconductors than he or she might be in coverage of the chemistry and in-depth primer on basic semiconductor theory.
the theoretical considerations that are theory of solid-state devices can be The book also contains many pages of
covered in the previous section. This obtained by reading some of the texts proven construction projects which use
portion of the chapter provides apractical referenced throughout the chapter. Solid semiconductor devices.

Solid State Fundamentals 4-4

Semiconductor Diodes vary somewhat in the region of very small
CURRENT applied voltages. However, the curve is
The vacuum-tube diode has been mostly straight, indicating a relatively
replaced in modern equipment designs. constant dynamic resistance. For small
Semiconductor diodes are more efficient t f + applied voltages the resistance is on the
becausè they do not consume filament — — order of 200 ohms or less. The back
power. They are much smaller than tube resistance exhibits considerable variation
-44 -
4-
diodes. In low-level applications they and is dependent upon the specific applied
+ +
operate cooler than tubes do. Solid-state voltage during the test. It may vary from a
diodes are superior to tube types with few thousand ohms to well over a
respect to operating frequency. The megohm. The back resistance of a ger-
former are suitable into the microwave NO CURRENT manium diode is considerably lower than
(A)
region: Most vacuum-tube diodes are not that of asilicon diode. The latter is greater
practical at frequencies above 50 MHz. than amegohm in most instances, but the
Semiconductor diodes fall into two germanium diode is normally less than a
main categories, structurally. Although megohm.
they can be made from silicon or ger-
Common Silicon Diodes
manium crystals, they are usually N

classified as p-njunction diodes or point- Apart from the fact that silicon pand n
contact diodes. These formats are il- materials arc used in the formation of a
lustrated in Fig. 12. Junction diodes are (C)
silicon junction diode, the characteristics
used from dc to the microwave region, but of these devices are similar to those of ger-
point-contact diodes are intended primari- manium diodes. The voltage/current
Fig. 11 — A p-n junction (A) and its behavior
ly for rf applications: the internal curves of Fig. 13 are representative.
when conducting ( B) and nonconducting (C).
capacitance of a point-contact diode is The junction barrier voltage for silicon
considerably less than that of ajunction diodes is somewhat higher (approximately
diode designed for the same circuit ap- 0.7 volt) than that of agermanium diode.
plication. As the operating frequency is The latter is on the order of 0.3 volt. The
increased the unwanted internal and exter- METAL
majority of the diodes in use today fall in-
nal capacitance of adiode becomes more CASE BASE to the silicon class. They are rugged and
troublesome to the designer. Where a reliable from rf small-signal applications
given junction type of diode may exhibit a "•1.
to de power use.
capacitance of several picofarads, the WIRE LEAD
METAL Silicon diodes are available in ratings of
SUPPORT
point-contact device will have an internal GERMANIUM
1000 volts, ( PRV) or greater. Many of
CATWHISKER
capacitance of 1pF or less. WAFER these diodes can accommodate dc in ex-
(A) cess of 100 amperes. The primary rule
Selenium Diodes N- TYPE in preventing damage to any diode is to
WIRE MATERIAL
Power rectifiers made from selenium LEAD operate the device within the maximum
were in common use in ac power supplies ratings specified by the manufacturer.
before 1965. Today they are manufac- The device temperature is one of the im-
tured for replacement purposes only. P- TYPE
CASE portant parameters. Heat sinks are used
Selenium diodes are characterized by high MATERIAL with diodes that must handle large
forward voltage drop (which increases (B) amounts of power, thereby holding the
with age) and high reverse leakage cur- diode junction temperature at asafe level.
rent. The voltage drop causes the device to The behavior of junction diodes under
dissipate power, and a typical rectifier varying temperatures is of interest to
SYMBOL
stack has large cooling fins. An additional designers of circuits that must perform
(C)
shortcoming of selenium rectifiers is that over some temperature range. The rela-
they sometimes emit toxic fumes when tionship between forward bias current,
they burn out. When replacing selenium Fig. 12 — A point-contact type of diode is seen forward bias voltage and temperature is
diodes with silicon units, be certain that at A. A junction diode is depicted at B and the defined by the classic diode equation:
diode symbol is at C.
the filter capacitors (and the entire
qV
equipment) can withstand the higher out-
put voltage. Some early solar cells were If = I
s(e — 1)
made of selenium, but silicon devices have 50
where q is the fundamental electronic
taken over this area, too.
o e. 40 charge ( 1.6 X 10 -1 °coulombs), V is the
Germanium Diodes rà 30
bias potential, k is Boltzmann's constant
o (c[ (1.38 X 10 - ' 1 joules/Kelvin), ( Kelvin =
The germanium diode is characterized 4- 3 zo
'Celsius + 273), t is the junction
by a relatively large current flow when
BACK VOLTS temperature in Kelvins, I s is the reverse-
small amounts of voltage are applied in -60 -50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 101
bias saturation current, If is the forward-
the " forward" direction ( Fig. 11). Small 2 3 4
FORWARD bias current, and e is the natural
currents will flow in the reverse (back) 100 VOLTS
logarithmic base (2.718). The ratio q/k is
direction for much larger applied 200 q i
approximately 11,600, so the diode equa-
voltages. A representative curve is shown
300 «
l a
tion can be written:
in Fig. 13. The dynamic resistance in
either the forward or back direction is 11,600V
determined by the change in current that Fig. 13 — Typical point-contact diode (ger-
If = I
s(e - (Eq. 1)
manium) characteristic curve. Because the
occurs, at any given point on the curve, back current is much smaller than the torward
when the applied voltage is changed by a current, a different scale is used for back It is useful to have an expression for the
small amount. The forward resistance will voltage and current. voltage developed across the junction

4-5 Chapter 4
when the forward current is held constant. but it's asimple matter (with the aid of a easily by using diodes or transistors in
To obtain such an expression we must pocket calculator) to extract the informa- place of mechanical switches or relays.
solve the diode equation for V. Expanding tion directly from Eq. 9. If the forward The technique is not acomplicated one at
the right side of Eq. 1yields: current is fixed at 1milliampere, the diode dc and audio frequencies when large
11,600V drop at room temperature is 0.5955 volts. amounts of power are being turned on
I
f = Le t — I
s (Eq. 2) This potential decreases at an initial rate and off, or transferred from one circuit
of 2 millivolts per Kelvin. The point to another.
Adding 1, to.both sides gives: temperature coefficient gradually in- Examples of shunt and series diode
creases to 3 millivolts per Kelvin at 340 switching are given in Fig. 14. The
11,600V
Kelvins. While the temperature curve isn't illustration at A shows a 1N914 rf-
+ Is = Le (
Eq. 3) linear, it is gradual enough to be con- switching type of diode as ashunt on-off
sidered linear over small intervals. When element between Cl and ground. When
Dividing through by I
s produces:
the bias current is increased to 100 +12 volts are applied to D1 through RI,
11,600V milliamperes, the room temperature junc- the diode saturates and effectively adds
If tion potential increases to 0.7146 volts as C1 to the oscillator tank circuit. RI
(Eq. 4) should be no less than 2200 ohms in value
I
s might be expected, but the temperature
coefficient stays well-behaved. The initial to prevent excessive current flow through
which implies
potential decrease is 1.6 millivolts per the diode junction.
Kelvin, and this value increases to 2.5 Series diode switching is seen in Fig.
11,600V Ii millivolts per Kelvin at 340 Kelvins. 14B. In this example the diode, DI, is
= / n (— + 1) (Eq. 5)
I
s The significance of the very minor inserted in the audio signal path. When Si
dependence of temperature coefficient on is in the ON position the diode current
Multiplying each term by bias current is that it isn't necessary to use path is to ground through R2, and the
11,600
an elaborate current regulator to bias diode saturates to become aclosed switch.
leaves:
diodes used in temperature compensation When Si is in the OFF state RI is
I
f applications. The equations defining the grounded and + 12 volts are applied to the
V = 11,600 In + (Eq. 6) behavior of junction diodes are approxi- diode cathode. In this mode DI is back
mations. Some of the voltages were ex- biased (cut off) to prevent audio voltage
pressed to five significant figures so the from reaching the transistor amplifier.
The undetermined quantity in Eq. 6is I„ reader can verify his calculations, but this This technique is useful when several
the reverse saturation current. In ordinary much precision exceeds the accuracy of stages in a circuit are controlled by a
silicon signal diodes this current approxi- the approximations. single mechanical switch or relay. Rf
mately doubles with each 4.5 Kelvin- circuits can also be controlled by means of
temperature increase. A mathematical ex- Diodes as Switches series diode switching.
pression for this behavior as afunction of Solid-state switching is accomplished A significant advantage to the use of
temperature is:

1
5(0 = 21 s(t — 4.5) (
Eq.7)
At room temperature (300 Kelvins), the
reverse saturation current is on the order
of 10 —' 3 amperes. Eq. 7 describes a
phenomenon similar to radioactive decay,
where the 4.5-Kelvin current-doubling in-
terval is analogous to the half-life of a
radioactive substance. This equation with
the given initial condition sets up an
initial-value problem, the solution of
which is:
—300) / n2
4.5
15(0 = (
Eq.8)

Substituting this expression for I

s into Eq

6 produces the diode voltage drop as a

function of temperature for a constant
current:

V(1) = 11,600 X

(Eq. 9)

(t — 300) / n2
,e 4,5

The temperature coefficient of the junc-

tion potential can be obtained from the Fig. 14 — A silicon- switching diode, D1, is used at A to place Cl in the circuit. At B is seen a
partial derivative of V with respect to t, series switch with D1 in the signal path.

qnliri Ctsito FlindArTlentaIR 4-8

diode switching is that long signal leads
are eliminated. The diode switch can be
placed directly at the circuit point of
interest. The de voltage which operates it
can be at some convenient remote point.
The diode recovery time (switching speed)
must be chosen for the frequency of
operation. In other words, the higher the
operating frequency the faster the switch- Fig. 15 — D1 at A protects the equipment if the supply leads are cross- polarized in error. At B the
fuse will blow if the power supply is connected for the wrong polarity.
ing speed required. For dc and audio
applications one can use ordinary silicon
power-supply rectifier diodes.

Diodes as Gates
Diodes can be placed in series with dc
leads to function as gates. Specifically,
they can be used to allow current to flow
in one direction only. An example of this
technique is given in Fig. 15A.
A protective circuit for the solid-state
transmitter is effected by the addition of
D1 in the 13.6-volt dc line to the
equipment. The diode allows the flow of
positive current, but there will be adrop
of approximately 0.7 volt across the
diode, requiring asupply voltage of 14.3.
Should the operator mistakenly connect
the supply leads in reserse, current will
not flow through DI to the transmitter. In
this application the diode acts as agate.
Dl must be capable of passing the current
taken by the transmitter, without over-
heating.
A power type of diode can be used in
shunt with the supply line to the
transmitter for protective purposes. This
method is illustrated in Fig. 15B. If the
supply polarity is crossed accidentally, D I
will draw high current and cause FI to
open. This is sometimes referred to as a
"crowbar" protection circuit. The pri-
mary advantage of circuit Bover circuit A
is that there is no voltage drop between Fig. 16 — D1 establishes a 0.7-volt bias reference at A. Approximately 1.4 volts of emitter bias are
the supply and the transmitter. established by connecting D1 and D2 in series at illustration B.

Diodes as Voltage References

Zener diodes are discussed later in this
chapter. They are used as voltage refer-
ences or regulators. Conventional junc-
tion diodes can be used for the same pur-
poses by taking advantage of their barrier-
voltage characteristics. The greater the
voltage needed, the higher the number of
diodes used in series. Some examples of
this technique are given in Fig. 16. At A
the diode ( D1) establishes afixed value of
forward bias (0.7 V) for the transistor,
thereby functioning as a regulator. RI is
chosen to permit asafe amount of current
to flow through the diode junction while
it is conducting at the barrier voltage.
The circuit of Fig. I 6B shows two
diodes inserted in the emitter return of a
relay- driver transistor. D1 and D2 set up a
cutoff voltage of approximately 1.4. This
reduces the static current of the transistor
when forward bias is not provided at the
transistor base. If too much static current
flows the relay may not drop out when the
Fig. 17 — High-speed switching diodes of the 1N914 variety can be connected back to back and
forward bias decays across the timing used as tuning diodes. As the reverse voltage is varied by means of R1, the internal capacitance
network. The more sensitive the relay the of the diodes will change.

4-7 Chapter 4
 2N4446
100
100

SPEECH
AMP
MPF102
AF AMP
2N2222A
TO
AF FILTER

Fig. 18 — D1 serves as a bias stabilization device at A (see text). At B, D1 and D2 are employed as clippers to flatten the positive and negative af
peaks. Clipping will occur at roughly 0.7 volt if silicon diodes are used. Audio filtering is required after the clipper to remove the harmonic currents
caused by the diode action.

greater the chance for such aproblem. DI lowered. In the circuit shown here the The circuit of Fig. 18B shows how a
and D2 prevent relay dropout problems of capacitance will vary from roughly 5 pF pair of diodes can be connected in
this variety. D3 is used as a transient to 15 pF as RI is adjusted. The diodes back-to-back fashion for the purpose of
suppressor. A spike will occur when the used in circuits of this kind should have a clipping the negative and positive sine-
relay coil field collapses. If the amplitude high Q and excellent high- frequency wave peaks in an audio amplifier. If
of the spike is great enough, the transient, characteristics. Generally, tuning diodes germanium diodes are used at D1 and D2
while following the dc bus in a piece of are less stable than mechanical variable (I N34As or similar) the audio will limit at
equipment, can destroy transistors and capacitors are. This is because the diode roughly 0.3 V. With silicon diodes ( IN914
diodes elsewhere in the circuit. In this junction capacitance will change as the or rectifier types) the voltage will not
application the diode ( D3) can be ambient temperature varies. This circuit is exceed 0.7 V. R1 serves as the clipping-
regarded as a clamp, since it clamps the not well suited to mobile applications level control. An audio gain control is
spike at approximately 0.7 volt. because of the foregoing trait. normally used after the clipper filter,
along with some additional gain stages.
Using Diodes as Capacitors Diode Clippers and Clamps The output of the clipper must be filtered
Later in this chapter there is a The previous mention of diode clamp- to restore the sine-wave if distortion is to
discussion about VVC ( voltage-variable ing action ( D3 in Fig. 16) suggests that be avoided. Diode clippers generate
capacitor) diodes. They are known also advantage can be taken of the charac- considerable harmonic currents, thereby
as tuning diodes and Varicap diodes. It is teristic barrier voltage of diodes to clip requiring an RC or LC type of audio
possible, however, to use ordinary silicon or limit the amplitude of a sine-wave. filter.
diodes as voltage- variable capacitors. This Although there are numerous applications
is accomplished by taking advantage of in this general category, diode clippers are Diode Frequency Multipliers
the inherent changes in diode junction more familiar to the amateur in noise Designers of rf circuits use small-signal
capacitance as the reverse bias applied to limiter, audio limiter and audio compres- diodes as frequency multipliers when they
them is changed. The primary limitation sor circuits. Fig. 18 illustrates some want to minimize the number of active
in using high-speed switching diodes of typical circuits which employ small-signal devices ( tubes or transistors) in acircuit.
the 1N914 variety is arelatively low maxi- diodes as clamps and clippers. D1 in Fig. The primary disadvantage of diode multi-
mum capacitance. At a sacrifice to low 18A functions as abias clamp at the gate pliers is a loss in gain compared to that
minimum capacitance, diodes can be used of the FET. It limits the positive sine-wave which is available from an active multi-
in parallel to step up the maximum avail- swing at approximately 0.7 V. Not only plier. Fig. 19 contains examples of diode
able capacitance. An example of two does the diode tend to regulate the bias frequency multipliers. The circuit at A is
1N914 silicon diodes in adiode tuning cir- voltage, it limits the transconductance of useful for obtaining odd or even multiples
cuit is given in Fig. 17. As R 1is adjusted the FET during the positive half of the of the driving voltage. The efficiency of
to change the back bias on DI and D2, cycle. This action restricts changes in this circuit is not high, requiring that an
there will be a variation in the junction transistor junction capacitance. As a amplifier be used after the diode multi-
capacitance. That change will alter the result, frequency stability of the oscillator plier in most applications. Resonator
VFO operating frequency. The junction is enhanced and the generation of LI/CI must be tuned to the desired
capacitance increases as the back bias is harmonic currents is greatly minimized. output frequency.

Solid State Fundamentals 4.11

 A diode frequency doubler.is seen at B
in Fig. 19. It functions like a full-wave
power-supply rectifier, where 60- Hz ener-
gy is transformed to 120- Hz by virtue of
the diode action. This circuit will cause a
loss of approximately 8dB. Therefore, it
is shown with a succeeding amplifier
stage. If reasonable circuit balance is
maintained, the 7- MHz energy will be
down some 40 dB at the output of D 1and
D2 — prior to the addition of LIand Ci.
Additional suppression of the driving
energy is realized by the addition of
resonator Li/Cl. T1 is a trifilar-wound
toroidal transformer. At this frequency ( 7
MHz) a 0.5- inch diameter ferrite core
(permeability of 125) will suffice if the
trifilar winding contains approximately 10
turns. Additional information on this
subject is given in Solid State Design for
the Radio Amateur.

Diode Detectors and Mixers

Diodes are effective as detectors and
mixers when circuit simplicity and strong-
signal handling capability are desired.
Impedance matching is an important
design objective when diodes are used as
Fig. 19 — A simple diode frequency multiplier is shown at A. A balanced diode frequency doubler
detectors and mixers. The circuits are is seen at B. Ti is a trifilar-wound broadband toroid transformer.
lossy, just as is the case with diode
frequency multipliers. A diode detector or
mixer will exhibit a conversion loss of 7
dB or more in a typical example. TO I- F AMP
HI- 2 455kHz

Therefore, the gain before and after the

detector or mixer must be chosen to IN34A
AF
GAIN
provide an acceptable noise figure for the TO AF AMP.

overall circuit in which the diode stage is

used. This is aparticularly critical factor
when diode mixers are used at the front
end of areceiver. A significant advantage
in the use of diode mixers and detectors is
that they are broadband in nature, and
(A)
they provide a wide dynamic range.
Hot-carrier diodes are preferred by some III- Z 455 kHz LO
DI 1000

designers for these circuits, but the IN9 14

class of switching diodes provide good
performance if they are matched for a RI

similar resistance before being placed in

the circuit.
Fig. 20 illustrates some examples of
diode detectors. A basic a- m detector is
seen at A. The circuit at B is that of a
two-diode product detector. RI and the BFO INJECTION

two bypass capacitors serve as an rf filter (455 MHz)

to keep signal and BFO energy out of the

following af amplifier stage. A four-diode
LO
product detector is illustrated at C. T1 is a I - F
trifilar-wound broadband transformer. INPUT

The characteristic input impedance of Ti •

RI

is 50 ohms. An rf filter follows this AF

detector also. BFO injection voltage for GAIN TO

AF
the detectors at B and C should be AMP

between 8 and 10 volts pk-pk for best

detector performance. 0 00, 04

Circuits for typical diode mixers are

given in Fig. 21. Product detectors are BFO
also mixers except for the frequencies INJECTION (C
involved. The output energy is at audio
frequencies rather than at some rf Fig. 20 — DI at A is used as a simple am detector. Two versions of diode product detectors are
intermediate frequency. The examples at illustrated at B and C. BFO injection for B and C should be approximately 10 volts pk-pk for best
A and B can be compared to those at C detector performance.

4-9 Chapter 4
 Fig. 22 — Cross-sectional representation of a
hot-carrier diode ( HCD).

1 1 1 1
REVERSE I I I
- HORIZONTAL: 10V/DIV.
VERTICAL: 5 mA/DIV. HCD

FORWARD1 !
\'1I\
- HORIZONTAL ,0 2V/ D V
VERTICAL:5mA/DIV

POINT
CONTACT

HCD

/7

Fig 23— Forward and reverse characteristics of a

hot-carrier diode as compared to ap-njunction
diode.

22

If vole •TAB
.1.0.900kett .

LOCAL OSCILLATOR DRIVE LEVEL.

Fig. 21 — The examples at A and B are for use in balanced modulators. The similarity between Fig. 24 — Noise figure and the conversion loss
these and balanced mixers is shown at G and D. of a typical HCD that has no bias applied.

and D for the purpose of illustrating the toroidal types. They provide abroadband at vhf and higher. Notable among the
similarity between balanced modulators circuit characteristic. good features of this type of diode are its
and mixers. It is evident that product higher operating frequency and lower
detectors, balanced modulators and mixers Hot- Carrier Diodes conduction voltage compared to a p- n
are of the same family. The diodes in all One of the more recent developments in junction diode such as the 1N914.
examples can be hot-carrier types or the semiconductor field is the hot-carrier When compared to a point-contact
matched silicon switching diodes of the diode, or " HCD." It is a metal- to- diode, the HCD is mechanically and
IN914 class. semiconductor, majority-carrier conduc- electrically superior. It has lower noise,
Cl and C2 in Fig. 21C and D are used ting device with a single rectifying greater conversion efficiency, larger square-
for balancing purposes. They can be junction. The carriers are typically high- law capability, higher breakdown voltage,
employed in the same manner with the mobility electrons in an n type of and lower reverse current. The internal
circuits at A and B. The transformers in semiconductor material. The HCD is capacitance of the HCD is markedly
each illustration arc trifilar-wound particularly useful in mixers and detectors lower than that of a p- njunction diode

Snliel qtata Fundamentals a.10

 versus LO drive for an HCD mixer are
28
19
given in Fig. 26. The test circuit used for
11 the curves of Fig. 25 applies. The curve
26 numbers indicate mA measured at point
9
A. Further information on hot-carrier
diodes can be found in the Fairchild Ap-
24
plication Note APP- 177 and in the
Hewlett Packard Application Note 907.
22
7 17
Varactor Diodes
20 Mention was made earlier in this
chapter of diodes being used as voltage-
FIGURE ( dB)

variable capacitors, wherein the diode

18
13
junction capacitance can be changed by
varying the reverse bias applied to the
16 diode. Manufacturers have designed cer-
tain diodes for this application. They are
NOISE

14 called Varicaps (variable capacitor diodes)

or varactor diodes (variable reactance
diodes). These diodes depend upon the
12
2 change in capacitance which occurs across
their depletion layers. They are not used as
10
3
rectifiers.
Varactors are designed to provide
various capacitance ranges from a few
picofarads to more than 100 pF. Each one
has a specific minimum and maximum
6
capacitance, and the higher the maximum
amount the greater the minimum value.
4
0.05 010 10 10.0 15.0
Therefore, the amateur finds it necessary
LOCAL OSCILLATOR DRIVE ( rnW) to tailor his circuits for the midrange of
the capacitance curve. Ideally, he will
A
Vcc choose the most linear portion of the
curve. Fig. 27A shows typical capacitance-
voltage curves for three varactor diodes.
2200
A representative circuit of a varactor
100 FH-11 00 5 , diode is presented in Fig. 28. In this

....
n
a

270
o
N

Vcc•1V
a
N

lzviDNF • 34EI
2
LO • 900 MHz
gu
N

Fig. 25 — Curves for hot-carrier diode noise 9

o
N

figure versus local-oscillator drive power. The I

CONVERSION LOSS ( dB)

bias currents are in mA as measured at point A

in the representative test circuit.
œ
... —

11
\
o

1
Vce• 3 17
and it is less subject to temperature 19
variations.
;

13
Fig. 22 shows how the diode is
structured internally. A typical set of
\
1
%;
-

4.
/
curves for an HCD and a p-n junction 11441

diode are given in Fig. 23. The curves 1144114

show the forward and reverse charac-
5

teristics of both diode types.

Fig. 24 illustrates the noise figure and
co

conversion loss of an HCD with no bias

applied. When forward bias is applied to
et

the diode, the noise figure will change

from that which is seen in Fig. 24. Curves
for various bias amounts are seen in Fig.
A

0.05 0.10 1.0 100 15 C

25. The numbers at the ends of the curves LOCAL OSCILLATOR DRIVE ( 411V)
signify the amount of current (in mA)
flowing into the test circuit at point A. Fig. 26 — Local-oscillator drive power versus conversion loss for a specified bias amount.
A set of curves showing conversion loss Bias currents are in mA as measured at point A of the circuit in Fig. 25.

4-11 Chapter 4
 200

100
Fig. 28 — Representative circuit of a varactor
diode showing case resistance, junction
resistance and junction capacitance.
70

50
equivalent circuit the diode junction
consists of Ci (junction capacitance) and
MV1878 R junction resistance). The bulk resis-
30
tance is shown as R4.For the most part
RIcan be neglected. The performance of
the diode junction at a particular fre-
quency is determined mainly by c iand Rs.
C,CAPACITANCE ( pF)

20
As the operating frequency is increased,
the diode performance degrades, owing to
the transit time established by Ci and Rs.
An important characteristic of the
MV1872 varactor diode is the Q, or figure of merit.
10 The Q of a varactor diode is determined
by the ratio of its capacitive reactance (Xi)
and its bulk resistance, Rs, just as is true
7
MV1866
of other circuit elements, such as coils and
capacitors, where Q = X/Rs at aspecified
TA•25• C frequency. Fig. 27B characterizes the Q of
5 •1.0 MHz
three Motorola varactor diodes ( versus
4
reverse bias) at 50 MHz.
Present-day varactor diodes operate
into the microwave part of the spectrum.
3
They are quite efficient as frequency
multipliers at power levels as great as 25
watts. The efficiency of a correctly
2 designed varactor multiplier exceeds 50
percent in most instances. Fig. 29 il-
lustrates the basic circuit of a frequency
multiplier which contains a varactor
diode. D1 is a single-junction device
which serves as afrequency tripler in this
0.6 10 2.0 4.0 60 10.0 20.0 40.0 600 example. FL1 is required in order to
VR, REVERSE VOLTAGE ( VOLTS) assure reasonable purity of the output
(A) energy. It is ahigh-Q strip- line resonator.
100 Without FL Iin the circuit there would be
considerable output energy at 144, 288
60 and 864 MHz. Similar circuits are used as
MV1866 doublers, quadruplers and higher.
40
A Motorola MV104 tuning diode is
O used in the circuit of Fig. 30. It contains
MV1872
20
two varactor diodes in a back-to-back
ci TA • 25•C
arrangement. The advant age in using two
f • 50 MHz
MV1878
diodes is reduced signal distortion, as
compared to a one- diode version of the
same circuit. Reverse bias is applied
equally to the two diodes in the three-
terminal device. RI functions as an rf
4
o isolator for the tuned circuit. The reverse
bias is varied by means of R2 to shift the
operating frequency. Regulated voltage is
as important to the varactor as it is to the
FET oscillator if reasonable frequency
4 6 10 20 40 60 100 stability is to be assured. Varactor diodes
VR, REVERSE VOLTAGE (
VOLTS) are often used to tune two or more circuits
(B) at the same time ( receiver rf amplifier,
mixer and oscillator), using a single
potentiometer to control the capacitance
Fig. 27 — Reverse voltage respective to diode capacitance of three Motorola varactor diodes (Al. of the diodes. It is worth mentioning that
Reverse voltage versus diode Q for the varactors at A are shown at B. some Zener diodes and selected silicon

Solid Stnte Fundamentals 4-12

 _
4N
O2 LOW RESISTIVITY GaAs 1-2 prn
E
0 NO.1
bn
nGaAs ,o.,0.5.(1./crn -4-

O ...E1prn FOR
O LOW RESISTIVITY GaAs 16 GHz
/cm '. ,,
10 GHzFOR

Fig. 31 — Cross -sectional illustration of Gunn diode.

120 6.50 Fr_

5.85 "c
'.

.,17
i 18
6 5.20

14 4.55

12 3.90 e;

g 10 3.25 r?,
Fig. 29— Typical circuit for avaractor-diode frequency tripler. ‘ra
2.60
1 95
3
''
..,. 8
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 e
á FREQUENCY (GHz I

Fig. 32— Active region thickness versus frequency

of aGunn diode.

Fig.33 — Equivalent circuit of aGunn diode, The

parasitic reactances of the diode package are
Fig. 30— Example of avaractor-tuned VFO. D1 contains two varactors, back to back ( see text), included.

power-supply rectifier diodes will work a coil external to the cavity, and the semiconductor, but it is not essential to
effectively as varactors at frequencies as oscillation frequency is very nearly a the primary operation of the diode. It is
high as 144 MHz. If aZener diode is used linear function of the coil current. YIG used to ensure good ohmic contact and to
in this manner it must be operated below tuning produces amuch cleaner harmonic prevent metalization from damaging the
its reverse breakdown voltage point. The and close-in oscillation spectrum than that n- layer of the diode.
stud- mount variety of power supply obtainable with varactor tuning, because The composite wafer of Fig. 31 is
diodes ( with glass headers) are reported to of the higher Q. The output power of metalized on both sides to permit bonding
be the best candidates as varactors, but YIG-tuned oscillators must be limited to into the diode package. This process of
not all diodes of this type will work about 100 mW. This is because the YIG metalization also ensures alow electrical
effectively: Experimentation is necessary. sphere becomes a nonlinear circuit ele- and thermal resistance. The completed
ment at higher powers and can cause chip is bonded to a gold-plated copper
Gunn Diodes spurious emissions. An in-depth treat- pedestal, with layer no. 2next to the heat
Gunn diodes are named after the ment of the technology and physics of sink. A metal ribbon is connected to the
developer, J. B. Gunn, who was studying Gunn devices is provided in the Gunn back side of the diode to provide for
carrier behavior at IBM Corp. in 1963. Diode Handbook by Microwave electrical contact.
Basically, the Gunn effect is amicrowave Associates, Inc. The " Specialized Com- The curve in Fig. 32 shows the rela-
oscillation that occurs when heavy current munications Techniques" chapter of this tionship of the diode active- region thick-
is passed through bulk semiconductor book contains a section on practical ap- ness to the frequency of operation. The
material. A Gunn device is adiode only in plications of Gunn technology for radio curve illustrates an approximation be-
the sense that it has two electrodes; it has amateurs. cause the actual thickness of the active
no rectifying properties. Fig. 31 shows a cross-sectional region depends on the applied bias voltage
Amateurs have been using Gunn representation of a slice of the material and the particular circuit used. The input
oscillators at 10 and 24 GHz, but these (gallium arsenide) from which Gunn power to the diode must be 20 to 50 times
devices are employed commercially from 4 diodes are made. Layer no. 1is the active the desired output power. Thus the
to 100 GHz and beyond. In high-power region of the device. The thickness of this efficiency from dc to rf is on the order of
(>100 mW) or relatively narrow- layer depends on the chosen frequency of two to five percent.
bandwidth applications, avaractor diode operation. For the 10- GHz band it is ap- The resonant frequency of the diode
is used to adjust the oscillation frequency. proximately 10 j4m ( 10- 5 meters) thick. assembly must be higher than the opera-
Gunn oscillators in octave-bandwidth The threshold voltage is roughly 3.3 volts. ting frequency to allow for parasitic C
systems such as laboratory sweep At 16 GHz the layer would be formed to a and L components which exist. Fig. 33
generators use YIG tuning. In this thickness of 8 gm, and the threshold shows the equivalent circuit of apackaged
method, the volume of aresonant cavity is voltage would be about 2.6 volts. Gunn diode. Assuming a diode natural
varied by the magnetic expansion of an Layer no. 2is grown epitaxially and is resonant frequency of 17 GHz, the
Yttrium /ron Garnet sphere. The doped to provide low resistivity. This following approximate values result: Lp =
magnetic force for tuning is generated by layer is grown on the active region of the 0.25 nH, Ca = 0.15 pF and Cb = 0.15 pF.

4-13 Chapter 4
 VARACTOR- IMPATT-010DE
TUNED AMPLIFIER
GUNN-DIODE OSC

AF INPUT

(A)

IMPATT-DIODE
FM I- F
UP- AMPLIFIER
AMP
CONVERTER
FILTER
ANT

1NP,T 0

Fig. 34 — Illustration of a packaged Gunn

diode as seen in literature from Microwave
Associates. GUNN-DIODE
OSCILLATOR

Additional components exist within the

diode chip. They are represented by Cd
(B)
(capacitance) and — Rd (negative resis-
tance). These quantities, plus the stray
resonances in the diode holder and bias Fig. 35— Block diagram of asimple Gunn-diode transmitter for fm ( A) and an up-converter Gunn-
leads in the microwave cavity, have a diode transmitter ( B).

direct bearing on the electrical behavior of

the Gunn oscillator. A cross-sectional
representation of apackaged Gunn diode
is shown at Fig. 34. especially that of the Iregion. Manufac- creases. For the intrinsic region to remain
Presently, Gunn diodes are useful for turers design for controlled thickness I in a low-loss state, the maximum instan-
generating powers between 0.1 and 1watt. regions having long carrier lifetime and taneous reverse or negative voltage must
As the technology advances these power high resistivity. Carrier lifetime is basical- not exceed the breakdown voltage. Also . ,
limits will increase. IMPATT (impact- ly a measure of the delay before an the positive voltage excursion must not
avalanche transit time) diodes are useful average electron and hole recombine. In a cause thermal losses to exceed the diode
as microwave amplifiers after a Gunn pure silicon crystal the theoretical delay is dissipation rating.
diode signal source. IMPATT diodes are on the order of several milliseconds, At high radio frequencies when a PIN
also capable of providing power output in although impurity doping can reduce the diode is at zero or reverse bias, the diode
the 0.1 to 1-watt class. Fig. 35 shows effective carrier lifetime to microseconds appears as a parallel plate capacitor,
block diagrams of two Gunn-diode or nanoseconds. essentially independent of reverse voltage.
systems. In each example an IMPATT When forward bias is applied to aPIN It is the value of this capacitance that
diode is used as an amplifier. Fig. 35A diode, holes and electrons are injected limits the effective isolation that the diode
shows a direct fm transmitter which from the p + and n + regions into the I can provide. PIN diodes intended for high
employs avaractor-deviated Gunn-diode region. These charges do not immediately isolation and not power-handling
oscillator as a signal source. Fm is recombine. Rather, a finite quantity of capability are designed with as small a
provided by applying audio to the bias charge always remains stored and results geometry as possible to minimize the
lead of the varactor diode. The latter is in a lowering of the I-region resistivity. capacitance.
coupled to the Gunn-diode cavity. Fig. The amount of stored charge depends on
35B illustrates a microwave relay system the recombination time (carrier lifetime)
in which aGunn diode is used as an LO and the level of the forward-bias current.
source. Essentially, the equipment is set The resistance of the I region under
up as aheterodyne up-converter transmit-
forward-bias conditions is inversely pro-
ter. The upper sideband from the mixer is portional to the charge and depends on
amplified at microwave frequency by
the I-region width and mobility of the
means of an IMPATT diode.
holes and electrons of the particular
semiconductor material. Representative
PIN Diodes graphs of resistance vs. forward bias level
A PIN diode is formed by diffusing are shown in Fig. 37A and B for low-level
heavily doped p + and n + regions into receiving and high-power transmitting
an almost intrinsically pure silicon layer, PIN diodes.
as illustrated in Fig. 36. In practice it is When aPIN diode is at zero or reverse
impossible to obtain intrinsically pure bias, there is essentially no charge, and the
material and the Ilayer can be considered intrinsic region can be considered as a
to be a lightly doped n region. Charac- low-loss dielectric. As with an ordinary pn
Fig. 38 — The PIN diode is constructed by
teristics of the PIN diode are primarily junction there is a reverse breakdown or
diffusing p + and n + regions into an almost
determined by the thickness, area and Zener region where the diode current in- intrinsically pure silicon layer. Thus the name
semiconductor nature of the chip, creases rapidly as the reverse voltage in- PIN diode.

Solid State Fundamentals 4-14

 practice it is usually difficult to achieve
more than 40 dB isolation with a single
diode switch at uhf and microwaves.
Better performance, in excess of 100 dB,
is achievable using compound switches.
Compound switches arc made up of two
or more diodes in aseries/shunt arrange-
ment. Since not all diodes are biased for
the same state, some increase in bias-
circuit complexity results.
One general class of switches used in
connection with transccive applications
requires that acommon antenna be con-
nected to either the receiver or transmitter
during the appropriate receive or transmit
states. When PIN diodes are used as
switching elements in these applications,
higher reliability, better mechanical rug-
gedness and faster switching speeds arc
achieved relative to the electromechanical
relay. A basic approach is shown in Fig.
39A and B where a PIN diode is used in
series with the transmit line and another
diode in shunt with the receive line. A
single bias supply is used to turn on the
series diode during transmit while also
turning on the shunt diode to protect the
receiver. The quarter-wave line between
the two diodes is necessary to isolate the
low resistance of the receiver diode from
the antenna connection. During receive
periods both diodes are effectively open
circuited, allowing signal energy to be ap-
plied to the receiver. At B is the same
Fig. 37 — At A is a graph comparing diode basic circuit, although the quarter-wave
resistance to forward-bias current for a PIN line has been replaced with alumped ele- Fig. 38 — At A a PIN diode is used as an spst
diode intended for low-level receiver applica-
ment section. switch. At B, two diodes form an spdt
tions. At Bis a similar graph for a diode
capable of handling over 100 watts of rf.
Two of the more common types of at- switching arrangement.
tenuators using PIN diodes arc shown in
Fig. 40. The type at A is referred to as a
Manufacturers of PIN diodes supply Bridged Tee, while the circuit at B is the low current drain, long life (sometimes 50
data sheets with all necessary design data common pi type. Both are useful as very years, as predicted), and small size. They
and performance specifications. Key broadband devices. It is interesting to are useful as visual indicators in place of
parameters are diode resistance (when for- note that the useful upper frequency of incandescent panel lamps. One of their
ward biased), diode capacitance, carrier these attenuators is often dependent on greatest applications is in digital display
'lifetime, harmonic distortion, reverse the bias circuit isolation rather than the units, where arrays of tiny LEDs are
?voltage breakdown and reverse leakage.
T PIN diode characteristics. arranged to provide illuminated segments
PIN diodes are used in many applica- in numeric-display assemblies.
tions, such as rf switches, attenuators and Light-Emitting Diodes ( LEDs) The forward bias current for a typical
various types of phase-shifting devices. The primary component in optoelec- LED ranges between 10 and 20 mA for
Our discussion will be confined to switch tronics is the LED. This diode contains maximum brilliance. An applied voltage
and attenuator applications since these are a p-n junction of crystal material which of 1-1/2 to 2is also typical. A 1000-ohm

let
the most likely to be encountered by the produces luminescense around the junc- resistor in series with a 12 volt source will
ateur. The simplest type of switch that tion when forward bias current is applied. permit the LED to operate with aforward
n be created with a PIN diode is the LED junctions are made from gallium current of approximately 10 mA (IR drop
series spst type. The circuit is shown in arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP), = 10 V). A maximum current of 10 mA is
Fig. 38A. Cl functions as a dc blocking or a combination of both materials suggested in the interest of longevity for
capacitor and C2 is abypass capacitor. In (GaAsP). The latter is dependent upon the the device.
order to have the signal from the color and light intensity desired. Today, LEDs are also useful as reference
generator flow to the load, aforward bias the available LED colors are red, green diodes, however unique the applications
must be applied to the bias terminal. The and yellow. may seem. They will regulate dc at
amount of insertion loss caused by the Some LEDs are housed in plastic which approximately 1.5 V.
diode is determined primarily by the diode is affixed to the base header of atransistor The following are definitions and terms
bias current. Fig. 38B illustrates an spdt package. Other LEDs are contained used in optics to characterize the proper-
type of switch arrangement which uses entirely in plastic packages which have a ties of an LED.
essentially two spst switches with acom- dome-shaped head at the light-emitting Incident flux density is defined as the
mon connection. For agenerator current end. Two wires protrude from the amount of radiation per unit area (ex-
to flow into the load resistor at the left, a opposite end (positive and negative leads) pressed as lumens/cm' in photometry;
bias voltage is applied to bias terminal I. for applying forward bias to the device. watts/cm 1 in radiometry). This is a
For signal to flow into the load at the right There are countless advantages to the measure of the amount of flux received by
a bias must be applied to terminal 2. In use of LEDs. Notable among them are the adetector measuring the LED output.

4-15 Chapter 4
 Fig. 40 — Two types of PIN diode attenuator
circuits. The circuit at A is called a Bridged
Tee and the circuit at B is a pi type. Both
exhibit very broadband characteristics.

Fig. 39 — PIN diodes are used to transfer a common antenna to either a transmitter or receiver. A
voltage applied to the bias terminal will switch the system to the transmit mode connecting the
output of the transmitter to the antenna. At the same time the diode across the receiver input is
forward biased to a low-resistance state to protect the input stage of the receiver. The quarter-
wave line isolates the low resistance of the receiver diode from the common antenna connection.
At B the quarter-wave line is replaced with a lumped-element equivalent.

Emitted flux density is also defined as spread the flux over awider viewing area Fig. 41 — A solar-energy diode cell. Electrons
radiation per unit area and is used to and hence have much less point intensity flow when light strikes the upper surface. The
describe light reflected from a surface. (luminance) than the point-source diodes. bottom of the cell is coated with foil to collect
This measure of reflectance determines current for the load, or for the succeeding cell
in series-connected arrays of cells.
the total radiant or luminous emittance. Solar-Electric Diodes
Source intensity defines the flux density Sunlight can be converted directly into
which will appear at adistant surface and electricity by aprocess known as photovol-
is expressed as lumens/steradian (photom- taic conversion. For this purpose a solar generate excess holes and electrons (one
etry) or watts/steradian ( radiometry). cell is used. It relies on the photoelectric hole/electron pair for each photon absorb-
Luminance is ameasure of photometric properties of a semiconductor. Practical- ed). When this occurs near the p-n
brightness and is obtained by dividing the 1Y, the solar cell is a large-area p-n junction, the electric fields in that region
luminous intensity at agiven point by the
projected area of the source at the same
junction diode. The greater the area of the
cell, the higher the output current will be.
will separate the holes from the electrons.
This causes the holes to increase in the 44-
point. Luminance is a very important A dc voltage output of approximately 0.5 p-type material. At the same time the
rating in the evaluation of visible LEDs. is obtained from asingle cell. Numerous electrons will build up in the n-type
While luminance is equated with cells can be connected in series to provide material. By making direct connection to
photometric brightness, it is inaccurate to 6, 9, 12, 24 or whatever low voltage is the p and n regions by means of wires,
equate luminance as afigure of merit for required. In a like manner, cells can be these excess charges generated by light
brightness. The only case where this rating connected in parallel to provide higher (and separated by the junction) will flow
is acceptable is when comparing physically output current, overall. into an external load to provide power.
identical LEDs. Different LEDs are sub- The solar diode cell is built so that light Approximately 0.16 A can be secured
ject to more stringent examination. can penetrate into the region of the p- n from each square inch of solar-cell
Manufacturers do not use aset of consis- junction, Fig. 41. Most modern solar cells material exposed to bright sunlight. A
tent ratings for LEDs (such as optical use silicon material. Impurities (doping) 3-1/2 inch diameter cell can provide 1.5 A
flux, brightness and intensity). This is are introduced into the silicon material to of output current. The efficiency of asolar
because of the dramatic differences in op- establish excess positive or negative cell ( maximum power delivered to aload
tical measurements between point- and charges which carry electric currents. versus total solar energy incident on the
area-source diodes. Point-source diodes Phosphorous is used to produce n-type cell) is typically 11 to 12 percent.
are packaged in aclear epoxy or set within silicon. Boron is used as the dopant to Arrays of solar cells are manufactured
a transparent glass lens. Area-source produce p-type material. for all manner of practical applications. A
diodes must employ a diffusing lens to Light is absorbed into the silicon to storage battery is used as abuffer between

Solid State Fundamentals 4-16

the solar panel and the load. A p- n
junction diode should be used between the
solar-array output and the storage battery
to prevent the battery from discharging
back into the panel during dark periods.
An article on the subject of solar cells and
their amateur applications was written by
DeMaw (" Solar Power for the Radio
Amateur," August 1977 QST ) and
should be of interest to those who wish to
utilize solar power. Solar Electric Genera-
tor Systems, an application pamphlet
by Solar Power Corp. of N. Billerica, MA
01862, contains valuable information on
this subject.
Fig. 42 shows the toltage/current
curt es to, aModel E12-01369-1.5 solar ar-
ray manufactured by Solar Power Corp.
It can be seen that temperature has an ef-
fect on the array performance. 0.7 -=

Tunnel Diodes 0.6 -

One type of semiconductor diode hav-

ing no rectifying properties is called atun-
nel diode. The bidirectional conduction of
the device is a result of heavily doped p
and n regions with a very narrow junc-
tion. The Fermi level lies within the con-
duction band for the nside and within the
valence band for the p side. A typical
current- vs.- voltage curve for a tunnel
diode is sketched in Fig. 43. When the for-
ward bias potential exceeds about 30 mV,
increasing the voltage causes the current
to decrease, resulting in a negative
resistance characteristic. This effect
makes the tunnel diode capable of ampli-
Fig. 42 — Voltage/current/temperature curve for aSolar Power Corp. array which contains 36
fication and oscillation. At one time tun-
solar-electric cells in series. The curves are for a model E12-01369-1.5 solar panel.
nel diodes were expected to dominate in
microwave applications, but other devices
soon surpassed tunnel diodes in perfor-
mance. The two- terminal oscillator con- PEAK POINT
cept had great fad appeal, and some TUNNEL DIODE
amateurs built low- power transmitters SYMBOLS

based on tunnel diodes. In the 1960s the

Heath Company marketed a dip meter
that used atunnel diode oscillator. Tunnel
diodes are not widely used in new designs;
NEGATIVE
this material is included only for com-
RESISTANCE
pleteness. REGION

Zener Diodes
Zener diodes have, for the most part,
laced the gaseous regulator tube. They
ebeen proved more reliable than tube
ypes of voltage regulators, are less
VALLEY POINT
expensive and far smaller in size.
These diodes fall into two primary
classifications: Voltage regulators and
voltage- reference diodes. When they are 30 mV
360 mV
used in power supplies as regulators, they
provide a nearly constant dc output
VP Ir-
voltage even though there may be large
changes in load resistance or input
voltage. As areference element the Zener
diode utilizes the voltage drop across its
junction when a specified current passes
through it in the reverse- breakdown
direction ( sometimes called the Zener
direction). This " Zener voltage" is the
value established as a reference. There- Fig. 43 — Schematic symbol and current -
vs.-voltage characteristic for a tunnel diode.

4-17 Chapter 4
Fig. 44 — Typical characteristics of aZener
diode (30 V).

E (
min — E D!
R, _
It. -1- Out
12 — 9.1 2.9
R, _
.01 A + 001 A — 011

= 264 ohms
and

Em ( max) E DI _l[)ED1
R,

(14 — 9.1 0.01 ) 9.1

264

=( 264

= 0.0085 X 9.1 =- 0.0 78W

R, = series resistance
IL = current of load in amperes

E0 1 = Zener-diode voltage
PD (m „, ) = total DI dissipation in watts

Fig. 45 — Example of how ashunt type of

Zener diode regulator is used. The equations
show how to calculate the value of the series
resistor and the diode power dissipation. In
this example a400-mW Zener diode will suffice
(D1).

fore, if a6.8- volt Zener diode was set up in

the foregoing manner, the resultant
reference voltage would be 6.8.
At the present time it is possible to pur-
chase Zeller diodes which are rated for
various voltages between 2.4 and 200. The
Fig. 46 — Practical examples of Zener diode applications. The circuit at A is useful for stabilizing
power ratings range from 1/4 to 50 watts. the filament voltage of oscillators. Zener diodes can be used in series to obtain various levels of
Fig. 44 shows the characteristics of a regulated voltage ( B). Fixed-value bias for transmitter stages can be obtained by inserting aZener
Zener diode designed for 30- volt opera- diode in the cathode return (C). At Dan 18-volt Zener diode prevents voltage spikes from harming
amobile transceiver. AZener-diode series regulator (20-V drop) is shown at Eand an rf clamp is
tion.
seen at F. D1 in the latter circuit will clamp at 36 volts to protect the PA transistor from dc
Fig. 45 shows how to calculate the series voltage spikes and extreme sine-wave excursions at rf. This circuit is useful in protecting output
resistance needed in a simple shunt stages during no-load or short-circuit conditions.

Solid State Fundamentals 4-18

regulator which employs a Zener diode.
COUPLING
An equation is included for determining PROBE 10.212 GHZ
ISOLATION
the wattage rating of the series resistor. PAD
VE GUIyD
WAH ORN
MATCHING
Additional data on this subject is given in NETWORK
chapter 7 of Solid State Design for the LOW- Z

Radio Amateur.
Sonic practical applications for Zener
diodes are illustrated in Fig. 46. In addi-
INTERDIGITAL
tion to the shunt applications given in the /- 7- 7 FILTER

diagram, Zener diodes can be used as

SRD MULTIPLIER
series elements when it is desired to pro-
X 46
ide a gate that conducts at a given
voltage. These diodes can be used in ac as
well as dc circuits. When they arc used in Fig. 47 — Step- recovery diode frequency multiplier for 10 GHz. The matching network elements
an ac type of application they will conduct are represented as lumped components but would take the form of Microstrip in an actual design.

at the peak voltage value or below,

depending upon the voltage swing and the
voltage rating of the Zener diode. For this
reason they are useful as audio and rf clip-
pers. In rf work the reactance of the diode efficiency is inversely proportional to the audio applications it is practical to obtain
may be the controlling factor above ap- frequency multiple. Very high orders of output power in excess of 1000 watts by
proximately 10 MHz with respect to the multiplication are possible with step- using several amplifier blocks and hybrid
performance of the rf circuit and the recovery diodes, and one use for this power combiners. The primary limitation
diode. feature is in a comb generator — an in- at the higher power levels is essentially a
Most Zener diodes which are rated strument used to calibrate the frequency practical or economic one: Low voltage,
higher than 1 watt in dissipation are axis of aspectrum analyzer. high-current power supplies are required,
contained in stud- mount packages. They A single harmonic of the excitation fre- and the cost can exceed that of a
should be affixed to asuitable heat sink to quency can be selected by an interdigital high-voltage, moderate-current supply of
prevent damage from excessive junction filter or cavity resonator. A 1- watt, the variety which would be employed with
temperatures. The mounting techniques 220- MHz fm transmitter could drive a a vacuum-tube amplifier of comparable
are the same as for power rectifiers and snap diode multiplier ( x 46) and filter power. The primary advantages obtained
high-wattage transistors. combination to an output of about 10 through the use of solid-state power
milliwatts in the 10-GHz band — atypical amplifiers are compactness and reliability.
Reference Diodes and effective power level at that frequen- In small- signal applications the transis-
While ordinary Zener diodes arc useful cy. A representative system of this variety tor outweighs the vacuum-tube in perfor-
as voltage regulators, they don't exhibit is suggested in Fig. 47. The exciter should mance. The former is more efficient,
the thermal stability required in precision be well isolated from the SRD and its operates cooler, has much longer life, is
reference applications. A reverse- biased matching network to prevent parasitic considerably smaller in size, and is less
semiconductor junction has a positive oscillations. expensive. A naive designer might insist
that " tubes are better," but the transistor
temperature coefficient of barrier poten-
Current-Regulator Diodes ranks no. 1in the industry at this time.
tial, and a forward- biased junction has a
A JFET with its gate shorted to its There remains in isolated instances a
negative coefficient. The way to tempera-
source or connected below a source re- belief that transistors are hard to tame,
ture-compensate a Zener diode is to con-
sistor will draw a certain current whose noisier than tubes and that they are
nect one or more common silicon diodes
subject to damage at the flick of aswitch.
in series with it. When this is done as part value is almost entirely independent of the
None of this is true. A transistorized
of the manufacturing process, the applied potential. The current (1DSS in
circuit which is designed and operated
resulting component is termed areference FET terminology) is also quite stable with
correctly is almost always capable of
diode. A 1N3499 6.2- volt reference diode temperature. Semiconductor manufac-
exceeding an equivalent vacuum- tube
will maintain atemperature coefficient of turers take advantage of these properties
circuit in all respects. An understanding of
0.0005 percent per degree over the range and package the JFET circuit of Fig. 48A
of 0to 75° C. Reference diodes work best in a two-terminal package and call it a
when operated at a few milliamperes of constant-current diode. A special symbol,
current from a high- impedance or con- given in Fig. 48B, is assigned to this type
stant- current bias source. As the name im- of diode. The 1N5305 diode approaches
plies, these diodes aren't suited for cir- an ideal current generator, in that it draws
cuits where power is taken directly from two milliamperes over the range of 1.8 to
the device. Reference diodes can't be 100 volts. Constant-current diodes find
tested with an ohmmeter because two application in ohmmeters, ramp genera-
junctions are back-to-back — the instru- tors and precision voltage references.
ment can't supply enough voltage to over-
come the Zener barrier potential. BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

The word " transistor" was chosen to

Step-Recovery Diodes describe the function of a three-terminal
One device characterized by extremely p- n junction device which is able to
low capacitance and short storage time is amplify signal energy (current). The
the step-recovery diode (SRD), sometimes inherent characteristic is one of " transfer-
called a " snap" diode. These diodes are ring current across a resistor." The
used as frequency multipliers well into the transistor was invented by Shockley,
Fig. 48 — At A, an n-channel JFET connected
microwave spectrum. Switching the device Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947 as a constant-current source. At B, the
in and out of forward conduction is the and has become the standard amplifying schematic symbol for the circuit in A when it
multiplication mechanism, and the power device in electronic equipment. In rf and is packaged as a two-terminal device.

4-19 Chapter 4
 A base-emitter resistance, rb', also exists.
Ca, Car
The junction capacitance, in combination
with lb', determines the useful upper
DEPLETION L JL J DEPLETION
frequency limit (fT or fa) of atransistor by
REGION REGION

establishing an RC time constant.

EMITTER COLLECTOR
0 @ @ Power Amplification
Because the collector is biased in the
BASE back direction the collector-to- base resis-
+1 1— tance is high. On the other hand, the
emitter and collector currents are sub-
stantially equal, so the power in the
Fig. 49 — Illustration of a junction pnp tran- collector circuit is larger than the power in
sistor. Capacitances Cbe and Cbc vary with the emitter circuit ( P = PR, so the powers
changes in operating and signal voltage (see
are proportional to the respective resis-
text).
tances, if the currents are the same). In
practical transistors emitter resistance is
of the order of afew ohms while the col-
how transistors function will help to
lector resistance is hundreds or thousands
prevent poor circuit performance: The of times higher, so power gains of 20 to 40
fundamentals outlined in this chapter are
dB or even more are possible.
provided for the amateur designer so that Fig. 50 — Pictorial and schematic representa-
tions of junction transistors. By way of analogy
the common pitfalls can be avoided.
the base, collector and emitter can be com-
Types
Fig. 49 shows a " sandwich" made from pared to the grid, plate and cathode of a triode
two layers of p-type semiconductor The transistor may be one of the types tube, respectively.
material with a thin layer of ii-type be- shown in Fig. 43. The assembly of p- and
tween. There are in effect two pu junction n- type materials may be reversed, so that
diodes back- to- hack. If a positise bias is pnp and npn transistors are both possible. case terminal the resistances are ef-
applied to the p-type material at the left. The first two letters of the npn and pnp fectively in parallel, thus reducing the
current will flow though the left-hand designations indicate the respective polar- combined emitter resistances to afraction
junction, the holes moving to the right ities of the voltages applied to the of an ohm. ( If a significant amount of
and the electrons from the n-type material emitter and collector in normal operation. resistance were allowed to exist it would
'nosing to the left. Some of the holes In a pnp transistor, for example, the cause degeneration in the stage and would
inosine. into the ii-type material will com- emitter is made positive with respect to lower the gain of the circuit.)
bine with the electrons there and be both the collector and the base, and the Most modern transistors are of the
neutrali/ed, hut some of them also will collector is made negative with respect to junction variety. Various names have been
tras el to the region of the right-hand junc- both the emitter and the base. given to the several types, some of which
tion. Manufacturers are constantly working are junction alloy, mesa, and planar.
If the pn combination at the right is to improve the performance of their Though their characteristics may differ
biased negatively, as shown, there would transistors — greater reliability, higher slightly, they are basically of the same
normally be no current flow in this circuit. power and frequency ratings, and improved family and simply represent different
However, there are now additional holes uniformity of characteristics for any given physical properties and manufacturing
available at the junction to travel to point type number. One such development techniques.
Band electrons can travel toward point A, provided the overlay transistor, whose
so a current can flow even though this emitter structure is made up of several Transistor Characteristics
section of the sandwich is biased to emitters which are joined together at a An important characteristic of a tran-
prevent conduction. Most of the current is common case terminal. This process sistor is its beta (13 ), or current-
amplifica-
between A and B and does not flow out lowers the base-emitter resistance, rb', lion factor, which is sometimes expressed as
through the common connection to the and improves the transistor input time hFE ( static forward-current transfer ratio)
n- type material in the sandwich. constant. The latter is determined by rb' or hfe ( small- signal forward-current trans-
A semiconductor combination of this and the junction capacitance of the device. fer ratio). Both symbols relate to the
type is called a transistor, and the three The overlay transistor is extremely useful grounded-emitter configuration. Beta is
sections are known as the emitter, base in vhf and uhf applications. It is capable the ratio of the collector current to the
and collector, respectively. The amplitude of high-power operation well above 1000 base current
of the collector current depends principal- MHz. These transistors are useful as
frequency doublers and triplers, and are l
e
ly upon the amplitude of the emitter
able to provide an actual power gain in 3 = —
1
current; that is, the collector current is
controlled by the emitter current. the process.
Between each p-n junction exists an Another multi-emitter transistor has Thus, if abase current of 1mA causes the
area known as the depletion, or transition been developed for use from hf through collector current to rise to 100 mA the
region. It is similar in characteristics to a uhf. It should be of interest to the radio beta is 100. Typical betas for junction
dielectric layer, and its width varies in amateur. It is called a balanced- emitter transistors range from as low as 10 to as
accordance with the operating voltage. The transistor (BET), or " ballasted" transis- high as several hundred.
semiconductor materials either side of the tor. The transistor chip contains several A transistor's alpha (cc) is the ratio of
depletion region constitute the plates of a triode semiconductors whose bases and the collector to the emitter current. Sym-
capacitor. The capacitance from base to collectors are connected in parallel. The bols hFB (static forward-current transfer
emitter is shown as Cb c ( Fig. 49), and the various emitters, however, have built-in ratio) and hfb ( small-signal forward-
collector- base capacitance is represented emitter resistors ( typically about 1ohm) current transfer ratio), common-base
which provide a current- limiting safety hookup, are frequently used in connection
as Cb c.Changes in signal and operating
factor during overload periods, or under with gain. The smaller the base current,
voltages cause anonlinear change in these
junction capacitances, which must be taken conditions of significant mismatch. Since the closer the collector current comes to
the emitters are brought out to a single being equal to that of the emitter, and the
into account when designing some circuits.
Solid State Fundamentals 4-20
closer alpha comes to being 1. Alpha for a
junction transistor is usually between 0.92
and 0.98.
Transistors have frequency charac-
teristics which are of importance to circuit
designers. Symbol f-ris the gain bandwidth
product ( common-emitter) of the transis-
tor. This is the frequency at which the
gain becomes unity, or I. The expression
"alpha cutoff" is frequently used to ex-
press the useful upper- frequency limit
of a transistor, and this relates to the
common- base hookup. Alpha cutoff is the
point at which the gain is 0.707 its value at
1000 Hz.
Another factor which limits the upper
frequency capability of a transistor is its
transit time. This is the period of time Fig. 53 — Curve-tracer display of a small-
required for the current to flow from signal transistor characteristics.

emitter to collector, through the semi-

conductor base material. The thicker the
base material, the greater the transit time. Fig. 51 — Typical collector-current versus
Hence, the thicker the base material the collector-voltage characteristics of a junction
shown in Fig. 54 in elementary form. The
more likelihood there will be of phase transistor for various emitter-current values. three circuits correspond approximately
shift of the signal passing through it. At Because the emitter resistance is low, a to the grounded-grid, grounded-cathode
current- limiting resistor (
R) is placed in series and cathode- follower circuits, respecti\ e-
frequencies near and above f-ror alpha
with the source current. The emitter current
cutoff, partial or complete phase shift can can be set at a desired value by adjustment of ly, used with vacuum tubes.
occur. This will give rise to positive feed- this resistance. The important transistor parameters in
back because the internal capacitance, these circuits are the short-circuit current
Cb e,feeds part of the in-phase collector transfer ratio, the cut-off frequency, and
signal back to the base. The positive feed- the input and output impedances. The
back can cause instability and oscillation, short-circuit current transfer ratio is the
and in most cases will interlock the input ratio of asmall change in output current
and output tuned circuits of an rf ampli- to the change in input current that causes
fier so that it is amost impossible to tune it, the output circuit being short-circuited.
them properly. This form of feedback can The cutoff frequency was discussed earlier
be corrected by using what is termed " uni- in this chapter. The input and output
lateralization." Conventional positive impedances are, respectively, the im-
feedback can be nullified by using pedance which a signal source working
neutralization, as is done with vacuum- 400 into the transistor would see, and the
350
tube amplifiers. internal output impedance of the transis-
300
250 tor (corresponding to the plate resistance
Characteristic Curves 200 of a vacuum tube, for example).
The operating principles of transistors lb •150AJA
Common-Base Circuit
can be shown by aseries of characteristic
100
curves. One such set of curves is shown in The input circuit of a common-base
Fig. 51. It shows the collector current vs. amplifier must be designed for low im-
collector voltage for a number of fixed 0
pedance, since the emitter-to-base resis-
values of emitter current. Practically, the tance is of the order of 26/1, ohms, where
collector current depends almost entirely I, is the emitter current in milliamperes.
on the emitter current and is independent The optimum output load impedance, RL,
of the collector voltage. The separation may range from afew thousand ohms to
Fig. 52 — Collector current versus collector
between curves representing equal steps of 100,000, depending upon the require-
voltage for various values of base current in a
emitter current is quite uniform, in- junction transistor. The illustration at A shows ments.
dicating that almost distortionless output how the measurements are made. At B is a In this circuit the phase of the output
family of curves.
can be obtained over the useful operating (collector) current is the same as that of
range of the transistor. the input (emitter) current. The parts of
Another type of curve is shown in Fig. these currents that flow through the base
52, together with the circuit used for ob- method of connection. They may be con- resistance are likewise in phase, so the
taining it. This also shows collector cur- strasted with the high values of emitter circuit tends to be regenerative and will
rent vs. collector voltage, but for a current shown in Fig. 51. An actual oscillate if the current amplification factor
number of different values of base cur- oscillograph of acharacteristic family of is greater than one.
rent. In this case the emitter element is curves for a small-signal transistor is
used as the common point in the circuit. shown in Fig. 53. It was obtained by Common-Emitter Circuit
The collector current is not independent means of acurve tracer. The common-emitter circuit shown in
of collector voltage with this type of con- Fig. 54 corresponds to the ordinary
nection, indicating that the output Transistor Amplifiers grounded-cathode vacuum-tube ampli-
resistance of the device is fairly low. The Amplifier circuits used with transistors fier. As indicated by the curves of Fig. 52,
base current also is quite low, which fall into one of three types, known as the the base current is small and the input im-
means that the resistance of the base- common-base, common-emitter, and pedance is therefore fairly high — several
emitter circuit is moderately high with this common-collector circuits. These are thousand ohms in the average case. The

4-21 Chapter 4
 Fig. 54A — Differential amplifier. This arrange-
ment can be analyzed as a composite of the
common-collector and common-base circuits.

This value is swamped by the bias network

for acircuit input impedance of 3.91 kfl.
The emitter resistor has introduced 29 dB
of degenerative feedback to the circuit,
stabilizing the gain and impedance values
over awide frequency range. A dc beta of
Fig. 54 — Basic transistor amplifiers. Observe the input and output phase relationships for the 100 was assumed in this example, and for
various configurations. convenience this value was also assigned
at the operating frequency. In reality,
however, beta decreases with increasing
collector resistance is some tens of torted output voltage swing between frequency, as noted in the section on tran-
thousands of ohms, depending on the cutoff and saturation. sistor characteristics. Degenerative feed-
signal source impedance. The common- Assuming the emitter bypass capacitor back overcomes this effect to a large ex-
emitter circuit has alower cutoff frequen- has negligible reactance at the operating tent.
cy than does the common- base circuit, but frequency, the emitter is at ac ground.
it gives the highest power gain of the three Because of the high alpha mentioned Common- Collector Circuit (Emitter-
configurations. earlier, any emitter current variation Follower)
In this circuit the phase of the output caused by an input signal will also appear Like the vacuum-tube cathode
(collector) current is opposite to that of in the collector circuit. Since the current follower, the common-collector transistor
the input ( base) current so such feedback variation is the same, the voltage gain is amplifier has high input impedance and
as occurs through the small emitter the ratio of the collector load resistance to low output impedance. The latter is ap-
resistance is negative and the amplifier is the (internal) emitter resistance. For small proximately equal to the impedance of the
stable. signals, this emitter resistance can be ap- signal input source multiplied by ( 1 — cx).
Because the common-emitter amplifier proximated by Re = 26/1 e,where Re is The input resistance depends on the load
circuit illustrated in Fig. 54 is one of the the emitter-to-base junction resistance, resistance, being approximately equal to
most often seen applications for abipolar and is the emitter current in the load resistance divided by ( 1 — cc).
transistor, abrief analysis and discussion milliamperes. In our example, = 1.6, The fact that input resistance is directly
of the design procedure is appropriate. so Re = 16.25 O. The voltage gain, then, related to the load resistance is adisadvan-
The divider network biasing the base sup- is 289, which is 49 dB. The ac base im- tage of this type of amplifier if the load is
plies an open-circuit potential of 1.36 V. pedance is given by pR e. Using the one whose resistance or impedance varies
Connecting the base has little loading ef- previous values for beta and emitter with frequency.
fect if the transistor beta is high (a fair resistance results in a base impedance of The current transfer ratio with this cir-
assumption). A beta of 100, for example, 1625 O. The circuit input impedance is cuit is
causes the 470-ohm emitter resistor to pre- found by shunting the base impedance
1
sent adc base resistance of 47 kt, which is with the bias resistors. The result in this
anegligible shunt. The base-emitter junc- case is about 1189 ti.
tion drops 0.6 V, so the potential across If the emitter bypass capacitor is omit- and the cutoff frequency is the same as in
the emitter resistor is 1.36 — 0.6 = 0.76 ted, the external resistor dominates the the grounded-emitter circuit. The output
N'. This voltage causes 1.6 mA to flow in gain equation, which becomes: A, = and input currents are in phase.
the emitter and the 470-ohm resistor. RL/RE,where Av is the voltage gain, RL is
Since the transistor alpha is nearly unity, Differential Amplifier Circuit
the collector load resistance as before, and
the collector current is also 1.6 mA, which RE is the unbypassed emitter resistance. An important variation of the fun-
drops 7.52 volts across the collector load Without the bypass capacitor, the com- damental amplifier types is the differential
resistor. The quiescent (no signal) collec- mon-emitter circuit in Fig. 54 exhibits a amplifier, drawn in Fig. 54A. The output
tor voltage is therefore 15 — 7.52 = 7.48 numerical voltage gain of 10 (20 dB). The voltage is proportional to the difference
V. This value allows the maximum undis- base impedance becomes pRE,or 47 MI. (with respect to ground) between the

Sniiri Stotts Fundamentals 4-22

voltages applied to the input terminals. in the small-signal class carry dissipation
With the proper choice of operating con- ratings of 500 mW or less. Power
ditions, several differential amplifier transistors are normally classed as 500-
stages of the type shown can be cascaded mW and higher devices. The practical
directly. Fig. 54A shows the circuit in its applications for all of these semiconduc-
classic balanced form, but many circuits tors range from dc to the microwave spec-
use differential amplifiers in a single- trum.
ended configuration. When only asingle
Bipolar Transistor Switches
input and output terminal is required, RI
could be ashort circuit and the Q2 base Our present-day technology includes
could be grounded. Under these cir- the use of solid-state switches as practical
cumstances the differential amplifier can alternatives to mechanical switches. When
be understood as an emitter-follower driv- abipolar transistor is used in aswitching
ing a common-base stage. The output is application it is either in an on or off
taken between the Q2 collector and state. In the on state aforward bias is ap-
ground. R3 establishes the current in QI Fig. 55 — Typical characteristic for the collec- plied to the transistor, sufficient in level to
and Q2, which should be equal under tor of an npn transistor which shows the three saturate the device. The common-emitter
primary regions involved during switching.
static conditions. format is used for nearly all transistor
Differential amplifiers work best when switches. Switching action is characterized
R3 is replaced by some type of constant- by large-signal nonlinear operation of the
current source. One type of current device. Fig. 55 shows typical output
regulator has been discussed in the diode characteristics for an npn switching tran-
section, and current sources made from sistor in the common-emitter mode. There
bipolar transistors are covered later. are three regions of operation — cutoff,
With a current source biasing QIand active and saturation. In the cutoff region
Q2 the input signal cannot modulate the the emitter-base and collector-base junc-
total collector current; only the ratio of tions are reverse biased. At this period the
the currents varies. One beneficial result collector current is quite small and is com-
of the constant-current bias is that a parable to the leakage current, Iceo, Icev or
higher impedance is presented to the driv- lebo•
ing signal. Fig. 56 illustrates the minority-carrier
concentration relative to an npn tran-
Fig. 56 — Illustration of the minority-carrier
Bipolar Transistor Dissipation concentrations in an npn transistor. No. 1 sistor. During cutoff the concentration is
Apart from the characteristics men- shows the cutoff region. No. 2 is the active zero at both junctions because they are
tioned earlier, it is necessary to consider
region at the threshold of the saturation reverse biased (curve no. 1).
region. No. 3 is in the saturation region.
the matters of collector dissipation, The emitter-base junction is forward
collector voltage and current and emitter biased in the active region. At this time
the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
current. Variations in these specifications offered: If the heat-sink-equipped transis-
Fig. 55 shows a load line along which
are denoted by specific parameter symbols tor is too warm to touch with comfort,
switching from the cutoff to the active
which appear later in the chapter. The the heat sink is not large enough in area.
region is done. The transit time (speed)
maximum dissipation ratings of transis- Excessive junction heat will destroy a
through the active region is dependent
tors, as provided on the manufacturer's transistor. Prior to destruction the device
data sheets, tend to confuse some ama- may go into thermal runaway. During this upon the transistor frequency-response
teurs. An acceptable rule of thumb is to condition the transistor becomes hotter characteristics. Thus, the higher the fre-
select atransistor which has amaximum and its internal resistance lowers. This quency rating of the device, the faster the
dissipation rating of approximately twice causes an increase in emitter/collector switching time. Curve no. 2 in Fig. 56
the dc input power of the circuit stage. and emitter/base current. This increased depicts the minority-carrier concentration
That is, if a 5-watt dc input is con- current elevates the dissipation and of the active region.
templated, choose a transistor with a further lowers the internal resistance. In the saturation region the emitter-
10-watt or greater rating. When power These effects are cumulative: Eventually base and collector-base junctions are for-
levels in excess of afew hundred mW are the transistor will be destroyed. A heat ward biased. During this period the for-
necessary there is aneed for heat sinking. sink of proper size will prevent this type of ward voltage drop across the emitter-base
A sink is a metal device which helps to problem. Excessive junction temperature junction VBE(sat) is larger than it is across
keep the transistor cool by virtue of heat will eventually cause the transistor to the collector-base junction. This results in
transfer from the transistor case to the become open. Checks with an ohmmeter a collector-emitter voltage termed
sink. At power levels below 5watts it is will indicate this condition after afailure. VCE(sat)• Series resistances present in the
common practice to employ clip-on heat Excess collector voltage will also cause emitter and collector legs of the circuit
sinks of the crown variety. For powers immediate device failure. The indication contribute to the determination of
greater than 5watts it is necessary to use of this type of failure, as noted by means VCE(sat)• Since the collector in this state is
large-area heat sinks which are fashioned of an ohmmeter, is ashorted junction. forward biased, additional carriers are in-
from extruded aluminum. These sinks jected into the base. Some also reach the
have cooling fins on one or more of their Beolar Transistor Applications collector. Curve no. 3 of Fig. 56 shows
surfaces to hasten the cooling process. Silicon transistors are the most com- this minority-carrier concentration. Fig.
Some high-power, solid-state amplifiers mon types in use today, although a few 57 contains the circuit for a basic
employ cooling fans from which the air germanium varieties are built for specific saturated-transistor switch.
stream is directed on the metallic heat applications. Collector voltages as great It is extremely important to make cer-
sink. Regardless of the power level or type as 1500 can be accommodated by some of tain that none of the transistor voltage
of heat sink used, silicone heat-transfer the high-power silicon transistors avail- ratings is exceeded during the "off"
compound should always be used between able now. Most small-signal transistors period: The minimum emitter-base break-
the mating surfaces of the transistor and will safely handle collector voltages of 25 down voltage, V(BR)E130, must not exceed
the heat sink. Another rule of thumb is or greater. Generally speaking, transistors VBE( off). Also, the minimum collector-

4-23 Chapter 4
 spikes which occur when the relay-coil
field collapses. D1 and D2 may not be
necessary. This will depend on the sen-
sitivity of the relay and the leakage current
of QI in the off state. If there is con-
siderable leakage, K1 may not release
when forward bias is removed from Q1.
D1 and D2 will elevate the emitter to ap-
proximately 1.4 volts, thereby providing
sufficient reverse bias to cut off Q Iin the
Fig. 57 — Circuit for a transistor switching cir- off state. It can be seen from the illustra-
cuit ( saturated).
tions in Fig. 58 that either npn or pnp
transistors can be used as electronic
switches.

Transistor Audio Amplifiers

Bipolar transistors are suitable for
numerous audio-amplifier applications
from low-level to high power. It is com-
mon practice to use all npn or all pnp
devices, regardless of the polarity of the
power supply. In other circuits a mixture
of the two types may be found, especially
when direct-coupled or complimentary-
symmetry stages are included. Fig. 59
Fig. 59 — Examples of npn and pnp amplifiers
shows how pnp or npn stages can be used
operating from a power supply with a negative with power supplies which have positive
ground. or negative grounds. The essential dif-
ference in the circuits concerns returning
sistor can be used as a low- power switch various elements to the negative or
to turn oscillator Q2 on and off. In the positive sides of the power supply. The il-
"on" state RI is grounded. This places lustrations show that all one needs to do
the bipolar switch, Q1, in a saturated to use either type of device with the same
mode, thereby permitting current to flow power supply is to interchange the resistor
to Q2. A transistor switch of the type connections. The same principle applies
shown at A of Fig. 58 can be used to con- when using npn or pnp transistors with a
trol more than one circuit stage power supply which has a positive
simultaneously. The primary criterion is ground. Knowledge of how this is donc
that the switching transistor be capable of enables the designer to mix npn and pnp
passing the combined currents of the devices in a single circuit. This basic
various stages under control. The method technique is applicable to any type of
seen at A is often used in keying a transistor circuit — rf, audio or dc.
transmitter. Some basic low-level audio amplifiers
An npn transistor switch is shown in arc shown in Fig. 60. These stages operate
Fig. 58 — Examples of practical switching cir- Fig. 58B. If desired, it can be " slaved" to in the Class A mode. The input impedance
cuits. A pnp switch is used to key an oscillator
at A. When R1 is grounded the switching tran-
the circuit of Fig. 58A by attaching RI of of these circuits is low — typically be-
sistor is forward biased to saturation, thereby circuit B to the collector of Q1 in circuit tween 500 and 1500 ohms. For the most
permitting current to flow from the dc supply A. Because an npn device is used at B, a part the output impedance is established
line to 02. The circuit at 8 shows 01 as a positive forward bias must be applied to by the value to the collector load resistor.
relay-driver npn switch. When + 12 volts is ap-
plied to the base of 01 it is forward biased to
the base via RI to make the transistor A matching transformer can be used at
saturation, permitting current to flow through saturate. When in that state, current flows the input of these stages ( Fig. 60B) when it
the field coil of K1A. D1 and 02 are included to through the relay ( KIA) field coil to ac- is necessary to use, for example, a high-
reduce the static collector current of 01, which tuate the contacts at KIB. D3 is connected impedance microphone with one of them.
in some instances could cause K1A to remain
across the relay coil to damp inductive TI serves as astep-down transformer.
closed after forward bias was removed from
01. 03 serves as a spike suppressor when the
field of K1A collapses.

base breakdown voltage, V(3R)ato, should

be no greater than Vcc + VBE(off). Finally,
the minimum collector-to-emitter break-
down voltage, V(BR) CERL, must be greater
than V. As is true in any transistor appli-
cation, the junction temperature must be
maintained at a safe value by whatever
means necessary.
A transistor switch can be turned on by
means of a pulse ( Fig. 57) or by applica-
tion of adc forward bias. Typical circuits
for the latter are given in Fig. 58. The Fig. 60 — RC and transformer-coupled audio amplifiers suitable for high- and low- impedance
circuit at A illustrates how a pnp tran- microphones.

Solid State Fundamentals 4-24

 amplifiers. Other considerations are noise
figure, purity of the amplified signal and
dynamic range.
Although bipolar transistors can be
used as rf amplifiers for receiver front
ends, they are not found there in most of
the high-performance receivers: Field-
effect transistors are more often the
designer's choice because of their high
input impedance and good dynamic-range
traits. A correctly designed bipolar rf
input stage can exhibit good dynamic
range, however. It is necessary to operate
afairly husky low-noise transistor in Class
A, using a relatively high standing
collector current — 50 to 100 mA,
typically.
Some rf and i - famplifier circuits which
employ bipolar transistors are shown in
the examples of Fig. 62. When used with
the appropriate Land C networks they are
suitable for either application. At A in
Fig. 62 the transistor base is tapped near
the cold end of the input tuned circuit to
provide an impedance match. The collec-
tor is tapped down on the output tuned
circuit to provide aproper match. If it is
desired, the base and collector taps can be
moved even farther down on the tuned
circuits. This will result in a deliberate
mismatch. The technique is sometimes
used to aid stability and/or lower the stage
gain. The circuit at B is operated in the
common-base mode. Taps are shown on
the input and output coils for impedance-
matching purposes.
Broadband amplifiers with heavy
negative feedback are useful as small-
signal rf and i -famplifiers. An example is
shown at C in Fig. 62. Not only is negative
feedback applied (collector to base), but
degenerative feedback is obtained by vir-
tue of the unbypassed 10-ohm emitter
resistor. The use of feedback ensures an
unconditionally stable stage. As the
operating frequency is decreased the
negative feedback increases because the
feedback-network reactance becomes
lower. This is important if reasonably
constant gain is desired over awide range
of frequencies, say, from 1.8 to 30 MHz.
This form of gain compensation is
necessary because as the operating fre-
quency of agiven transistor is decreased,
the gain increases. Typically, the gain will
Flg, 61 — Practical examples of direct- coupled audio amplifiers. increase on the order of 6dB per octave.
Therefore, the probability of instability
(self-oscillations) becomes a major con-
sideration at low frequencies in an un-
Some direct-coupled audio amplifiers put impedance, and low output im- compensated rf amplifier. The circuit of
arc shown in Fig. 61. The circuit at A pedance. Fig. 62C operates stably and has a
combines pnp and npn devices to provide characteristic input and output impedance
a compatible interface between them. Transistor RF Amplifiers of approximately 50 ohms. The broad-
Three npn stages are in cascade at B to In most respects small-signal rf ampli- band 4:1 transformer in the collector cir-
provide high gain. This circuit is excellent fiers are similar in performance to those cuit is required to step down the collector
for use in direct-conversion receivers, used in audio applications. However, to impedance to 50 ohms. Design informa-
owing to the need tor very high gain after effect maximum stable amplification some tion on this type of circuit is provided in
the detector. At C is aDarlington pair — important design measures are necessary. the ARRL book, Solid State Design for
so named after the person who developed Furthermore, the matter of proper im- the Radio Amateur. A bandpass type of
the configuration. The principle advan- pedance matching becomes more im- filter is needed at the amplifier input.
tages of this circuit are high gain, high in- portant than it is in simple audio Another can be used at the output of the

4-25 Chapter 4
4:1 transformer if desired. The transistor
used in any of the amplifiers of Fig. 62
should have an T which is five to ten
times greater than the highest operating
frequency of the stage. The 2N5179 has an
in excess of 1000 MHz, making it a
good device up to 148 MHz for this ap-
plication.

Transistor RF Power Amplifiers

Rf power amplifiers which use bipolar
transistors fall into two general categories
— Class C and linear. The latter is used
for a-m and ssb signal amplification and
the class of operation is A or AB. These
amplifiers are designed for narrow or
wideband applications, depending on the
purpose for which the stage or stages will
be used. Class C bipolar-transistor ampli-
fiers are used for fm and cw work.
Most wideband amplifiers contain fer-
rite- loaded broadband transformers at the
input and output ports. The output
transformer is followed by a multipole
low-pass filter for each band of operation.
This is necessary to attenuate harmonic
currents so that they will not be radiated
by the antenna system. Although this type
of filtering is not always needed with a
narrowband amplifier (the networks pro-
vide reasonable selectivity), filters should
be used in the interest of spectral purity.
Two-section filters of the half-wave or
low-pass T variety are entirely suitable for
harmonic reduction at the 50-ohm output
ports of amplifiers.
One of the principal difficulties en- Fig. 62 — Illustrations of common-emitter and common- base rf amplifiers for narrow- band use.
countered by amateurs who design and The circuit at C is that of a fed- back broadband amplifier which has a bandpass filter at the input.

build their own high-power, solid-state

amplifiers is instability at some point in
the power range. That is, an amplifier
driven to its maximum rated output may
be stable when terminated properly, but
when the drive level is reduced it is apt to damage if asignificant output mismatch is Fig. 63A, a 10-ohm resistor ( R1) is
break into self-oscillation at the operating present. Stability is usually better under bridged across the secondary of T1 to aid
frequency, at vhf, or perhaps at very low these same conditions, although the gain stability. This measure is not always
frequencies. Part of the problem is caused of the transistors will be considerably necessary. It will depend on the gain of
by an increase in beta as the collector lower than would be the case if equivalent the transistor, the layout and the loaded Q
current is decreased. This elevates the types of 12-volt devices were used. of T1. Other values of resistance can be
amplifier gain to encourage instability. Fig. 63 shows two single-ended used. A good rule of thumb is to employ
Also, solid-state amplifiers are designed amplifiers of typical design. At A there is only that value of resistance which cures
for a specific network impedance at a a broadband input transformer which instability. It must be remembered that RI
specified power-output level. When the steps down the 50-ohm source to the low is in parallel with the transistor input im-
drive is reduced the collector and base base impedance of Q1: Most power stages pedance: This will have an effect on the
impedances increase. This causes a mis- have abase impedance of 5ohms or less. turns ratio of T1. When excessive driving
match. An increase in the loaded Q of the Although there are a number of suitable power is available, adeliberate mismatch
networks may also result — a situation tuned networks that can be used to effect can be introduced at the input to QI by
that encourages instability. Therefore, it is the desired impedance match, the use of reducing the number of secondary turns.
best to design for aspecified power output T1 eliminates components and the If that is done, RI can often be
and adhere closely to that level during sometimes complex calculations required eliminated. The shortcoming which
operation. for the design of aproper network. When results from this technique is that the driv-
Solid-state power amplifiers should be the actual base impedance of Q1 is ing source will not be looking into a
operated just below their saturation unknown ( it varies with respect to drive 50-ohm termination. T1 is normally a
points for best efficiency and stability. level and operating frequency), empirical ferrite- loaded transformer — toroidal or
That is the point which occurs when no adjustment of the T1 turns ratio will per- solenoidal. The core material for opera-
additional rf output can be obtained with mit close matching. An SWR indicator tion from 1.8 to 30 MHz is typically the
increased driving power. Some designers can be used between TI and the signal 950-p, ( Initial permeability) type. The
recommend that, for example, a 28-volt source to indicate a matched condition. primary winding of T1 (and other broad-
transistor be used for 12-volt operation: This test should be made with the maxi- band transformers should be approxi-
Saturation will take place at alevel where mum intended drive applied. mately four times the terminal impedance
the transistors are relatively safe from To continue the discussion relating to with respect to reactance. Therefore, for a

Solid State Fundamentals 4-26

 of matching network should be kept
below 4in the interest of amplifier stabili-
ty. Information on this and other types of
tuned matching networks is given in the
ARRL Electronics Data Book. Data are
also given in that volume concerning
broadband transformer design.
Fig. 63B shows the same general
amplifier. The difference is in the biasing.
The circuit at A is set up for Class C. It is
driven into the cutoff region during
operation. At B there is asmall amount of
forward bias applied to QI (approximate-
ly 0.7 volt) by means of the barrier voltage
set by DI, asilicon power diode. DI also
functions as a simple bias regulator. R2
should be selected to provide fairly
substantial diode current. The forward
bias establishes linearity for the amplifier
so that ssb and a-m driving energy can be
amplified by QI with minimum distor-
tion.
Although some transistors are designed
especially for linear amplification, any
power transistor can be used for the
purpose. Once the proper biasing point is
found for linear amplification with a
Class C type of transistor, an investigation
of linearity versus output power should be
undertaken. Some Class C transistors are
incapable of delivering as much power
(undistorted) in Class AB as they can
under Class C conditions. Most power
Fig. 63 — Circuits for rf power amplifiers. At A is a Class C type. The circuit at B is biased for transistors intended for linear amplifica-
linear amplification. tion have built-in, degenerative- feedback
resistors at the emitter sites. This technique
aids linearity. Depending on the package
50-ohm load characteristic the primary- bypass capacitors arc used to ensure effec- style of a Class C type of transistor, an
winding reactance of T1 should be tive decoupling at vhf, hf and If. If the emitter-feedback resistor can be added ex-
roughly 200 ohms. decoupling is inadequate, rf from the ternally. Such resistors are usually on the
Two rf chokes are shown in Fig. 63A. amplifier can flow along the 12-volt bus to order of Iohm.
These arc necessary to assure ample dc- other parts of the transmitter, thereby A broadband Class C amplifier is
lead decoupling along with the related causing instability of one or more of the shown in Fig. 64A. T1 and 12 are 4:1
bypass capacitors. The upper rf choke stages. A simple low-pass T network is broadband transformers connected in
serves also as acollector load impedance. used for matching the collector to the series to provide an impedance step down
'rhe reactance should be four or five times 50-ohm load. It also suppresses harmonic of 16:1. For most applications this ar-
the collector impedance. Three values of energy. The loaded Q of this general type rangement will provide an acceptable

Fig. 6.4 — Broadband transformers are employed at A for impedance matching. FL1 suppresses harmonic currents at the amplifier output. In the
examples at B are feedback components ci and R1 ( see text).

4-27 Chapter 4
Fig. 65 — Example of a fed- back, push-pull, rf power amplifier set up for broadband service from 1.8 to 30 MHz. The circuit is biased for linear
amplification.

Fig. 66 — Examples of transistor oscillators which use crystal control.

match between 50 ohms and the base im- RIarc chosen to reduce the amplifier gain aturns ratio set for matching 50 ohms to
pedance of Ql. In the example we ha‘ e by whatever amount is necessary to pro- the base load presented by Q1 and Q2. T2,
assumed a base impedance of approxi- vide stability and the broadband charac- another broadband transformer, is used
teristics desired. Cl serves as adc blocking to provide balanced dc feed to the
mately 3ohms.
capacitor. collectors. T3 is another broadband
T3 serves as a collector load and a
A push-pull broadband linear amplifier transformer which is wound for lowering
step-up transformer. It is useful to use a
is illustrated at Fig. 65. When additional the collector-to-collector impedance to 50
step-up transformer when the collector
frequency compensation is desired ohms. FL1 is designed for a bilateral
impedance is low ( 25 ohms or less). This
(beyond that available from a negative- impedance of 50 ohms in this example.
enables the designer to work with
filter-component values ( FL1) that are feedback network) LI and RIcan be add-
Bipolar- Transistor Oscillators
more practical than would be the case if ed across the amplifier input. They arc
an attempt was made to match 10 ohms to selected to roll off the driving power Transistors function well as crystal-
toward the low end of the amplifier controlled or LC oscillators. RC oscil-
50 ohms with the filter network. FL1 in
operating range. As the frequency is lators are also practical when a bipolar
this example is a double pi-section
low-pass type (half-wave filter). It is reduced, Li represents alower reactance, transistor is used as the active element.
designed to match 40 ohms to 50 ohms thereby permitting some of the drive The same circuits used for tube-type
and has a loaded Q of I. power to be dissipated in RI . oscillators apply when using transistors.
Feedback (-an be applied to stabiliie the T1 is aconventional broadband trans- The essential difference is that transistor
amplifier. This is seen in Fig. 64B. C1and former (not atransmission-line type) with oscillators have lower input and output

C..nehamantala d1.2à
Fig. 67 — The circuits at A and B are VFOs for use in transmitters or receivers. Audio oscillators are shown at C and D.

impedances, operate at low voltages, and means of the link shown. Alternatively, a means of TI in Fig. 67D. TI is a small
deliver low output power — usually in the capacitive divider can be placed across the transistor output transformer with a
mW range. The greater the oscillator inductor to provide alow-Z tap-off point. center-tapped primary and an 8-ohm
power, the greater the heating of the The trimmer should be retained in parallel secondary. This circuit is excellent for use
transistor junction and other circuit with the inductor to permit resonating the as acode-practice or side-tone oscillator.
elements. Therefore, in the interest of circuit. All of the rf oscillators described in
oscillator stability it is wise to keep the dc Some typical rf and audio oscillators these examples should be followed by one
input power as low as practical. The are seen in Fig. 67. The circuit at A ob- or more buffer stages to prevent frequency
power level can always be increased by tains feedback by means of the emitter tap changes resulting from load variations
means of subsequent amplifier stages at on the tuned circuit. Approximately 25 occurring after the oscillator chain.
minor cost. percent of the oscillator rf power is used
Some representative examples of as feedback. The tap point on this type of Transistor Mixers
crystal-controlled oscillators are provided oscillator is between 10 and 25 percent of Much of the modern equipment used by
in Fig. 66. At A is an oscillator that can be the total coil turns. The designer should amateurs contains mixers which utilize
used to obtain output at f (the crystal fre- use the smallest amount of feedback that FETs or diode rings. Good dynamic range
quency), or at multiples of f. The circuit will provide reliable oscillator perfor- is offered by those two circuits. However,
at B illustrates a Pierce type of oscillator mance with the load connected. there is no reason why a bipolar mixer
for fundamental output at 3.5 MHz. Cn, Fig. 67B illustrates a series-tuned Col- can't be used to obtain satisfactory
may be necessary with some crystals to pitts oscillator, although this general cir- results if care is taken with the operating
provide ample feedback to cause oscilla- cuit is often referred to as a "series-tuned parameters and the gain distribution in
tion. The value of Cn, will depend on the Clapp" oscillator. It is very stable when the receiver or transmitter where they are
operating frequency and the gain of thr polystyrene capacitors are used in the used. The bipolar transistors used in
transistor. Typically for 1.8 to .20-MHz feedback and tuned circuits. Silver-mica receiver mixers should be selected ac-
crystals ( fundamental mode) the capacitors can be used as substitutes at a cording to noise figure (low) and dynamic
capacitance value ranges from 25 to 100 slight sacrifice in drift stability ( long range (high). The signal applied to it
pF. The higher values are typical at the term). should be kept as low as possible,
lower end of the frequency range. In Fig. A twin-T audio oscillator is shown at C consistent with low-noise operation. Most
66C is an overtone oscillator. The collec- in Fig. 67. It is avery stable type of circuit semiconductor manufacturers specify cer-
tor tuned circuit must be able to resonate which delivers a clean sine-wave output. tain transistors for mixer service. Al-
slightly above the crystal overtone fre- Mylar or polystyrene capacitors should be though this does not mean that other
quency in order to ensure oscillation. used for best stability. types of bipolar transistors can't be used
Low-impedance output can be had by A simple feedback circuit is effected by for mixing, it is wise to select adevice that

4-29 Chapter 4
is designed tee that class of service.
Fig. 68 contains examples of three basic
types of transistor mixers. At A is seen the
most common one. It is found in simple
circuits such as transistor a-m broadcast-
band receivers. As an aid to dynamic
range, the mixers of Fig. 68 can be used
without rf amplifier stages ahead of them
for frequencies up to and including 7
MHz: The noise in that range (ambient
from the antenna) will exceed that of the
mixer.
The primary limitation in the perfor-
mance of the mixer of Fig. 68A is that the
local-oscillator voltage is injected at the
base. This does not afford good
LO/input-signal isolation. The un-
favorable result can be oscillator " pull-
ing" with input load changes, and/or
radiation of the LO energy via the anten-
na if the front-end selectivity is marginal
or poor. The advantage of the circuit is
that it requires less injection voltage than
the one at B, where emitter injection is
used.
At Fig. 68B is the same basic mixer, but
with LO voltage applied to the emitter.
This technique requires slightly higher
levels of LO energy, but affords greater
LO isolation from the mixer input port.
A singly balanced bipolar-transistor
mixer is illustrated in Fig. 68 at C. RI is
adjusted to effect balance. This circuit
could be modified for emitter injection by
changing RI to 1000 ohms, replacing the
220-ohm resistors with 1-mH rf chokes,
and injecting the LO output at the junc-
tion of the two 0.01-µF capacitors. The
center tap of the input transformer (base
winding) would then be bypassed by
means of a0.01-µF capacitor.

Other Uses for Bipolar Transistors

It is possible to take advantage of the
junction characteristics of small-signal
transistors for applications which usually
employ diodes. One useful technique is
that of employing transistors as voltage-
variable capacitors (varactors). This
method is seen in Fig. 69. The collector-
Fig. 68 — Some typical bipolar-transistor mixers. Their characteristics are discussed in the text.
base junction of Q I and Q2 serve as
diodes for tuning the VFO. In this exam-
ple the emitters are left floating. A single
transistor could be used, but by connect-
ing the pair in a back-to-back arrange-
ment they never conduct during any part
of the rf cycle. This minimizes loading of
the oscillator. The junction capacitance is
varied by adjusting the tuning control,
RI. In this circuit the tuning range is ap-
proximately 70 kHz.
A bipolar-transistor junction can be
used as a Zener diode in the manner
shown in Fig. 70. Advantage is taken of
the reverse-breakdown characteristic of
Q1 to establish a fixed reference level.
Most transistors provide Zener-diode ac-
tion between 6 and 9 volts. The exact
value can be determined experimentally.
When the base and collector nf a
bipolar transistor are connected and afor- Fig. 69 — Bipolar transistors serve as varactor tuning diodes in this circuit ( 01 and 02).

Solid State Fundamentals 4-30

 Fig. 70 — A bipolar transistor will function as Fig. 71 — A peak clipper circuit using bipolar
aZener diode when connected as shown here. transistors connected in the superdiode con-
figuration.

Fig. 73 — An SCR and its discrete functional

near-equivalent.

finite dynamic impedance of the current

source causes the amplifier to exhibit very
high voltage gain. When the amplifier is
an npn transistor, the current source must
be apnp device, and vice-versa.

Thyristors
Two complementary bipolar transistors
connected as in Fig. 73 form the solid-
state analog of the latching relay — atrig-
ger pulse applied to the base of Q2 will ini-
tiate current flow in both devices. This
current is limited only by the external cir-
cuit resistance and continues independent
of the trigger signal until the main source
is interrupted. Four-layer semiconductors
(pnpn or npnp) having this property are
known as thyristors or silicon controlled
rectifiers (SCRs). SCRs find use in power
supply overvoltage protection circuits
Fig. 72 — Constant-current generators made with bipolar transistors. In A, the reference voltage (crowbars), electronic ignition systems,
established by the diodes is converted to a current by the emitter resistor. A two-transistor feed- alarms, solid-state commutating systems
back arrangement is employed at B. The functions of both circuits are explained in the text.
for dc motors and ahost of other applica-
tions. Two complementary SCRs
fabricated in parallel, with acommon gate
ward bias applied to the base-emitter so the emf applied to the 6241 resistor is a terminal, form atriac. These are used to
junction, asuperdiode results. If the col- constant 0.6 volt. A constant voltage switch alternating currents. The most
lector were left open, the base-emitter across aresistor forces aconstant current. common application of the triac is in in-
junction would behave like an ordinary This current flows in the emitter, and the candescent light dimmers. Triacs have
diode. With the collector tied to the base, high alpha causes the collector current to sensitive gates, and prolonging the trigger
the diode current rises much more rapidly be nearly the same. signal or injecting excessive gate current
with applied voltage because of the The circuit of Fig. 72B works in a can cause excessive heating. In circuits
amplification provided by the transistor similar manner. RI biases Q1 into conduc- operating on 117-volt ac, adiac is used to
action. Two cross-connected super-diodes tion. When the emf developed by R2 trigger a triac. A diac is a bidirectional
form the basis for ahighly effective peak reaches 0.6 volts, Q2 begins to conduct, current-limiting diode. Structurally, it can
clipper or hard limiter. Fig. 71 illustrates shunting base drive away from QI and be compared to atriac without agate. A
the application. Npn transistors are limiting its collector current. motor speed control illustrating the use of
shown, but pnp units will yield identical A device that passes an arbitrary cur- triacs and diacs is drawn in Fig. 74.
performance. rent independent of the applied voltage
presents an infinite dynamic impedance to Unijunction Transistors
Constant-Current Generators the driving signal. This feature makes the An unusual three-terminal semiconduc-
The curves in Figs. 51 to 53 show that constant-current generator valuable in tor device is the unijunction transistor
the collector current of a bipolar tran- several applications. One use for the cir- (UJT), sometimes called a double-base
sistor is essentially independent of the cuits of Fig. 72 is in the bias control circuit diode. The elements of aUJT are base 1,
collector-to-emitter potential when the of a differential amplifier. Either con- base 2 and emitter. The single rectifying
device is biased in its active region. Fig. figuration can be used to establish the junction is between the emitter and the
72A illustrates a constant-current source proper amplifier current while providing silicon substrate. The base terminals are
(or sink, if actual electron flow is con- the tightest possible coupling between the ohmic contacts, meaning that the current
sidered) using a pnp transistor. A fairly emitters of the differential pair. Another is alinear function of the applied voltage.
constant 1.2-volt potential drop is main- way to employ a constant-current circuit Current flowing between the bases sets up
tained across the diode string. The base- is to use it as an active load for the collec- avoltage gradient along the substrate. In
emitter junction introduces adiode drop, tor of atransistor amplifier stage. The in- operation, the direction of flow causes the

4-31 Chapter 4
 TOP
SOURCE GATE DRAIN

CHANNEL IN TYPE)

BOTTOM GATE

(A)

N - CHANNEL
DRAIN

GATE

Fig. 74 — Schematic diagram of motor- speed control. SOURCE

01 — Triac (silicon bidirectional thyristor), 8-A, DI — Diac (silicon bilateral trigger), 2-A,
200-V ( Motorola MAC24 or HEP340 or 300-m W. (B)
equiv.).
Fig. 76 — Profile and symbol for an n-channel
junction field-effect transistor. In a p-channel
device, all polarities are reversed and the gate
arrow points away from the substrate.

Fig. 75 — A relaxation oscillator based on a unijunction transistor. The frequency of oscillation is

approximately 1500 Hz.

emitter junction to be reverse biased. The bipolar transistor is that in the latter tne
relaxation oscillator circuit ( the most com- current flow is controlled by the current
mon UJT application) of Fig. 75 il- applied to the base electrode.
lustrates the function of the UJT. When There are two essential types of
the circuit is energized, the capacitor field-effect transistors ( FETs) in use
charges through the resistor until the emit- today. They are the junction FET and the
ter voltage overcomes the reverse bias. As MOSFET. The former is most commonly
soon as current flows in the emitter, the called a JFET. It has no insulation
resistance of the base 1region decreases between its elements, just as is the case
dramatically, discharging the capacitor. with bipolar transistors. The MOSFET Fig. 77 — Operation of a JFET under applied
has athin layer of oxide between the gate bias. A depletion region ( light shading) is
The decreased base 1resistance alters the
formed, compressing the channel and increas-
voltage distribution along the substrate, or gates and the drain-source junction. ing the resistance to current flow.
establishing anew bias point for the emit- The term MOSFET is derived from
ter junction. As more and more emitter metal-oxide silicon field-effect transistor.
current flows, the majority carrier injec- The basic characteristic of the two types
tion builds a space charge in the base 1 are similar — high input impedance and charges on the user's hands or by the
region, which causes the emitter current to good dynamic range. These characteristics application of excessive voltages. The
cease. Current is again available to charge apply to small-signal FETs. Power FETs, protective diodes are connected between
the capacitor and the cycle repeats. If the which will be treated later, have different the gate ( or gates) and the source of the
resistor were replaced by a constant- characteristics. Although some MOS- FET.
current source, the output waveform FETs have but one gate, others have two
The Junction FET
would be a linear ramp instead of a gates. Single-gate FETs can be equated
practically to a triode vacuum tube. The As was stated earlier, field-effect tran-
sawtooth. The UJT schematic symbol
gate represents the grid, the anode is sistors are divided into two main groups:
resembles that of an n-channel JFET —
similar to the drain, and the cathode is Junction FETs and MOSFETs. The basic
the angled emitter distinguishes the uni -
like the source. The input impedance of JFET is shown in Fig. 76.
junction transistor.
FETs is a megohm or greater. The noise The reason for the terminal names will
Field-Effect Transistors figure of an FET is quite low, making them become clear later. A dc operating condi-
Field-effect transistors are assigned that ideal as preamplifiers for audio and rf well tion is set up by starting a current flow
name because the current flow in them is into the uhf region. Nearly all of the between source and drain. This current
controlled by varying electric field which MOSFETs manufactured today have flow is made up of free electrons since the
is brought about through the application built-in gate-protective Zener diodes. semiconductor is n-type in the channel, so
of a voltage that controls the electrode Without this provision the gate insulation a positive voltage is applied at the drain.
known as the gate. The analogy for a can be perforated easily by small static This positive voltage attracts the negative-

Solid State Fundamentals 4-32

 field-effect transistors is the insulated-gate
FET, or MOSFET, which is pictured
schematically in Fig. 78. In order to set up
a dc operating condition, a positive
polarity is applied to the drain terminal.
The substrate is connected to the source,
and both are at ground potential, so the
channel electrons are attracted to the
positive drain. In order to regulate this
source-drain current, voltage is applied to
the gate contact. The gate is insulated
from the rest of the device by a layer of
very thin dielectric material, so this is not
a p-n junction between the gate and the
device — thus the name insulated gate.
When a negative gate polarity is applied,
positive-charged holes from the p-type
substrate are attracted toward the gate
and the conducting channel is made more
narrow; thus the source-drain current is
reduced. When a positive gate voltage is
connected, the holes in the substrate are
repelled, the conducting channel is made
larger, and the source-drain current is in-
creased. The MOSFET is more flexible
since either a positive or negative voltage
can be applied to the gate. The resistance
Fig. 78 — Profile and symbol for a MOSFET. between the gate and the rest of the device
is extremely high because they are
separated by a layer of thin dielectric.
Thus the MOSFET has an extremely high
input impedance. In fact, since the
ly charged free electrons and the current leakage through the insulating material is Fig. 79 — At A are typical JFET characteristic
flows ( Fig. 77). The next step is to apply a generally much smaller than through the curves. The picture at B shows an actual
gate voltage of the polarity shown in Fig. reverse-biased p-n gate junction in the oscillograph of the family of curves produced
by acurve tracer.
77. Note that this reverse-biases the gates JFET, the MOSFET has a much higher
with respect to the source, channel, and input impedance. Typical values of Rin for
dràin. This reverse-bias gate voltage the MOSFET are over a million
causes a depletion layer to be formed megohms. There are both single-gate and VGS • + 2 VOLTS

which takes up part of the channel, and dual-gate MOSFETs available. The latter
since the electrons now have less volume has a signal gate, gate 1, and a control
in which to move the resistance is greater gate, gate 2. The gates are effectively in VOS • + 1VOLT

and the current between source and drain series making it an easy matter to control
IDS
is reduced. If a large gate voltage is ap- the dynamic range of the device by vary- VGS • 0
plied the depletion regions meet, causing ing the bias on gate 2. Dual-gate
pinch off, and consequently the source- MOSFETs are widely used as agc-
drain current is reduced nearly to zero. controlled rf and i -famplifiers, as mixers VGS • - 1VOLT

Since the large source-drain current and product detectors, and as variable at- VGS • - 2 VOLTS

changes with a relatively small gate tenuators. The isolation between the gates
voltage, the device acts as an amplifier. In is relatively high in mixer service. This VD3

the operation of that JFET, the gate ter- reduces oscillator " pulling" and reduces
minal is never forward biased, because if oscillator radiation. The forward transad- Fig. 80 — Typical characteristic curves for a
it were the source-drain current would all mittance ( transconductance, or gm ) of MOSFET.
be diverted through the forward-biased dual-gate MOSFETs is as high as 40,000
gate junction diode. micromhos.
The resistance between the gate ter-
minal and the rest of the device is very FET Characteristics Typical general-purpose JFETs for small-
high, since the gate terminal is always The characteristic curves for the FETs signal rf and audio work have G, values
reverse biased, so the JFET has a very described above are shown in Figs. 79 and in the neighborhood of 5000 micromhos,
g. high input resistance. The source terminal 80. The drain-source current is plotted while some units designed for CATV ser-
% •
*4' is the source of current carriers, and they against drain-source voltage for given gate vice feature transconductance over 13,000
are drained out of the circuit at the drain. voltages. 43. As reported above, 40,00041 (40 m1J)
The gate opens and closes the amount of The dynamic characteristics of an FET is the transconductance figure for the
channel current which flows in the are most heavily influenced by dynamic "hottest" dual-gate MOSFETs. Some
pinch-off region. Thus the operation of an mutual conductance or transconductance. JFETs intended for analog switching also
FET closely resembles the operation of This parameter is defined as the ratio of have 40 ma or more of transconductance
the vacuum tube with its high grid-input drain current change to the small gate-to- to achieve low ON resistance. The newer
impedance. source voltage change that caused it. power FETs boast transconductance
Mathematically, the relationship is ex- figures on the order of one mho.
MOSFETs (Metal- Oxide Semiconductors) pressed: G, = AI D /AE G s, where à Transconduetance is of great impor-
The other large family which makes up represents a small change or increment. tance in calculating the gain and

4-33 Chapter 4
impedance values of FET circuits. In vices operate in the enhancement mode.
common-source and common-gate ampli- The current travels vertically. The source
fiers with no degeneration, the numerical is on top of the chip but the drain is on the
voltage gain is given by A, = G,R L, backside of the chip. In this verticaLstruc-
where A, is the gain, G, is the transcon- ture there are four layers of material
ductance in mhos (or siemens) and RL is (N + , P, N — and N + ). This device of-
the drain load resistance in ohms. Also, fers high current density, high source/
the source impedance of a common-gate drain breakdown capability and low
or common-drain (source follower) gate/drain feedback capacitance. These
amplifier is approximately 1/G m . features make the transistor ideal for hf
and vhf use.
Classifications Fig. 82 depicts the drain current as
Field-effect transistors are classed into being linearly proportional to the gate-to-
two main groupings for application in source voltage. The more conventional
circuits, enhancement mode and depletion JFET exhibits a square-law response
mode. The enhancement-mode devices are (drain current being proportional to the
those specifically constructed so that they square of the gate-to-source voltage).
have no channel. They become useful only As an example, the Siliconix VMP-4
when agate voltage is applied that causes power FET can provide apower just short
a channel to be formed. IGFETs (in- of 20 watts (saturated) at 160 MHz. Fig.
sulated gate FET) can be used as 83 shows curves for this device respective
enhancement-mode devices since both to saturated output power versus frequen-
polarities can be applied to the gate cy. In this case both the input and output
without the gate becoming forward biased impedances of the transistor are matched
and conducting. conjugately. An advantage to this device
A depletion-mode unit corresponds to over the power bipolar transistor is that
Figs. 76 and 77, shown earlier, where a these impedances are barely affected by
channel exists with no gate voltage ap- Fig. 81 — Profile and symbol for a power FET
the drive levels applied. In wideband
plied. For the JFET we can apply agate (VMOS enhancement-mode type). amplifier service the MOSPOWER FET
voltage and deplete the channel, causing can be operated with complete stability.
the current to decrease. With the In-depth data on these devices is given in
MOSFET we can apply agate voltage of the Siliconix application note, TA-76-1.
either polarity so the device can be
depleted (current decreased) or enhanced
24 1 I 1 GaAsFETs
_VDs=24V
(current increased). 8et,1% I For low-noise amplification at uhf and
2.0
To sum up, a depletion-mode FET is microwaves, the state of the art is defined
ID- DRAIN CURRENT ( AMPS)

DU/TY CYCLE
PULSE TEST
one which has achannel constructed; thus by field-effect transistors fabricated from
1.6
it has acurrent flow for zero gate voltage. gallium arsenide. Also used in LEDs and
Enhancement-mode FETs are those which microwave diodes, gallium arsenide is
1.2
have no channel, so no current flows with- semiconductor compound, as opposed to
zero gate voltage. 0.8
silicon and germanium, which are
elements. This compound exhibits greater
Power FETs 04
carrier mobility (the electrons can move
FETs capable of handling substantial more freely) than silicon or germanium,
amounts of power are available for use o hence the transit time is reduced and high-
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
from dc through the vhf spectrum. They frequency performance improved in GaAs
VOS -GATE- TO- SOURCE VOLTAGE ( VOLTS)
are known under more than one name — FETs. GaAs FETs are classified as
vertical FETs, MOSPOWER FETs and depletion-mode junction devices. The gatè..,
Fig. 82 — Curve showing relationship between
VMOS FETs. The power FET ( MOS- gate-source voltage and drain current of a is made of gold or aluminum, the latter
POWER TM FET) was introduced in 1976 power FET. type being susceptible to damage from
by Siliconix, Inc. The device enabled static charges.
designers to switch acurrent of 1ampere GaAs FETs are available for both
in less than four nanoseconds. The small-signal and power applications. The
transfer characteristic of the power FET is power devices have noise figures almost as
alinear one. It can be employed as alinear low as those specified for the small-signal
SATURATED OUTPUT POWER ( WATTS)

25

power amplifier or a low-noise, small- types, and naturally exhibit greater

signal amplifier with high dynamic range. dynamic range and ruggedness. Several
20
With this kind of FET there is no thermal semiconductor manufacturers throughout
runaway, as is the case with power types
VDD• 36V the free world offer gallium-arsenide
of bipolar transistors. Furthermore, there
15
field-effect transistors in various noise
is no secondary breakdown or minority-
carrier storage time. The latter makes 10
figure, frequency and power ratings. In
the U.S., Hewlett-Packard and Micro-
t
it
them excellent for use in switching VD0•24V wave Semiconductor Corp. feature units
amplifiers (Class D service). Of particular 5
usable up through Ku-band. Represen-
interest to amateurs is the immunity of tative type numbers are HFET-2201 and
power FETs to damage from ahigh SWR MSC H001, respectively. In Great Britain,
oo
(open or short condition). These devices 100 200 300 400 500 the Plessey GAT5 and GAT6 devices
can be operated in Class A, AB, B or C. FREOUENCY ( MHz) feature low-noise performance up to 14
Zero bias results in Class C operation. GHz. The Nippon Electric Company of
Fig. 81 illustrates the manner in which a Fig. 83 — Curves for 24- and 36-volt operation Japan is also competing strongly for
MOSPOWER FET is formed. These de- of a power FET. leadership in the GaAs FET market. \

Solid State Fundamentals 4-34

 practical GaAsFET preamplifier is
featured in the vhf/uhf receiving chapter.
For more background information on
GaAs FETs, see Wade, " Introduction to
GaAs Field-Effect Transistors," Ham
Radio, January 1978, and Wade and
Katz, " Low-Noise GaAs FET UHF Pre-
amplifiers," QST, June 1978.

Practical FET Circuits

Small-signal FETs can be used in the
same general types of circuits given earlier
for bipolar transistors. The primary
obstacle in some types of amplifier circuits
is instability. Certain precautions are
necessary to prevent unwanted self-
oscillations, but they do not differ
markedly frop those techniques applied
when working with triode tubes.
In Fig. 84 are examples of FET audio
amplifiers. The circuit at A shows asimple
RC coupled stage with again of 10 dB or
greater. The input and output impedances
are set by the gate and drain resistors. The
circuit at B in Fig. 84 is similar to that at
A, except that a dual-gate MOSFET is
used as the active device (Q1). A positive
bias is supplied to gate 2 by means of a
resistive divider. In the circuit of Fig. 84C,
apnp transistor is combined with a JFET
to provide adirect-coupled pair. This con-
figuration provides high gain. The
amount of gain is set by the ratio of RI
Fig. 84 — Some typical audio amplifiers which employ FETs. and R2. Again, the input and output im-

Fig. 85 — Examples of FET amplifiers suitable for rf or i

-fapplications.

4-35 Chapter 4
pedances are determined for the most part use FETs are capable of good dynamic on L2 and L3 to provide stability. This
by the values of the input and output range and will exhibit a low noise figure. represents an intentional mismatch, which
resistors, 1 megohm and 1000 ohms, It is for these reasons that many designers causes aslight sacrifice in stage gain. The
respectively. prefer them to bipolar transistors. Fig. 85 10-ohm drain resistor ( RI) is used only if
contains examples of FET rf or i -
f vhf parasitic oscillations occur.
RF and I-F Amplifiers
amplifiers. In the example at A the gate At B in Fig. 85 is seen a common-gate
Small-signal rf and i
-famplifiers which and drain elements of Q Iare tapped down FET amplifier. The source is tapped well

Fig. 86 — Various JFET mixers. See text for data.

Solid State Fundamentals 4-38

 dual-gate MOSFET single-ended mixer.
Its performance characteristics are similar
to those of the mixer at Fig. 86A. The
primary exception is that the port-to-port
isolation is somewhat better by virtue of
the gate no. 2 isolation from the re-
mainder of the electrodes. This mixer and
all other active FET mixers require afairly
low drain-load impedance in the interest
of good IMD. If the drain tuned circuit is
made high in terms of impedance (in an
effort to improve conversion gain) the
drain-source peak signal swing will be
high. This will lead to achange in junction
capacitance (varactor effect) and the
generation of harmonic currents. The
Fig. 87 — A dual-gate MOSFET single-ended mixer. result is distortion. Of primary
significance is the condition called " drain-
load distortion." This malady occurs
when excessive signal levels overload the
drain circuit. The result is degraded IMD
down on the input tuned circuit to effect balanced and doubly balanced. In all and cross-modulation effects. RI in Fig.
an impedance match. This circuit is cases there is an advantage to using active 87 is used to decrease the drain-load im-
characterized by its excellent stability, devices in place of passive ones (diodes). pedance by means of swamping. A value
provided the gate lead is returned to This assures a conversion gain which to 10,000 ohms is suitable for a 40673
ground by the shortest path possible. This helps minimize the number of gain stages MOSFET mixer. Some JFETs require a
type of circuit will have slightly less gain required in agiven circuit. lower drain load for optimum perfor-
capability than the common-source exam- A single-ended JFET mixer requires 0 mance. Values as low as 5000 ohms are
ple at A. dbm of LO injection power. It can pro- not unusual. This form of overloading is
In Fig. 85 at C is an illustration of a vide several decades of bandwidth and has more pronounced at low dc drain-voltage
dual-gate MOSFET amplifier. Provided a good IMD characteristic. The latter is levels, such as 6or 8.
the input and output tuned circuits are far superior to most bipolar single-ended
mixers. The major shortcoming is very FET Crystal Oscillators
well isolated from one another there is less
chance for self-oscillation than with a poor isolation between the three mixer A group of crystal-controlled FET
JFET. A positive bias is applied to gate 2, ports ( rf, LO and i -f). A typical single- oscillators is presented in Figs. 88 and 89.
but age voltage can be used in place of a ended mixer using a JFET is seen in Fig. At Fig. 88A is an overtone type. The
fixed-value voltage if desired. This circuit 86A. Optimum tradeoff between coner- tuned circuit in the drain is resonated
can provide up to 25 dB of gain. sion gain and IMD occurs near the point slightly higher than the crystal frequency
Fig. 85D shows the configuration of a where the self- bias is 0.8 V. LO injection to assure reliable oscillation. The circuit at
cascode rf amplifier in which adual JFET voltage will be on the order of 1 ( pk-pk) to B is avariation of the one at A, but per-
(siliconix U257) is specified. The advan- provide good mixer performance. Con- forms the same function. A Pierce type of
tage in using the dual FET is that both version gain with this mixer will be ap- triode oscillator is shown in Fig. 89 at A.
transistors have nearly identical charac- proximately 10 dB. It is suitable for use with fundamental
teristics, owing to the fact that they are Fig. 86B illustrates a singly balanced types of crystals. A Colpitts oscillator ap-
fabricated on a common substrate. Two JFET mixer. A broadband transformer pears at B in Fig. 89. Cfb in these circuits
separate JFETs can be used in this circuit (T1) provides alow-impedance source for are feedback capacitors. Cfb in the circuit
if the one nearest to VDD has an iDs s the LO and supplies injection voltage in at C is chosen experimentally. Typically, it
higher than its mate. This ensures proper push-pull to the gates of Q1 and Q2. The will be from 100 to 500 pF, depending on
dc bias for cascode operation. Unmatched latter should be matched FETs or adual the transistor characteristics and the
FETs require special forward-biasing FET such as the U430 by Siliconix. This crystal activity.
techniques and ac-coupling measures that mixer provides between 10 and 20 dB of
aren't seen in this circuit. isolation between the mixer ports. The FET VFOs
Cascode amplifiers are noted for their signal is applied in parallel across the The principle of operation for FET
high gain, good stability, and low noise sources of Q1 and Q2 by means of broad- VFOs is similar to that which was dis-
figure. With the circuit shown the noise band transformer T2. Output at the i -fis cussed in the section on bipolar transistor
figure at 28 MHz is approximately 1.5 dB. taken from abalanced tuned circuit. oscillators. The notable difference is the
Short leads are necessary, and shielding A doubly balanced FET mixer is shown impedance level at the device input. The
between the tuned circuits is recom- at C in Fig. 86. Broadband transformers circuits of Fig. 90 all have high-impedance
mended in the interest of stability. Careful are used throughout, with FL1 and FL2 gate terminals. Furthermore, fewer parts
layout will permit the use of toroidal providing low-pass selectivity at the mixer are needed than is true of bipolar tran-
inductors at L2 and L3. These com- output. The filters also provide an im- sistor equivalent circuits: There is no
ponents should be spaced apart and pedance stepdown between the drains of resistive divider for applying forward
mounted at right angles to one another in Q1 and T4 ( 1700 ohms to 100 ohms). LO bias.
order to reduce unwanted infringing injection is supplied to the gates and The circuits of Fig. 90A and Bare iden-
magnetic fields. Age can be applied to this signal input is to the sources. Port-to-port tical except for the biasing of gate 2at B.
amplifier by routing the control voltage to isolation with this mixer is on the order of Both circuits illustrate oscillators. The
the gate of Q IB. 30 dB or greater. Bandwidth is one oc- source tap on LI should be selected to
tave. In-depth information on this type of provide approximately 25 percent of the
FET Mixers circuit is given in the Siliconix application oscillator power as feedback. DI in each
There are three types of FET mixers in note AN-73-4. example is used to stabilize the gate bias.
common use today — single-ended, singly Fig. 87 contains the circuit of atypical It acts as adiode clamp on positive-going

4-37 Chapter 4
 VFO
01
MPF102

V FO
33k 100k

Fig. 88 — Overtone crystal oscillators using

FETs.

V FO
01
MPF102

270

(C)

Fig. 90 — Three examples of VFOs in which FETs are used.

excursions of the signal. This aids Colpitts VFO which uses a JFET. This is
oscillator stability and reduces the har- an exceptionally stable VFO if careful
monic output of the stage. The latter is design and component choice is applied.
reduced as aresult of the positive swing of All of the fixed-value capacitors in the rf
the sine- wave being limited by DI, which parts of the circuit should be temperature-
in turn limits the device transconductance stable. Polystyrene capacitors are recom-
on peaks. This action reduces changes in mended, but dipped silver- mica capacitors
junction capacitance, thereby greatly will serve adequately as a second choice.
restricting the varactor action which Preferably, LI should be a rigid air-
generates harmonic currents. Dl is most wound inductor. A slug-tuned inductor
effective when source- bias resistors are in- can be used if the coil Q is high. In such
Fig. 89 — Fundamental-mode FET crystal cluded in the circuit ( R1). cases the slug should occupy the least
oscillators. Shown in Fig. 90 at C is a series-tuned amount of coil space possible: Tempera-

Solid State Fundamentals 4-38

 turc changes have amarked effect on fer-
rite or powdered- iron slugs, which can
1000
+28V
change the coil inductance markedly. Cfb
02
of Fig. 90C are on the order of 1000 pF
VN 6 6AF each for 3.5- MHz operation. They are
proportionally lower in capacitance as the
SPKR
0.1 operating frequency is increased, such as
AF 680 pF at 7 MHz, and so on.
IN

Power FET Examples

Fig. 91 contains examples of three
amplifiers which employ power FETs.
The circuit at A is an audio amplifier
*HEAT SINK 1000 f • 100 Hz TO 151tHz which can deliver 4 watts of output. At 3
Po watts of output the distortion is approxi-
AF POWER AMPLIFIER mately two percent. Feedback is employed
(A) to aid the reduction of distortion.
1.8 - 30 MHz
A Class C amplifier is seen at B in Fig.
91. The VN67AJ is capable of asaturated
output near 15 watts at 30 MHz. In this
circuit the power output is considerably
less. A medium output power of 7 to 10
watts is suggested. The gain is approxi-
OUTPUT ( IOW)
51 mately 8 dB over the frequency range
„
specified ( with the appropriate drain
EFE = 85%
0.1 tank). If proper layout techniques are
used this amplifier is unconditionally
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF stable.
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS IyF 1 ; RFC A broadband hf linear amplifier is
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS IpF OR yyFr,
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
GAIN•>8013
shown at C.
*HEAT SINK
k• I000, 1.4•1000 000. CLASS C AMP A narrow- band linear vhf power ampli-
([3) +28 V fier is shown at D in Fig. 91. Power output
is 5 watts PEP. IMD is — 30 dB. It is in-
270 01
teresting to realize that this same amplifier
is suitable as a high-dynamic-range
1.8-30 MHz preamplifier for avhf receiver. In this ap-
+ 4v VMP4
plication the noise figure is on the order of
REG
2.5 dB and the gain is 11 dB.
INPUT 0
(0.27 W1 )101
OUTPUT
Other FET Uses
(3.7W)
Fig. 92 contains illustrations of addi-
10 K
tional practical uses for JFETs. The cir-
WHEAT SINK
GAIN pi14 48
cuit at A shows a Schmitt trigger. It is
0.001
emitter-coupled and provides a com-
parator function. Q1 places very light
loading on the measured input voltage.
20V
Q2 has high beta to enable the circuit to
W 10/2W
+28 V have a fast transition action and adistinct
hysteresis loop. Additional applications of
BROADBAND HF AMP this type are found in Linear Applications
(C) by National Semiconductor Corp.
A simple FET dc voltmeter with high
01 input impedance is seen in Fig. 92B.
VMP4 145 MHz
40 Multiplier resistances are given for a full-
SIG
OUT scale range of 2 or 20 volts. Meter ac-
curacy is quite good, with alinear reading
SIG. IN
10.4W) provided by MI.
A push- push frequency doubler is
shown at C in Fig. 92. The input frequen-
cy ( f) is applied to the gates of Q1 and Q2
in push-pull. Output from the doubler is
GAIN .02 de
IMO. - 30dEl
taken with the connected drains in paral-
lel. RI is adjusted for best waveform puri-
*HEAT SINK ty at 2f. The efficiency of this Class C
doubler is on par with that of a straight-
through Class C amplifier. Careful adjust-
+28V ment will nearly eliminate frequency com-
200 mA

NARROW- BAND VHF AMPLIFIER ponent fat the doubler output.

(D)
Linear Integrated Circuits
Fig. 91 — Examples of power FETs in three amplifier circuits. There are two general types of ICs

4-39 Chapter 4
 Fig. 93 — Pictorial and schematic representa-
tion of a simple IC.

mental conditions. This provides an inher-

ent balance in their performance traits —
acondition which is nearly impossible to
realize with closely matched discrete tran-
sistors. Therefore, when changes in IC
temperature take place, the parameters of
the transistors on the chip change in uni-
son — adistinct advantage when the IC is
used in, say, abalanced modulator, mixer
or push-push doubler.
Most of the theory given earlier for bi-
polar transistors applies to ICs, so it will
not be repeated here. Rather, the text will
provide data on practical applications of
ICs. Linear ICs are so-called because in
most applications where they are used the
performance mode is a linear one. This
does not mean, however, that they can't
be used in anonlinear mode, such as Class
C. The biasing will determine the opera-
ting mode, Class A through and includ-
ing Class C.

IC Structures
The basic IC is formed on a uniform
chip of n-type or p-type silicon. Impurities
are introduced into the chip, their depth
into it being determined by the diffusion
temperature and time. The geometry of
the plane surface of the chip is determined
by masking off certain areas, applying
photochemical techniques, and providing
Fig. 92 — JFETs are useful in additional kinds of circuits. Here are three such examples. a coating of insulating oxide. Certain
areas of the oxide coating are then opened
up to allow the formation of interconnect-
ing leads between sections of the IC.
When capacitors are formed on the chip,
(integrated circuits). The first variety, formed on the substrate are diodes, capa- the oxide serves as the dielectric material.
which we are addressing at the moment, citances and resistances. Some ICs con- Fig. 93 shows a representative three-
are called linear ICs. The other group are tain only diodes. Others may contain only component IC in both pictorial and sche-
known generally as logic ICs. These resistors. The principal advantages of ICs matic form. Most integrated circuits are
devices will be discussed later in the are their compactness over an equivalent housed in TO-5type cases, or in flat- pack
chapter. number of discrete transistors, and the epoxy blocks. ICs may have as many as 12
ICs are characterized by the term fact that all of the devices on the substrate or more leads which connect to the
"microcircuit." In essence they are com- are evenly matched in characteristics. various elements on the chip.
posed of numerous — sometimes hun- That is the result of the manufacturing Some of the present-day ICs are called
dreds — of bipolar and /or field-effect tran- process, whereby all of the IC transistors LS! chips. The term LSI means large-scale
sistors on asingle silicon chip (substrate). are formed from asingle slice of semicon- integration. Such devices may contain the
Along with the individual transistors ductor material under the same environ - equivalent of several conventional ICs,

c...•lameartfaila A_An
 14 2
o o CI;

560

12V

12 INPUT
001
A
56
22M

7 3 4 9

RCA 3600E COS / MOS ARRAY CASCADE 100— dB AF AMPLIFIER

(B)
(GOOD TO 5 MHz)
(A)

Fig. 94 — The diagram at A shows the internal workings of a CMOS IC. A 100-dB audio amplifier which employs the CA3600E is shown at B.

fig. 95e Various transistor and diode-array ICs. The configurations suggest a variety of amateur applications.

4,41 e-Chapter
" 4
and can have dozens of dual- in- line
200
package (DIP) connector pins. LSI ICs
are used in electronic organs, digital
60
clocks, electronic calculators, and so on.
Essentially, they are just super-size ICs. H1-0
16H 10 7
MHz
Some Practical Considerations ,L---0-
0-("T" •

In circuits where slight extra lead 5

lengths can be tolerated, it is prudent to 5600

install the ICs in sockets rather than 4 e
4 9
solder them into the pc board directly. In .07MHz
0 001
10 7 1pF
i- F 0-1( 6
amateur work there is an occasional need INPUT 3 CA3089E OAF OUT
2 0 001
to replace an IC during circuit de-
2
156 5
)
11 13
velopment for a typical one-shot design. 0 1 5
This is particularly pertinent when bargain- •
house ICs are purchased: Many have de- 470
00 0.336F
fects, and the task of removing an IC that 10k

is not in asocket is atask that no builder

0 001
00,
finds delightful.
When using ICs for rf work it is best to 33 T 00 50k

install them in a low-profile type of IC o

+12V ) SQUELCH

socket (minimum lead length type). The

0-1006A
thicker sockets are suitable for dc and SIGNAL LEVEL
audio applications, where lead length is
(A)
not likely to be acritical factor. Excessive
lead length can cause instability. This is
brought on by having numerous high-gain Fig. 96 — Example of asubsystem IC used as the heart of a narrow-band fm receiver.
devices packaged physically close to one
another on the common substrate: High
gain and stray lead coupling set the stage
for self-oscillation! by virtue of having each of the transistors compact portable amateur receivers
independent from one another. Each tran- should find these devices especially in-
CMOS ICs sistor base, emitter and collector is teresting.
The term CMOS means that the IC is a brought out of the IC package by means
complimentary metal-oxide silicon type of of its own single pin. This enables the Practical Examples
integrated circuit. Essentially, the internal designer to treat each transistor as a The main disadvantage in the use of IC
workings of the device are not unlike discrete device, with the advantage that symbols in circuit diagrams is that the in-
those of MOSFETs, the latter of which each transistor has nearly identical elec- ternal workings are not shown. This
were treated earlier in this chapter: trical characteristics (f
T ,beta, dissipation makes the designer work with acollection
MOSFETS are formed on the CMOS IC rating, etc.). Some array ICs have f-r of " magic boxes." Fortunately, IC
substrates. ratings as high as 1200 MHz, with maxi- manufacturers publish data books which
CMOS devices consume very low power mum collector dissipation ratings as high show the block symbols and pin ar-
— an advantage in battery-operated as Iwatt. Schematic illustrations of some rangements versus the schematic diagrams
equipment, especially. The transit time popular RCA array ICs are seen in Fig. of the active devices on the chips. This
(propagation delay) through the FET 95.
gates of aCMOS IC is very short — ideal
in logic circuits. It ranges from 25 to 50 ns Subsystem Is
in most devices. This does not imply that A branch of the linear- IC family tree is
CMOS ICs aren't useful in linear applica- the subsystem IC. It is a conventional-
tions: Some are designed primarily for the package integrated circuit, but contains
linear amplification of audio and rf nearly as much circuitry as an LSI chip.
energy (CA3600E, for one). Another sali- Some of these devices represent the entire
ent feature of CMOS chips is low noise. active-device circuitry for an fm or a-m
Because FETs are used in these ICs the in- radio receiver. The designer needs only to
put impedance is high, making them more add essential outboard components
suitable than bipolar ICs for interfacing (front-end tuned circuits, i-
f
with comparable impedance levels outside transformers, tuning meter, and audio
the IC package. Fig. 94 shows the diagram power amplifier) to realize a composite RCA CA3028
of a CA3600E CMOS IC along with a piece of equipment. Other subsystem ICs DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

block-symbol circuit for its use as ahigh- may contain only the i -famplifiers, pro- (A)

gain audio amplifier. duct detectors, agc loops, and audio pre-
amplifiers. This style of IC is sold by such
Array ICs manufacturers as RCA, National
One branch of the linear-IC family is Semiconductor and Plessey. Fig. 96 il-
known as the IC array group. A short lustrates an example of this kind of device
course on these and other linear ICs was — the RCA CA3089E which is designed
given by DeMaw in QST for January expressly for use in wide- or narrow-band
through March 1977. Basically, the IC ar- fm receivers. It features a quadrature
(B)
ray is asubstrate which contains anumber detector, and contains amplifiers,
of individual diodes or npn bipolar tran- limiters, squelch circuit, metering circuit Fig. 97 — Schematic and block examples o' an
sistors. They differ from conventional ICs and an af amplifier. Those interested in RCA CA3028A IC.

Snliri St:lip Fundamentals 4-42

 Fig. 98 — RI and i-famplifiers using the CA3028A IC. The example at A is balanced for ac and dc, Fig. 99 — Circuit examples for Motorola IC i
-f
whereas the circuit at 8 is balanced only for dc conditions, amplifiers.

permits the amateur to understand what approximately 40 dB. Pin 2of Ul is left mixer is illustrated at B in Fig. 100. The
/he circuit configuration is before the floating, but is used for LO injection MC1496G contains two differential tran-
design work is started. It is beyond prac- when the CA3028A is employed as amixer sistor pairs to permit the doubly balanced
ticality to include the schematic diagrams or product detector. A Motorola configuration. This circuit does not exact-
of the 1Cs used in this book, but we will MC1550G is similar to the RC shown in ly follow the suggested one by Motorola.
show /be circuit of the RCA CA3028A, Fig. 98. A MC1590G is amore suitable IC It has been optimized for use as a trans-
becaut't it is used frequently in the follow- for i
-f amplification when greater mitting mixer by W7Z01 and KL71AK
ing section. Fig. 97 contains the block and amounts of stage gain or agc control are (So/id State Design for the Radio
schematic representation of this IC. desired. Amateur, 1st edition, page 204). There are
An example of an MC1590G amplifier numerous other ICs which can be used as
RF and 1-F Amplifiers is given in Fig. 99A. It is shown with agc mixers. Examples of many practical cir-
Nearly every manufacturer of ICs pro- applied to pin 2. The lower the agc voltage cuits are given in the ARRL book just
duces chips that are suitable for use as the higher the stage gain. This is the op- referenced.
rf/i-f amplifiers, mixers, detectors, posite cotidition from that of the The circuit arrangements for product
oscillators and audio amplifiers. The cir- CA3028A of Fig. 98, where the gain in- detectors and balanced modulators are
cuits of Fig. 98 are examples of CA3028A creases with elevated agc voltage. The similar to those shown in Fig. 100. They
rf or i-
famplifiers to which agc is applied. MC1350P of Fig. 99B is the low-cost ver- will not be described in this text, because
Maximum gain occurs when the agc volt- sion of the MC1590G. It is shown with the primary difference between them and
age ( IC forward bias) is at its highest manual control of the gain ( R1), but agc a regular mixer lies in the frequencies of
potential. The IC is nearly cut off when voltage can be applied instead. the signals mixed (af versus rf) and the fre-
the agc level drops below 2volts. The cir- quency of the resulting output energy.
cuit of Fig. 98A functions as adifferential IC Mixers
amplifier, as does the one at B. The basic Examples of IC active mixers are given IC Audio Amplers
difference is that dc and ac balance are in Fig. 100. At A is seen asingly balanced Practically every IC manufacturer of-
featured at A, whereas only dc balance is mixer formed by the differential transistor fers aline of audio ICs. Some are for use
effected at B. The gain of either stage is pair in a CA3028A. A doubly balanced as low-noise preamplifiers and others are

4-43 Chapter 4
 capable of delivering up to afew watts of
BALANCED
output to a loudspeaker. Most of the MIXER
audio-power ICs are designed for looking
directly into an 8- or 16-ohm load without
the need for a matching transformer. SIG INPUT
Because these circuits are relatively mun-
dane in nature they shall not be offered — C) I F OUTPUT

here as illustrative examples. Practical ap-

plications for audio ICs can be found in
the construction projects elsewhere in this
volume. Manufacturer's data sheets also
provide definitive information on the use
of these devices.

Operational Amplifiers
2200 0 001
560
An operational amplifier (op amp) is a
high-gain, direct-coupled differential LO
INPUT
amplifier whose characteristics are chiefly (1 5V pk—pk)
+I 2V

determined by components external to the

amplifier unit. Op amps can be assembled (A)
from discrete transistors, but better ther-
mal stability results from fabricating the
circuit on asingle silicon chip. Integrated
circuit op amps are manufactured with DOUBLY
bipolar, JFET and MOSFET devices, 0.1 BALANCED
MIXER
either exclusively or in combination. SIG. INPUT° )i

A design based on discrete components 1000

220
is shown in Fig. 101. Circuits of this vari- --/VV\e—
ety were in common use before the advent 10

of inexpensive IC- fabrication technology. / -/ -+0 I F OUTPUT

220 U1
The input stage consists of a differential MC1496G
pair biased by aconstant current source.
The terminal marked " — " is the inverting 01 6
input and the one marked " + " is the
rT
- 7
noninverting input. The next stage, the 1200 •
820
pnp transistor, provides most of the o

T°1
voltage gain. High gain is realized through
1000 56 01
the use of a constant current source for —«/V\—•
/

the pnp collector load. The frequency

response is determined by the collector-to- 3300 56
+12V
base capacitance of the pnp stage. This
capacitance is fixed internally in some IC LO
INPUT
op amps and connected externally to (1V plc— pit)
others. A pair of emitter followers in a
complementary symmetry arrangement (B)
forms the output buffer. A more com-
prehensive discussion of operational Fig. 100 — Two types of ICs are shown as mixers. The one at A is a singly balanced mixer.
amplifiers is given by Woodward in " A
Beginner's Look at Op Amps," April and
June 1980 QST.
The most common application for op
amps is in negative feedback circuits
operating from dc to perhaps a few hun-
dred kHz. Provided the device has suffi-
cient open-loop gain, the amplifier
transfer function is determined almost
solely by the external feedback network.
The differential inputs allow for both in-
verting and noninverting circuits. Fig. 102
shows these configurations and gives their
transfer equations. RL does not appear in
the equations, implying that the output
impedance is zero. This condition results
from the application of heavy negative
feedback. Most IC op amps have built-in
current limiting. This feature protects the
IC from damage caused by short circuits.
but also limits the values of load resistance
for which the output impedance is zero.
Fig. 101 — An operational amplifier assembled from discrete components. IC op amps contain
Most op amps work best with load re- more transistors (for current limiting and other peripheral functions), but the circuit topology is
sistances of at least 2kit. similar to that shown here.
Fig. 102 — The standard negative-feedback op-amp circuits with their transfer equations. At A is a noninverting amplifier, at B, an inverting amplifier.
and adifferential amplifier is shown at C.

Since the op amp magnifies the dif- is just R,. Negative feedback applied to tion control system. An example of asum-
ference between the voltages applied to its the noninverting configuration causes the ming amplifier is given in Fig. 103. The
inputs, applying negative feedback has the input impedance to approach infinity. circuit shown allows the operator to
effect of equalizing the input voltages. In The virtual ground at the inverting in- monitor the outputs of several receivers
the inverting amplifier configuration the put terminal of an inverting operational with one loudspeaker. The 3.9-11 resistors
feedback action combined with Kirch- amplifier circuit allows several currents to simulate the loudspeaker in each receiver.
hoff's current law establishes a zero im- be summed without interaction. This prin- An inverter follows the summing ampli-
pedance, or virtual ground at the junction ciple can be used to advantage by the fier to restore the antivox signal to the
of Rf and R. The circuit input impedance amateur wishing to simplify his or her sta- proper phase. Fig. 104 shows another ap-

1000yF
16 V
POLICE/ FIRE AUDIO OUTPUT

SCANNER

0.22 10k 4.7k

I (— A AA,-
0.22 10k
VHF/ UHF AUDIO OUTPUT
10k
FM TRANSCEIVER
0.22
0.22 10k

0.22
10
HF SS8 AUDIO OUTPUT
COMBINER 16 V
TRANSCEIVER 39

ANTI- VOX Ul LF 353N PHASE INVERTER

INPUT U2: LM383
MASTER VOLUME

CONTROL

Fig. 103 — An amateur application for a summing amplifier — an audio combiner.

4-45 Chapter 4
plication for asumming amplifiel, aDiA
converter. An FET-input operational
amplifier can operate with the high-value
resistors required by CMOS digital ICs
while maintaining low offset and drift errors.
ICs intended for op-amp service can
also be used in open- loop or positive feed-
back applications. Connecting one input
to afixed reference voltage as in Fig. 105A
forms a comparator. The open- loop gain
of the IC is so high that it acts more like a
switch than an amplifier. When the
voltage applied to the free input terminal
is less than the reference voltage, the IC
output stays near one of the power rails.
Fig. 104 — BCD D/A converter suitable for connection to a B-series CMOS driving source.
If the input voltage exceeds the reference,
the output swings to the opposite rail. A
comparator with positive feedback, or
hysteresis, is called a Schmitt trigger. A
Schmitt trigger is illustrated in Fig. 105B.
The potential on the noninverting input
terminal depends on the output state as
well as the reference voltage.

The Norton Amplifier

An unusual type of op amp is the Nor-
ton, named for the network theorem on
which its operation is based. Fig. 106
shows a simplified diagram of the input
stage of a Norton amplifier. The non-
inverting input makes use of Dl and Q Iin
a current mirror configuration. When in-
put current is applied to Q I, it steals base
drive from Q2, the inverting input. This Fig. 105 — (A) Differential voltage comparator. Either inverting or noninverting circuits may be
amplifier must have input current to used. ( B) Schmitt trigger. The constants shown here are suitable for connecting + 5-V TTL to
operate, hence it is not a high- impedance ± 7-V CMOS logic.

device. In the inverting-amplifier con-

figuration the numerical voltage gain is usefulness of Norton amplifiers is in
Rí/R, but the noninverting input terminal single-supply applications where the dc
must be returned to the positive supply level of the signal is very near ground. The
through aresistance of 2R fto equalize the ssb chapter of this Handbook features a
input currents. Any attempt to use this VOX circuit using the LM3900 Norton op
type of IC as avoltage follower is doomed amp.
to failure — the input stage will be
destroyed by excessive current. The chief Op Amps as Audio Filters
One of the more common uses to which
op amps are put can be seen in the RC
active audio-filter field, Op amps have the
distinct advantage of providing gain and
0+12V variable parameters when used as audio
filters. Passive filters which contain L and
C elements are generally committed to
some fixed-value frequency, and they
exhibit an insertion loss. Finally, op amps
contribute to the attainment of minia-
turization which is seldom possible while
employing bulky inductors in a passive
POWER
AMPLIFIER type of audio filter.
Although RC active filters can be built
470pF with bipolar transistors, the modern
4
16V approach is to utilize operational ampli-
1.12
fiers ( op amps). The use of an op-amp IC,
220 I I
0.22 such as a type 741, results in a compact
filter pole which will provide stable
/71 411.
470pF operation. Only five connections are made
/
-7-7
2
16V to the IC, and the gain of the filter section,
* HEAT SINK
plus the frequency characteristic, is de-
termined by the choice of components
Fig. 106 — (A) Input circuit of a Norton opera-
external to the IC. tional amplifier. ( B) Norton op amp connected
Although there are numerous ap- as an inverting amplifier. Note the special sym-
plications for RC active filters, the bol used to denote a Norton IC.

øi.i Can.4.• r...riarnantialik A-LA

 RC ACTIVE
Cl BANDPASS FILTER

1 — Select value for CI, C2

CI = C2
2 — Select Q Fig. 108 — A design example based on the circuit of Fig. 107.
3 — Select A„
4 — Choose f o
then

RI = Q
A, w.C1

R2
(2Q 2 — Av)to 0C1
2Q
R3
co oC1
V„.
R4 = R5 for VREF =
2
R4, R5 2.1 .
02 X R3

Fig. 107 — Basic circuit for an RC active band-

pass filter. One pole is shown along with the
fundamental equations for finding the
resistance values needed.

Fig. 109 — Open- loop gain and closed-loop gain as a function of frequency. The vertical distance
principal use in amateur work is that of between the curves is the feedback or gain margin.

establishing selectivity at audio frequen-

cies. One or two poles may be used as a
band-pass or low-pass section for im-
proving the passband characteristics dur-
ing ssb or a-m reception. Up to four filter Disc-ceramic capacitors are not recom- reception the operator may prefer
poles are frequently employed to acquire mended. R4 and R5 are equal in value and something much lower — 200 to 700 Hz.
selectivity for cw or RTTY reception. The are used to establish the op-amp reference An A, (gain) of 1 ( unity) and aQ of 5are
greater the number of poles, up to a voltage. This is Vcc /2. stated. Both the gain and Q can be in-
practical limit, the sharper the skirt Cl and C2 should be standard values of creased for a single-section filter if
response of the filter. Not only does a capacitance. The filter design is less com- desired, but for a multisection RC active
well-designed RC filter help to reduce plicated when Cl and C2 serve as the filter it is best to restrict the gain to 1or 2
QRM, it improves the signal-to-noise starting point for the equations. Other- and use amaximum Q of 5. This will help
ratio in some receiving systems. wise some awkward values for Cl and C2 prevent unwanted filter " ringing" and
Considerable design data is found in the might result. The resistance values can be audio instability.
National Semiconductor Corp. applica- "fudged" to the nearest standard value Cl and C2 are 680-pF polystyrene
tion note AN72-15 in which a thorough after the equations have been worked. capacitors. Other standard values can be
treatment of Norton amplifiers is given, The important consideration is that used from, say, 500 to 2000 pF. The
centering on the LM3900 current-dif- matched values must be used when more limiting factor will be the resultant resistor
ferencing type of op-amp. Design infor- than one filter pole is employed. For most values. For certain design parameters and
mation is given for high-, low-, and band- amateur work it will be satisfactory to use Cl - C2 values, unwieldy resistance values
pass types of RC active audio filters. The five percent, 1/2-watt composition may result from the equations. If this hap-
simplified design data presented here is resistors. If the resistor and capacitor pens, select anew value for Cl and C2.
based on the technique used in AN72-I5. values are not held reasonably tight in The resistance values assigned to RI
Fig. 107 shows asingle band-pass-filter tolerance for amultipole filter, the f o for through R5, inclusive, are the nearest
pole and gives the equations for obtaining each pole may be different, however standard values to those obtained from
the desired values for the resistors once slight. The result is a wide nose for the the equations. The principal effect from
the gain, Q, fo and CI-C2 capacitor values response, or even some objectionable this is aslight alteration of f o and A.

are chosen. Cl and C2 are equal in value passband ripple. In apractical application the RC active
and should be high-Q, temperature-stable Fig. 108 illustrates the design of a filter should be inserted in the low-level
,components. Polystyrene capacitors are single-pole band-pass filter. An arbitrary audio stages. This will prevent over-
excéllcut for use in this part of the circuit. f0 of 900 Hz has been specified, but for cw loading the filter during the reception of

4-47 Chapter 4
strong signals. The receiver af gain control order. from any other device, but the practical ap
should be used between the audio Offset voltage is the potential between the plications are the same.
preamplifier and the input of the RC ac- amplifier input terminals in the closed-loop The small-signal bandwidth of an op amp
tive filter for best results. If audio-derived condition. Ideally, this voltage would be zero. is the frequency range over which the open-
agc is used in the receiver, the RC active Offset results from imbalance between the loop voltage gain is at least unity. This
filter will give best performance when it is differential input transistors. Values range specification depends mostly on the frequen-
contained within the agc loop. Informa- from millivolts in ordinary consumer-grade cy compensation scheme (for example, the
tion on other types of active filters is given devices to only nanovolts in premium Mil- capacitor in Fig. 101). Fig. 109 shows how the
by Bloom in July 1980 QST. spec units. The temperature coefficient of maximum closed-loop gain varies with fre-
offset voltage with respect to time is drift. quency. The power bandwidth of an opera-
Important Op Amp Specifications
A few microvolts per degree Celsius (at tional amplifier is afunction of slew rate, and
Construction projects in the amateur the input) is atypical drift specification. is always less than the small-signal value. Slew
literature call for the 709 and 741 more There are two types of noise associated rate is ameasurement of output voltage swing
than any other type of operational ampli- with operational amplifiers. Burst, or pop- per unit time. Values from 0.8 to 13 volts per
fier, not because these devices are ideal corn noise is alow-frequency pulsing, usually microsecond are typical of modern devices.
for every application, but because until below 10 Hz. The amplitude of this noise is The hobbyist should maintain asupply
recently, they were the only ones com- approximately an inverse function of of inexpensive 741 and 301 op amps for
monly available to the electronics hob- temperature. The other noise is sometimes breadboarding, but should also be
byist. Questions of drift, offset, bandwidth, called flicker, and is awideband signal whose prepared to use improved devices in the
slew rate and noise were academic; the only amplitude varies inversely with frequency. final design. In an active filter for exam-
practical alternative to the 709 or 741 was cir- For some analytical purposes, drift is con- ple, a741 will demonstrate whether or not
cuitry made from discrete transistors. A sidered as avery low frequency noise compo- the circuit is working, but a low-noise,
much wider selection of op amps is available nent. Op amps that have been optimized for wide-bandwidth device will give higher
today, and the amateur designer can choose offset, drift and noise are called instrumenta- performance, especially in receiving ser-
the components best suited to the applica- tion amplifiers. The latest instrumentation vice. An abbreviated table of operational
tion. Also, the performance of some existing amplifier is the National Semiconductor amplifier specifications is given in chapter
circuits can be upgraded by replacing 709s LMIO, designed by Robert Widlar, the 23. Most of the devices listed are available
and 741s with improved devices. To this end, acknowledged " father of the IC op amp." from hobby electronics stores or the mail-
abrief survey of op amp specifications is in The architecture of the LMIO is different order firms listed in chapter 17.

Digital- Logic Integrated Circuits

Digital logic is the term used to describe true that almost any function can be im- using tubes. Modern semiconductor
an overall design procedure in which plemented digitally, in some cases an technology allows digital systems of
"on" and " off" are the important words, analog approach may be simpler or more tremendous complexity to be built at a
not "amplification," "detection," and cost-effective. The radio amateur, as a small fraction of the cost of previous
other terms commonly applied to most well-rounded communications expert, is methods.
amateur equipment. It is "digital" in aposition to choose the technology best
because it deals with discrete events that suited to his needs, without prejudice. In Combinational Logic
can be characterized by digits or integers, recent years, Amateur Radio equipment The three logical operations are "and,"
in contrast with linear or analog systems has made increasing use of digital elec- "or" and " not." An AND gate may be
in which an infinite number of levels may tronics, and this trend can be expected to assembled with two relays as shown in
be encountered. It is " logic" because it continue. Today's repeater control Fig. 110A. In order to have voltage at the
follows mathematical laws in which " ef- systems, keyers, Morse code/RTTY output (C), we must energize A and B. If
fect" predictably follows " cause." readers, frequency counters and fre- we connect the contacts in parallel rather
Logic systems can be implemented by quency synthesizers depend heavily on than in series, an OR gate results (Fig.
mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic or elec- digital techniques. In the future, digital 110B). The " not," " complement" or
trical means. The linkage that causes electronics will make further inroads in "inverse" function may be implemented
automotive windshield wipers to complete Amateur Radio communications, par- with anormally-closed relay contact as il-
their cycle after they have been turned off ticularly in the area of signal processing. lustrated in Fig. 110C. If we apply voltage
is an example of a mechanical logic The fundamental principle of digital to A we will have no voltage at C, and vice
system. It is entirely possible to under- electronics is that adevice can have only versa. With the proper system of AND and
stand complex digital subjects such as two logical states: "on" and "off." This NOT gates or OR and NOT gates, any logical
computer architecture without any elec- system is perfectly suited to binary (base or arithmetic function may be synthe-
trical knowledge. For this reason, digital or radix 2) arithmetic, which uses only two sized. AND or OR gates are often combined
logic theory is usually treated separately numerals: 0 and I. The simplest digital with inverters in IC packages and called
from electrical theory. Digital designers devices are switches and relays. Some NAND and NOR gates.
are often highly specialized. It is fairly pre- 1950 computers were built almost en- A special combination of gates called
common to hear of an " electrical en- tirely of relays. Low speed and rapid wear an " exclusive OR" has an output only if
gineer" who can design an incredibly were the objections to mechanical devices, the two inputs are complementary. This
complex logic system but cannot get the so the next generation of digital in- combination is used frequently enough to
power supply working! Digital designers struments used electron tubes as the be packaged specially and assigned afun-
sometimes tend to be somewhat chauvin- switching elements. Physical size and damental symbol:
istic, holding the view that anything worth power consumption were the factors that Logic systems have polarity. If the
doing is worth doing digitally. While it is limited the complexity of digital circuits highest voltage level represents a binary

Solid State Fundamentals 4-48

 COM O 'iNC COM
VO

tNO

(A)

lirNC CON°
VO •
COM t NO tN; 0,

(01

VO co.. 4NC
t_NO

NC.NORMALLY CLOSED

NO=NORMAELY OPEN

(Cl

Fig. 110 — Relay models of the three logical

operations. A: AND gate B: OR gate C: inverter. Fig. 111 — The standard logic symbols, with corresponding Boolean equations and truth tables.

one and the lowest level represents azero,

the logic is said to be positive. If the op-
posite representation is used, the logic is
negative.
Since each input or output of a digital
network can have only two possible states,
it is possible to list all of the input com-
binations and their corresponding out-
puts, thus completely characterizing the
operation. Such a list is called a truth
table.
Each type of gate is assigned a distinc-
tive schematic symbol. The AND gate sym-
bol has a straight edge on the input side
and a blunt convex edge on the output
side. The OR gate is characterized by a
concave edge on the input side and asharp
cusp on the output side. A small circle at
the output of agate signifies that an inver-
sion has taken place.
Digital systems may be designed with
Boolean algebra. Circuit functions may be
defined by algebraic equations. The sym-
bology and laws of Boolean algebra are
somewhat different from those of or-
dinary algebra. The " + " symbol is used
to indicate the " or" function. " And" is
represented by " • " or juxtaposition of
the variables. A bar with a variable in-
dicates that it has been inserted. Fig. II I
shows the symbols for the common logic
functions with their associated Boolean
equations and truth tables. Positive logic
is assumed. With the exception of the " ex-
clusis e OR," all of the gates may be ex-
panded to any number of inputs. There is Fig. 112 — At A, combinational logic implemented with relays, shown with the electrical truth
table. Assigning 1and 0 to the electrical states as in B leads to two schematic symbols, one for
no universally- accepted definition for an
positive-true logic and one for negative-true logic. The two symbols are electrically equivalent;
exclusive OR gate with more than two in- depending on the application, one may represent the logical operation being performed better
puts. than the other.

4-49 Chapter 4
 clock and data inputs.
ALTERNATIVE
POSITIVE LOGIC
Fig. 115B shows acommon application
FORM
for aD flip-flop, amodulus-two frequen-

190--
cy divider. The sequence of events is il-
lustrated by the timing diagram. Several
NAND INVF RT OP
of these flip-flops may be cascaded in a
single IC package and called a counter.
The states of the Q outputs can be read as
a binary code, indicating the number of
clock pulses received in an interval.
NOR I
N .0 RT
An RS flip-flop is shown in Fig. 116.
Two inverting gates connected in this
fashion form aregenerative switching cir-
cuit. The accuracy of the accompanying
truth table depends on the input states oc-
NOT NOT
curing in the order given. The output cor-
responding to an input of 11 could easily
be the complement of that shown if it
followed a 00 input state. An important
rule in the design of sequential logic cir-
ONO OR cuits is that the simultaneity of events can-
not be depended upon.
The RS flip-flop is the simplest type. Its
outputs change directly as a result of
changes at its inputs. The type T flip-flop
Fig. 113 — One of the fundamental theorums OR "toggles," " flips," or changes its state
of combinational logic. The block diagrams during the occurrence of aT pulse, called
and their corresponding expanded truth tables a clock pulse. The T flip-flop can be
Fig. 114 — Positive and negative true- logic
verify the theorum and show the relationship
symbols for the common functions. The considered as aspecial case of the J-K flip-
between the schematic symbols in Fig. 112.
DeMorgan's Theorum can also be stated as
horizontally opposite gates are electrically flop. Although there is some disagreement
A + ÉT. identical. in the nomenclature, a J-K flip-flop is
generally considered to be a toggled or
clocked R-Sflip-flop. It may also be used
as a storage element. The J input is fre-
quently called the " set" input; the K is
The Boolean algebra associated with tional logic circuit. Pulses and transitions
called the " clear" input (not to be con-
logic networks can sometimes be are not considered in the design of a com-
fused with the clock input). The clock in-
simplified through the use of negative binational circuit.
put is called c. A clear-direct or Cp input
logic. Consider acircuit having two inputs which overrides all other inputs to clear
Sequential Logic
and one output, and suppose aHIGH level the flip-flop to 0is provided in most J-K
output is desired only when both inputs A circuit in which the output state is a
flip-flop packages.
are Low. A search through the truth tables function not only of the input levels but
of Fig. Ill shows the NOR gate to have the also of past output states is a sequential
logic circuit. Conventional truth tables are
proper characteristics for our application.
However, the phrasing of the problem not generally applicable to sequential cir-
(the words only and both) strongly sug- cuits because a certain input condition
gests the AND (or NAND) function. A may not have aunique output state. The
negative-logic NAND is functionally simpler sequential circuits are sometimes QDDQU
equivalent to a positive-logic NOR gate, defined by amodified truth table showing IICICICICIER
and the NAND symbol better expresses the input transitions and output state progres- NO

sions. State tables, flow diagrams and tim- OCIC1000 CHANGE

circuit function in the application just
described. Small circles (called state in- ing charts are the tools used to design *. LEVEL
CHANGE 0130111111
dicators) on the input side of agate signify complex sequential machines. (
A ) x.00rer CICERONI.
negative logic. Fig. 112 traces the evolu- The dependence on previous output CARE

tion of the electromechanical switching states implies a requirement for memory.

NPU T CL
circuit into a NOR or NAND gate, depend- The simplest memory element is aspecial :i OUTPUT

type of bistable multivibrator (flip-flop) ^

ing on the logic convention chosen.
DeMorgan's Theorum, one of the most called a latch. A D ( for data) flip-flop is
important results from Boolean algebra, often used as alatch. A flip-flop can store
one bit (binary digit) of information. A
shows that any logical function can be im-
plemented with AND gates and inverters or typical D flip-flop with its truth table is
shown in Fig. 115A. The logic level at D is C.. OC '
OR gates and inverters. An application of
this theorum appears in Fig. 113, giving transferred to Q on the positive transition OR D

detailed electrical truth tables showing of the clock pulse. The Q output will re-
O

identical output states for any combina- tain this logic level regardless of any
tion of inputs. A complete chart of changes at D until the next positive clock
transition. The D throughput is said to be Fig. 115 — A D flip-flop. In A, set and reset
equivalent symbolic representations is ("jam") inputs are provided. Note that the func-
synchronous because it is actuated by the
given in Fig. 114. tional truth table shows CI and bboth in the
A circuit made of the fundamental clock signal. The flip-flop shown also has high state for one combination of R and S.
gates and configured in such a way that set and reset (S and R) inputs. These in- While this appears contradictory, it is the stan-
puts are asynchronous because they are dard way of defining the operation of this type
the output is a function of the present
of flip-flop.
static input levels only is called acombina- independent of, and in fact overide, the
Solid State Fundamentals 4-50
 access. Examples of serial access the entire 56-character eight-level code.
memories are shift registers, CCD Several ICs are now available for
(charge-coupled device) memories, and character generation where letters and
most mechanical storage devices such as numerals are produced for display on an
magnetic tape. Serial devices introduce a oscillograph screen.
variable access delay, called latency,
which depends on the internal state of the Microprocessors
device when an address is presented to it. An important new ( from the 1970s)
Unless specified otherwise, it is assumed class of integrated circuit is the
that amemory device can be written into microprocessor. A microprocessor com-
as well as read. Semiconductor memories bined with afew other ICs and input/out-
which can be written in are usually put devices forms a microcomputer. To-
"volatile," meaning they lose their con- day, practically every IC manufacturer
tents if the power is removed. A special produces microprocessors, either of its
class of memory, the Read Only Memory own design or as a second source. Some
(ROM), is not volatile. Some are mask- recent pieces of Amateur Radio equip-
programmed during manufacture — this ment incorporate microprocessors for
Fig. 116 — A regenerative switching circuit
called an RS flip-flop. The circuit could be im- type of device is what is usually called a channel sequencing and other functions.
plemented with NOR gates, in which case the ROM. Another device of read-only The microprocessor portion of such
first defined input state would be 11. memory is programmed in the field and is equipment is part of a special purpose
called a Programmable Read-Only computer, meaning the input and/or out-
Memory ( PROM). A PROM is manufac- put isn't available for general use or pro-
tured with all bits in one state, and the gramming.
user creates bits of the opposite state by More and more amateurs are using
There are essentially two types of flip- an irreversible process, such as blowing general-purpose computers for radio-

It flop inputs, the dc or level-sensitive type, fuses or destroying transistors in the IC. related activities. A variety of architec-
and the " ac" or transition-sensitive type. The manufacturer's specified program- tures is possible, but the most basic con-
It should not be concluded that an ac in- ming technique must be followed exactly figuration is illustrated in Fig. 117. In a
put is capacitively coupled. This was true if a reliable result is to be obtained. typical amateur set-up, the program and
for the discrete-component flip-flops but Erasable PROMs ( EPROMs) can be data are input through a keyboard or
capacitors of relatively large value just do returned to their unprogrammed state by cassette recorder, and a CRT display or
not fit into microcircuit dimensions. The exposing the IC to ultraviolet light printer serves as an output device. The
construction of an ac input uses the through a window in the package. capabilities of most computer systems can
"master-slave" principle, where the ac- Another type of PROM is the Electrically be enhanced by supplementing the inter-
tions of a master flip-flop driving aslave Alterable PROM ( EAPROM). These nal storage unit with additional memory.
flip-flop are combined to produce ashift devices are programmed in anondestruc- A computer is a machine and is in-
in the output level during a transition of tive, reversible manner, usually in the nor- capable of independent thought or action.
the input. mal operating circuit. They can retain The machine can only do what it is in-
stored data for up to 10 years even when structed or programmed to do. There are
Semiconductor Memories power is removed (storage time is reduced programs called text editors, which
While simple systems of flip-flops can at high temperatures). Individual words, translate invalid instructions into the
be used to store asmall number of bits, ef- and sometimes blocks of words, can be nearest valid ones, but even here the
ficient filing of large amounts of informa- erased and rewritten. This device is machine isn't thinking, because the text
tion calls for special-purpose devices. sometimes called a " read-mostly editor program was written by ahuman.
Semiconductor memories are classified by memory." Amateur computing is a hobby quite
their operating characteristics, organiza- Semiconductor RAMs may be volatile distinct from Amateur Radio, but there
tion and size. even with power applied — these are call- are some worthwhile computer applica-
When specifying memory size or ed dynamic RAMs and must have the tions in radio. Some of these are Morse
organization the symbol " K" refers to stored data " refreshed" at regular inter- code and RTTY encoding and decoding,
1024 bits, bytes or words. Thus a64-K bit vals ( 100 ms or less). The refresh interval SSTV chracter generation, aural readout
memory contains 65,536 bits of storage and technique varies significantly from (any format) of digital displays and
(sometimes called a 65-K memory in er- one device type to another. RAMs that do satellite commanding. Of course, a
ror!). A byte is afundamental fraction of not need to be refreshed are called static microcomputer system can be used for
aword and most often refers to acollec- RAMs. Dynamic RAMs tend to have routine filing and record keeping. Some
tion of eight bits. A word may be any larger storage capacity and faster access hams keep their station logs by computer,
number of bits, depending on the applica- than static RAMs. Some static RAMs and can instantly retrieve information
tion and system. Common word lengths have " dynamic read-out" circuits which about previous contacts. A computer can
are 8, 16, 32, 36, 60 and 64 bits. limit the length of time data remains valid relieve the tedium of sorting tasks ( for ex-
A memory IC of agiven capacity may on the output pins and imposes minimum ample, the index of this Handbook was
be organized in anumber of ways. A 4-K times between successive readings. Many organized with the aid of a microcom-
, memory may be organized 4K x 1, 1K x RAMs may have their supply voltages puter system), but the most exciting ap-
4, 512 x 8 and so on, with the second reduced without loss of data while they plications are to things that weren't possi-
number designating the number of bits are not being accessed, thus reducing ble before the personal computer era.
that can be accessed simultaneously. power consumption. Some innovations that need to be
Several sets of operating characteristics Large memory arrays are often used for developed by radio/computer enthusiasts
are used to classify memories. If the loca- the generation and conversion of informa- are video bandwidth compression
tions in an IC can be accessed in any order tion codes. One IC can be programmed to (MSTV), high-speed data communication
it is said to be a random access device. convert the five-level RTTY code to the and weak-signal enhancement. One
Almost all semiconductor memories are eight-level ASCII code popular in com- method for transmitting moving images in
random iwcess devices. puter de% ices. National Semiconductor anarrow bandwidth is to send only those
The other generic access mode is seria/ manufactures asingle IC which generates picture elements that differ from the

4.51 Chapter 4
digital refreshment, is asophisticated job ------ 1
for a microcomputer system. The high-
speed data communication made possible
MICROPROCESSOR
by computers may allow a complete
vhf/uhf contact in asingle meteor burst.
Existing practice with this propagation
mode sometimes requires hours to ex-
change call signs and signal reports.
The current state of the art in amateur
EME work requires many kilowatts of erp
and ultra-low-noise receivers to obtain
barely perceptible lunar echos. By statis-
tical analysis of the receiver output, a
microcomputer could possibly pull alunar
echo out of the noise, thereby easing the
station gain requirements.
Amateurs are becoming more interested
in computer-aided design. This technique
is especially useful for designs requiring
many iterative calculations, such as in-
terstage matching networks in solid-state
transmitters. The tables of filters appear-
ing elsewhere in this Handbook were
generated by acomputer.
QST publishes articles on nontrivial ap-
plications of microcomputers to Amateur
Radio. A bibliography of QST articles
from 1975 to the present on micro-
processors and microcomputers is
available for an s.a.s.e. from ARRL. A
three-part series entitled Meet the
Microprocessor, by Thomas and Belter,
appeared in August, September and Oc- — CONTROL PATH

tober 1976 QST.

DATA PATH

Digital System Design Considerations

Digital engineers use a variety of
graphical and analytical tools to design Fig. 117 — The basic parts of a digital computer.

logic systems. Once a circuit having the

desired performance is found, the
engineer works to minimize the number of
components through the application of
switching theory. As noted in the in-
troduction to this digital logic section, Stray coupling between sections, small devices fall into the MSI or medium-scale
switching theory is a subject unto itself transients on the power supply, and junc- integration category. The simple gate and
and cannot be treated justly in this Hand- tion noise can pollute the final output flip-flop circuits use MS! technology.
book. spectrum without affecting the logical Dual-inline packages with 14 or 16 pins
Switching theory is based on ideal function. are common for these circuits. Specialized
switches, and real electrical devices don't Particular attention should be paid to circuits using 100 or more active devices
always emulate ideal switches well enough power supply decoupling. In general, a are classified as LSI, for large-scale in-
to synthesize alogic design with switching few 0.01 pF disc ceramic bypass capacitors tegration. Some serial-to-parallel con-
theory alone. Therefore, adigital designer will prevent the switching transients of verters, arithmetic logic units and data
must consider the electrical characteristics one IC from changing the state of converters use LSI technology. Many LSI
of the logic elements he's using. Propaga- another. If the logic system is to be used packages occupy four times the pc-board
tion delay and transmission line reflec- with radio equipment, more extensive area of standard MSI packages. Up to 64
tions become significant factors as the measures may be necessary. For a logic pins are used on some LSI devices. The
speed of the logic system increases. The system to have electromagnetic com- very latest fabrication technology has
ultimate application of the system also in- patibility (EMC), it must not radiate enabled the creation of VLSI, or very
fluences the design. For example, an at- energy into aradio receiver or be adverse- large-scale integration systems. These cir-
tempt to design a frequency synthesizer ly affected by energy radiated from a cuits have over 1000 active devices on a
strictly as a " number cruncher" is doom- nearby transmitter. The EMC problem is single chip. Third-generation microcom-
ed to failure. The reason is that any solid- receiving increased attention as more puters, frequency counters and a wide
state digital device is also an analog device radio amateurs acquire personal com- variety of " smart" instruments will make
having a finite transfer function. This puters for their stations. use of this technology.
transfer function can cause adevice to act
as an amplifier, multiplier or mixer as well Logic Device Fabrication Technology Digital-Logic IC Families
as a switch. A frequency synthesizer Nearly all modern logic systems use in- There are several families or types of
designed only as alogical machine will be tegrated circuits. The ICs are classified ac- ICs that are seeing widespread use. Each
rife with spurious outputs and noise that cording to the complexity of the circuit on family has its own inherent advantages
can't be predicted from switching theory. the chip. ICs having 15 or more active and disadvantages. Each is geared to its

Solid State Fundamentals 4-52

 of that dissipated by standard TTL.
Operating speed is the tradeoff for the
lower power, and the maximum speed for
this subfamily is 3MHz.
The subfamilies discussed so far operate
as saturated switches. The 54500- and
74500-series have Schottky diode clamps
that keep the transistors out of saturation.
Some ICs of this series are useful up to
125 MHz. The power dissipation is about
twice that of standard TTL. A commonly
used subfamily combining low power
dissipation with fairly high speed is the
54LS00- and 74LSOO-series. The dissipa-
tion and speed for this series are 2 mW
and 45 MHz, respectively.
One section of atype 7404 hex inverter
is represented schematically in Fig. 118A.
A Low level applied to the input will cause
Q1 to conduct current. This will cause Q2
to be near cutoff, in turn biasing the
"totem pole" arrangement of Q3 into
saturation and Q4 near cutoff. As aresult
the output level will be HIGH, about 1volt
below V„. If the signal at the input is
HIGH the conduction state of each tran-
sistor reverses and the output drops nearly
to ground potential ( Low). The input
diode protects the circuitry by clamping
any negative potential to approximately
—0.7 volt, limiting the current in Q1 to a
safe value. Note that this protection is ef-
fective only against transients. The output
diode is required to ensure that Q3 is cut
off when the output is Low.
The circuit in Fig. 118B, one section of
atype 7400 gate is very similar to that of
Fig. 118 — TTL circuits and their equivalent logic symbols (see text). Indicated resistor values are
A. The difference is that Q5 is amultiple-
typical. Identification of transistors is for text reference only; these are not discrete components. emitter transistor with one input to each
emitter. A Low level at either input will
turn on Q5, causing the output to go
HIGH.
own particular market, meeting aspecific driven by asingle output) of 10 within a
subfamily. If TTL inputs are left open, Emitter-Coupled Logic — ECL
set of needs. RTL (resistor-transistor
logic) and DTL (diode-transistor logic) they assume a " high" logic state, but ECL has the highest speed of any of the
are obsolete and are no longer used in new greater noise immunity will be realized if logic forms. Some ECL devices can
designs. They are manufactured for exact pull-up resistors are used. When operated operate at frequencies higher than 1.2
replacement purposes only. with a + 5-volt supply, any input voltage GHz. This family is different from the
level between 2.0 and 5.5 is defined to be other forms of bipolar logic in that the
Transistor- Transistor Logic — TTL high. A voltage less than 0.8 is an input transistors operate in a non-saturating
TTL is one of the bipolar logic families. low. TTL ICs output a minimum high mode that is analogous to that of some
Also known as 'PI, (T squared L), this level of 2.4 volts, and a maximum low linear devices. The typical logic swing is
family has a variety of circuit configura- level of 0.4 volts. The switching transients only 800 mV. ECL devices are characterized
tions. Some devices have "open collec- generated by TTL devices appear on the for use with a — 5.2-volt power supply,
tor" outputs, and these may be " wire supply line and can cause false triggering but operation from other supplies is possi-
oRed." Open collector outputs are useful of other devices. For this reason, the ble. If the Vcc terminal is connected to
for interfacing with other logic families or power bus should have several bypass +2.0 volts and the Vee terminal con-
discrete components. Although + 5volts capacitors per pc board. nected to — 3.2 volts, the device can drive
is the recommended power supply for "Plain" TTL ICs are identified by a 50-ohm load directly with respect to
TTL, open collectors can be connected to 5400- or 7400-series numbers and operate ground. The power output obtained this
a different voltage through the external at speeds up to 35 MHz. Two commonly way is about 0dBm. ECL ICs dissipate a
load resistor, within the limits specified used TTL devices are represented great deal of power, and heat sinking is
for the device. Most TTL devices have schematically in Fig. 118. High-speed ICs sometimes necessary. The ECL family
"totem pole," or "active pull-up" output (50 MHz) are identified by 54H00- or finds use in uhf frequency synthesizers
stages, and these cannot be wired oRed. 74H00-series numbers. These ICs and counters, as well as in computers.
Typically, the outputs are capable of sink- consume more power than their ordinary Some highly specialized ICs have
ing more current than they can source. counterparts. The 54L00- and capacitively coupled inputs, and therefore
This situation is of importance only when 74L00-series of devices are designed for have minimum as well as maximum toggle
mIci facing devices outside a particular lower power consumption that the stan- rates.
IIL subfamily. TTL devices have a dard types. These ICs typically dissipate There are several ECL subfamilies be-
tanout C ' I umber of inputs that can be one milliwatt per gate, or about one-tenth ing produced. Speed, power dissipation,

4-53 Chapter 4
and the ability to drive transmission lines
cannot be optimized simultaneously, so
V CC
different versions are offered to allow the
designer to choose the trade-offs best
5
suited to his or her application. ECL sub-
families are compatible, but only over a O OR

limited temperature range. The dif-

ferences between subfamilies are mostly in 06 OUTPUTS

resistance values, and the presence or

o 4 ONOR
absence of input and output pull-down
INPUTS 02
resistors. 01 03
A significant feature of ECL gates is o
that complementary output functions are
02
available from each circuit. The circuit of R R

Fig. 119, for example, is a NOR/OR gate.

Q1 or Q2, together with Q3 forms adif-
ferential amplifier. When the Q2 collector
goes HIGH, the Q3 collector goes Low, and
O v„
these levels appear at the emitters of the
output buffers, Q5 and Q6. The circuitry
associated with Q4, DI and D2 is a bias
generator. The reference voltage esta-
blished at the base of Q3 determines the
input switching threshold.
Fig. 119 — Circuit topology of the ECL family. The functions of the various components are ex-
plained in the text. Complementary outputs call for the modified logic symbol.
Metal-Oxide Semiconductors — MOS
The logic families using all n-channel or
all p-channel field-effect transistors are
used extensively in microprocessors, digi-
tal watches and calculators. Where entire
functions can be synthesized on a single
chip, this technology is quite useful. Or- supply terminal voltages. Several trade- replace 74LS devices. These have input,
dinary NMOS and PMOS gate packages offs must be considered when choosing output and supply voltage requirements
are not very popular. Most general- between buffered and unbuffered ICs. tailored to the 74LS series, resulting in a
purpose logic networks are now made The buffered devices have greater noise logic subfamily having the relatively high
with complementary metal-oxide semi- immunity and drive capability, but the speed of the bipolar group with the low
conductor (CMOS) ICs. This family has speed is low compared to the unbuffered power consumption of CMOS. The trade-
p-channel and n-channel transistors on types. Some special-purpose 4000 series off is the loss of supply-voltage versatility
the same chip. Only one of each comple- ICs have tri - state output circuits. The associated with the 4000 series.
mentary pair is turned on at any time, so third state is neither HIGH or Low, but is a A simplified diagram for aCMOS logic
the power dissipation is negligible except high- impedance condition which allows inverter is given in Fie. 120. Some of the
during logic transitions. A notable feature several outputs to be paralleled for wire diodes in the input and output protection
of CMOS devices is that the logic levels °Ring or multiplexing. The 74C00 series is circuits are inherently part of the
swing to within a few millivolts of the designed to be a plug-in replacement for manufacturing process. Even with the
power supply voltages. The input switch- low-power TTL devices in some applica- protection circuits, CMOS ICs are suscep-
ing threshold is approximately one half tions. Some manufacturers have intro- tible to damage from static charges.
the power supply voltage (vDD — vss)• duced CMOS ICs designed specifically to Certain precautions have become
This characteristic contributes to high im-
munity to noise on the input signal or
power supply. CMOS input current drive
requirements are miniscule, so the fanout
capability is tremendous, at least in low-
speed systems. For high-speed systems, the
input capacitance increases the dynamic
power dissipation and limits the fanout. vDD
Four subfamilies of CMOS logic ICs
are being produced at present. The 4000A
series is the original commercial line and
operates with power supplies from 3to 12
solts. A subfamily having some improved
characteristics is the 4000B ( for buffered) INPUT OUTPUT
series. The B series can be powered from
supplies up to 18 whs. This feature makes
the devices especially attractise for
automotive applications. The output im-
pedance of buffered ICs is independent of
the input state. An unbuffered series,
designated 400OUB meets all the B series
specifications except that the logic outputs
are not buffered and the input logic lusuls
must be within 20 percent of the power Fig. 120 — Internal structure of a CMOS gate.

Solid State Fundamentals 4;54

accepted for handling these devices. The pins
should not be inserted in styrofoam as is
commonly done with bipolar integrated
circuits unless the styrofoam is wrapped in
aluminum foil. The 3M Company
manufactures a spongy conductive
material for this purpose under the trade
name Velostat. Before removing aCMOS
IC from its protective material, make cer-
tain that your body is grounded. A con-
ductive bracelet connected to the ground
terminal of a 3-wire ac outlet through a
10-Mil resistor is adequate for this pur-
pose. In industry, extreme protective
measures are sometimes taken, such as
blowing ionized air over an assembly area.
The amateur experimenter needn't go to
that extent; common sense will enable him
or her to use CMOS logic without destroy-
ing many devices.

Special Digital ICs

In addition to the logic families men-
tioned above, other families are being
developed (sometimes on a speculative
basis) and are seeing comparatively
limited use. One such family is integrated
injection logic, or PL. Other families use
various techniques in the production of
metal-oxide semiconductor ( MOS) de-
vices. H-MOS ( for high performance) is a
scaled-down silicon gate MOS process;
V-MOS is an anisotropically etched
double-diffused MOS process, and
D-MOS is a planar double-diffused pro-
cess. SOS is acomplementary silicon-on-
sapphire process. The proponents of each
of these families claim theirs is the best
way of achieving higher speeds and den-
sities at lower power dissipation on
smaller chips which cost less.

Interconnecting Logic Families

Each semiconductor logic family has its Fig. 121 - Methods for driving CMOS loads from TTL sources. The circuit complexity depends on
own advantages in particular applications. the power supply voltages. The operation of these circuits is discussed in the text.

Table 1
Electrical Characteristics of the Common Logic Families

Standard TTL Schottky TTL High-speed TTL Low-power TTL Schottky low-power ECL Ill ECL 10 k
((74H)
active pull-up) ( 74S) ( 74L) TTL ( 74LS) ( 1600 series)
Vcc = + 5.0 V Vcc = + 5.0 V Vcc = + 5.0 V V„ = + 5.0 V Vcc = + 5.0 V Vcc = 0 V,
VEE = - 5.2 V

minimum HIGH
input voltage 2.0 V 2.0 V 2.0 V 2.0 V 2.0 V - 1095 V - 1.105 V
maximum HIGH
input current 40 $.4A 50 mA 50 pA 20 pA 20 A - -
maximum LOW
input voltage 0.8 V 0.8 V 0.8 V 0.8 V 0.8 V - 1.485 V - 1.475 V
maximum LOW
input current 1.6 mA 2.0 mA 2.0 mA 400 mA 400 i.,A -
minimum HIGH 2.4 V 2.5 V 2.4 V 2.4 V 2.5 V - 0.9 V - 0.825 V
output voltage (30 mA) ( 30 mA)
maximum HIGH
output current 800 pA 1.0 mA 1.0 mA 400 I
AA 400 mA 40 mA 50 mA
maximum LOW
output voltage 0.4 V 0.5 V 0.4 V 0.3 V 0.5 V - 1.75 V - 1.725 V
maximum LOW Open emitter -
output current 16 mA 20 mA 20 mA 4.0 mA 8.0 mA pull-down re-
sistor required

4-55 Chapter 4
 satisfactoiy results, even if they have a
common power supply. The buzzword in-
terface is often used to describe the in-
tegration of two types of logic into acom-
patible system. There are anumber of ICs
intended especially for mating different
logic families. The CD4049UB and
CD4050B hex buffers are designed to
drive TTL gates from CMOS input sig-
nals. TTL-to-ECL and ECL-to-TTL con-
version can be implemented with the
N1017 and N1068 integrated circuits
manufactured by Signetics and others.
Unfortunately, these components aren't
always conveniently available to the small
investor, so logic interface must some-
times be accomplished by other means.
A knowledge of the circuit topologies
and input/output characteristics will
allow the designer to concoct reliable
digital interstage networks. Typical inter-
nal structures have been illustrated for
each common logic family. The input/
output characteristics of the common
logic families are listed in Table I. This in-
formation was compiled from various in-
dustrial publications and is intended only:
as aguide. Certain ICs may have charac-
teristics that vary from the values given.
The following section discusses some
specific logic conversions. Often more
than one conversion scheme is possible,
depending on whether the designer wishes
Fig. 122 - CMOS-to-TTL interface circuits. When both devices operate from a + 5-volt supply, the
to optimize power consumption or speed.
diode in A can be eliminated. The circuit in B exhibits maximum flexibility with respect to supply
voltages and logic subfamilies. Usually one must be traded off for the
other. Where an electrical connection be-
tween two logic systems isn't possible, an
frequency range. The programming func- optical isolator can always be used.
For example, the highest frequency stages
in auhf counter or frequency synthesizer tions have practically no speed con-
TTL-Driving CMOS
would use ECL. After the frequency has straints, so considerable power can be
been divided down to less than 25 MHz, saved by using CMOS in that part of the A CMOS gate is easily driven by aTTL
the speed of ECL is unnecessary, and the system. device when both are powered by a + 5-
expense and power dissipation is un- Each of these logic families has its own volt source. The totem-pole output struc-
justified. TTL is the obvious choice for input voltage and current requirements, ture of most TTL ICs prevents a HIGH
the signal-processing operations in this so they can't be randomly intermixed with output level of sufficient potential to pro-
perly activate the CMOS input. A pull-up
resistor connected from the interface
point to the power bus will remedy this
problem. The maximum usable value for
this component is 15 but the circuit
capacitance will reduce the maximum
CMOS ( 74C00)
possible speed of the CMOS gate. Lower
CMOS (4000A) CMOS (4000B)
V„ values will generate amore favorable RC
Vcc V„
+ 15.0 V + 5.0 V + 10.0 V + 15.0 V product at the expense of increased power
+5.0 V + 10.0 V + 5.0 V + 10.0 V
dissipation. A standard TTL gate can
drive a pull-up resistor of 330 (2, but a
3.5 V 70 V 40 V 80 V 12.5 V 3.5 V 8.0 V low-power version is limited to 1.2 kil for
a minimum. The resistor pull-up tech-
1.0 mA 1.0 MA nique is illustrated in Fig. 121A.
When the CMOS device is operating on
1.5 V 3.0 V 1.0 V 2.0 V 2.5 V 15 V 2.0 V a power supply other than + 5volts, the
TTL interface is more complex. The
1.0 mA 1.0 MA
common-base level shifter of Fig. 121B
4.95 V 9.95 V 4.95 V 9.95
- V 14.95 V 2.4 V 9.0
- V
no load (360 mA) ( 10 MA)
will translate a TTI. output signal to a
+ 15-volt CMOS signal while preserving
300 mA 250 mA 1.6 mA 1.3 mA 3.4 mA 1.75 mA 8.0 mA the full noise immunity of both gates. An
(2.5 V) (9.5 V) (2.5 V) (9.5 V) (13.5 V) (0V) (0 V) operational amplifier configured as a
0.05 V 0.06 V 0.05 V 0.05 V 0.05 V 0.4 V 1.0 V comparator, as in Fig. 121C, makes an ex-
o load (360 MA) ( 360 mA) cellent converter from TTL to CMOS
300 mA 600 mA 500 MA 1.3 mA 3.4 mA 1.75 mA 8.0 mA using dual power supplies. An FET op
(0.4 V) (0.5 V) (0.4 V) (0.5 V) (1.5 V) ( 5V) ( 10 V)
amp is shown because the output voltage

Solid State Fundamentals 4-56

of this type can usually swing closer to the
power rails than abipolar unit. Where the
pulse rate is below 10 kHz or so, a 741
type of amplifier may be used. The
Schmitt trigger configuration of Fig. 105B
will further enhance the noise immunity at
the interface point, but will invert the
logic. An additional inverter (either linear
or digital) placed on either side of the in-
terface will resurrect the logic to its
"true" form.

CMOS Driving TTL

The 4049UB and 4050B devices already
mentioned can drive two standard TTL
loads when acommon + 5-volt supply is
used. Most A-series CMOS ICs can't sink
enough current to drive TTL gates to a
reliable LOW input state. Gates from the
more-modern B-series can drive one low-
power TTL load directly. The 74C00
family is capable of direct connection to
low-power TTL with afanout of two. The
drive capability of CMOS gates can be in-
creased by connecting identical gates in
parallel, but this practice is not recom-
mended unless all the gates are contained
in asingle IC package.
• Fig. 122A shows a simple method for
driving aTTL load from aCMOS source
operating with a higher voltage power
supply. The diode blocks the high voltage
from the CMOS gate when it is in the
HIGH output state. A germanium diode is
used because i,ts lower forward voltage
drop provides higher noise immunity for
the TTL device in the LOW state. The
68-kfl resistor pulls the input HIGH when
the diode is back biased. While TTL in-
puts assume the HIGH state when left
open, floating the input is apoor practice
because the gate is sensitive to noise in this
condition.
Standard TTL inputs draw 1.6 mA in
the Low state. A pull-down resistor for
this purpose can be no larger than 220 il.
To pull this resistor up to an acceptable
HIGH level requires 10 mA, which is
beyond the capabilities of most CMOS
devices. When a pull-down resistor is
used, a dual-gate MOSFET having high
transconductance makes a good buffer
between CMOS and TTL systems. This
scheme is diagrammed in Fig. 122B. The
CMOS power supply voltage isn't critical
when this system is used, because the out-
put impedance of the CMOS device is
Fig. 123 — These circuits will allow TTL gates to drive ECL systems using various power supply
high compared to the pull-down resis- arrangements. Each is discussed in the text
tance, and the protective diodes in the
FET can handle more current than the
CMOS IC can provide. In fact, this circuit
can also be used with split supplies, pro-
vided the positive CMOS output excur-
sion is at least 5volts.

TTL Driving ECL

When acommon power supply is used, + 5V and VEE grounded, the same circuit for the ECL system. Where speed is not a
the resistor network of Fig. 123A will will work with Vcc connected to ground consideration, aTTL output can be con-
allow a standard TTL gate to drive an and VEE ( and the "ground" terminal of nected directly to an ECL input if apull-
ECL input at the maximum TTL speed. the TTL device) connected to — 5V. This up resistor is used.
Although shown with Vcc connected to arrangement provides full noise immunity Independent TTL and ECL systems can

4-57 Chapter 4
 be coupled by the circuits drawn in Fig.
123B and C. In B, the TTL gate is di-
vorced from the voltage divider network
when the output is HIGH. In this state the
junction of the 1.2-k(l and 12-kfl resistors
assumes a potential of nearly + 5 volts.
When the TTL output goes low, the
anode end of the diode string is pulled
down to about + 2.5V. This 2.5-volt logic
swing is attenuated and shifted to the pro-
per non-saturating ECL levels by the
resistor network.
An emitter follower stage is used in C.
The — 1.8-volt potential at the ECL input
established by the resistor network
prevents the transistor from turning on
when the TTL output is Low. A ger-
manium diode provides a stiff voltage
reference in the Low state and prevents ex-
cessive conduction in the upper transistor
of the IC output structure. The voltage
translation process is similar to that in
part B of the figure. Returning the collec-
tor to + 5V rather than ground keeps the
transistor well out of saturation.

ECL Driving TTL

The complementary output of ECL
gates can be used to advantage in con-
verting to TTL levels. Modern ECL ICs
have emitter-follower outputs that are
Fig. 124 — Bipolar transistors are used in these ECL-to-TTL translators. ideal for switching the base-emitter junc-
tions of bipolar transistors. For coupling
logic systems having a common 5- or
5.2-volt power supply, the pnp transistor
and pull-up resistor combination of Fig.
124A may be used. A positive supply is
shown, but the system will also work with
negative supplies. The circuit in Fig. I
24B
will condition — 5.2-volt ECL signals to
drive + 5-volt TTL gates. Transposing the
out and Eirii connections of the ECL device
will effect a logic inversion with the
translation. This technique can also be ap-
plied to flip-flops, which have Q and Tf;e
outputs.

CMOS Driving ECL

Speed is rarely a consideration when
mating a relatively slow logic family to
one that is very fast — the system cannot
be faster than the slowest logic element
used. The speed of ECL ICs comes from
keeping the transistors out of saturation,
and it is for this reason that the defined in-
put logic swing is only about 400 mV.
However, the input levels can be
anywhere within the range of the power
supply without damaging the device.
Negligible input current is required for
either logic state, so when acommon 5- or
5.2-volt power supply is used, CMOS can
drive ECL directly.
A variety of circuits can be used be-
tween CMOS and ECL systems having
different power supplies. The scheme il-
lustrated in Fig. 125A is useful when a
split power supply is used for the CMOS
logic. The advantage of using aMOSFET
Fig 125 — Split-supply CMOS logic can drive ECt. through aMOSFET. as in A. When the CMOS system
is powered from asingle high-voltage supply, the bipolar transistor circuit of B can be used. Note that the converter is that the fanout to other
logic is inverted when this method is used. CMOS devices) is not compromised. Fig.

Solld State Fundamentals 4-58

 125B shows a + 15-volt CMOS system
driving a — 5.2- volt ECL gate through a
pnp transistor. Altering some of the
resistance values will make this circuit
work with split-supply CMOS as well.
This conversion method results in a logic
inversion, but that problem can usually be
remedied at the ECL output.

ECL-Driving CMOS
Some voltage amplification is required
if an ECL gate is to drive CMOS .When
the ECL supply is negative and the CMOS
supply is positive, the circuit of Fig. I24B,
illustrated for ECL-to-TTL conversion
may be used. All of the resistors can be
made much larger with CMOS for re-
duced power consumption.
The differential comparator arrange-
ment in Fig. 126A is another good transla-
tion method. If the CMOS system has
split power supplies, the — V terminal of
the op amp should be returned to V .
With split CMOS supplies the op amp can
he connected directly to the CMOS input;
the resistor and diode are unnecessary. If
complementary ECL outputs aren't
available, one of the comparator inputs
should be biased to some potential be-
tween the two ECL logic levels.
Fie. I26B shows away to obtain the re-
quired CMOS logic swing when both
families are powered from the sanie
Fig. 126 — Interface circuits for ECL-driving CMOS. A method useful when different power sup-
plies are used is illustrated in A. The diode prevents the — 5.2-volt LOW level from damaging the source. This npn-pnp saturated amplifier
CMOS device. When a common supply is available, the two-transistor amplifier/translator of B will also work when a common negative
may be used. supply is used.

Abbreviated Semiconductor Symbol List

Field- Effect Transistor Symbols Bipolar Transistor Symbols Bipolar Transistor Symbols, (continued)
A — Voltage amplification C,bo — Input capacitance, open circuit 'CEO — Collector-cutoff current, base open
Cc — Intrinsic channel capacitance (common base) E — Emitter current
Cds — Drain-to-source capacitance Cleo — Input capacitance, open circuit MAG — Maximum available amplifier gain
(includes approximately 1-pF drain -
to- (common emitter) PCE — Total dc or average power input
case and interlead capacitance) C obo
— Output capacitance, open circuit to collector ( common emitter)
— Gate- to- drain capacitance ( in- (common base) — Large- signal output power
POE
cludes 0.1-pF interlead capacitance) Coe , — Output capacitance, open circuit (common emitter)
Cgs — Gate-to- source interlead and case (common emitter) RL — Load resistance
capacitance fc
— Cutoff frequency — Source resistance
— Small- signal input capacitance, f
T — Gain- bandwidth product (frequency — Base- supply voltage
VBB
short circuit at which small- signal forward current- — Base-to-collector voltage
V BC
CMS — Small-signal reverse transfer transfer ratio, common emitter, is unity VBE — Base-to-emitter voltage
capacitance, short circuit or 1) Vc B — Collector-to- base voltage
91s — Forward transconductance gme — Small- signal transconductance VC BO — Collector-to-base ( emitter open)
gig — Input conductance (common emitter) — Collector-supply voltage
V CC
g08 — Output conductance h FB — Static forward-current transfer ratio — Collector-to-emitter voltage
VCE
ID — Dc drain current (common base) V CEO — Collector-to-emitter voltage ( base
DS(OFF) — Drain-to-source OFF current hfb — Small-signal forward-current open)
GSS — Gate leakage current transfer ratio, short circuit (common — Collector-to-emitter saturation
I VCE(sat)
rc — Effective gate series resistance base) voltage
rDS(Or,6 — Drain-to-source ON resistance h FE
— Static forward-current VEB — Emitter-to-base voltage
rgd — Gate-to-drain leakage resistance transfer ratio ( common emitter) — Emitter-to-base voltage ( collector
VEBO
rgs — Gate-to-source leakage resistance — Small-signal forward-current open)
‘rDB — Drain-to-substrate voltage transfer ratio, short circuit ( common — Emitter- supply voltage
VEE
VDS — Drain-to-source voltage emitter) — Forward transconductance
Yte
VGS — Dc gate-to-substrate voltage h IE
— Static input resistance ( common Yie — Input admittance
VGS — Peak gate-to- substrate voltage emitter) — Output admittance
Y oe
VGS — Dc gate-to-source voltage h — Small- signal input impedance,
VGS — Peak gate-to- source voltage short circuit ( common emitter)
VGS(OFF) — Gate-to-source cutoff voltage lb — Base current
Yfs — Forward transadmittance grs I
c — Collector current
Y os
— Output admittance — Collector-cutoff current, emitter
CB0
I
YL — Load admittance open

4-59 Chapter 4
OPTICAL ELECTRONIC DEVICES

The conductivity of any semiconductor

junction is enhanced when it is il-
luminated. The discussion of solar cells in-
troduced the photovoltaic phenomenon.
Photoelectric semiconductor devices used
for signaling rather than power generation
fall into the optoelectronic category.
Before photodiodes and phototransistors
were commonly available, amateur ex-
perimenters improvised by removing por-
tions of the device envelopes and install-
ing lenses to focus light on the junctions.
An experimental optical communications
system is sketched in Fig. 127.
A large variety of photoelectric
semiconductors exists today, including
bipolar phototransistors, photoFETs,
photodiodes (pn junction, PIN and varac-
tor), light-activated silicon-controlled rec-
tifiers ( LASCRs) and optocouplers. An Fig. 127 — A visible light (or infrared) voice communications system. A phototransistor in the
optocoupler, or optoisolator, is an LED receiver recovers the amplitude-modulated signal from the transmitter.
and a phototransistor in a common IC
package. These devices often represent the
cleanest way to mate solid-state circuits
operating at widely differing voltages.
One such application might be a low-
voltage dc power supply regulated in the
ac primary circuit. Units having several
kilovolts of isolation are available. The
output circuits of some optocouplers are
designed to drive digital logic circuitry
with a minimum of additional com-
ponents.
The figure of merit for an optocoupler
is the ratio of the LED current to the
phototransistor collector current. A Dar-
lington output transistor is used in some
devices to establish a more favorable
transfer characteristic. The phototran-
sistor base lead is brought out of some
packages for controlling the transistor
when the LED is not energized.
A circuit illustrating the use of an op-
tocoupler appears in Fig. 128. The keying
circuit of avacuum-tube type of transmit-
ter is another place where an optocoupler
could be used to advantage. An opto-
coupler can also be used to key an afsk
generator from ateleprinter loop.
One class of optocoupler leaves the
LED and photodector exposed. These Fig. 128 — Line voltage regulation is a representative linear application for an optoisolator. The
devices are used extensively in punched- circuit shown here can protect high-voltage rectifiers and filter capacitors from ac surges.
card readers for electronic data processing
systems. Another use is in automotive ig-
nition systems as a replacement for
mechanical breaker points. An optical state relays capable of switching 10 A at but the elimination of visual uncertainty
shaft-encoder is an array of open opto- 117 V from CMOS control signals are allows greater precision. A digital display
couplers chopped by a rotating wheel. manufactured by International Rectifier is an array of light sources that can be
When ashaft encoder is used to address a Company and others. energized in various combinations to form
frequency synthesizer, the operator can symbols. Some of the light source ar-
Solid-State Displays rangements are illustrated in Fig. 129. The
adjust the frequency in amanner that has
the " feel" of an ordinary VFO. Digital readout devices comprise an im- dot-matrix system is the most versatile,
An optoisolator packaged with a triac portant branch of optoelectronics. The but the seven-segment format is the one
forms asolid-state relay that can replace advantage of digital readout is that there most used by amateurs. It displays the
electromechanical units is most applica- is no interpretation error, as in an analog decimal digits with high readability. Each
tions. The advantages of this scheme in- readout such as a clock, speedometer or segment is identified by aletter, and Fig.
clude freedom from contact bounce, arc- ammeter. The digital readout can be no 130 shows the standard layout. In addi-
ing, mechanical wear and noise. Solid- more accurate than the circuitry driving it, tion to the segments, some displays

Solid State Fundamentals 4.60

 + 5V
ALPHANUMERIC NUMERIC

C Is EACH 150n.

5. 7 ARRAY 3 5 ARRAY 13

1-7
iVv\/
grel 12

17
'VV\, °4-34—•

-
2 11
1V\/\.,
DATA
7447A 10
d— i4--•
A -7 "
7 9
—41—•
14 BARS 7 BARS 15
—14—*
LAMP 14
TEST 0 1/\/\.,
Fig. 129 — Various formats for symbolic
RIPPLE 0 50
displays. 0 RIPPLE
BLANKING INPUT BLANKING
OUTPUT COMMON - ANODE

DISPLAY

+5v

2N2907
2N4403
2N3906
10k

150

Cd e 'kg

Fig. 130 — Segment identification and layout

of aseven-segment readout device.

COMMON - CATHODE

containa decimal point on one side of the DISPLAY

character array. Another type of display is IBI

the bar graph. This device can be thought

of as afast-responding incremental analog Fig. 131 — At A, a 7447A decoder/driver connected tb a common-anode LED display. The current
meter. Some Amateur Radio applications drain is 20 mA per segment. At B is a method for using the same decoder with a common-cathode
device.
for the bar graph device might be receiver
S-meters or PEP-output indicators.

LED Readouts
by Texas Instruments and others. This is among several digits. The multiplexer
Displays made from light- emitting an open-collector TTL device designed to logic, which is usually contained on a
*diodes are the ones most commonly used pull down common- anode displays single IC, scans the input data lines and
because of their good readability and through external current- limiting re- sequentially routes the data for each digit
relative ease of circuit integration. sistors. A 7447A will also drive common- into the decoder. The displays are wired in
Character heights of 0.3 and 0.6 inches are cathode displays if external transistors are parallel; that is, all of the " a" segments
standard, although larger units are used. Fig. 131 shows the connections for are connected together, and so on. The
available. LED readouts are manufac- both types of display. common element of each digit is enabled
tured with one element of each segment The dc illumination method shown is at the proper time by the multiplexing cir-
common. The character to be displayed is the easiest to implement, but higher light cuit that selects the input data. With this
usually encoded in BCD form, so it is output with lower energy consumption system, only one digit is energized at any
necessary to employ some combinational can be had by pulsing the display. A flash instant, a factor that greatly eases the
logic to illuminate the proper segments. rate of 100 Hz will be imperceptible power-supply requirements. In order to
The circuitry to accomplish this is called a because of the persistence of human vi- maintain the brightness of each digit, the
decoder. Various seven-segment decoders sion. As more digits are added to a dis- current to each LED segment must be in-
are manufactured to drive common- play, using adecoder/driver for each digit creased. A typical display should be
cathode and common- anode devices. becomes unfeasible from an economic operated at apeak current of 100 mA for
Some of these devices contain advanced and pc-board real estate point of view. A each segment, with apulse duration of 50
features. The decoder IC most available technique called multiplexing allows a to 250 microseconds at a20- percent duty
to hobbyists is the 7447A, manufactured single decoder/driver IC to be time-shared cycle.

4-61 Chapter 4
Chapter 5

Ac-Operated Power Supplies

P ower-line potentials have been " stan-

dardized" throughout the U.S. at 117 and
the power line, making it necessary to
connect the chassis or common-return
across the two ungrounded wires. While
both ungrounded wires should be fused, a
234 volts in residential areas where a point of the circuit directly to one side of fuse should never be used in the neutral
single-phase service is supplied. These the ac line. This type of power supply wire, nor should a switch be used in this
figures represent nominal voltages. " Nor- represents a shock hazard when the side of the line. The reason for this is that
mal" line voltage in aparticular area may equipment is connected to other units in opening the neutral wire does not discon-
be between approximately 110 and 125 the amateur station or when the chassis is nect the equipment. It simply leaves the
but generally will be above 115. In many exposed. For safety reasons, an isolation equipment on one side of the 234-volt cir-
states the service is governed by a PUC transformer should be used with such cuit in series with whatever load may be
(public utilities commission). The voltage equipment. across the other side of the circuit, as
average across the country is approxi- shown in Fig. 1B. Furthermore, with the
mately 117. Power-Line Considerations: Connections neutral open, the voltage will then be
The current capability of the service is a In most residential systems, three wires divided between the two sides in inverse
factor of line length from the dwelling to are brought in from the outside to the proportion to the load resistance, the
the nearest pole transformer, and the con- distribution board, while in a few older voltage on one side dropping below nor-
ductor size of the line. Many older homes systems there are only two wires. In the mal, while it soars on the other side,
are supplied with a 60-ampere service three-wire system, the third wire is unless the loads happen to be equal.
while most new homes have 100 amperes. neutral, which is grounded. The voltage The usual line running to baseboard
Houses equipped with electric heat will between the two wires normally is 234, outlets is rated at 15 amperes. Considering
have services ranging from 150 to 200 while half of this voltage appears between the power consumed by filaments, lamps,
amperes. each of these wires and neutral, as in- transmitter, receiver and other auxiliary
The electrical power required to operate dicated in Fig. IA. In systems of this type equipment, it is not unusual to find this
Amateur Radio equipment is usually the 117-volt household load is divided as 15-A rating exceeded by the requirements
taken from the ac lines when the equip- evenly as possible between the two sides of of a station of only moderate power. It
ment is operated where power is available. the circuit, half of the load being con- must also be kept in mind that the same
For mobile operation the source of power nected between one wire and the neutral, branch may be in use for other household
is almost always the car storage battery. while the other half of the load is con- purposes through another outlet. For this
DC voltages used in transmitters, receiv- nected between the other wire and neutral. reason, and to minimize light blinking
ers and other related equipment are derived Heavy appliances, such as electric stoves when keying or modulating the transmit-
from the commercial ac lines by using a and heaters are designed for 234-volt ter, aseparate heavier line should be run
transformer-rectifier-filter system. The trans- operation and therefore are connected from the distribution board to the station
former changes the ac voltage to asuitable
value and the rectifier converts the ac to
pulsating dc. A filter is used to smooth out
these pulsations to an acceptably low level.
Essentially pure direct current is required
to prevent 60- or 120- Hz hum in most
pieces of amateur equipment. If a con-
stant voltage is required under conditions
of changing load or ac-line voltage, a
regulator is used following the filter.
When the prime power source is dc ( a
battery), the dc is used directly or is first
changed to ac and is then followed by the
transformer- rectifier- filter combination.
The latter system has lost considerable
popularity with the advent of low- voltage
semiconductor devices.
Transformerless power supplies are
Fig. 1 — Three-wire power- line circuits. At A — Normal three-wire- line termination. No fuse should be used in
used in some applications ( notably ac-dc the grounded ( neutral) line. B — A switch in the neutral does not remove voltage from either side of the line. C
radios and some television receivers). — Connections for both 117- and 234- volt transformers. D — Operating a 117-volt plate transformer
Supplies of this sort operate directly from from the 234-volt line to avoid light blinking. Ti is a2:1 step-down transformer.

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-1

 whenever possible. A 3-volt drop in line proper grounding, the lug of the green The secondary is connected in series
voltage will cause noticeable blinking of wire protruding from the adapter must be with the line voltage and, if the phasing of
lights. attached underneath the screw securing the windings is correct, the voltage
If the system is of the three-wire, 234-V the cover plate of the outlet box where applied to the primaries of the transmitter
type, the three wires should be brought connection is made, and the outlet box transformers can be brought up to the
into the station so that the load can be itself must be grounded. rated 117 volts by setting the transformer
distributed to keep the line balanced. The tap switch on the right tap. If the phasing
voltage across afixed load on one side of Fusing of the two windings of the transformer
the circuit will increase as the load current All transformer primary circuits should happens to be reversed, the voltage will be
on the other side is increased. The rate of be properly fused. To determine the reduced instead of increased. This con-
increase will depend upon the resistance approximate current rating of the fuse or nection may be used in cases where the
introduced by the neutral wire. If the circuit breaker to be used, multiply each line voltage may be above 117 volts. This
resistance of the neutral is low, the current being drawn from the supply in method is preferable to using aresistor in
increase will be correspondingly small. amperes by the voltage at which the the primary of apower transformer since
When the currents in the two circuits are current is being drawn. Include the it does not affect the voltage regulation as
balanced, no current flows in the neutral current taken by bleeder resistances and seriously. The circuit of 2B illustrates the
wire and the system is operating at voltage dividers. In the case of series use of a variable autotransformer
maximum efficiency. resistors, use the source voltage, not the for adjusting line voltage. Powerstat and
Light blinking can be minimized by voltage at the equipment end of the Variac are trade names for these
using transformers with 234-volt pri- resistor. Include filament power if the transformers. High-power stations can
maries in the power supplies for the keyed transformer is supplying filaments. After easily draw 20 amperes from the line, and
or intermittent part of the load, con- multiplying the various voltages and variable transformers rated for this cur-
necting them across the two ungrounded currents, add the individual products. rent are expensive. Fig. 2C shows away to
wires with no connection to the neutral, as Then divide by the line voltage and add 10 adjust the voltage of a high-current line
shown in Fig. IC. The same can be or 20 percent. Use afuse or circuit breaker using less exotic components.
accomplished by the insertion of a with the nearest larger current rating.
step-down transformer with its primary Safety Precautions
'operating at 234 volts and secondary Line-Voltage Adjustment All power supplies in an installation
delivering 117 volts. Conventional 117- In certain communities trouble is should be fed through a single main
iiolt transformers may be operated from sometimes experienced from fluctuations power-line switch so that all power may
The secondary of the step-down trans- in line voltage. Usually these fluctuations be cut off quickly, either before working
former (see Fig. ID). are caused by a variation in the load on on the equipment, or in case of an
When aspecial heavy-duty line is to be the line. Since most of the variation comes accident. Spring-operated switches or
installed, the local power company should at certain fixed times of the day or night, relays are not sufficiently reliable for this
be consulted as to local requirements. In such as the times when lights are turned important service. Foolproof devices for
some localities it is necessary to have such on at evening, they may be taken care of cutting off all power to the transmitter
ajob done by a licensed electrician, and by the use of a manually operated and other equipment are shown in Fig. 3.
there may be special requirements to be compensating device. A simple arrange- The arrangements shown in Figs. 3A and
met. Some amateurs terminate the special ment is shown in Fig. 2A. A tapped trans- B are similar circuits for two-wire
line to the station at a switch box, while former is used to boost or buck the line (117-volt) and three-wire ( 234-volt) sys-
others may use electric-stove receptacles voltage as required. The transformer tems. S is an enclosed double-throw switch
as the termination. The power is then should have asecondary varying between of the sort usually used as the entrance
distributed around the station by means 6and 20 volts in steps of 2or 3volts and switch in house installations. J is a
of conventional outlets at convenient its secondary should be capable of standard ac outlet and P ashorted plug to
points. All circuits should be properly carrying the full load current. fit the outlet. The switch should be located
fused.

Three- Wire 117-V Power Cords

To meet the requirements of state and
national codes, electrical tools, appli-
ances and many items of electronic equip-
ment now being manufactured to operate
from the 117-volt line must be equipped
with athree-conductor power cord. Two
of the conductors carry power to the
device in the usual fashion, while the third
conductor is connected to the case or
frame.
When plugged into a properly wired
mating receptacle, the three-contact pola-
rized plug connects this third conductor
to an earth ground, thereby grounding the
chassis or frame of the appliance and
preventing the possibility of electrical
shock to the user. All commercially
manufactured items of electronic test
equipment and most ac-operated amateur
equipment are being supplied with these Flg. 2 — Two methods of transformer primary control. At A is a tapped transformer which may be
three-wire cords. Adapters are available connected so as to boost or buck the line voltage as required. At B is indicated a variable
transformer or autotransformer (Variac) which feeds the transformer primaries. A combination of
for use where older electrical installations
these two methods is given at C. Here, a low-current variable autotransformer controls the
do not have mating receptacles. For primary of a heavy filament transformer, which performs the buck/boost function.

5-2 Chapter 5
 Fig. 4 — Half-wave rectifier circuit. A illustrates the basic circuit and B displays the diode conduction
and nonconduction periods. The peak- reverse voltage impressed across the diode is shown at C and
D with asimple resistor load at C and acapacitor load at D. Ep, for the resistor load is 1.4 Erms and
2.8 Erms for the capacitor load.

the main power switch, or a similar The peak reverse voltage ( PRV), the
arrangement at the bench, if the bench is voltage that the rectifier must withstand
Fig. 3 — Reliable arrangements for cutting off all located remotely from the transmitter. when it isn't conducting, varies with the
power to the transmitter. Sisan enclosed A bleeder resistor with a power rating load. With aresistive load it is the peak ac
double- pole power switch. Ja standard ac outlet.
which gives a considerable margin of voltage ( 1.4 Erms )but with a capacitor
Pa shorted plug to fit the outlet and Iared lamp,
A is for atwo-wire 117-volt line, B for athree- safety should be used across the output of filter and a load drawing little or no
wire 234- volt system, and C a simplified all transmitter power supplies, so that the current it can rise to 2.8 Erms .The reason
arrangement for low- power stations. filter capacitors will be discharged when for this is shown in Figs. 4C and
the high- voltage is turned off. 4D. With a resistive load as shown at C
the amount of reverse voltage applied to
prominently in plain sight, and members Rectifier Circuits: Half-Wave the diode is that voltage on the lower side
of the household should be instructed in Fig. 4shows asimple half-wave rectifier of the Zero-axis line or 1.4 E 5.A capaci-
its location and use. Iis ared lamp located circuit. As pointed out in the semi- tor connected to the circuit (shown at D)
alongside the switch. Its purpose is not so conductor chapter arectifier ( in this case a will store the peak positive voltage when
much to serve as awarning that the power semiconductor diode) will conduct cur- the diode conducts on the positive pulse.
is on as it is to help in identifying and rent in one direction but not the other. If the circuit is not supplying any current
quickly locating the switch should it During one half of the ac cycle the the voltage across the capacitor will re-
become necessary for someone else to cut rectifier will conduct and current will flow main at that same level. The peak reverse
the power off in an emergency. through the rectifier to the load ( indicated voltage impressed across the diode is now
The outlet Jshould be placed in some by. the solid line in Fig. 4B). During the the sum of the voltage stored in the capa-
corner out of sight where it will not be a other half cycle the rectifier is reverse citor plus the peak negative swing of volt-
temptation for children or others to play biased and no current will flow (indicated age from the transformer secondary. In
with. The shorting plug can be removed to by the dotted line in Fig. 4B) to the load. this case the PRV is 2.8 Erms .
open the power circuit if there are others As shown, the output is in the form of
Full- Wave Center- Tap Rectifier
around who might inadvertently throw pulsed de and current always flows in the
the switch while the operator is working same direction. A filter can be used to A commonly used rectifier circuit is
on the rig. If the operator takes the plug smooth out these variations and provide a shown in Fig. 5. Essentially an arrange-
with him, it will prevent someone from higher average dc voltage from the circuit. ment in which the outputs of two half-
turning on the power in his absence and This idea will be covered in the next wave rectifiers are combined, it makes use
either hurting himself or the equip- section on filters. of both halves of the ac cycle. A transfor-
ment or perhaps starting afire. Of utmost The average output voltage — the mer with acenter- tapped secondary is re-
importance is the fact that the outlet J voltage read by adc voltmeter — with this quired with the circuit.
must be placed in the ungrounded side of circuit ( no filter connected) is 0.45 times The average output voltage is 0.9 times
the line. the rms value of the ac voltage delivered the rms voltage of half the transformer
Those who are operating low power by the transformer secondary. Because the secondary; this is the maximum that can
and feel that the expense or complication frequency of the pulses is rather low (one be obtained with a suitable choke-input
of the switch isn't warranted can use the pulsation per cycle), considerable filtering filter. The peak output voltage is 1.4 times
shorted-plug idea as the main power is required to provide adequately smooth the rms voltage of half the transformer
switch. In this case, the outlet should be dc output. For this reason the circuit is secondary; this is the maximum voltage
located prominently and identified by a usually limited to applications where the that can be obtained from a capacitor-
signal light, as shown in Fig. 3C. current required is small, as in a input filter.
The test bench should be fed through transmitter bias supply. As can be seen in Fig. 5C the PRY

Ac - Onersted Power Supplies 5-3

impressed on each diode is independent of tween the rectifier and the load to smooth drawn, not only because of increased
the type load at the output. This is out the pulsations into an essentially voltage drops on the transformer, filter
because the peak reverse voltage condition constant dc voltage. Also, the design of chokes and the rectifier ( if high-vacuum
occurs when diode A conducts and diode the filter depends to alarge extent on the rectifiers are used) but also because the
B does not conduct. The positive and dc voltage output, the voltage regulation output voltage at light loads tends to soar
negative voltage peaks occur at precisely of the power supply, and the maximum to the peak value of the transformer
the same time, adifferent condition than load current that can be drawn from the voltage as a result of charging the first
exists in the half-wave circuit. As diodes A supply without exceeding the peak- capacitor. By proper filter design the
and B cathodes reach apositive peak ( 1.4 current rating of the rectifier. Power latter effect can be eliminated. The change
Ems ), the anode of diode Bis at anegative supply filters are low-pass devices using in output voltage with load is called
peak, also 1.4 Ems ,but in the opposite series inductors and shunt capacitors. voltage regulation and is expressed as a
direction. The total peak reverse voltage is percentage.
therefore 2.8 Ems . Load Resistance
100 ( Ei — E2)
Fig. 5B shows that the frequency of the In discussing the performance of power- Percent regulation
E2
output pulses is twice that of the supply filters, it is sometimes convenient
half-wave rectifier. Comparatively less to express the load connected to the where
filtering is required. Since the rectifiers output terminals of the supply in terms of Ei = the no-load voltage
work alternately, each handles half of the resistance. The load resistance is equal to E2 = the full- load voltage
load current: The current rating of each the output voltage divided by the total
rectifier need be only half the total current current drawn, including the current A steady load, such as that represented
drawn from the supply. drawn by the bleeder resistor. by areceiver, speech amplifier or unkeyed
Two separate transformers, with their stages of a transmitter, does not require
primaries connected in parallel and Voltage Regulation good ( low) regulation as long as the
secondaries connected in series ( with The output voltage of a power supply proper voltage is obtained under load
the proper polarities), may be used in always decreases as more current is conditions. However, the filter capacitors
this circuit. However, if this substitu-

>in
tion is made, the primary volt-ampere
ting must be reduced to about 40 per-
t less than twice the rating of one
transformer.

Full- Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another commonly used rectifier cir-
cuit is illustrated in Fig. 6. In this
arrangement, two rectifiers operate in
series on each half of the cycle, one
rectifier being in the lead to the load, the
other being in the return lead. As shown
in Figs. 6A and B, when the top lead of
the transformer secondary is positive with
respect to the bottom lead diodes A and C
will conduct while diodes B and D are
reverse biased. On the next half cycle
when the top lead of the transformer is
negative with respect to the bottom diodes
B and D will conduct while diodes A and Fig. 6— Full- wave center- tap rectifier circuit. A illustrates the basic circuit. Diode conduction is shown
C are reverse biased. at B with diodes A and B alternately conducting. The peak- reverse voltage for each diode is 2.8 Erms
The output wave shape is the same as as depicted at C.
that from the simple center- tap rectifier
circuit. The maximum output voltage into
aresistive load or choke-input filter is 0.9
times the rms voltage delivered by the
transformer secondary; with a capacitor
filter and alight load the output voltage is
1.4 times the secondary rms voltage.
Fig. 6C shows the peak reverse voltage
to be 2.8 Ems for each pair of diodes.
Since the diodes are connected in series
each diode has 1.4 Ems as the reverse volt-
age impressed across it. Each pair of
diodes works alternately so each handles
2 BERNS
half of the load current. The rectifier in ,„,„ ( BOTH DIODES)

this circuit should have a minimum \EO/

N, \ (EACH DIODE)

current rating of one half the total load ‘,./ DIODE REVERSE
current to be drawn from the supply. VOLTAGE SWING

Filtering
The pulsating de waves from the Fig. 6— Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit. The basic circuit is illustrated at A. Diode conduction and
nonconduction times are shown at B. Diodes A and C conduct on one half of the input cycle while
rectifiers are not sufficiently constant in
diodes B and D conduct on the other. C displays the peak- reverse voltage for one-half cycle. Since
amplitude to prevent hum corresponding this circuit uses two diodes essentially in series, the 2.8 Erms is divided between two diodes, or, 1.4
to the pulsations. Filters are required be- Erms PRV for each diode.

5-4 Chapter 5
must have a voltage rating safe for the component. Series chokes will readily pass the load resistance is high. Silicon recti-
highest value to which the voltage will dc but will impede the flow of the ac fiers have a higher allowable peak-to-dc
soar when the external load is removed. component. ratio than do thermionic rectifiers. This
A power supply will show more ( higher) The alternating component is called permits the use of capacitor- input filters
regulation with long-term changes in load ripple. The effectiveness of the filter can be at ratios of input capacitor to load resis-
resistance than with short temporary expressed in terms of percent ripple, tance that would seriously shorten the life
changes. The regulation with long-term which is the ratio of the rms value of the of athermionic rectifier system. When the
changes is often called the static regula- ripple to the dc value in terms of series resistance through a rectifier and
tion, to distinguish it from the dynamic percentage. filter system is appreciable, as when high-
regulation (short temporary load changes). vacuum rectifiers are used, the voltage re-
A load that varies at a syllabic or keyed 100 Et gulation of acapacitor-input power sup-
Percent ripple (rms)
rate, as represented by some audio and rf E2 ply is poor.
amplifiers, usually requires good dynamic where The output voltage of a properly
regulation ( 15 percent or less) if distortion E1 = the rms value of ripple voltage designed choke- input power supply is less
products are to be held to alow level. The E2 = the steady dc voltage
than would be obtained with acapacitor-
dynamic regulation of a power supply is input filter from the same transformer.
improved by increasing the value of the Any multiplier or amplifier supply in a Generally speaking, a choke- input filter
output capacitor. code transmitter should have less than five will permit a higher load current to be
When essentially constant voltage re- percent ripple. A linear amplifier can drawn from athermionic rectifier without
gardless of current variation is required tolerate about three percent ripple on the exceeding the peak rating of the rectifier.
(for stabilizing an oscillator, for example), plate voltage. Bias supplies for linear
amplifiers, and modulator and modulated- Capacitive-Input Filters
special voltage-regulating circuits de-
scribed later in this chapter are used. amplifier plate supplies, should have less Capacitive-input filter systems are shown
than one percent ripple. VF0s, speech in Fig. 7. Disregarding voltage drops in
Bleeder amplifiers and receivers may require a the chokes, all have the same characteris-
A bleeder resistor is a resistance ripple reduction to 0.01 percent. tics except in respect to ripple. Better
connected across the output terminals of Ripple frequency is the frequency of the ripple reduction will be obtained when LC
the power supply. Its functions are to pulsations in the rectifier output wave — sections are added as shown in Figs. 7B
discharge the filter capacitors as asafety the number of pulsations per second. The and C.
measure when the power is turned off and frequency of the ripple with half-wave
rectifiers is the same as the frequency of Output Voltage
to improve voltage regulation by pro-
viding a minimum load resistance. When the line supply — 60 Hz with 60- Hz To determine the approximate dc
voltage regulation is not of importance, supply. Since the output pulses are voltage output when a capacitive-input
the resistance may be as high as 100 ohms doubled with a full-wave rectifier, the filter is used, the graphs shown in Fig. 8
per volt. The resistance value to be used ripple frequency is doubled — to 120 Hz will be helpful. An example of how to use
for voltage-regulating purposes is discussed with a60- Hz supply. the graph is given below.
in later sections. From the consideration The amount of filtering (values of Example:
of safety, the power rating of the resistor inductance and capacitance) required to Full-wave rectifier (use graph at B)
should be as conservative as possible, give adequate smoothing depends upon Transformer rms voltage = 350
since aburned-out bleeder resistor is more the ripple frequency, with more filtering Load resistance = 2000 ohms
dangerous than none at all! being required as the ripple frequency is Series resistance = 200 ohms
lowered. Input capacitance = 20 uF
Ripple Frequency and Voltage
Pulsations at the output of the rectifier Type of Filter
R, 200 RC 2000 X 20
can be considered to be the resultant of an Power- supply filters fall into two —
20F0 = 0.1 1000 — 1000 = "u
alternating current superimposed on a classifications, capacitor input and choke
steady direct current. From this view- input. Capacitor-input filters are charac- From curve 0.1 and RC = 40, the dc vol-
point, the filter may be considered to terized by relatively high output voltage in tage is ( 350 X 1.06) = 370.
consist of shunt capacitors which short- respect to the transformer voltage. Advan- In many cases it is desirable to know
circuit the ac component while not tage of this can be taken when silicon rec- the amount of capacitance required for a
interfering with the flow of the dc tifiers are used or with any rectifier when power supply given certain performance
criteria. This is especially true when
designing a power supply for an ap-
plication such as powering a solid-state
transceiver. The following example should
give the builder agood handle on how to
arrive at circuit values for apower supply
FROM using a single capacitor filter.
RECTIFIER
Fig. 9 is the circuit diagram of the
power supply to be used.
Requirements:
Output voltage = 12.6
Output current = 1ampere
Maximum ripple = 2percent
FROM Load regulation = 5percent
RECTIFIER The rms secondary voltage of TI must
be the desired output voltage plus the volt-
age drops across D2 and D4 divided by
1.41.

Fig. 7— Capacitive- input filter circuits. At A is asimple capacitor filter. B and C are single- and _ 12.6 + 1.4
double-section filters, respectively. ESEC 1.41

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-5

In practice the nearest standard trans-
1.4 0.0005
former ( 10 V) would work fine. Alterna- 0.005
tively, the builder could wind his own 0.01
1.3 -
transformer, or remove secondary turns
002
from a 12-volt transformer to obtain the
1.2
desired rms secondary voltage.
0 04
A two percent ripple referenced to 12.6
volts is 0.25 V rms. The peak-to-peak 0.06
value is therefore 0.25 X 2.8 = 0.7 V. This 1.0 - 0.08
value is required to calculate the required
capacitance for Cl. 0.9 0.1
Also needed for determining the value 0.125
of C Iis the time interval ( t) between the 0.15
full-wave rectifier pulses which is cal-
culated as follows: 0.2 RS

0.25 R
1
t = - -
1 = 8.3 x 10 0.3
i(Hz) 120 0.35

0.4
where tis the time between pulses and fis 0.5 0.5
the frequency in Hz. Since the circuit
makes use of afull- wave rectifier apulse 0.4
0.6
0.7
occurs twice during each cycle. With 0.8

half-wave rectification a pulse would 0.3

0.9

occur only once a cycle. Thus 120 Hz is

used as the frequency for this calculation. 0.2
Cl is calculated from the following
equation: 0 1-

C
(g) -r iLt Er,p(pk-pk) 10.
0.1 1

RC
• 3 5 10
. 30 50 100 300
500
1000

R IN OHMS, C IN pn
1000
(A)
[ IA x 8.3 x 10 1
10 6 These curves are adapted from those published by Otto H. Schade in " Analysis of Rectifier
0.7
Operation," Proceedings of the IRE., July 1943.

= 11,857,.4F 0.0005
0 005

0.01
where l L is the current taken by the load. 0.05

The nearest standard capacitor value is

12,000 i4F. It will be an acceptable one to 0.02

use, but since the tolerance of electrolytic

0.04
capacitors is rather loose, the builder may 1.2

elect to use the next larger standard value. 006

Diodes Dl- D4, inclusive, should have a
008
PRV rating of at least two times the
transformer secondary peak voltage. As- 0.1

suming a transformer secondary rms 0125

value of 10 volts, the PRV should be at 015

least 28 volts. Four 50-volt diodes will
provide a margin of safety. The forward o
current of the diodes should be at least
twice the load current. For a1-A load, the 0.25

diodes should be rated for at least 2 A. e 0.3

The load resistance, RL, is determined 0.35

by E0/I L,which in this example is 12.6/1 = 0.4
12.6 ohms. This factor must be known in 07-
05
order to find the necessary series resis-
tance for five-percent regulation. Calcu- 06
06
late as follows: 0.7

0.8
(R L) 05
Rs ( max) = Load regulation -
10

o
6 0'
.3 05 I 3 5 10 30 50 100 360 906 Itioo
= 12 = 0.063 ohm RC
10 (R IN OHMS, C IN pF)

(B)

Fig. 8- Dc output voltages from ahalf- and full-wave rectifier circuit as afunction of the filter
capacitance and load resistance ( half-wave shown at A and full-wave shown at B). Rs includes
Therefore, the transformer secondary dc transformer winding resistance and rectifier forward resistance. For the ratio Rs/R, both resistances
resistance should be no greater than 0.063 are in ohms; for the RC product, R is in ohms and C is in MF.

5-6 Chapter 5
ohm. The secondary current rating should F1 D2
be equal to or greater than the IL = 1am-
pere.
C1 should have a minimum working 117 PO
voltage of 1.4 times the output voltage. In VAC

the case of this power supply the capacitor

should be rated for at least 18 volts.
ON
Choke-Input Filters 0.01
Better voltage regulation results when a )
choke-input filter, as shown in Fig. 10, is E, (no load) = E,„ x 1.41 Cl = En x 1.41
used. Choke input permits better utiliza- Po = E0 X I L2 Fl (A) = 2I/N (N = turns ratio)
tion of the rectifier, since a higher load RL = E, I
L E5,„ E„ + 1.41
current can be drawn without exceeding
the peak current rating.
Fig. 9 — This figure illustrates how to design asimple unregulated power supply. See text for a
Minimum Choke Inductance thorough discussion.

A choke-input filter will tend to act as a

capacitive-input filter unless the input
choke has at least a certain minimum
value of inductance called the critical
value. For full-wave 60 Hz supplies, this
critical value is given by
E (volts)
L„,, (henrys) =
I (mA)
where
E = the supply output voltage
Fig. 10— Diagram showing various voltage drops that must be taken into consideration in determining
I = the current being drawn through the required transformer voltage to deliver the desired output voltage.
the filter.
If the choke has at least the critical load current of 200 mA is drawn from the vacuum-tube loads. When the supply is
value, the output voltage will be limited to supply, the inductance will drop to 5 H. used with aClass B amplifier (for modula-
the average value of the rectified wave at The critical inductance for 200 mA at tion or for ssb amplification) or a cw
the input to the choke when the current 1000 volts is 1000/200 = 5 H. Therefore transmitter, increasing the output
drawn from the supply is small. This is in the 5/25 H choke maintains the critical capacitance will result in improved dy-
contrast to the capacitive-input filter in inductance at the full current rating of 200 namic regulation of the supply. However,
which the output voltage tends to soar mA. At all load currents between 40 mA a region of diminishing returns can be
toward the peak value of the rectified and 200 mA, the choke will adjust its in- reached, and 20 to 30 F will usually
wave at light loads. ductance to the approximate critical value. suffice for any supply subjected to large
changes at a syllabic (or keying) rate.
Minimum-Load — Bleeder Resistance Output Voltage
From the formula above for critical in- Provided the input-choke inductance is Resonance
ductance, it is obvious that if no current is at least the critical value, the output Resonance effects in the series circuit
drawn from the supply, the critical induc- voltage may be calculated quite closely by: across the output of the rectifier, formed
tance will be infinite. So that a practical by the first choke and first filter capacitor,
E, = 0.9E, — ( I
B +I
L)x ( R1 + R2) — Er
value of inductance may be used, some must be avoided, since the ripple voltage
current must be drawn from the supply at where
would build up to large values. This not
all times the supply is in use. From the E, = output voltage only is the opposite action to that for
formula we find that this minimum value which the filter is intended, but may also
= rms voltage applied to the recti-
of current is
fier ( rms voltage between center-tap cause excessive rectifier peak currents and
and one end of the secondary in the abnormally high peak-reverse voltages.
1 (mA) — E ( volts)
, case of the center-tap rectifier) For full-wave rectification the ripple fre-
-crit
1
IB = bleeder current (A) quency will be 120 Hz for a60-Hz supply,
In the majority of cases it will be most IL = load current (A) and resonance will occur when the pro-
convenient to adjust the bleeder resistance R1 = first filter choke resistance duct of choke inductance in henrys times
so that the bleeder will draw the required R2 = second filter choke resistance capacitor capacitance in microfarads is
minimum current. From the formula, it Er = voltage drop across the rectifier. equal to 1.77. At least twice this product
may be seen that the value of critical in- The various voltage drops are shown in of inductance and capacitance should be
ductance becomes smaller as the load cur- Fig. 10. At no load I L is zero; hence the used to ensure against resonance effects.
rent increases. no-load voltage may be calculated on the With a swinging choke, the minimum
basis of bleeder current only. The voltage rated inductance of the choke should be
Swinging Chokes regulation may be determined from the used. If too high an LC filter product is
Less costly chokes are available that no-load and full-load voltages using the used, the resonance may occur at the
will maintain at least the critical value of formulas previously given. radio-telegraph keyinlgr e voice syllabic

inductance over the range of current likely rate, and large voltag ursions (filter
to be drawn from practical supplies. These Output Capacitor bounce) may be experierie at that rate.
chokes are called swinging chokes. As an Whether the supply has a choke- or
example, a swinging choke may have an capacitor-input filter, if it is intended for Ratings of Filter Components
inductance rating of 5/25 H and acurrent use with a Class A af amplifier, the In apower supply using achoke-input
rating of 200 mA. If the supply delivers reactance of the output capacitor should filter and properly designed choke and
1000 volts, the minimum load current be low for the lowest audio frequency; 16 bleeder resistor, the no-load voltage
should be 1000/25 = 40 mA. When the full 1.4F or more is usually adequate for across the filter capacitors will be about

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-7

 should burn out and there is no load on
the supply.
In a capactive-input filter, the capaci-
tors should have aworking-voltage rating
at least as high, and preferably somewhat
higher, than the peak voltage from the
transformer. Thus, in the case of acenter-
tap rectifier having atransformer deliver-
ing 550 volts each side of the center tap,
the minimum safe capacitor voltage rating
will be 550 X 1.41 or 775 volts. An 800-volt
capacitor should be used, or preferably a
Fig. 11 — In most applications, the filter choke may be placed in the negative instead of the
positive side of the circuit. This reduces the danger of a voltage breakdown between the choke 1000-volt unit.
winding and core. The ripple voltage developed across the choke can be rectified to provide a
"free" negative bias supply. Filter Capacitors in Series
Filter capacitors are made in several
different types. Electrolytic capacitors,
which are available for peak voltages up
to about 800, combine high capacitance
with small size, since the dielectric is an
extremely thin film of oxide on aluminum
foil. Capacitors of this type may be
connected in series for higher voltages,
although the filtering capacitance will be
reduced to the resultant of the two
capacitances in series. If this arrangement
is used, it is important that each of the
capacitors be shunted with a resistor of
about 100 ohms per volt of supply voltage
applied to the individual capacitors, with
an adequate power rating. These resistors
may serve as all or part of the bleeder
resistance. Capacitors with higher voltage
ratings usually are made with adielectric
Fig. 12 — The " economy" power supply circuit is acombination of the full- wave and bridge-
of thin paper impregnated with oil. The
rectifier circuits.
working voltage of a capacitor is the
voltage that it will withstand continuously.

Filter Chokes
Filter chokes or inductances are wound
on iron cores, with asmall gap in the core
to prevent magnetic saturation of the iron
at high currents. When the iron becomes
saturated its permeability decreases, and
consequently the inductance also decreases.
Despite the air gap, the inductance of a
choke usually varies to some extent with
the direct current flowing in the winding;
hence it is necessary to specify the induc-
tance at the current which the choke is
intended to carry. Its inductance with little
or no direct current flowing in the winding
will usually be considerably higher than
the value when full load current is flow-
ing.

Negative-Lead Filtering
For many years it has been almost
universal practice to place filter chokes in
Fig. 13— Illustrated at A is a half-wave voltage-doubler circuit. B displays how the first half cycle of the positive leads of plate power supplies.
input voltage charges Cl. During the next half cycle ( shown at C) capacitor C2 is charged with the
This means that the insulation between
transformer secondary voltage plus that voltage stored in Cl from the previous half cycle. D illustrates
the levels to which each capacitor is charged throughout the cycle. the choke winding and its core (which
.44,›
should be grounded to chassis as asafety
measure) must be adequate to withstand
the output voltage of the supply. This
voltage requirement is removed if the
choke is placed in the negative lead as
shown in Fig. 11. With this connection,
nine-tenths of the ac rms voltage. Never- This large safety factor is suggested the capacitance of the transformer secon-
theless, it is advisable to use capacitors because the voltage across the capacitors dary to ground appears in parallel with the
zaled
- for the peak transformer voltage. can reach this peak value if the bleeder filter chokes tending to bypass the chokes.

5-8 Chapter 5
However, this effect will be negligible in CONDUCTING

practical application except in cases where

the output ripples must be reduced to a
very low figure. Choke terminals, negative + Cl
capacitor terminals and the transformer 1.4 ERNS

center-tap terminal should be well pro-

tected against accidental contact, since
these will assume full supply voltage to DB
chassis should a choke burn out or the
NON- CONDUCTING
chassis connection fail.
A " free" negative supply of about 60% (A) (B)
of the plate potential can be obtained by
rectifying the ripple voltage developed NON- CONDUCTING

across the filter choke. The voltage across

the choke has an effective value of the
peak secondary voltage (measured with 1.4 ( RBIS -7

respect to the center tap) minus the main 1.4 ERNS

dc output voltage. Rectification multiplies

the choke voltage by 1.4.
+ C2 (D)
The " Economy" Power Supply 1.4 ERNS

In many transmitters of the 100-watt CONDUCTING

class, an excellent method for obtaining (C)

plate and screen voltages without wasting

power in resistors is by the use of the Fig. 14 — A full-wave voltage doubler is displayed at A. One half cycle is shown at Band the next
"economy" power-supply circuit. Shown half cycle at C. Each capacitor receives a charge during every cycle of input voltage. D illustrates
in Fig. 12, it is acombination of the full- how each capacitor is alternately charged.
wave and bridge- rectifier circuits. The volt-
age at EIis the normal voltage obtained
with the full-wave circuit, and the voltage
at E2 is that obtained with the bridge cir-
cuit. The total dc power obtained from the
transformer is, of course, the same as
when the transformer is used in its normal
manner. In cw and ssb applications, addi-
tional power can usually be drawn with-
out excessive heating, especially if the
transformer has arectifier filament wind-
ing that isn't being used. When negative-
lead choke filtering is used, the " free"
negative bias supply scheme described
above can be incorporated, making all of
atransmitting tube's operating potentials
available from a single transformer. The
entire peak secondary voltage is used to
calculate the resulting bias voltage.

Half-Wave Voltage Doubler

Fig. 13 shows the circuit of half-wave
voltage doubler. Figs. 13B, C and D
illustrate the circuit operation. For clarity,
assume the transformer voltage polarity at
the moment the circuit is activated is that
shown at B. During the first negative half
cycle DA conducts ( DB is in a noncon-
ductive state), charging Cl to the peak
rectified voltage ( 1.4 Ernis ). C1is charged
with the polarity shown at B. During the
positive half cycle of the secondary Fig. 15 — Dc output voltages from a full-wave voltage-doubling circuit as a function of the filter
capacitances and load resistance. For the ratio Rs/R and for the RC product, resistances are in
voltage, DA is cut off and diode DB con-
ohms and capacitance is in microfarads. Equal resistance values for Rs and equal capacitance
ducts charging capacitor C2. The amount values for C are assumed. These curves are adapted from those published by Otto H. Schade in
of voltage delivered to C2 is the sum of "Analysis of Rectifier Operation," Proceedings of the IRE., July 1943.
peak secondary voltage of the transformer
plus the voltage stored in C1 ( 1.4 Ern„).
On the next negative half cycle, DB is
nonconducting and C2 will discharge into
during the negative half cycle and is cuit in that C2 is pulsed once every cycle.
the load. If no load is connected across C2
recharged up to 2.8 Ern„ during the The drawing at Fig. 13D illustrates the
the capacitors will remain charged — Cl
positive half cycle. levels to which the two capacitors are
to 1.4 Ern „ and C2 to 2.8 Ern ,. When a
The output waveform across C2 re- charged throughout the cycle. In adtual
load is connected to the output of the
sembles that of a half-wave rectifier cir- Operation the capacitors will not die
doubler, the voltage klCIOSS C2 drops

Ac • Operated Power Supplies 54

charge all the way to zero as shown. Fig. I6A. On one half of the ac cycle C1
and C3 are charged to the source voltage
Full-Wave Voltage Doubler through D1, D2 and D3. On the opposite
Shown in Fig. 14 is the circuit of a half of the cycle D2 conducts and C2 is
full-wave voltage doubler. The circuit charged to twice the source voltage,
operation can best be understood by because it sees the transformer plus the
following Figs. 14B, C and D. During the charge in C1as its source. (D1 is cut off
positive half cycle of transformer secon- during this half cycle.) At the same time,
dary voltage, as shown at B, DA conducts D3 conducts, and with the transformer
charging capacitor CI to 1.4 Ems .DB is and the charge in C2 as the source, C3 is
not conducting at this time. charged to three times the transformer
During the negative half cycle, as voltage.
shown at C, DB conducts charging The voltage-quadrupling circuit of
capacitor C2 to 1.4 Erms while DA is non- Fig. 16B works in substantially similar
conducting. The output voltage is the sum fashion. In either of the circuits of Fig. 16,
of the two capacitor voltages which will be the output voltage will approach an exact
2.8 Erin ,under no-load conditions. Fig. multiple of the peak ac voltage when the
14D illustrates that each capacitor alter- output current drain is low and the
nately receives a charge once per cycle. capacitance values are high.
The effective filter capacitance is that of In the circuits shown, the negative leg
Cl and C2 in series, which is less than the of the supply is common to one side of the
Fig. 17 — Cross-sectional drawing of atypical
capacitance of either CI or C2 alone. transformer. The positive leg can be made power transformer. Multiplying the height (or
Resistors R in Fig. 14A are used to limit common to one side of the transformer by thickness of the laminations) by the width of
the surge current through the rectifiers. reversing the diodes and capacitors. the central core area in inches gives the value
to be applied to Fig. 18.
Their values are based on the transformer
voltage and the rectifier surge-current Plate and Filament Transformers:
rating, since at the instant the power sup- Volt-Ampere Rating
ply is turned on the filter capacitors look The number of volt-amperes delivered
like a short-circuited load. Provided the by atransformer depends upon the type of be exceeded without excessive transformer
limiting resistors can withstand the surge filter (capacitor or choke input) used, and heating.
current, their current-handling capacity is upon the type of rectifier used (full-wave With acapacitor-input filter, it should
based on the maximum load current from center tap, or full-wave bridge). With a be safe to draw 20 to 30 percent more
the supply. Output voltages approaching capacitive-input filter the heating effect in current than the rated value. With a
twice the peak voltage of the transformer the secondary is higher because of the choke-input filter, an increase in current
can be obtained with the voltage doubling high ratio of peak-to-average current. The of about 50 percent is permissible. If a
circuit shown in Fig. 14. Fig. 15 shows volt-amperes handled by the transformer bridge rectifier is used, the output voltage
how the voltage depends upon the ratio of may be several times the watts delivered to will be approximately doubled. In this
the series resistance to the load resistance, the load. With a choke-input filter, case, it should be possible in amateur
and the load resistance times the filter provided the input choke has at least the transmitter service to draw the rated
capacitance. The peak reverse voltage critical inductance, the secondary volt- current, thus obtaining about twice the
across each diode is 2.8 Erms. amperes can be calculated quite closely by rated output power from the transformer.
the equation: This does not apply, of course, to amateur
Voltage Tripling and Quadrupling transmitter plate transformers, which
0.707 El
A voltage-tripling circuit is shown in ( Full-wave ct) Sec VA usually are rated for intermittent service.
1000

El Rewinding Power Transformers

(Full-wave bridge) Sec VA =
1000 Although the home winding of power
transformers is a task that few amateurs
where undertake, the rewinding of atransformer
E = total rms voltage of the secondary secondary to give some desired voltage for
(between the outside ends in the case powering filaments or asolid-state device
of acenter-tapped winding) is not difficult. It involves amatter of only
I = dc output current in milliamperes a small number of turns and the wire is
(load current plus bleeder current) large enough to be handled easily. Often a
receiver power transformer with aburned-
The primary volt-amperes will be some- out high-voltage winding or the power
what higher because of transformer losses. transformer from adiscarded TV set can
be converted into an entirely satisfactory
transformer without great effort and with
Broadcast and Television Replacement little expense. The average TV power
Transformers transformer for a 17-inch or larger
Small power transformers of the type vacuum-tube set is capable of delivering
Fig 16 — Voltage-multiplying circuits with one sold for replacement in broadcast and from 350 to 450 watts, continuous duty. If
sido of transformer secondary common. (A)
television receivers are usually designed an amateur transmitter is being powered,
Voltage triplet': ( 8) voltage quadrupler.
Capacitances are typically 20 to 50 mF for service in terms of use for several the service is not continuous, so the
depending upon output current demand. De hours continuously with capacitor-input ratings can be increased by afactor of 40
ratings of capacitors are related to filters. In the usual type of amateur or 50 percent without danger of
Epee ', (1.4 Eae ).
Cl — Greater than Epeak
transmitter service, where most of the overloading the transformer.
C2 — Greater than 2Ep eak power is drawn intermittently for periods The primary volt-ampere rating of the
C3 — Greater than 3E peak of several minutes with equivalent inter- transformer to be rewound, if known, can
C4 — Greater than 4E peak vals in between, the published ratings can be used to determine its power-handling

5-10 Chapter 5
 capability. The secondary volt-ampere
4
rating will be 10 to 20 percent less than the
primary rating. The power rating may

INCHES
3-3/4
also be determined approximately from
3 1/2
the cross-sectional area of the core which
is inside the windings. Fig. 17 shows the

SQUARE
3-1/4
method of determining the area, and Fig.
18 may be used to convert this in- 3

formation into a power rating.

M
2-3/4
Before disconnecting the winding leads

AREA
from their terminals, each should be 2 - 1/2
marked for identification. In removing the

CORE
2-1/4
core laminations, care should be taken to
note the manner in which the core is 2

CROSS SECTION
assembled, so that the reassembling will
be done in the same manner. Most 1-3/4

transformers have secondaries wound

1-1/2
over the primary, while in some the order
is reversed. In case the secondaries are on 1-1/4
the inside, the turns can be pulled out
from the center after slitting and removing 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
the fiber core. POWER RATING OF TRANSFORMER IN WATTS
The turns removed from one of the
original filament windings of known
Fig. 18— Power- handling capability of atransformer versus cross-sectional area of core.
voltage should be carefully counted as the
winding is removed. This will give the
number of turns per volt and the same o

n
figure should be used in determining the
number of turns for the new secondary.
For instance, if the old filament winding
was rated at 5volts and had 15 turns, this
is 15/5 = 3 turns per volt. If the new OUTPUT VOLTAGE
AND DIODE CURRENT
secondary is to deliver 18 volts, the
(A)
required number of turns on the new DIODE
winding will be 18 X 3 = 54 turns. IPE AK
CONDUCTION

In winding a transformer, the size of FILTERED

OUTPUT
wire is an important factor in the heat VOLTAGE
developed in operation. A cross-sectional
area of 1000 circular mils per ampere is
HALF - WAVE
conservative. A value commonly used in RECTIFIED SIGNAL
amateur-service transformers is 700 cmil/ (B)
A. The larger the cmil/A figure, the cooler IPEAK DIODE
CONDUCTION
the transformer will run. The current
rating in amperes of various wire sizes is
shown in the copper-wire table in another
/ FILTERED
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE

chapter. If the transformer being rewound

is a filament transformer, it may be
necessary to choose the wire size carefully
HALF- WAVE
to fit the small available space. On the RECTIFIED SIGNAL
other hand, if the transformer is apower (C)

unit with the high-voltage winding re-

moved, there should be plenty of room for Fig. 19— The circuit shown at A is asimple half-wave rectifier with aresistive load. The waveform
shown to the right is that of output voltage and diode current. B illustrates how the diode current is
a size of wire that will conservatively modified by the addition of acapacitor filter. The diode conducts only when the rectified voltage is
handle the required current. greater than stored capacitor voltage. Since this time period is usually only ashort portion of acycle,
the peak current will be quite high. C shows an even higher peak current. This is due to the larger
After the first layer of turns is put on
capacitor which effectively shortens the conduction period of the diode.
during rewinding, secure the ends with
cellulose tape. Each layer should be
insulated from the next; ordinary house-
hold waxed paper can be used for the assembled in just the opposite sequence to high-vacuum and mercury-vapor rectifiers.
purpose, a single layer being adequate. that followed in disassembly. Use alight The semiconductors have the advantages
Sheets cut to size beforehand may be coating of shellac between each lamina- of compactness, low internal voltage drop,
secured over each layer with tape. Be sure tion. During reassembly, the lamination low operating temperature and high cur-
to bring all leads out the same side of the stack may be compressed by clamping in a rent-handling capability. Furthermore, no
core so the covers will go in place when vise. If the last few lamination strips can- filament transformers are required.
the unit is completed. When the last layer not be replaced, it is better to omit them Silicon rectifiers are available in awide
of the winding is put on, use two sheets of than to force the unit together. range of voltage and current ratings. In
waxed paper, and then cover those with peak reverse voltage ratings of 600 or less,
vinyl electrical tape, keeping the tape as Rectifier Ratings: Semiconductors silicon rectifiers carry current ratings as
taut as possible. This will add mechanical Silicon rectifiers are being used almost high as 400 amperes, and at 1000 PRV the
strength to the assembly. exclusively in power supplies for amateur current ratings may be several amperes.
The laminations and housing are equipment. Types are available to replace The extreme compactness of silicon type".

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-11

 duct until the waveform reaches the crest,
as shown. Since the diode must pass acur-
rent equal to that of the load over ashort
period of acycle the current will be high.
The larger the capacitor for agiven load,
the shorter the diode conduction time and
the higher the peak repetitive current (
IREP).
When the supply is first turned on, the
discharged input capacitor looks like a
Eo
dead short, and the rectifier passes avery
heavy current. This is ' SURGE- The maxi-
mum 'SURGE rating is usually for adura-
tion of one cycle ( at 60 Hz), or about 16.7
milliseconds.
If a manufacturer's data sheet is not
Fig. — The primary circuit of Ti shows how a 117-volt ac relay and
a series dropping resistor, Rs,can provide surge protection while C
available, an educated guess about a
OF F charges. When silicon rectifiers are connected in series for high- diode's capability can be made by using
voltage operation, the inverse voltage does not divide equally. The
reverse voltage drops can be equalized by using equalizing resistors, these rules of thumb for silicon diodes of
as shown in the secondary circuit. To protect against voltage " spikes"
that may damage an individual rectifier, each rectifier should be
the type commonly used in amateur
bypassed by a 0.01-e capacitor. Connected as shown two 400-PRV power supplies:
silicon rectifiers can be used as an 800-PRV rectifier, although it is
preferable to include a safety factor and call it a " 750-PRV" rectifier. Rule I) The maximum ' REP rating can
The rectifiers, D1 through 04, should be the same type (same type
number and ratings).
be assumed to be approximately four
times the maximum l o rating.

Rule 2) The maximum ' SURG E rating

can be assumed to be approximately 12
times the maximum 1 0 rating. (This
should provide areasonable safety factor.
Silicon rectifiers with 750-mA dc ratings,
as an example, seldom have 1-cycle surge
ratings of less than 15 amperes; some are
rated up to 35 amperes or more.) From
this then, it can be seen that the rectifier
should be selected on the basis of ' SURGE
and not on I o ratings.

Thermal Protection
The junction of adiode is quite small,
hence it must operate at a high current
density. The heat- handling capability is,
therefore, quite small. Normally, this is
not aprime consideration in high-voltage,
low-current supplies. When using high-
current rectifiers at or near their maxi-
mum ratings ( usually 2-ampere or larger
stud- mount rectifiers), some form of heat
Fig. 21 — Methods of suppressing line transients. See text. sinking is necessary. Frequently, mount-
ing the rectifier on the main chassis —
directly, or by means of thin mica insula-
ting washers — will suffice. If insulated
makes feasible the stacking of several does conduct it has to pass at least twice from the chassis, a thin layer of silicone
units.in series for higher voltages. Stan- the average direct current. With a grease should be used between the diode
dard stacks are available that will handle capacitor-input filter, the rectifier con- and the insulator, and between the insula-
up to 10,000 PRV at adc load current of ducts much less than half the time, so that tor and the chassis to assure good heat
500 mA, although the amateur can do when it does conduct, it may pass as much conduction. Large high-current rectifiers
e much better, economically, by stacking as 10 to 20 times the average dc current, often require special heat sinks to main-
the rectifiers herself. under certain conditions. This is shown in tain asafe operating temperature. Forced-
Fig. 19. At A is asimple half-wave recti- air cooling is sometimes used as afurther
Protection of Silicon Power Diodes fier with aresistive load. The waveform to aid. Safe case temperatures are usually
The important specifications of a the right of the drawing shows the output given in the manufacturer's data sheets
silicon diode are voltage along with the diode current. At B and should be observed if the maximum
I) PRV (or PIV), the peak reverse (or and C there are two periods of operation capabilities of the diode are to be realized.
peak inverse) voltage. to consider. After the capacitor is charged
2) 1
0, the average dc current rating. to the peak-rectified voltage a period of Surge Protection
3) IREP, the peak repetitive forward diode nonconduction elapses while the Each time the power supply is acti-
current. output voltage discharges through the load. vated, assuming the input filter capacitor
4) ISURGE, the peak one-cycle surge As the voltage begins to rise on the next has been discharged, the rectifiers must
current. The first two specifications appear positive pulse apoint is reached where the look into what represents a dead short.
in most catalogs. The last two often do rectified voltage equals the stored voltage Some form of surge protection is usually
not, but they are very important. in the capacitor. As the voltage rises be- necessary to protect the diodes until the
Since the rectifier never allows current yond that point the diode begins to supply input capacitor becomes nearly charged.
to flow more than half the time, when it current. The diode will continue to con- Although the dc resistance of the trans-

5- 12 Chapter 5
former secondary can be relied upon in the PRY drops and to guard against
some instances to provide ample surge- transient voltage spikes, as shown in Fig.
current limiting, it is seldom enough on 22A. Even though the diodes are of the
high-voltage power supplies to be suit- same type and have the same PRV rating,
able. Series resistors can be installed they may have widely different back
between the secondary and the rectifier resistances when they are cut off. The
strings, but are adeterrent to good voltage reverse voltage divides according to
regulation. By installing a surge-limiting Ohm's Law, and the diode with the higher
device in the primary circuit of the plate back resistance will have the higher
transformer, the need for series resistors voltage developed across it. The diode
in the secondary circuit can be avoided. A may break down.
practical method for primary-circuit surge If we put a swamping resistor across
control is shown in Fig. 20. The resistor, each diode, R as shown in Fig. 22A, the
Rs introduces a voltage drop in the resultant resistance across each diode will
primary feed to T1 until C is nearly be almost the same, and the back voltage
charged. Then, after C becomes partially will divide almost equally. A good rule of
charged, the voltage drop across 11, les- thumb for resistor size is this: Multiply the
sens and allows K1 to pull in, thus apply- PRY rating of the diode by 500 ohms. For Fig. 22 — A — Diodes connected in series
ing full primary power to T1 as K1A example, a 500- PRY diode should be should be shunted with equalizing resistors
and spike- suppressing capacitors. B — Diodes
shorts out Rs.Rsis usually a25-watt resis- shunted by 500 X 500, or 250,000 ohms.
connected in parallel should have series cur-
tor whose resistance is somewhere be- The shift from forward conduction to rent equalizing resistors.
tween 15 and 50 ohms, depending upon high back resistance does not take place
the power supply characteristics. instantly in asilicon diode. Some diodes
take longer than others to develop high
Transient Problems back resistance. To protect the " fast"
0+

A common cause of trouble is transient diodes in aseries string until all the diodes FROM TO
POWER
voltages on the ac power line. These are are properly cut off, a 0.01- ALF capacitor SUPPLY
LOAD

short spikes, mostly, that can temporarily should be placed across each diode. Fig. o o
increase the voltage seen by the rectifier to 22A shows the complete series-diode
values much higher than the normal circuit. The capacitors should be non-
transformer voltage. They come from inductive, ceramic disc, for example, and
distant lightning strokes, electric motors should be well matched. Use 10-percent-
turning on and off, and so on. Transients tolerance capacitors if possible.
cause unexpected, and often unexplained,
loss of silicon rectifiers. Diodes in Parallel FROM
POWER

It's always wise to suppress line Diodes can be placed in parallel to SUPPLY

transients, and it can be easily done. Fig. increase current- handling capability.
21 A shows one way. Cl looks like Equalizing resistors should be added as
280,000 ohms at 60 Hz, but to a sharp shown in Fig. 22B. Without the resistors,
transient (which has only high-frequency one diode may take most of the current. (B)
components), it is an effective bypass. C2 The resistors should be selected to have
provides additional protection on the about a 1-volt drop at the expected peak
secondary side of the transformer. It current. RI

should be 0.01 le for transformer volt-

ages of 100 or less, and 0.001 ALF for Voltage Dropping Resistor FROM
POWER R2
high-voltage transformers. Certain plates and screens of the SUPPLY

Fig. 21B shows another transient- various tubes in atransmitter or receiver

suppression method using selenium sup- often require a variety of operating R3

pressor diodes. The diodes do not conduct voltages differing from the output voltage - 0-
unless the peak voltage becomes abnor- of an available power supply. In most
mally high. Then they clip the transient cases, it is not economically feasible to
(C)
peaks. General Electric sells protective provide aseparate power supply for each
diodes under the trade name, "Thy- of the required voltages. If the current
rector." Sarkes-Tarzian uses the descrip- drawn by an electrode (or combination of Fig. 23 — A — Series voltage-dropping
resistor. B — Simple voltage divider.
tive name, " Klipvolt." electrodes operating at the same voltage)
Transient voltages can go as high as is reasonably constant under normal R2 = El R1El E —
twice the normal line voltage before the operating conditions, the required voltage 12 = 11 + 12
suppressor diodes clip the peaks. Capaci- may be obtained from asupply of higher 12 must be assumed.
tors cannot give perfect suppression voltage by means of a voltage-dropping C — Multiple divider circuit.
either. Thus, it is a good idea to use resistor in series, as shown in Fig. 23A. E2 El — E2 Ri

power-supply rectifiers rated at about The value of the series, resistor, RI, may R3 = 13-- = 11 + 13 11 + 17+ 13
twice the expected PRV. be obtained from Ohm's Law, 13 must be assumed.
Ed
Diodes in Series R —
other stages require an operating voltage
Where the PRY rating of asingle diode
of 250. The nearest available supply volt-
is not sufficient for the application, where
age is 400 and the total of the rated plate
similar diodes may be used in series. (Two Ed = voltage drop required from the
and screen currents is 75 mA. The
500-PRY diodes in series will withstand supply voltage to the desired voltage.
required resistance is
1000 PRY, and so on.) When this is done, I = total rated current of the load
aresistor and acapacitor should be placed Example: The plate of the tube in one R = 400 ;5250 = 000 0i,ms
across each diode in the string to equalize stage and the screens of the tubes in two

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-13

 The power rating of the resistor is mum dissipation rating, would conduct 5
obtained from P ( watts) = I2R = (0.075) 2
amperes. A 10-V 1-W diode, on the
X ( MOO) = 11.2 watts. A 20-watt resistor is other hand, could safely conduct no
more than 0.1A, or 100 mA. The conduct-
the nearest safe rating to be used.
ing impedance of a diode is its voltage
Voltage Dividers rating divided by the current flowing
through it, and in the above examples
The regulation of the voltage obtained
in this manner obviously is poor, since would be 2ohms for the 50-W diode, and
any change in current through the resistor 100 ohms for the 1-W diode. Disregarding
will cause a directly proportional change small voltage changes which may occur,
in the voltage drop across the resistor. The the conducting impedance of a given
regulation can be improved somewhat by diode is afunction of the current flowing
connecting a second resistor from the through it, varying in inverse proportion.
low-voltage end of the first to the negative The power-handling capability of most
power-supply terminal, as shown in Fig. Zener diodes is rated at 25°C, or approxi-
23B. Such an arrangement constitutes a mately room temperature. If the diode is
voltage divider. The second resistor, R2, operated in ahigher ambient temperature,
its power capability must be derated. A
acts as aconstant load for the first, R1, so
typical I-watt diode can safely dissipate
that any variation in current from the tap
becomes asmaller percentage of the total only 1/2 watt at 100°C.
current through RI. The heavier the Part C of Fig. 24 illustrates a method
current drawn by the resistors when they for multiplying the effective power-
alone are connected across the supply, the handling capability of a small Zener
better will be the voltage regulation at the diode. When the diode conducts, it sup-
plies base current to a power transistor.
tap.
Such a voltage divider may have more This causes collector current to be drawn
than a single tap for the purpose of through the series limiting resistance (see
obtaining more than one value of voltage. next section). This current drops the diode
A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. voltage (V, + Vbe ) to the conduction
23C. The terminal voltage is E, and two threshold. When load current is drawn
taps are provided to give lower voltages, through Rs,the output voltage tends to
El and E2, at currents I1 and 12 drop below the conduction threshold. But
respectively. The smaller the resistance when the diode ceases to conduct, the
between taps in proportion to the total transistor collector ceases to draw current.
resistance, the lower is the voltage This negative feedback or servo action
between the taps. The voltage divider in stabilizes the current in the limiting
the figure is made up of separate resistor and regulates the output voltage
resistances, RI, R2 and R3. R3 carries at V, + Vb e.With this approach, the con-
only the bleeder current, 13; R2 carries 12 ducting impedance of the Zener diode is
in addition to 13; R1carries 11, 12 and 13. divided by the transistor beta.
To calculate the resistances required, a When high load current is required, a
bleeder current, 13, must be assumed; Zener diode shunt regulator is grossly in-
generally it is low compared with the total efficient because of the voltage dropped
load current ( 10 percent or so). Then the and power dissipated by the current-
Fig. 24 — Zener-diode voltage regulation. The
required values can be calculated as voltage from a negative supply may be limiting resistor. This deficiency can be
shown in the caption of Fig. 23, 1being in regulated by reversing the power-supply con- overcome by means of the emitter
decimal parts of an ampere. nections and the diode and transistor follower arrangement of Fig. 24D. A
The method may be extended to any polarities. The operation of these circuits is
Zener diode establishes a reference
discussed in the text.
desired number of taps, each resistance voltage for the transistor base, and the
section being calculated by Ohm's Law load current flows in the collector-emitter
using the needed voltage drop across it the diode can dissipate) run from less than circuit. The limiting resistor is selected to
and the total current through it. The 0.25 watt to 50 watts. The ability of the provide the maximum load current
power dissipated by each section may be Zener diode to stabilize avoltage is depen- divided by the minimum transistor beta,
calculated by multiplying Iand E or I' dent upon the conducting impedance of plus the desired Zener current. As with the
and R. the diode, which can be as low as one ohm shunt current boosting circuit described
or less in alow-voltage, high-power diode above, the output impedance of this
Zener Diode Regulation to as high as athousand ohms in alow- voltage regulator will be the Zener im-
A Zener diode (named after Dr. Carl power, high-voltage diode. pedance divided by the transistor beta.
Zener) can be used to stabilize a voltage The output voltage is V, — Vbe .
source in much th eway as when the Diode Power Dissipation
Limiting Resistance
gaseous regulator is used. The typical Unlike gaseous regulator tubes, Zener
circuit is shown. g. 24A. Note that the diodes of aparticular voltage rating have The value of Rs in Fig. 24 is determined
cathode side otthe diode is connected to varied maximum current capabilities, de- by the load requirements. If Rs is too
the positive side:of the supply. The elec- pending upon the power ratings of each of large the diode will be unable to regulate
trical characteristics of a Zener diode the diodes. The power dissipated in a at large values of IL ,the current through

under conditions of forward and reverse diode is the product of the voltage across RL.If Rs is too small, the diode dissipa-
voltage are given in Chapter 4. it and the current through it. Conversely, tion rating may be exceeded at low values
Zener diodes are available in a wide the maximum current a particular diode of IL .The optimum value for Rs can be

variety of voltages and power ratings. The may safely conduct equals its power rating calculated by:
divided by its voltage rating. Thus, a10-V, Erx (m in) — Ez
voltages range from less than two to afew
Rs =
hundred, while the power ratings (power 50-W Zener diode, if operated at its maxi-
1.1I L(max)

5-14 Chapter 5
 When Rs is known, the maximum
dissipation of the diode, PD , may be
determined by
[ EDc(max) — Ez
PD = Rs IL(min] Ez

In the first equation, conditions are set

up for the Zener diode to draw 1/10 the
maximum load current. This assures
diode regulation under maximum load.
Example: A 12- volt source is to supply
acircuit requiring 9 volts. The load cur-
rent varies between 200 and 350 mA.

Ez = 9.1 V ( nearest available value)

12 — 9.1 2.9
Rs = Il x 035 = = 7.5 ohms

PD = [12 — 9.1 — 0.21 9.1

7.5
=0 185 x9.1 = 1.7 W

The nearest available dissipation rating

above 1.7 W is 5; therefore, a9.1-V 5-W
Zener diode should be used. Such arating,
it may be noted, will cause the diode to be
in the safe dissipation range even though
the load is completely disconnected
[IL(min) = 0].

Obtaining Other Voltages

Fig. 24B shows how two Zener diodes
may be used in series to obtain regulated
voltages not normally obtainable from a
single Zener diode, and also to give two
values of regulated voltage. The diodes
need not have equal breakdown voltages,
because the arrangement is self equalizing.
However, the current-handling capability
of each diode should be taken into ac-
count. The limiting resistor may be
calculated as above, taking the sum of the
diode voltages as Ez,and the sum of the
load currents as IL.

ELECTRONIC VOLTAGE
REGULATION
When extremely low ripple is required,
or when the supply voltage must be con-
stant with large fluctuations of load cur-
rent and line voltage, a closed-loop
amplifier is used to regulate the supply.
There are two main categories of elec-
tronic regulators: linear regulators, in
which the conduction of acontrol element
is varied in direct proportion to the line
voltage or load current, and switching
regulators, in which the control device is
Fig. 25 — Linear electronic voltage regulator circuits. In these diagra tteries represent the
switched on and off, with the duty cycle unregulated input voltage source. A transformer, rectifier and filter would this function in most
proportional to the line or load condi- applications. (A) Series regulator. (
B) Shunt regulator. (C) Amplifying the r e voltage to equal
tions. Each system has relative advantages the desired output voltage allows the control circuit to operate at unity clos ain for minimum
output impedance. This system can also be applied to shunt regulators. ( 0) e sensing over-
and disadvantages, and there are applica-
comes poor load regulation caused by IR drop in the connecting wires by brin them inside the
tions for both types in Amateur Radio feedback loop.
equipment.

LINEAR REGULATORS sampled by the error amplifier, which

power source. A stable reference voltage
The two basic forms of linear regulators is established by aZener diode. In critical compares the output (usually attenuated
are sketched in Fig. 25. A series regulator, applications a temperature-compensated by a voltage divider) to the reference. If
shown at A, is used in applications requir- reference diode (discussed in Chapter 4) the scaled-down output voltage is higher
ing efficient utilization of the primary would be used. The output voltage is than the reference voltage, the error

Ac - Onereted Power SPIN:dies 5-15

amplifier reduces the drive current to the with this reference voltage for any output
pass transistor. Conversely, if the load voltage. The 6-volt reference potential can
pulls the output voltage below the value be dc amplified to any reasonable level by
called for, the amplifier drives the pass means of an IC op amp. This reference
transistor into increased conduction. The amplifier will have anear-zero output im-
series pass transistor forms a voltage pedance, and the high impedance of the
divider with the load resistance. In aseries error amplifier input will not measurably
regulator the power dissipation of the pass load the reference voltage. If the
transistor is directly proportional to the amplified reference voltage is made equal
load current and input-output voltage dif- to the desired output voltage, one input
ferential. The series-pass element can be terminal of the error amplifier can be con-
located in either leg of the supply, and nected directly to the supply output.
either npn or pnp devices can be used, Without a scaling network, the output
depending on the ground polarity of the regulation will be determined strictly by
unregulated input. the error amplifier gain. Part C of Fig. 25
Fig. 25B shows asimple shunt regulator illustrates this technique.
circuit. Such asystem would be used when In any regulator, the output is cleanest
the load on the unregulated voltage source and regulation stiffest at the point where
must be kept constant. The operation is the sampling network or error amplifier is
Fig. 26 — Inductive flyback switching circuit
similar to that of the series regulator, ex- connected. If heavy load current is drawn
used in voltage regulators. At A, the switch is
cept that the control element is in parallel through long leads, the voltage drop can closed, charging the inductor through the load
with the output load. As the load current degrade the regulation at the load. To resistor. Opening the switch as in B causes
varies, the control transistor changes combat this effect, the feedback connec- the inductor voltage to reverse polarity as it at-
tempts to maintain current through the load.
resistance in opposition to the load such tion to the error amplifier can be made
The discharge path Is through the diode. Ac-
that the resistance of the parallel com- directly to the load. This technique, called tual electron flow is depicted by the arrows.
bination remains constant, drawing acon- remote sensing, moves the point of best
stant current through Rs. Note that the in- regulation to the load by bringing the con-
put polarity of the error amplifier is necting loads inside the feedback loop.
reversed with respect to the series This is shown in Fig. 25D. tended meaning is clear from the context.
regulator configuration. This is aresult of Linear voltage regulators are called for Conducted and radiated RFI are the
the inversion caused by the common- in applications requiring tight regulation major shortcomings attributed to switch-
emitter control transistor. The power with very low output noise and ripple. The ing power supplies, and careful engineer-
dissipation in the control transistor is trade-offs for these traits are bulk, weight ing is required to reduce the output noise
greatest when the output is unloaded. and heat dissipation. Several examples of to an acceptable level. What constitutes
The " stiffness" or tightness of regula- linear regulator design are given in the an acceptable level depends on the elec-
tion of a linear regulator depends on the construction section of this chapter. tronic environment and the sensitivity of
gain of the error amplifier and the ratio of the load. In general, a digital computer
SWITCHING REGULATORS would be far more tolerant of a noisy
the output scaling resistors. The latter
consideration is usually the most signifi- A second class of regulator circuit power supply than would be afrequency
cant because high-gain IC op amps can be becoming increasingly important in elec- synthesizer or a small-signal audio
used in the error amplifier. If the tronics is the switching regulator. In a amplifier. Also, switching supplies are not
reference potential is 1volt and the scaling switching regulator the pass element as forgiving as linear supplies in terms of
resistors selected to produce an output of oscillates between fully off and fully on, component substitutions and design
10 volts, the loop gain is reduced (hence and the transitions between these two shortcuts. One can assemble a linear
output impedance increased) by a factor states are made as short as possible. power supply from a collection of
of 10. Increasing the reference potential to Operating acontrol device (usually atran- available components without a rigorous
5volts and rescaling the sampling divider sistor) in the switching mode significantly design procedure and often achieve a
for the same 10-volt output will improve reduces the heating, as voltage and cur- workable (if not optimum) result. An ac-
the regulation by a factor of five com- rent are not applied simultaneously. The ceptable method is to power up the unit,
pared to the previous example. Thus, if chief application of switching supplies has check ripple, noise, line and load regula-
the 10-volt supply using a one-volt been to low-voltage, high-current loads tion, and, finally, the heat sink
reference produced an output change of 5 (such as computers), where high efficiency temperature. Constructing and testing a
mV for acertain load variation, the sup- is difficult to realize in a linear circuit. switching supply is not as straightforward
ply having the 5-volt reference will pro- However, the switching technique can because the operation is complex and the
duce only a 1-mV change. The same rule also be applied to high-voltage situations. failure modes can be subtle.
applies to output ripple. However, this Al Helfrick, K2BLA, demonstrated a Fig. 26 illustrates the switching
characteristic can be controlled in- 2000-volt, 1-ampere switching supply no regulator concept. While the switch is
dependently of the load regulation by larger than a shoe box to the ARRL closed (as in A of Fig. 26) the inductor
shunting RI in Fig. (A and B) with a technical staff. A more conventional high- current builds up through the load
capacitor. This a the regulator to voltage application would be in the deflec- resistor, storing energy. Note the polarity
function at m loop gain for the ac tion circuits of aCRT terminal. of the voltages. The diode is reverse-
component of e. output. There is an important distinction be- biased when the switch is closed. After the
The above &IC:fission leads to the con- tween switching regulators and switching current has built up to the maximum value
clusion that the reference voltage in a power supplies. The former operate on an drawn by the load, the switch may be
linear regulator should be as high as possi- existing source of direct current. Switch- opened, as shown in Fig. 26B. The induc-
ble. However, solid-state physics and ing supplies, on the other hand, combine tor tends to resist any change in current
fabi•ication technology dictate that the the rectification and regulation functions, flow. When the switch is opened, the in-
best temperature stability is obtained with chopping the ac input so that the only terruption of battery current causes the
reference diodes having operating poten- transformers required are lightweight magnetic field in the inductor to collapse,
tials in the 6-volt region. There is asimple high-frequency units. The two terms are inducing alarge emf. The polarity of the
technique for obtaining tight regulation often used interchangeably when the in- emf is such to maintain current in the

5-16 Chapter 5
tn igitial direction, 30 the armature of the
open switch becomes negative with respect
to the load end of the inductor. Without
the diode in the circuit, the emf would in-
crease until it jumped across the switch in
an effort to maintain the current.
However, the diode (called a "catch
diode") becomes forward biased by the
inductor emf polarity reversal, clamping
the switched end of the inductor essential-
ly to ground. The negative-going transient
at the switched end is transformed into a
positive-going spike at the load. If all
components were ideal, no transients
would occur; the inductor would simply
maintain aconstant current through (and Fig. 27— Overload protection for aregulated supply can be effected by addition of acurrent-overload
therefore a constant voltage across) the protective circuit.
load. In practice, alarge capacitor is con-
nected across the load to bypass the
switching transients. When Q2 turns on, some of the current
To achieve regulation, aswitching type through Rs flows through Q2, thereby de-
of power supply must have a voltage priving Q1 of some of its base current.
reference and feedback loop similar to This action, depending upon the amount
those employed in a linear regulator. A of Q 1base current at a precise moment,
transistor usually serves as the control ele- cuts off Q 1conduction to some degree,
ment (switch), but some of the more ad- thus limiting the flow of current through
vanced designs use thyristors in the ac it.
primary circuit, completely obviating the
usual (heavy and lossy) transformer- High-Current-Output Regulators
rectifier circuit. A simple Zener diode reference or IC
The design of a switching regulator is op-amp error amplifier may not be able to
not trivial. Many factors enter into the source enough current to apass transistor
calculations, including the magnetic pro- that must conduct heavy load current.
perties of the inductor and the dynamic The Darlington configuration of Fig. 28A
switching characteristics of the semicon- multiplies the pass transistor beta, thereby
ductors. The switching performance is im- extending the control range of the error
portant to avoid " hot spots." This amplifier. If the Darlington arrangement
phenomenon results from too slow a is implemented with discrete transistors,
device being used to switch heavy current. resistors across the base-emitter junctions
Sometimes the current is concentrated in a may be necessary to stabilize the total beta
small portion of the junction rather than over wide temperature variations. These
distributed evenly. This effect is resistors are contained in the envelope of a
manifested by the sudden failure of the monolithic Darlington device.
circuit after aperiod of perfect operation. When a single pass transistor is not Fig. 28 — At A, a Darlington-connected pair for
The failed transistor is usually cool to the available to handle the current required use as the pass element in aseries-regulating
circuit. At B, the method of connecting two or
touch. from a regulator, the current-handling more transistors in parallel for high current
capability may be increased by connecting output. Resistances are in ohms. The circuit at
Current Limiting for Discrete-Component two or more pass transistors in parallel. A may be used for load currents from 100 mA
Regulators The circuit at B of Fig. 28 shows the to 5A, at B for currents from 6to 10A.
01 — Motorola MJE 340 or equivalent.
Damage to a pass transistor can occur method of connection. The resistances in
02-04, incl. — Power transistor such as
when the load current exceeds the safe the emitter leads of each transistor are 2N3055 or 2N3772.
amount. Fig. 27 illustrates a simple necessary to equalize the currents.
current-limiter circuit that will protect Ql.
All of the load current is routed through IC Voltage Regulators
R2. A voltage difference will exist across The modern trend in regulators is
R2, the amount being dependent upon the toward the use of three- terminal devices range of voltage and current ratings.
exact load current at agiven time. When commonly referred to as three- terminal Fairchild, National and Motorola are
the load current exceeds apredetermined regulators. Inside each regulator is a perhaps the three largest suppliers of these
safe value, the voltage drop across R2 will reference, a high-gain error amplifier, regulators at present. It is easy to see why
forward bias Q2 and cause it to conduct. sensing resistors and transistors, and a regulators of this s re so popular when
Since D6 is a silicon diode, and because pass element. Some of the more sophis- one considers the w price and the
Q2 is a silicon transistor, the combined ticated units have thermal shutdown, number of individ ...components they
voltage drops through them ( roughly 0.7 over-voltage protection and current fold- can replace. The regtilkors are available
V each) will be 1.4 V. Therefore the back. Many of the regulators currently in several different package styles —
voltage drop across R2 must exceed 1.4 V on the market are virtually destruction- T0-3, TO- 39, TO-66, TO-220 and dual
before Q2 can turn on. This being the proof. Several supplies using these ICs are in -line (
DIP), to name just a few.
case, R2 is chosen for a value that featured in the construction section of this Three- terminal regulators are available
provides a drop of 1.4 V when the chapter. as positive or negative types. In most
maximum safe load current is drawn. In Three-terminal regulators ( aconnection cases, a positive regulator is used to
this instance 1.4 volts will be seen when I L for unregulated dc input, regulated dc regulate apositive voltage and anegative
reaches 0.5A. output and ground) are available in awide regulator a negative voltage. However,

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-17

 nected as an emitter follower, multiplying
the output current capacity by the tran-
sistor beta. The shortcoming of this ap-
proach is that the base-emitter junction is
not inside the feedback loop. The result is
that the output voltage is reduced by the
(A) base-emitter drop, and the load regulation
is degraded by variations in this drop. The
circuit at B has apnp transistor " wrapped
o+ around" the regulator. The regulator
I INPUT
SUPPLY draws current through the base-emitter
IN NEGATIVE OUT junction, causing the transistor to con-
REGUL ATOR
duct. The IC output voltage is unchanged
by the transistor because the collector is
(B)
connected directly to the IC output (sense
Fig. 31 — Exterior view of the 12-volt, 3-ampere ,
no-frills power supply.
point). Any increase in output voltage is
detected by the IC regulator, which shuts
INPUT
SUPPLY
off its internal pass transistor, and this
IN NEGATIVE lOUT
stops the boost transistor base current.
REGULATOR
voltages with acommon ground. Negative Most IC regulators are internally con-
regulators may be used in the same figured as linear series regulators.
(C) However, the manufacturer's applications
manner. If no other common supplies
operate off the input supply to the literature shows how to use these devices
regulator, the circuits of Figs. 29C and D in shunt regulators and even switching
may be used to regulate positive voltages regulators.
L
INPUT +
I IN POSITIVE 1OUT
REGULATOR , T, with a negative regulator and vice versa.
SUPPLY _ A 12-Volt 3-Ampere Power Supply
In these configurations the input supply is
o floated; neither side of the input is tied to Shown in Fig. 31 is a no- frills 12-volt
supply capable of continuous operation at
(0) the system ground.
When choosing a three-terminal regu- the 3- ampere level. Many low- power hf
lator for agiven application the important transceivers and most vhf- fm transceivers
Fig. 29 — A and B illustrate the conventional
specifications to look for are maximum require voltages and currents on this
manner in which three-terminal regulators are order. Power supplies of this type
used. C and D show how one polarity regulator output current, maximum output voltage,
can be used to regulate the opposite polarity minimum and maximum input voltage, purchased from the manufacturers can be
voltage. line regulation, load regulation and power quite costly. Described here is a very
dissipation. simple to build and relatively inexpensive
(around $ 20 using all new components)
In use, these regulators require an ade-
quate heat sink since they may be called alternative.
The schematic diagram for the power
on to dissipate a fair amount of power.
supply is shown in Fig. 32. As can be seen,
Also, since the chip contains ahigh-gain
the circuit is simplicity itself. A trans-
error amplifier, bypassing of the input
former, two diodes, three capacitors and a
and output leads is essential to stable
regulator form the heart of the supply.
operation. Most manufacturers recom-
Binding posts, a pilot light, fuse and
mend bypasing the input and output
on-off switch complete the design.
directly at the leads where they protrude
Ac from the mains is supplied to the
through the heat sink. Tantalum
transformer-primary winding through the
capacitors are usually recommended
fuse in one leg, and the on-off switch in
because of their excellent bypass
the other. The secondary circuit feeds a
capabilities up into the vhf range.
full-wave rectifier circuit which is filtered
Relatively new on the electronic scene
by Cl. This unregulated voltage is routed
are high-current, adjustable voltage regu- to the input terminal of the regulator IC
lators. These ICs require little more than which is bypassed directly at the case with
an external potentiometer for an ad- a2-0,F tantalum capacitor. The case of the
justable voltage range from 5to 24 volts at
IC is connected to ground. A 2-u F
up to 5amperes. The unit price on these
tantalum capacitor is also used at the
items is currently around $6making them
output terminal of the regulator to
ideal for atest bench power supply. The
prevent unwanted oscillation of the error
Fig. 30 — Two methods for boosting the cur- same precautions should be taken with
rent output capacity of an IC voltage regulator. amplifier inside the IC. A pilot light
these types of regulators as with the fixed-
(A) Npn emitter follower. (
B) Pnp " wraparound." attached to the regulated output indicates
Operation of these circuits is explained in the
voltage units. Proper heat sinking and when the supply is in use.
text. lead bypassing is essential for proper cir- The regulator has built-in thermal shut
cuit operation. down and over-current protection. Short
When the maximum current output circuiting the output of the supply will
from an IC voltage regulator is insuffi- cause no damage. A wide margin of
depending on the systems ground require- cient to operate the load, discrete power conservative component rating was used
ments, each regulator type may be used transistors may be connected to increase in the design of this supply. It should be
to regulate the " opposite" voltage. the current capability. Fig. 30 shows two possible to run the supply for hours on
Figs. 29A and B illustrate how the regu- methods for boosting the current output end at its maximum rating.
lators are used in the conventional mode. of apositive regulator, although the same
Construction
Several regulators can be used with a techniques can be applied to negative
common-input supply to deliver several regulators. In A, an npn transistor is con- Rather than using an expensive cabinet,
 regulatory circuitry is higher than
DI 16 .8y Ji necessary, excessive heating of the series
>I <
pass transistors will result. On the other
C3
2
uF
DS1
hand, the bottom of the filter ripple
25V
24VCT cI voltage must be high enough to maintain
ID 12 VDC
C 25V

the necessary voltage differential across

02 4200,uF the regulator. Since the power capability
50V INPUT of this supply is limited by the dissipation
IA
/ / / of the pass transistors rather than the
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ;
U1 ( BOTTOM VIEW) transformers, every effort was made to
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS tpF OR iikiF); CASE optimize the input to the regulator. An
GROUND
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; "odd couple" of computer-grade
k • 1,000, kl• I000, 000.
aluminum filter capacitors, totaling more
than 0.1 F, supplies 22.3 V dc (under a
Fig. 32— Schematic diagram of the 12-volt, 3- am pere power supply. 20-A load) to the regulator at less than 1V
C 1 — Electrolytic capacitor, 4200 uF, 50 V, J1, J2 — Binding post. pk-pk ripple. The price for low
General Electric 86F166M or equiv. S1 — Spst toggle. preregulator ripple is extremely high peak
C2, C3 — Tantalum capacitor, 2uF, 50 V. Ti — Power transformer; primary 117 V,
DI, 02— Silicon diode, 50 V, 6A, HEP R0100 or rectifier current. A bridge package rated
secondary 24 V ct, Stancor P-8663 or equiv.
equiv. U1 — Voltage regulator, Fairchild 78H12KC or for 25 amperes continuous duty proved
DS1 — Pilot light assembly, 12 V. equiv. unequal to the task; individual 35 A
Fl — Fuse, 1A.
diodes perform adequately.
Voltage regulation is handled by an IC
fixed-station operator must obtain an ex- regulator that is supplemented by an array
ternal ac supply. These " accessories" cost of eight 2N3055 power transistors. These
upwards of $200 and sometimes offer only transistors came from various sources and

9L.
marginal performance. The heat sinks on showed unequal current distribution,
most transceivers are adequate for low- despite the 0.141 spreading resistor in each

-1
duty-cycle ssb operation. A fan is required emitter. Although higher value resistors
for SSTV, RTTY, slow-speed cw, or even would correct this condition, their power
speech-processed ssb. Matching accessory rating would have to be increased, as

r
power supplies are subject to the same would the regulator input voltage. Tran-
WI limitations and may fall down under these sistors from a single manufacturing lot
conditions, even if externally cooled. The should be sufficiently uniform for this ap-
combined shortcomings of the transceiver plication. An additional 2N3055, Q4,
Fig. 33 — Interior view of the 3-ampere power and power supply discourage many drives the array of eight from the
supply. operators from trying modes other than regulator in a Darlington configuration.
ssb. A sturdier power supply can go along Q2 monitors the voltage developed across
way toward increasing the flexibility of a the current-sense resistor, reducing the
solid-state amateur station. regulator output drive when the load cur-
the power supply is housed on an alu-
The power supply described in this sec- rent exceeds 30 A. If the unit has been
minum chassis measuring 5 X 9-1/2 X 3
tion is a heavy-duty unit capable of 300 supplying 20 A for more than 10 minutes,
inches ( 127 X 241 X 76 mm). Mounted
watts continuous duty or 400 watts PEP. the current-limiting point folds back to
atop the chassis is the power transformer,
The cost will depend on the availability of about 24 A as a result of heating in the
filter capacitor and regulator. The regula-
components, but should be significantly sense resistor. While the power supply as a
tor is attached to aheat sink that measures
less than those sold to match a product whole is current limited by Q2, the
3 X 4-1/2 X 1inches (76 X 114 X 25
line. Complete output metering, over- regulator IC is not. If the collector of Q4
mm). Two tantalum capacitors, not visible
voltage shutdown and current limiting are were to open, for example, the regulator
in the pictures, are mounted at the IC ter-
features of the design. would attempt to drive the pass transistors
minals on the underside of the sink. Since
good ground connections are required to alone, through the Q4 base-emitter junc-
Design Information
tion. The IC maximum rated current (500
prevent IC oscillations, remove the ano-
The generous power rating is made mA) could be exceeded under these condi-
dizing from the heat sink where it will
possible by the heavy-duty transformers. tions without activating Q2. QI senses
contact the chassis.
In the unit pictured, the transformers base drive to the Darlington array and
The layout of the underside of the
were each specified for 40 V at 15 A, and
chassis can be seen in Fig. 33. Two
had across-sectional area of nearly 4 in 2
binding posts (one red and one black) and
(2500 mm 2). The secondaries were wound
the fuse holder are mounted on the rear
with no. 11 (2 mm) wire. Turns were
apron. The on-off switch and pilot light
removed from each secondary winding
occupy a portion of the front panel.
until each produced an open-circuit out-
Dymo tape labels complete the front
put of 19.5 V rms (at the minimum ex-
panel.
pected line voltage). With a20-A dc load,
A 300- to 400-Watt 12-Volt Supply the ac output potential drops to 18.8 V.
This information is provided because the
Most modern hf transceivers in the
exact transformers used are no longer
100-watt output class have solid-state out-
available. The transformer output
put stages that require anominal 13.6-volt
voltage is very important in high-power
power source. This voltage is available
applications. If the voltage applied to the
directly from vehicular electrical systems,
so manufacturers don't generally built ac Avatar Magnetics, 1147 N. Emerson, Fig. 34 — 3/4 view of the 300- to 400-watt
power supplies into these transceivers. Indianapolis, IN 48219 has recently
power supply showing four of the series pass
introduced a transformer that IS custom
This approach leads to lightweight com- designed for this supply, model AV-357.
transistors. The various sheet metal panels are
pact units for mobile service, but the The price range is $35. fastened together with angle brackets.

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-19

limits the maximum regulator output cur- nent can withstand asurge of many times
rent to about 300 mA. This additional the continuous figure, and won't be called
protection is not shown in the IC upon to pass the full current for more
manufacturer's applications literature. than a few milliseconds. As soon as Q5
R3, R4 and R9 set the output voltage over fires, it pulls the output voltage below the
an adjustment range of 12 to 14 V. The conduction threshold of Q3, which allows
power supply includes a " crowbar" over- the input voltage to shut down the
voltage protection circuit consisting of regulator. Without this feature, both the
Q5, DI and the associated resistor net- series pass transistors and the SCR would
work. RIO forms a divider with the be destroyed in a short time from ex-
cathode- to-gate resistor internal to most cessive dissipation.
SCRs. If your device does not include This supply has one other feature —
such aresistor, one can be installed exter-
nally. Should the output voltage exceed
the threshold of DI, plus some level deter- Fig. 36 — Interior of the heavy-duty supply.
The current- sense resistors are mounted on a
mined by RIO, Q5 will fire, short-
simple pc board that is elevated on ceramic
circuiting the output terminals. Q5 has a standoffs in the front center. The control pc
continuous current rating of 25 A. While board is fastened to the base plate by spade
this may seem underspecified, the compo- bolts. The large internal heat sink is for 04.

06 013 *

219055

Ti

R8

22 - 27Vdc

Kre

* HEAT SINK

2N2222
253904
2N4401

Fig. 35 — Schematic diagram of the 300- to 400- watt power supply.

type, 35 A, 100 PRV. 1N1184R or equiv.
C6 — Filter capacitor or capacitors totaling 05 — Silicon control rectifier, 25 A, 50 V. optional.
0.1 F or more at 30 V or greater. R20 — 5 0.1-ft, 5-W resistors in parallel. Ti — Combination of transformers capable of
02-05 — Silicon rectifier diodes, anode stud Si — Spst, 10 A, 125 V ac, built-in pilot light supplying 18.8 V ac at 20-A dc load.

5-20 Chapter 5
remote sensing. When heavy loads are Figs. 34 and 36, although this is by no mounting holes explain the surplus status
connected through long cables, the cable means the only workable solution. The of the sinks. The dimensions quoted
voltage drop degrades the load regulation. unit shown uses a 16-1/2 x 12 x 1/8-in. represent a minimum, rather than maxi-
This problem can be circumvented by in- (419 x 305 X 3mm) aluminum plate for mum radiation area, especially consider-
cluding the cable within the regulator afoundation. This is expensive material if ing that the fins would be more efficient if
feedback loop. To accomplish this, purchased new — aframework fashioned mounted vertically. A more conservative
remove the jumper between the output from angle stock may be an expedient approach might be to mount an additional
and sense terminals, and connect the sense alternative. Transformers suitable for this heat sink in the rear panel area and use 9
terminal directly to the load (the sense application are quite heavy and require a or 12 pass transistors. The emitter
firm supporting structure. The pass tran- spreading resistors are mounted on the
lead wire size isn't critical). This connec-
tion can't compensate for resistance in the sistor heat sinks form the sides of the transistor heat sinks. Q4 should be
return (ground) lead, but an extra chassis- enclosure. These sinks, like most of the separately heat sinked, although the sink
to-chassis connection can usually be made components, are surplus items measuring shown is larger than necessary. A " top
to reduce the return resistance to an in- 4 x 12 inches ( 102 X 305 mm) with fins hat" and chassis bracket similar to that of
significant value. The pk-pk output ripple protruding 1/2 in. from each flat surface. Q5 would be sufficient.
Asymmetrically spaced transistor The rectifier diode anodes are common
at full load is 5mV. A complete schematic
diagram is given in Fig. 35.

Mechanical Details
One assembly method can be seen in

0 -30
R20

OU TPUT
0.02
Ml
25W
M2
0 - 15

2N3904
2N2222
254401

35 V

REMO

SENSE

05

100

F;g, 37 - At A, the etching pattern for the control pc card. 8 is the parts- placement guide. The
black lines are an x-ray view of the foil side.

Ac • Ooerated Power Supplies 5-21

 components that don't generate ap- secondary voltage and do not become
preciable heat are contained on aprinted unreasonably warm to the touch even
circuit card. The etching pattern and parts after continuous-duty operation. If
placement guide are presented in Fig. 37. transformers of different manufacture are
Most of the components for this power used it might be wise to select units having
supply were purchased from mail-order ahigher current rating — just to be sure.
firms that advertise in the Amateur Radio S2 is included in the design so that
press. either half or all of the secondary voltage
may be applied to Ul. This feature was in-
A 1.2- to 15-Volt, 5-Ampere Supply cluded so that the dissipation of the pass
The power supply shown in Figs. 38 to transistor may be reduced when using the
42 is intended for general purpose, test- supply with low-voltage, high-current
bench applications. The output is ad- loads. The graph displayed in Fig. 41 can
justable from 1.2 to 17 volts at currents up be used as aguide in selecting the I-11 or
to 6 amperes. Metering is provided for LO mode of operation.
voltage levels up to 15 volts and current The regulator consists of a pass tran-
Fig. 38 — A simple 1.2- to 15-volt, 5-ampere
power supply. All controls are mounted on the levels up to 5amperes. Most of the com- sistor " wrapped around" an adjustable
front panel for easy access. The milliammeter ponents used in this supply are of the voltage regulator. Circuit operation can
reading is multiplied by 100 to obtain the true junk-box variety with the possible excep- be understood by noting the values of R3
output current. and R2. The majority of the three-
tion of U2, the three-terminal voltage
regulator. The circuit will tolerate fairly terminal regulator current will flow
wide component substitutions and still of- through R3 and D1. The offset voltage in
fer good performance. The majority of DI is approximately equal to the emitter-
the circuit components are mounted on a base potential of Q1 . Because of this, the
to the mounting studs. For this reason, 2-3/4 x 4-1/2 (70 x 114 mm) circuit voltage drop across R3 will be the same as
two of the studs must be sleeved and the board. All controls, including the mains that across R2. Since the ohmic value of
cases and nuts must be insulated from the fuse are located on the front panel for R2 is 0.33 of R3, three times as much cur-
base plate with mica washers. If asuitably easy access. rent will flow in Q1 as in U2. The net
rated bridge assembly can be obtained at a result is that the current capability of the
The Circuit overall circuit is increased by a factor of
reasonable price, it will simplify the
mounting while providing superior ther- Two power transformers are used in four. In addition, the current-limiting
mal conduction. In any case, be sure to parallel to feed U 1 , the full-wave bridge characteristics of the three-terminal
use mica washers with all semiconductors rectifier assembly. The transformers regulator are transferred directly to the
whose cases are above ground and apply specified are rated at 2amperes each. The composite circuit.
heat sink compound to all mounting sur- prospective builder might question the M land its associated shunt resistor are
faces. wisdom of using only 4amperes worth of placed at the input tó the regulator circuit
Liberal use of terminal strips simplifies transformer in a5-ampere supply. This is so that the voltage drop across the resistor
the wiring and troubleshooting, should it a valid question. With a 5-ampere load will not adversely alter the supply voltage
be necessary. Use no. 10 or no. 12 wire for connected to the output of the supply, the regulation. The relatively small current
the high-current circuits. The electronic transformers deliver more than their rated drawn by the regulator circuitry does not

MI
Ul
IA SI

18 VCT

1
0.1.,

/- 1- 7
CI — "T71
-
54
33009F

L _ _ 35 V

LOW HIGH
18 VCT
f,, 53 DI

• oer>.0 - •
0 33n. 25A
5W 100 V
S2

* HEAT SINK

Fig. 39 — Schematic diagram of the 5-ampere power supply. Component designations on the schematic diagram but not shown in the parts list are
for text or placement-guide reference only. (Resistor used only as a form for the wire).
dF,
Cl — 3300 t 35 volt, axial leads. 01 — Silicon pnp power, Radio Shack 276-2043 R6 — 2500 ohms, 2watts, panel mount.
J1, J2 — Binding posts. or equiv. S1 — Spst, toggle.
M1 — 0-50 mA, Calectro Di-914 or equiv. R1 — Meter shunt, 13 inches no. 22 enameled S2 — Dpdt, toggle. Both sections connected
M2 — 0-15 volt, Calectro Dl-920 or equiv. wire wound on a high-value, 1-watt resistor. in parallel.

5-22 Chapter 5
 5

H
3

AMPERES
2

LOW

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Fig. 40 — Inside view of the power supply.
Component placement is not at all critical; VOLTS
however the layout shown here provides a neat
appearance.
Fig. 41 — For voltage and current requirements that fall to the left of the diagonal line, the power
supply may be operated in the LO mode. Pass-transistor dissipation will be reduced when the
seriously affect the meter accuracy. M2 supply is operated in this manner.
measures supply output voltage.

Construction
The power supply is housed in a
homemade enclosure that was fabricated
from sheet aluminum. Dimensions of the
enclosurt. ae 5-1/2 x 6 x 8 inches ( 140
X 152 x 203 mm), although any cabinet
that will house the components may be 0.33 0/5W 01 015W

used. Circuit board pattern and layout in-

formation is given in Fig. 42. The com-
pleted circuit board is mounted vertically
to the chassis using spade lugs and no. 6
hardware. A small heat sink for the
LM317K regulator was made from ascrap
piece of aluminum. A Radio Shack
276-1364 sink designed for the TO- 3
package will work fine. The pass tran-

(B)
T1, T2 — 117-V primary, 18-V ct secondary.
Radio Shack 273-1515 or equiv. Fig. 42 — At A, circuit board layout pattern as viewed from the component side of the board B is
U1 — Bridge-rectifier assembly, 50 V, 25 A. the full-scale etching pattern for the power supply circuit board. Black areas represent unetched
U2 — Regulator, LM-317K. copper as seen from the foil side of the board.

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-23

 fix for this would be to mount a plastic
sistor is mounted to a larger heat sink
TO- 3transistor cover over the case.
which is bolted to the rear panel of the
power supply. Here, a Motorola MS- 10
A Deluxe 5- to 25- Volt, 5-Ampere Supply
was used. A suitable substitute would be
The power supply illustrated in Figs. 43
the Radio Shack 276-1361. Bear in mind
and 45 and schematically at Fig. 44 might
that the transistor must be insulated from
be termed arich man's power supply. The
the sink. Use asmall amount of heat- sink
compound between the transistor and the unit shown can supply voltages from 5to
sink for a good thermal bond. 25 at currents up to 5amperes. With ther-
Since the power supply can deliver up to mal and short-circuit protection it is vir-
tually destruction proof. A digital panel
6 amperes, fairly heavy wire should be
meter is used to monitor voltage and cur-
used for those runs carrying the bulk of
the current. No. 18 plastic wire was used Fig. 43 — Front view of the deluxe 5- to 25-volt, rent, selectable by a front- panel switch.
5- ampere power supply. Although we termed this a " rich man's
in this unit and it appeared to be ade-
supply", it will cost far less to construct
quate.
The completed power supply may be this unit as compared to a ready-made
if the case is shorted to ground it will supply with the same features. Cost, using
"crowbarred" without worry of regulator
or pass transistor destruction. Perhaps the cause the loss of output voltage. This all new components, will be on the order
only precaution that should be mentioned could occur if the power supply is of $ 75. The most expensive single item in
is that of the exposed collector of the pass mounted on atest bench with anumber of the supply is the digital panel meter,
leads dangling behind the unit. A simple which sells in single lot quantities for
transistor. Although no damage will occur

Cl

SI 2.2/JF
2 Ul 50V
• LM338
Di Ri
117V C4 C5 220 R4 4.7M
2.2yF 0-25V
5A
50V
ON R5 25k
F1 R2 CALIBRATION
5000
33000/JF VOLTAGE
ADJUST
50VDC
R6 27k
SINGLE POINT
117 VAC GROUND R3 J2
i\AAJ

0.1

4.7pF SINGLE POINT

50 V 1 GROUND
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL U2
yA7805
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE 1+)
CE T
J3
IN MICROFARADS IyF1 ; OTHERS 2
ARE IN PICOFARADS pF OR yyF);
111
RESISTANCES ARE IN 011MS;
k » IP00. M•I.000,000
AMPS L o VOLTS
A 1\r
S2 I 0

A
DM3100N DIGITAL PANEL METER
B 2 Z1 READOUT SOCKET
3

D 4
LM338 E 5
BOTTOM VIEW R7

270
H 7

e
9

10

Fig. 44 — Schematic diagram of the deluxe power supply. All resistors are half-watt carbon types unless noted otherwise. Capacitors are disc
ceramic unless noted otherwise. Numbered components not appearing in the parts list are for text reference only.
J1-J3, incl. — Binding post.
C3 — Electrolytic capacitor, 34,000 mF, 50 V. R2 — Potentiometer, 5ka, linear, 10 turn. equiv.
Sprague 360343G050DF2A or equiv. R3 — Resistor, 0.10, circuit board mount. U1 — Regulator, National LM338 or equiv. (5A,
C4, C5 — Tantalum capacitor, 2.2 mF, 50 V. Si — Toggle switch, dpst. adj.)
C6 — Tantalum capacitor, 4.7 mF, 50 V. S2 — Toggle switch, 3pdt. U2 — Regulator, mA7805 or equiv. (5V,1A)
D1, D2 — Silicon rectifier, 100 V, 12 A Ti — Power transformer: primary 117 V, Z1 — Digital panel meter. Datel DM3100N or
F1 — Fuse, 2A. secondary 36 V ct, 6A. Stancor P-8674 or equiv.

5-24 Chapter 5
around $40 at present. As more com-
panies start manufacturing these items the
prices should drop significantly.
The digital readout, however, is not
much more expensive than two high-
quality meters. The prospective builder
should consider this when choosing
between the digital panel meter and two
analog panel meters. Voltage measure-
ments are read directly off the panel meter
in volts. Current is measured in amperes
with a reading of 0.05 equal to 50 mA.

Circuit Details
The circuit diagram of the power supply
is shown in Fig. 44. TI is a36-volt, center-
tapped transformer rated at 6 amperes.
DI and D2 are used in afull-wave rectifier
providing dc output to the filter capacitor,
C3, a34,000-µF, 50- volt electrolytic of the
computer-grade variety. The unregulated
voltage is fed to UI , aNational LM338k
regulator, the heart of the supply. This
chip is rated for 5-A continuous duty Fig. 45 — Interior view of the deluxe power supply.

when used with an adequate heat sink. RI

and R2 form avoltage divider which sets
the output voltage of the supply. RI is a
ten-turn potentiometer. UI is bypassed regulator ( U1) so as not to affect the
with 2.2-µF tantalum capacitors directly at voltage regulation of the power supply at
the input and output pins. high load currents. Any voltage dropped
ZI, as outlined earlier, is adigital panel across the resistor will be made up by the
meter. Connections to the meter are made regulator, so the output voltage will
through aspecial edge connector supplied remain unchanged. Notice that U2 is
with the readout. U2 is used to supply a placed to the left or at the input side of
regulated 5volts for powering the digital the regulator. This is so the current
panel meter. The input and ground leads drawn by the readout will not affect
of this regulator are attached to the input current readings taken at the load.
(non- regulated) side of Ul. Sections A and B of S2 are used to switch
R4, R5 and R6 form adivider circuit to the meter between the voltage and current
supply the digital meter with an output sensors. S3C is used to switch the decimal
voltage reading. R5 is made adjustable so point in the digital panel meter to read
that the meter can be calibrated. R3 is a correctly for both voltage and current.
current-sensing resistor which is placed in As shown in the schematic, a single- Fig. 46 — Front panel of the switching power
the negative lead of the supply. This point ground is used for the supply. Used supply. The cabinet is by Apollo and has a
resistor is used on the input side of the in many commercial supplies, this tech- built-in power switch.

118 VOC

O OUTPUT
5A

* HEAT SINK

Fig. 47 — A switching power supply suitable for use with medium-power amateur transceivers. At full load the switching rate is approximately 5C
kHz. Resistance values are in ohms and capacitance values are in microfarads.
with 112-Inch ( 13-mm) fins extruded from flat
DI — 6A, 600 Ply, anode common to case,
ECG 5863 or equiv. FÍ240 43 toroidal core. surfaces. Radio Shack 278-1301 or equiv.
Ll — 33 turns no. 14 enam. un Anildon Cil — Heat Sink, 4 x 3 Inches ( 102 x /6 mm) 02 Heat sink, TO-5 clip-on unit

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-25

 Fig. 49 — Etching pattern for the control circuit board of the switching
supply. Black indicates unetched copper.

FIg. 48 — Interior view of the switching supply. The main switch Fig. 50 — Parts-placement guide for the pc board of Fig. 49. The
transistor heat sink and fuse are mounted on the rear panel. component side is shown with an X-ray view of the foil.

nique provides better voltage regulation tify each of the controls. Cable lacing of was intended to demonstrate the switching
and stabilization than the " ground it the various leads adds to the clean ap- principle as applied to voltage regulation,
anywhere" attitude. In this supply, the pearance of the supply. and it serves that purpose well. However,
single-ground point is at the front panel it is not in any way represented to be a
binding post labelled MINUS. All leads A 5-A SWITCHING SUPPLY state-of-the-art design.
that are to be connected to ground should This section describes a practical 13.8- A more nearly technically correct name
go only to that point. volt, 5-ampere switching power supply for this project might be " A 5-A Power
suitable for use with transceivers in the Supply Using a Switching Regulator."
Construction 25-watt output class. Circuit simplicity However, that title is cumbersome, and
The deluxe power supply is housed in a and easy parts acquisition were the major it's not necessary to belabor the distinc-
homemade enclosure that measures 9 X design goals. The supply was built and tion between supplies and regulators in
11 x 5-1/4 inches ( 229 x 279 x 133 tested in the ARRL laboratory by Greg casual work.
mm). Ut is mounted to alarge heat sink ( 3 Bonaguide, WA1VUG. A 10-watt output Fig. 46 shows the cosmetic aspects of
X 5 X 2 inches; 76 x 127 x 51 mm) 220-MHz fm transceiver was used as a the front panel, while Fig. 48 reveals one
which is attached to the rear apron of the load with no apparent degradation of the satisfactory arrangement of internal com-
supply. The front panel sports the digital- rf output spectral purity. The line and ponents. The schematic diagram is given
panel meter, power switch, binding posts, load regulation are acceptable, and the in Fig. 47. Stud- mount rectifiers are used
fuse holder, voltage-adjust potentiometer unit is slightly more efficient than an in a full- wave bridge. A pc board for the
and meter-selector switch. Although acir- equivalent linear supply. With the heat diodes is visible in Fig. 48, but the etching
cuit board is shown in the photograph as sink specified, the unit can withstand pattern is not printed here because of its
supporting R4, R5, R6, R7, D1, D2, Cl 3-minute fm transmissions interspersed simplicity. The etching pattern and
and C2, these items could just as well be with 1-minute listening periods. Because component- placement guide for the elec-
mounted on terminal strips. For this of the simple circuit configuration, con- tronics board are given in Figs. 49 and 50.
reason a board pattern is not supplied. ventional pre- regulation components are
The front and rear panels are spray used. Therefore, this power supply offers A "Sanitary" High-Voltage Supply
painted white and the cover is blue. Dymo no particular economic advantage over Power supplies aren't usually noted for
labels are used on the front panel to iden- one using linear regulation. This project adding decor to the shack. Most hams

5- 26 Chapter 5
Fig. 51 — Front view of the heavy-duty,
3400-volt power supply.

Fig. 52 — Interior view of the heavy-duty power

supply. The bleeder/equalizing resistors are
mounted to the circuit board which is in turn
mounted directly to the capacitor terminals.

would rather hide them so that nonham

visitors won't ask, " What's that ugly
looking thing?" However, an attempt was
made to improve the appearance of this
model along with the function of pro- Fig. 53 — Schematic diagram of the high- voltage power supply.
viding high voltage for general amplifier
purposes. Not all the additions are
frivolous. For instance, the use of " rug
runners" instead of the usual sharp seem like an unjustified inconvenience,
Either that or angle brackets (such as
corners on the bottom of the unit prevents experience has proven this approach to be
gouging an easily damaged surface such as those on the front of the unit) could be
used inside of the top and bottom covers the most acceptable method. However,
abench or floor. additional protection is afforded by the
in order to form an overlap surface for the
The diode bridge rectifier is mounted use of the 10-ohm, 10-watt resistors in the.
on a separate pc board that can be re- corners.
secondary of Ti.
moved easily. Accidental contact is The filter capacitors listed in Fig. 53 are
Circuit Details
prevented by aPlexiglas sheet which also plastic dielectric units that are no longer
The power supply employs a full-wave
permits viewing of the circuit board while manufactured. Suitable oil-filled capaci-
it is still in the power supply. Although a bridge rectifier and is capable of 1-A out- tors can be purchased at hamfest flea
sheet- metal cutter and bender were used put at 3400 V dc. Primary circuit and
transient considerations are simplified by markets. Many of these capacitors con-
to fabricate the sides, a " cut-and- file" tain the carcinogenic chemical PCB, so
method could result in asimilar job if the the use of 234 V ac instead of 117 V.
While the addition of a234-V line might avoid any that appear to be seeping oil.
builder was willing to spend the time.

Ac - Operated Power Supplies 5-27

Chapter 6

HF Transmitting

E ven though some modern transmitters

and transceivers contain only solid-state
devices, it is still practical to use ahybrid
circuit that contains a mixture of tubes
and active semiconductor stages. Typical-
ly, the unit has transistors, diodes and ICs
up to the driver stage of the transmitter.
At that point one will find a tube driver
which is used to supply rf power to atube
type of amplifier. The latter might consist
of a pair of 6146Bs or two sweep tubes.
The principal advantage of tube ampli-
fiers is that they are somewhat less subject
to damage from excessive drive levels and
mismatched loads. However, a properly
designed solid-state driver and PA section
should be immune to output mismatch
damage, provided an SW R-protection
circuit has been included in the transmit-
ter. A solid-state amplifier is slightly more
difficult to design and have work cor-
rectly than is a tube amplifier of
equivalent power. This is because purity
of emissions is harder to achieve when
transistor power stages are employed.
Transistors generate considerably more
harmonic energy than tubes do, and the
former are prone to self-oscillation at If,
vif and audio frequencies unless some
careful design work is done. This is not
generally true of tube amplifiers.
If one is to ignore the foregoing
problems and concentrate mainly on cost
and convenience, transistors may have the
edge over tubes. A 13.6- volt design can be
operated directly from an automotive or
solar-electric supply, whereas a tube
amplifier requires a high-voltage power
supply for mobile, portable and fixed-
station use. When an ac power source is
required, the cost of a high-voltage,
medium-current supply for tubes versus a
low-voltage, high-current power source
for transistors is similar, provided new
components are used in both. At power-
output levels in excess of approximately Fig. 1 — A transistor oscillator is shown at A. The example at B illustrates atube type of crystal
150 watts the transistor- amplifier power oscillator.

6-1 Chapter 6
supply becomes rather expensive because
of complex regulator-circuit requirements.
For this reason it is the choice of most
amateurs to utilize vacuum tubes in high-
power hf and vhf amplifiers. The number
of power transistors required ( plus com-
biners) to generate a1- kW signal may run
considerably higher in cost than atube or
tubes for an amplifier of equivalent power.
The price of large heat sinks versus acool-
ing fan may place the solid-state amplifier
in a prohibitive class also.
The decision to buy or build atransmit-
ter is founded on some basic considera-
tions: Cost compared to features; profes-
sional equipment appearance contrasted
to that of homemade apparatus; the
knowledge and satisfaction gained from
building equipment, as weighed against
buying commercially made gear and sim-
ply becoming an operator. The judgment Fig. 2— Circuit example of asimple, solid-state cw transmitter.

must fit the amateur's objectives and af-

fluence. Home-built transmitters are
usually easier to service than commercial
ones because the builder knows the circuit
layout and how each stage functions. Fur-
thermore, the cost of maintenance is
markedly lower for homemade equipment
than for most factory-built gear. But the
greatest significance to home-built circuits
is the knowledge gained from constructing
a project and the pride that goes with
using it on the air!

Frequency Generation
The most basic type of transmitter is
one which contains a single stage, is
crystal controlled, and is designed for cw
operation. A circuit example is given in
Fig. I. This kind of transmitter is not
especially suitable for use on the air
because it is somewhat inefficient and is
prone to generating a chirpy cw signal
unless loaded rather lightly. But, the same
circuit is entirely acceptable when fol-
lowed by an isolating stage (buffer/ampli-
fier) as shown in Fig. 2. The second stage
not only builds up the power level, but
also gives the oscillator a relatively con-
stant load to look into. The latter helps to
prevent oscillator pulling and attendant
chirping of the cw note.
Fig. 3 illustrates the basic types of
transmitters for cw and RTTY work. The
drawing at A represents the general circuit
given in Fig. 2. Illustration B is an
expansion of that circuit and includes a
frequency multiplier. A heterodyne type Fig 3 — Block diagrams of various transmitters which use specific frequency- generation methods
of generator, which is currently popular
for multiband transmitters and trans-
ceivers, is shown as the exciter section of a
transmitter in drawing C. A frequency The block diagram of Fig. 4outlines the work. However, linear amplifiers are en-
synthesizer is shown as the rf generator at functional stages of assb transmitter. Z1 tirely satisfactory for any transmission
D. can be a simple VFO, a heterodyne mode at asacrifice in efficiency. Once the
For operation on a-m, any of the generator ( Fig. 3C) or a frequency ssb signal is generated it cannot be passed
lineups given in Fig. 3is suitable, provided synthesizer. The essential difference be- through a frequency multiplier. All post-
a modulator is added. It is used to tween this type of transmitter and one that filter stages must operate straight through.
modulate the operating voltage to the PA would be used for cw/RTTY is that the rf Class C amplifiers are generally used in fm
stage, or in some designs the operating amplifiers must operate in the Class A, transmitters as well as in cw and RTTY
voltage to the PA and the stage AB or B mode ( linear) rather than the transmitters. Fm operators who are heard
immediately before it. Class C mode which is suitable for cw to say, " I'm running my transceiver into a

HF Transmitting 6-2
Fig. 4 — Block diagram of aheterodyne type of ssb transmitter

0.01 100
ri 21\14 416

(-0 OUTPUT
100
100)
RFC

/1 /

PIERCE + 12v
(A)
COLPITTS
(B)
21, 31, ETC.

2N4 416
(31, 5f OF FUND.)

OUTPUT
TAL

(31, 51,
OF FUND.)

00
Fig. 6 — Two common tube types of crystal
oscillators.
+12 V

HARMONIC OVERTONE
(C) (D)
cy will appear in the output. Therefore, if
good spectral purity is desired it is
Fig. 5 — Four types of popular solid-state crystal oscillators. necessary to use adouble-tuned collector
tank to obtain aband-pass characteristic,
or to employ the tank circuit shown and
linear," are missing the technical facts: causes frequency drift. The extent of the follow it with aharmonic filter.
The amplifier is probably aClass C one, drift is related to the manner in which the An overtone oscillator is depicted in
which is very non-linear in operation. quartz crystal is cut. It is for these reasons Fig. 5at D. The crystal oscillates near an
that the amount of feedback used should odd multiple of the fundamental cut —
Crystal Oscillators be held to only that level which provides usually the third or fifth harmonic. In this
A crystal-controlled oscillator uses a quick oscillator starting and reliable example the drain tank is tuned approxi-
piece of quartz which has been ground to operation under load. The power mately to the desired overtone. Oscillation
a particular thickness, length and width. necessary to excite asuccessive stage prop- will begin when the tank is tuned slightly
For the most part, the thickness deter- erly can be built up inexpensively by low- above the overtone frequency. A high-Q
mines the frequency at which the crystal level amplifiers. tuned circuit is necessary.
oscillates, irrespective of the stray capaci- The active element in an oscillator can Vacuum- tube crystal oscillators are
tance in the immediate circuit of the cry- be atube, transistor or IC. Some common presented in Fig. 6. A modified Pierce
stal. The stray capacitance does have examples of solid-state oscillators are oscillator is shown at A. In this case the
some effect on the operating frequency, shown in Fig. 5. A Pierce oscillator that screen grid of V1functions as the plate of
but overall it can be considered minor. employs a JFET is illustrated at A. A a triode tube. Feedback is between the
The power available from such an bipolar transistor is used at B to form a screen and control grids. Cfb may be
oscillator is restricted by the heat (caused Colpitts oscillator. The example in Fig. 5C required to ensure the desired feedback
by circulating rf current) the crystal can shows how to extract the harmonic of a voltage. In atypical oscillator the value of
withstand before fracturing. The cir- crystal by tuning the collector circuit to Cfb will range from 10 to 100 pF for
culating current is determined by the the desired harmonic. Unless aband-pass oscillators operating from 1.8 to 20 MHz.
amount of feedback required to ensure filter is used after the tuned circuit, At lower frequencies the feedback capaci-
excitation. Excessive heating of the crystal various harmonics of the crystal frequen- tor may require a higher value.

6-3 Chapter 6
 A Colpitts style of tube oscillator is The series hookup is used to help offset
illustrated in Fig. 6at B. The feedback is the high input capacitance of the oscil-
between the grid and cathode by means of lator. The input capacitance consists of
a capacitive divider (Cl and C2). The the series value of feedback capacitors C2
plate tank can be tuned to the crystal and C3 plus the input capacitance (Ci e)of
frequency or harmonics thereof. In the Q I . Conversely, the input capacitance of
interest of good oscillator stability it is the circuit at B in Fig. 8is quite low be-
suggested that the supply voltage to the cause a triode tube is employed. In this
circuits of Figs. 5and 6be regulated. This kind of circuit the trimmer capacitor is
is especially significant in the case of used in a parallel manner as shown. The
harmonic or overtone oscillators where choice between series and parallel trim-
-F VCC
small amounts of drift are multiplied by ming will depend on the active device used
the chosen harmonic factor. and the amount of input capacitance
The usual cause of erratic oscillation, or present. This rule applies to tube oscil-
no oscillation at all, is excessive loading lators as well as those which use
on the oscillator output (succeeding stage transistors.
of circuit), insufficient feedback, or a
sluggish crystal. Concerning the latter, a Crystal Switching
crystal which is not ground to auniform Although several crystals for a single
thickness and feathered carefully around oscillator can be selected by mechanical
the edges may be difficult to make means, aswitch must be contained in the
oscillate. Attempts by inexperienced ama- rf path. This can impose severe restrictions
teurs to grind their own crystals may lead on the layout of apiece of equipment. Fur-
to this condition. thermore, mechanical switches normally
Some crystal oscillators develop un- require that they be operated from the
wanted vhf self-oscillations ( parasitics) front panel of the transmitter or receiver.
even though the circuits may be function- That type of format complicates the re-
ing normally otherwise. The result will be mote operation of such a unit. Also, the
avhf waveform superimposed on the de- switch leads can introduce unwanted reac-
(B)
sired output waveform when the rf voltage tances in the crystal circuit. A better tech-
is viewed by means of an oscilloscope. nique is illustrated in Fig. 9, where Dl and
Fig 7 — Two methods for suppressing vhf and
Parasitics can cause TVI and specific pro- D2 — high-speed silicon switching diodes
uhf parasitic oscillations. R1 at A damps the
parasitics and Z1 at B (ferrite beads) serves that blems elsewhere in the circuit with which — are used to select one of two or more
purpose. the oscillator is used. Two simple methods crystals from some remote point. As
for preventing vhf parasitics are shown in operating voltage is applied to one of the
Fig. 7. The technique at A calls for the in- diodes by means of SI, it is forward biased
sertion of a low-value resistance ( R1) in into " hard" conduction, thereby complet-
OSC ing the circuit between the crystal trimmer,
the collector lead as close to the transistor
body as possible. Typical resistance values and ground. Some schemes actually call •
are 10 to 27 ohms. The damping action of for reverse-biasing the unused diode or
the resistor inhibits vhf oscillation. An al- diodes when they are not activated. This
ternative to the use of resistance for ensures almost complete cutoff, which
swamping vhf oscillation is illustrated at B may not be easy to achieve in the circuit
in Fig. 7. One or two high-mu miniature shown because of the existing rf voltage
ferrite beads ( U = 950) are placed near the on the anodes of Dl and D2.
transistor body in the lead to gate I. The
beads can be used in the drain lead when a Variable-Frequency Oscillators
tuned circuit or rf choke is used in that The theory and general application of
SERIES C
part of the circuit. Ferrite beads can be variable- frequency oscillators is treated in
(A)
used in the base or collector lead of the chapter 8. The circuit principles are ,the
circuit of Fig. 7A rather than employing same regardless of the VFO applicatión.,
Similarly, RI can be used at gate 1of Some additional considerations pertain
OSC
OUT PUT the oscillator. to the use of VFOs in transmitters as com-
vi
FO it is necessary in some applications of pared to a VFO contained in areceiver.
crystal oscillators to ensure spot accuracy Generally, heating of the interior of a
of the operating frequency. Various transmitter cabinet is greater than in are-
reactances are present in most oscillator ceiver. This is because considerably more
circuits, causing the operating frequency power is being dissipated in the former.
to differ somewhat from that for which Therefore, greater care must be given to
the crystal was manufactured. Addition of oscillator long-term stability. Tempera-
a trimmer capacitor will permit " rub- ture-compensating capacitors are often
bering" the crystal to a specified fre- needed in the frequency-determining portion
quency within its range. This procedure is of the oscillator to level off the long-
PARALLEL C sometimes referred to as " netting" a term stability factor. Some oscillators are
(B) crystal. designed for use with a temperature-
Fig. 8 shows two circuits in which a control oven for the purpose of main-
Fig. 8 — The crystal- oscillator operating trimmer capacitor might be used to taining a relatively constant ambient
frequency can be shifted slightly by means of compensate for differences in the opera- temperature in the oscillator compart-
trimmer capacitors as shown at A and B. A series
ting frequency of the oscillator. At A the ment — even while the equipment
hookup ( A) is used with transistors to help
series capacitor (Cl) is connected between is otherwise turned off.
compensate for the relatively high input
capacitance of the transistor. the low side of the crystal and ground. Another design matter related to a

HF Transmitting 6-4
 than is the case with brass. The VFO tun-
ing-capacitor rotor must be grounded at
both ends as apreventive measure against
instability. Some designers have found
that a 1/8- to 1/4-inch ( 3.2- to 6.4-mm)
thick piece of aluminum or steel plate
serves as an excellent base for the VFO
assembly. It greatly reduces instability
which can be caused by stress on the main
chassis of the equipment. The VFO mod-
ule can be installed on shock mounts
to enhance stability during mobile opera-
tion.
Concerning Electrical Stability
Apart from the mechical considerations
just discussed, the relative quality of the
components used in a VFO circuit is of
great importance. Fig. 10 contains three
illustrations of basic solid-state tunable
Fig 9 — A method for selecting one of two ( or several) crystals by means of diode switching. DI and oscillators which are suggested for ama-
D2 are the switches. teur applications. The numbered com-
ponents have a direct bearing on the
short- and long-term stability of the VFO.
That is, the type of component used at
transmitter-contained VFO is rf shielding the VFO coil, the finished product should
each specified circuit point must be
of the oscillator and the attendant be coated with two or three applications
selected with stability foremost in mind.
low-level buffer/isolation stages that fol- of polystyrene cement (Q dope) or similar
The fixed-value capacitors, except for the
low it. Fairly high levels of stray rf can be low- loss dopant. This will keep the coil
drain bypass, should be temperature-
present in atransmitter and some of that turns secured in apermanent position —
an aid to mechanical stability. stable types. NPO ceramic capacitors are
energy may migrate to the oscillator
section by means of stray radiation or The VFO coil should be mounted well recommended for frequencies up to ap-
away from nearby conducting objects proximately 10 MHz. A second choice is
conduction along wiring leads or circuit-
(cabinet walls, shield cans, and so on) to the silver-mica capacitor (dipped or plain
board elements. Thus, it is important to
prevent frequency shifts which are likely versions). Silver micas tend to have some
provide as much physical and electrical
isolation as possible. The VFO should be to occur if the chassis or cabinet are unusual drift characteristics when sub-
housed in arigid metal box. All dc leads stressed during routine handling or mobile jected to changes in ambient temperature.
entering the enclosure require rf-decou- operation. Movement of the chassis, cabi- Some increase in value while others
pling networks that are effective at all fre- net walls and other nearby conductive ob- decrease. Still others are relatively stable.
quencies involved in the transmitter jects can ( if the coil is close by) change the It is often necessary to experiment with
design. The VFO box needs to be fastened coil inductance. Furthermore, the proxi- several units of agiven capacitance value
securely to the metal chassis on which it mity effects of the conductive objects pre- in an effort to select agroup of capacitors
rests to ensure good electrical contact. Ex- sent an undefined value of capacitance be- that are suitably temperature stable. The
cessive stray rf entering the VFO circuitry tween the coil and these objects. Changes same is not true of polystyrene capacitors.
can cause severe instability and erratic in spacing will alter that capacitance, When used with the commonly available
oscillator operation. causing frequency shifts of an abrupt slug-tuned coils, the temperature charac-
nature. teristics of the polystyrene capacitors and
Fundamental Stability Considerations It follows that all forms of mechanical those of the inductor tend to cancel each
Apart from the recommendations given stability are of paramount importance if other. This results in excellent frequency
in the foregoing text for VFO stability, the VFO is to be of " solid" design. Thus, stability. If toroidal cores are used they
there are some specific measures which the trimmer or padder capacitors that are should be made of SF-type powdered iron
must be taken when designing an oscil- used in the circuit should be capable of material, (Amidon mix 6). This material
lator of this type. The form upon which remaining at their preset values despite has a low temperature coefficient and
the VFO coil is wound is of special temperature changes and vibration. For when used with NPO type ceramic
significance with regard to stability. this reason it is not wise to utilize ceramic capacitors produces very low drift
Ideally, the use of metallic core material or mica trimmers. Air-dielectric variable oscillators. Ordinary disc-ceramic
should be avoided. Therefore, powdered capacitors of the pc-board-mount sub- capacitors are unsuitable for use in stable
iron,, brass, copper and ferrite slugs, or miniature type are recommended. VF0s. Those with specified temperature
toroid,tores for that matter, are not The main tuning element (capacitor or characteristics (N750 and similar) are
recommended when high stability is permeability tuner) needs to have sub- useful, however, in compensating for
required (The reason is that the properties stantial rigidity: It should be mounted in drift.
of such core materials are affected by place in a secure manner. Variable The circuit of Fig. 10A is capable of
changes in temperature and can cause a capacitors used as main-tuning elements very stable operation if polystyrene
dramatic shift in the value of inductance should be of the double- bearing variety. capacitors are used at C3 through C8,
which might not occur if an air-core coil They should rotate easily ( minimum inclusive. A test model for 1.8 to 2.0 MHz
was employed. Furthermore, some styles torque) in order to minimize mechanical exhibited only 1hertz of drift from acold
of slug- tuned inductors are subject to stress of the VFO assembly when they are start to a period some two hours later.
mechanical instability in the presence of being adjusted from the front panel of the Ambient temperature was 25°C. Q 1can
vibration. This can cause severe frequency equipment. Variable capacitors with plated be any high-gm JFET for use at vhf or uhf.
jumping and afrequent need for recalibra- brass plates are preferred over those Capacitors CI through C4 are used in
tion of the VFO readout versus operating which have aluminum plates. The alumi- parallel as a means to distribute the rf
frequency. num is more subject to physical changes in current among them. A single fixed-value
Regardless of the format selected for the presence of temperature variations capacitor in that part of the circuit would

6-5 Chapter 6
tend to change value versus time because
of the rf heating within it. Therefore, a
distinct advantage exists when several
capacitors can be used in parallel at such
points in aVFO circuit. The same concept
is generally true of C5, C6 and C7. In the
interest of stability, C5 should be the
smallest value that will permit reliable
oscillation. Feedback capacitors C6 and
C7 are typically the same value and have
an ; of roughly 60(1. Therefore, a
suitable value for a 1.9-MHz VFO would
be 1500 pF.
C8 of Fig. 10A should be the smallest
capacitance value practical with respect to
ample oscillator drive to the succeeding
stage. The smaller the value of C8, the less
the chance for oscillator pulling during
load changes. D1 is agate-clamping diode
for controlling the bias of the FET. The
function of this stabilizing diode is treated
in Chapter 4. Basically, it limits the
positive swing of the sine wave. This ac-
tion restricts the change in QI junction
capacitance to minimize harmonic genera-
tion and changes in the amount of C
associated with LI.
The reactance of RFC can be on the
order of 10-k. The drain bypass, C9,
should have amaximum X, of 10 ohms to
ensure effective bypassing at the operating
frequency. Ideally, an X, of 1ohm would
be used (0.1 uF at 1.5 MHz). D2 is used to
provide 9.1 volts, regulated, at the drain
of Q 1. Lower operating voltages aid
stability through reduced rf-current heat-
ing, but at the expense of reduced
oscillator output.
A Hartley oscillator is shown in Fig.
10B. This circuit offers good stability
also, and is one of the better circuits to use
when the tank is parallel tuned. The tap
on L1is usually between 10 and 25 percent
of the total coil turns, tapped above the
grounded end. This ensures adequate Fig. 10 — Three common types of VFOs for use in receivers and transmitters.
feedback for reliable oscillation. The
higher the FET gm the lower the feedback
needed. Only that amount of feedback
which is necessary to provide oscillation greater inductance at LI than would be capacitance. Most FETs exhibit an input
should be used: Excessive feedback will acceptable in the circuit of Fig. 10C. The C of approximately 5 pF, but many bi-
circuit at A resembles the popular polar transistors have a substantially
cause instability and prohibitive rf heating
of the components. Most of the rules for "Clapp" circuit of the early 1950s. higher capacitance, which tends to com-
the circuit of Fig. 10A apply to the A suitable transistor for Q1 of Fig. 10C plicate a VFO design for the higher
oscillator in Fig. 10B. is an RCA 40673. The Texas Instruments operating frequencies. The uhf small-
Parallel tuning of the kind used in Fig. 3N211 is also ideal, as it has an extremely signal transistors, such as the 2N5179, are
10B and C are suitable for use below, say, high gm — approximately 30,000pS. Dual- best suited to the circuits under discus-
6 MHz, although the circuit at B can be gate MOSFETs are suitable for the sion.
used successfully into the vhf region. circuits of Fig. 10A and B if biased as
Load Isolation for VFOs
However, the Colpitts oscillators of A and shown at C. Also, they can be used as
C in Fig. 10 have large amounts of shunt single-gate FETs by simply connecting Load changes after the osci'i * lave a
gates 1and 2together. No external bias is pronounced effect on the urating
capacitance caused by C6 and C7 of A,
and C5 and C6 of C. The smaller the required if this is done. Gate 2of Q I ( Fig. frequency. Therefore, it is imperative to
coupling capacitor between LI and the 10C) should be bypassed with a low- provide some form of buffering (isolating
gate, the less pronounced this effect is. reactance capacitor (C4), as is the rule for stage or stages) between the oscillator and
The net result is arelatively small value of the drain bypassing of all three examples the circuit to which it will be interfaced.
given in Fig. 10. The net effect of load changes, however
inductance at LI, especially with respect
to Fig. 10C, which lowers the tank Bipolar transistors are satisfactory for minor, is a change in reactance which
impedance and may prevent oscillation use in the three VFOs just discussed. The causes phase shifts. The latter affects the
principal disadvantage attendant to the operating frequency to a considerable
(high C-to- L ratio). The series-tuned
circuit ol Fig. 10A solves the shunt-C use of bipolars in these circuits is the low degree. Therefore, the more isolating
problem nicely by requiring considerably base impedance and higher device input stages which follow the oscillator ( up to a

HF Transmitting 6-6
 Q of 3. The transformation ratio is on the
order of 20:1 ( 1000-ohm drain to 50-ohm
load). RI is placed across LI to further
broaden the network response. The 50-
ohm output level is recommended in the
interest of immunity to load changes: The
higher the output impedance of a buffer
chain the greater the chance for oscillator
pulling with load changes. Pk-pk output
across C3 should be on the order of 3volts
when using the oscillator of Fig. 10A.

Other VFO Criteria

Apart from the stability considerations
just treated, purity of emissions from
VFOs is vital to most designers. It is
prudent to minimize the harmonic output
of a VFO chain and to ensure that vhf
parasitic energy is not being generated
within the LO system.
The pi- network output circuit of Fig.
11B helps reduce harmonics because it is a
low-pass network. Additional filtering can
be added at the VFO-chain output by
inserting a half-wave filter with aloaded
Q of 1( XLand Xc= 50 for a50-ohm line).
Vhf parasitics are not uncommon in the
oscillator or its buffer stages, especially
when high fr transistors are employed.
The best preventive measures are keeping
the signal leads as short as possible and
adding parasitic suppressors as required.
The parasitic energy can be seen as a
superimposed sine wave riding on the
VFO output waveform when a high-
frequency scope is used.
A low-value resistor ( 10 to 22 ohms)
can be placed directly at the gate or base
of the oscillator transistor to stop
parasitic oscillations. Alternatively, one
or two ferrite beads ( 950m,) can be slipped
over the gate or base lead to resolve the
problem. If vhf oscillations occur in the
Fig. 11 — VFO buffer and buffer/amplifier sections which provide isolation between the oscillator and
the VFO-chain load The circuit at B is recommended for most applications.
buffer stages, the same preventive mea-
sures can be taken.
VFO noise should be minimized as
practical number, of course), the less Q2 of Fig. 11A operates as an much as possible. A high-Q oscillator
likelihood of load shifts being reflected emitter- follower. The rf-voltage output tank will normally limit the noise band-
back to the oscillator. will be approximately 0.9 of that which is width adequately. Resistances placed in
Buffer stages can perform double duty supplied to the base. In a typical VFO the signal path will often cause circuit
by affording a measure of rf amplifica- chain, using an oscillator such as the one noise. Therefore, it is best to avoid the
tion, as needed. But, care must be taken to in Fig. 10A, this buffer strip will deliver temptation to control the rf excitation to a
avid introducing narrow- band networks approximately 1 volt pk-pk across the given LO stage by inserting a series
idle buffer/amplifier chain if consider- 470-ohm emitter resistor of Q2. resistor. The better method is to use
able frequency range is planned, e.g., 5.0 A somewhat better circuit is offered in small- value coupling capacitors.
to 5.5 MHz. If suitable broadband charac- Fig. 11B. Q1 is aJFET which has ahigh
teristics are not inherent in the design, the input impedance ( 1-Milor greater) by vir- A Practical VFO
oscillator-chain output will not be constant tue of the FET-device characteristic. This The circuit of Fig. 12 is for a high
across the desired tuning range. This minimizes loading of the oscillator. RFC1 stability 1.8- to 1.9-MHz VFO. Although
could seriously affect the conversion gain is chosen to resonate broadly with the stray the VFO frequency is for 160-meter
and dynamic range of areceiver mixer, or circuit capacitance ( roughly 10 pF) at the operation, other tuning ranges up to 10
lower the output of atransmitter in some midrange frequency of the LO chain. Al- MHz are possible with this circuit. The
parts of agiven band. though this does not introduce significant design guidelines offered in the previous
Fig. 11A illustrates a typical RC selectivity, it does provide arising charac- section will be useful in altering the circuit
coupled VFO buffer with broadband teristic in the rf-voltage level at the source to other frequencies. A close approxima-
response. C1 is selected for minimum of Ql. tion can be had by simply taking the XL
coupling to the oscillator, consistent with Q2 functions as a fed- back amplifier and Xc values for the components
adequate drive to Ql. Q Iand Q2 should with shunt feedback and source degenera- specified in Fig. 12 and determining from
have high Fr and medium beta to ensure a tion. The feedback stabilizes the amplifier those reactances the new values for the
slight rf-voltage gain. Devices such as the and makes it broadband. The drain tank frequency of interest. The tuning range
2N2222A and 2N5179 are suggested. is designed as api network with aloaded will be determined by the capacitance

6-7 Chapter 6
 NR
1,8-1,9 MHz
64 0001
0 -1-
(31 02 VA)
,n
00

To, To.,
100 180
C7
C12 fij D2 C13
0.01
8.6V
1W
OSC. • RFC 3
R8 2 5 mH
01 SOURCE 271,

18-19 MHz
Is MPF102 FOL L.

D 0?
LI
MPF102
AMR

03 11.751
C4 110 L2 C19
0.002 2N2222 C16 0 001 \ OUTPUT
R10
POLY (50 OHMS)

C5
1.8-1.9 MHz
0 01
13' 120
R12

Zri.1914 RFC1 POLY

ImH 3.3k

T
0.002 RFC2
-
ICI,
..7•-• 3
C2
-.11.50
1rnH
C15
POLY C17
SM R7 510
0 0036
5.6k SM.

1c6
SM
MAIN
TUNING R9 — C14
270 TO 1

T°'
01,02 03

El• RMS VOLTAGE

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARAOS IpF t; 0 • DC VOLTAGE
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS pF OR j,e);
S M • SILVER MICA
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS,
k • 1000 , M•1000 000. POLY • POLYSTYRENE

Fig. 12 — Circuit of a proven VFO chain which has exceptional stability under fairly constant room temperature. Although it is shown for operation
from 1.8 to 1.9 MHz, it can be modified and used as high as 10 MHz. L1 is a 25- to 58-0-1 inductor ( Miller 43A47CB1); L2 is a 10- to 18.7-gH inductor
(Miller 23A 155RPC).

value of Cl. Data on precise component

values for other frequency ranges are not OUT

available from the ARRL. Further infor-

mation on VFO design and the general cir-
cuit of Fig. 12 was provided by DeMaw in
June 1976 Ham Radio.
Premixing
It is difficult to build a variable-
frequency oscillator for operation above
10 MHz with drift of only a few Hz. A
VFO

PREMIXING
STANDakO
OSC DE'

PHASE - LOCKED LOOP

SQ
1DC I AMP

scheme called premixing shown in Fig.

(115)
I3A, may be used to obtain VFO output (A)

in the 10- to 50- MHz range. The output of

ahighly stable VFO is mixed with energy
Fig. 13 — Block diagrams of the (A) premixing and ( B) phase- locked loop methods.
from a crystal-controlled oscillator. The
frequencies of the two oscillators are
chosen so that spurious outputs generated
during the mixing process do not fall with- Fig. 13B. Output from avoltage-controlled stable mf VFO as the standard which sta-
in the desired output range. A band-pass oscillator ( VCO) and a frequency stan- bilizes the frequency of an hf or vhf VCO.

ST.
filter at the mixer output attenuates out- dard are fed to a phase detector which This approach is used in the receiver de-
of- band spurious energy. The charts given produces an output voltage equal to the scribed by Fischer in March 1970
difference in frequency between the two The other PLL system also uses acrystal-
in chapter 8can be used to choose oscil-
lator combinations which will have a signals. The error voltage is amplified, fil- controlled standard, but with program-
minimum of spurious outputs. tered, and applied to the VCO. The error mable frequency dividers included so that
voltage changes the frequency of the VCO the VCO output is always locked to a
PLL until it is locked to the standard. The crystal reference. The frequency i, changed
Receivers and transmitters of advanced bandwidth of the error-voltage filter de- by modifying the instructions to the divi-
design are now using phase- locked loops termines the frequency range over which ders; steps of 100 Hz are usually employed
(PLLs) to generate highly stable local the system will remain in phase lock. for hf receivers while 10-kHz increments
oscillator energy as high as the microwave Three types of phase-locked loops are are popular in vhf gear.
region. The PLL has the advantage that now in use. The simplest type uses har-
VFO Dials
no mixing stage is used in conjunction monics of a crystal standard to phase-
with the output oscillator, so the output lock an HFO, providing the injection for One of the tasks facing an amateur
energy is quite " clean." The Kenwood the first mixer in adouble-conversion re- builder is the difficulty of finding a
ceiver. A typical circuit is given in Fig. 14. suitable dial and drive assembly for a
TS-820, the Collins 651S-1, and the
National HRO-600 currently use PLL. Complete construction details on this PLL VFO. A dial should provide asufficiently
were given in January 1972 QST. A sec- slow rate of tuning — 10 to 25 kHz per
high- frequency oscillator systems.
The basic diagram of aPLL is shown in ond type of phase-locked loop uses a knob revolution is considered optimum —

HF Transmitting 6-8
 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( .pF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN INCOFARADS ( pF OR » Fr,
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ,
•1,000, M•1,000,000.

Fig. 14 — A practical PLL for acrystal- controlled HFO. Y1 is chosen so the harmonic content is ample at the desired output frequency. A 200- kHz crystal is
fine to 40 MHz, a500- kHz one is suitable to 60 MHz and a 1- MHz crystal is good for use to 80 MHz. L1 and L3 are resonant at the output frequency.

without backlash. Planetary drives are linear readout is achieved. In aPTO, the emitting diodes). The use of MSI and LSI
popular because of their low cost; pitch of the oscillator coil winding may be circuits, some containing as many as 200
however, they often develop objectional varied so that linear frequency change transistors on a single chip, reduces the
backlash after a short period of use. results from the travel of the tuning slug. size required for an electronic dial to afew
Several types of two-speed drives are Such a VFO was described in July 1964 square inches of circuit- board space.
available. They are well suited to home- QST. A different approach was employed A typical counter circuit is given in Fig.
made amateur equipment. The Eddystone by Lee ( November 1970 QST), using a 15. The accuracy of the counter is deter-
898 precision dial has long been afavorite variable-capacitance diode (Varicap) as mined by acrystal standard which is often
with:gmateurs, although the need to ele- the VFO tuning element. A meter which referred to as aclock. The output from a
vate the VFO far above the chassis intro- reads the voltage applied to the Varicap 100-kHz calibration oscillator, the type
duces some mechanical-stability problems. was calibrated to indicate the VFO often used in receivers and transceivers,
If apermeability-tuned oscillator ( PTO) is frequency. may be employed if accuracy of 100 Hz is
used, one of the many types of turn
sufficient. For readout down to 1Hz, a
counters made for vacuum variable capaci- Electronic Dials 1- to 10- MHz AT-cut crystal should be
tors or rotory inductors may be employed. An electronic dial consists of a sim- chosen, because the type of high-accuracy
plified frequency counter which reads crystal exhibits the best temperature
Linear Readout
either the VFO or operating frequency of stability. The clock output energy is divid-
If linear- frequency readout is desired on a transmitter or receiver. The advantage ed in decade-counter ICs to provide the
the dial, the variable capacitor must be of an electronic dial is the excellent pulse which opens the input gate of the
only a small portion of the total accuracy ( to 1hertz, if desired) and the counter for apreset time. The number of
capacitance in the oscillator tank. Capaci- fact that VFO tuning does not have to be rf cycles which pass through the gate while
tors tend to be very nonlinear near the linear. The readout section of the dial may it is open are counted and stored. Storage
ends of rotation. A gear drive providing a use neon-glow tubes called Nixies ( atrade- is used so that the readout does not blink.
1.5:1 reduction should be employed so name of the Burroughs Corp.), or aseven- At the end of each counting cycle the in-
that only the center of the capacitor range segment display using incandescent lamps, formation that has been stored activates
is used. Then, as a final adjustment, the filament wires in avacuum tube, or LCDs
the display LEDs, which present the
plates of the capacitor must be filed until (liquid crystal display), or LEDs ( light-
numbers counted until another count
6-9 Chapter 6
 100 KHz

XTAL
STANDARD

RF AMP.
DIV DER
LIM TER

INPUT
RESET
GATE

DIVIDER
STORAGE
DISPLAY DRIVER

sr

Fig. 15 — Frequency counter block diagram.

cycle is complete. A complete electronic

dial arranged to be combined with an ex-
isting transmitter or receiver was describ-
ed in October 1970 QST. Also, Macleish
et al. reported an adapter which allows a
commercially made frequency counter to
be mated with ham gear so that the
counter performs as an electronic dial
(May 1971 QST).

Frequency Multiplication
It may be necessary to use frequency
multipliers at some point after the VFO or
other frequency generator in a transmit-
ter. When this need is present, the circuits
of Fig. 16 can be applied. Of course,
vacuuni-tube multipliers are entirely suit-
able if the design is not one which uses
semiconductors. The fundamental prin-
ciples for frequency multiplication are
applicable to tubes and transistors alike.
The requisite is that of operating the
devices in Class C. Although atransistor Fig. 16 — Single-ended multiplier (A), push-push doubler (
B) and push-pull tripler (C).

circuit may be seen with forward bias

applied to a frequency multiplier, the
stage must be driven hard enough to
override the bias and operate Class C. to V„, the lighter the collector loading on tuned to 2f. RI is used to establish
Forward bias is sometimes used in a LI and the greater the filtering action of electrical balance between Q Iand (A,41
multiplier stage ( solid state) to lower the the tuned circuit. The tradeoff is, is set while the doubler is being fully
however, a reduction in output power as driven. Diode doublers can be used in a
excitation requirements. Negative voltage
the mismatch of the collector to the load similar circuit, but the subject will not be
(reverse bias) is often used on the grid of a
vacuum-tube multiplier, but forward bias increases. treated here ( see chapter four).
A push-push doubler is shown at Fig. A push-pull tripler is illustrated in Fig.
is not.
The circuit of Fig. 16A is probably the 16B. Because of the conduction angle of 16C. Once again the matter of electrical
least suitable for frequency multiplica- this type of circuit the efficiency is similar balance and symmetry is impoetant to
tion. Typically, the efficiency of adoubler to that of a straight amplifier which good operation. The circuit discriminates
operates in Class C. Also, the driving against even harmonics, thereby aiding
of this type is 50 percent, a tripler is 33
percent, and a quadrupler is 25 percent. frequency ( f) will be well attenuated at the spectral purity. The efficiency is some-
Additionally, harmonics other than the doubler output if electrical balance and what better than atripler using the circuit
component symmetry are ensured. A of Fig. 16A. If vacuum tubes are used in
one to which the output tank is tuned will
appear in the output unless effective I2AU7A tube will work nicely in this type the circuits of Fig. 16, the input ports
of circuit well into the vhf region. TI in should employ high-impedance tuned cir-
band-pass filtering is applied. The collec-
tor tap on LI of Fig. 16A is placed at a this example is a trifilar-wound, broad- cuits for best performance.
point which offers a reasonable com- band toroidal transformer. It drives the
gates of Q Iand Q2 in push pull ( opposite Output Filtering
promise between power output and spec-
tral purity: The lower the tap with respect phase). The drains are in parallel and are Output purity from oscillators, multi -

HF Transmitting 6-10
 bandwidth must be adequate for the
Table 1
Chebyshev High- Pass and Low- Pass Filters-Attenuation (dB) tuning range of the VFO in order to
No. elements, prevent attenuation of the output energy
VSWR 2lc.
3 fc
4fc 5 fc 6f
c 7 fc
ripple, dB within the desired band. For this reason, a
3, 1 2.66 22.46 34.05 41.88 47.85 52.68 56.74
low-pass type of filter is used in preference
3, 0.1 1.36 12.24 23.60 31.42 37.39 42.22 46.29
3, 0.01 1.10 4.08 13.73 21.41 27.35 32.18 36.24 to abandpass one by some designers.
3, 0.001 1.03 0.63 5.13 11 68 17.42 22.20 26.25 The information contained in Figs.
5, 1 2.66 45.31 64.67 77.73 87.67 95.72 102.50 17-19 and in Tables 1to 5 will allow the
5, 0.1 1.36 34.85 54.21 67.27 77.21 85.26 92.04 builder to select an appropriate
5, 0.01 1.10 24.82 44.16 57.22 67.17 75.22 82.00
5, 0.001 1.03 14.94 34.16 47.22 57.16 65.22 71.99
Chebyshev filter design to fulfill a par-
7, 1 2.66 68.18 95.29 113.57 127.49 138.77 148.26
ticular need. Information is included for
7, 0.1 1.36 57.72 84.83 103.11 117.03 128.31 137.80 both high-pass and low-pass filters with 1,
7, 0.01 1.10 47.68 74.78 93.07 106.99 118.27 127.75 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001 db passband ripple.
7, 0.001 1.03 37.68 64.78 83.06 96.98 108.26 117.75 These figures correspond to VSWRs of
9, 1 2.66 91.06 125.91 149.42 167.32 181.82 194.01 2.66, 1.36, 1.10 and 1.03 respectively. Ad-
9, 0.1 1.36 80.60 115.45 138.96 156.86 171.36 183.55
9, 0.01 1.10 70.56 105.41 128.91 146.81 161.31 173.51
ditionally, information is provided for
9, 0.001 1.03 60.55 95.40 118.91 136.91 151.31 163.50 both " T" and " pi" types of filter con-
Note For high-pass filter configuration 2t, becomes f
c/2. etc
figurations.
The filters are " normalized" to a fre-
quency of 1MHz and an input and output
Table 2 impedance of 50 ohms. In order to trans-
Chebyshev Low- Pass Filter - T Configuration late the designs to other frequencies, all
No. elements, that is necessary is to divide the compo-
Li L2 L3 L4 L5 Cl C2 C3 C4
ripple, dB
3, 1 16.10 16.10 3164.3
nent values by the new frequency in MHz.
3, 0.1 8.209 8.209 3652.3 (The 1- MHz value represents a " cutoff"
3, 0.01 5.007 5.007 3088.5 frequency. That is, the attenuation in-
3, 0.001 3.253 3.253 2312.6 creases rapidly above this frequency for
5, 1 16.99 23.88 16.99 3473.1 3473.1
the low-pass filter or below this frequency
5, 0.1 9.126 15.72 9.126 4364.7 4364.7
5, 0.01 6.019 12.55 6.019 4153.7 4153.7 for the high-pass filter. This effect should
5, 0.001 4.318 10.43 4.318 3571.1 3571.1 not be confused with the variations in at-
7, 1 17.24 24.62 24.62 17.24 3538.0 3735.4 3538.0 tenuation in the passband.) For instance,
7, 0.1 9.400 16.68 16.68 9.400 4528.9 5008.3 4528.9 if it is desired to reduce harmonics from a
7, 0.01 6.342 13.91 13.91 6.342 4432.2 5198.4 4432.2
VFO at frequencies above 5MHz ( the new
7, 0.001 4.690 12.19 12.19 4.690 3951.5 4924.1 3951.5
cutoff frequency), the inductance and
9, 1 17.35 24.84 25.26 24.84 17.35 3562.5 3786.9 3786.9 3562.5
9, 0.1 9.515 16.99 17.55 16.99 9.515 4591.9 5146.2 5146.2 4591.9 capacitance salues would be dis ided by
9 0.01 6.481 14.36 15.17 14.36 6.481 4542.5 5451.2 5451.2 4542.5 5.0.
9, 0.001 4.854 12.81 13.88 12.81 4.854 4108.2 5299.0 5299.0 4108.2 Other impedance levels can also be used
Component values normalized to 1MHz and 50 ohms L in piH; and C in pF. by multiplying the inductor salues by the
ratio Z„/50 and the capacitor values by
50/Z„, where Z„ is the new impedance.
Table 3 This factor should be applied in addition
Chebyshev Low- Pass Filter - Pi Configuration
to the ones for frequency translation.
No. elements,
Cl C2 C3 C4 C5 Li L2 L3 L4 In order to select asuitable filter design
ripple, dB
3, 1 6441.3 6441.3 the builder must determine the amount of
7.911
3, 0.1 3283.6 3283.6 9.131 attenuation required at the harmonic fre-
3, 0.01 2002.7 2002.7 7.721 quencies ( for the low-pass case) or
3, 0.001 1301.2 1301.2 5.781 "subharmonic" frequencies ( for the high-
5, 1 6795.5 9552.2 6795.5 8.683 8.683 pass application). Additionally, the
5, 0.1 3650.4 6286.6 3650.4 10.91 10.91
5, 0.01 2407.5 5020.7 2407.5 10.38 10.38 builder must determine the maximum per-
5, 0.001 1727.3 4170.5 1727.3 8.928 8.928 missible amount of passband ripple and
7, 1 6896.4 9847.4 9847.4 6896.4 8.85 9.34 8.85 therefore the VSWR of the filter. With
7, 0.1 3759.8 6673.9 6673.9 3759.8 11.32 12.52 11.32 this information the builder can refer to
7, 0.01 2536.8 5564.5 5564.5 2536.8 11.08 13.00 11.08
Table 1 to select an appropriate filter
7, 0.001 1875.7 4875.9 4875.9 1875.7 9.879 12.31 9.879
design. The attenuation values gis en here
g, 1 6938.3 9935.8 10,105. 9935.8 6938.3 8.906 9.467 9.467 8.906
g, 0.1 3805.9 6794.5 7019.9 6794.5 3805.9 11.48 12.87 12.87 11.48 are theoretical and assume perfect com-
9, 0.01 2592.5 5743.5 6066.3 5743.5 2592.5 11.36 13.63 13.63 11.36 ponents, no coupling between filter sec-
9, 0.001 1941.7 5124.6 5553.2 5124.6 1941.7 10.27 13.25 13.25 10.27 tions and no signal leakage around the
Component values normalized to 1 MHz and 50 ohms L in pH; C in pF. filter. A " real life" filter should follow
these values fairly close down to the 60- or
70-dB attenuation level. At this point the
theoretical response will likely be de-
pliers and amplifiers is of paramount protection against spurious responses graded somewhat by the factors just men-
importance to the performance of numerous above and below the amateur band for tioned. Once the filter design has been
circuits. In the interest of compliance with which they have been designed. Low-pass selected the builder can refer to Tables 2-5
current FCC regulations, wherein all spu- filters attenuate energy above the desired to obtain the normalized component
rious emissions from a transmitter must output frequency, while high-pass filters values.
be 40 dB or greater below the peak power reduce energy below the band of interest. In many cases the calculated capacitor
of the desired signal, filtering is important. It is common practice to include aharmo- values will be sufficiently close to a stan-
The type of filter used - band-pass, notch, nic filter at the output of aVFO chain to dard value so that the standard-value item
low-pass or high-pass - will depend on ensure purity of the driving voltage to a may be used. Alternatively, a combina-
the application. Band-pass filters afford mixer or amplifier stage. The filter tion of fixed- value silver- mica capacitors

6.11 Chapter 6
Table 4
Chebyshev High- Pass Filter - T Configuration
No. elements,
CI C2 C3 C4 C5 Ll L2 L3 L4
ripple, dB
3, 1 1573.0 1573.0 8.005
3, 0.1 3085.7 3085.7 6.935
3, 0.01 5059.1 5059.1 8.201
3, 0.001 7786.9 7786.9 10.95
5, 1 1491.0 1060.7 1491.0 7.293 7.293
5, 0.1 2775.6 1611.7 2775.6 5.803 5.803
5, 0.01 4208.6 2018.1 4208.6 6.098 6.098
5, 0.001 5865.7 2429.5 5865.7 7.093 7.093
7, 1 1469.2 1028.9 1028.9 1469.2 7.160 6.781 7.160
7, 0.1 2694.9 1518.2 1518.2 2694.9 5.593 5.058 5.593 Fig. 18 - Here is a photograph of a 7-element
7, 0.01 3994.1 1820.9 1820.9 3994.1 5.715 4.873 5.715 low-pass filter designed with the information
7, 0.001 5401.7 2078.0 2078.0 5401.7 6.410 5.144 6.410 contained in Table 3. The filter is housed in a
7.110 small aluminum Minibox.
9, 1 1460.3 1019.8 1002.7 1019.8 1460.3 7.110 6.689 6.689
9, 0.1 2662.2 1491.2 1443.3 1491.2 2662.2 5.516 4.922 4.922 5.516
9, 0.01 3908.2 1764.1 1670.2 1764.1 3908.2 5.576 4.647 4.647 5.576
9, 0.001 5218.3 1977.1 1824.6 1977.1 5218.3 6.657 4.780 4.780 6.657
Cl

Component values normalized to 1 MHz and 50 ohms I_ in pH; and C in pF

Table 5
Chebyshev High. Pass Filter - Pi Configuration
No. elements, Ll L2 L3 L4 L5 Cl C2 C3 C4 High- Pass Filter - Pi configuration
ripple, dB (See Table 5 for normalized values)
3, 1 3.932 3.932 3201.7
3, 0.1 7.714 7.714 2774.2
3, 0.01 12.65 12.65 3280.5
3, 0.001 19.47 19.47 4381.4 o
5, 1 3.727 2.652 3.727 2917.3 2917.3
5, 0.1 6.939 4.029 6.939 2321.4 2321.4
5, 0.01 10.52 5.045 10.52 2439.3 2439.3
5, 0.001 1.466 6.074 1466 2837.3 2837.3

7, 1 7.159 5.014 5.014 7.159 1469.2 1391.6 1469.2

7, 0.1 6.737 3.795 3.795 6.737 2237.2 2023.1 2237.2
7, 0.01 9.985 4.552 4.552 9.985 2286.0 1949.1 2286.0
7, 0.001 13.50 5.195 5.195 13.50 2564.1 2057.7 2564.1
High- Pass Filter - T configuration
3.651 2.549 2.507 2.549 3.651 2844.1 2675.6 2675.6 2844.1 (See Table 4 for normalized values)
9, 1
6.656 3.728 3.608 3 728 6.656 2206.5 1968.9 1968.9 2206.5
9. 0.1
9.772 4.410 4.176 4.410 9.772 2230.5 1858.7 1858.7 2230.5 LI2 L Lry
9, 0.01
13.05 4.943 4.561 4.943 13.05 2466.3 1911.8 1911.8 2466.3
9, 0.001
Component values normalized to 1 MHz and 50 ohms L in pH; and C in pF.
CI CN -r

Low- Pass Elter - T configuration

(See Table 2 for normalized values)

L1 LN
,- -o
--L
i- 1

C2 CN

Tc
Low- Pass Filter - Pi configuration
(See Table 3 for normalized values)

Fig. 19 - Shown here are the four filter types

discussed in the text and Tables 1-5.

and mica compression trimmers can be

used in parallel to obtain the chart values.
Toroidal inductors, because of their self-
shielding properties, are ideal for use in
these filters. Miniductor stock can also be
used. However, it is much bulkier and will
not offer the same degree of shielding be-
tween filter sections. Disc-ceramic or
paper capacitors are not suitable for use in
rf filters. Standard mica or silver-mica
Fig. 17 - A representative drawing of the amplitude vs. frequency response that could be ex- types are recommended.
pected from a 5-element low-pass filter designed from the information contained in Tables 2 or 3. Fig. 18 shows afilter that was designed
The exact amount of attenuation (theoretical) can be obtained from Table 1. This drawing shows
with the information contained in Table
how passband ripple and roll-off slope are interrelated

HF Transmittina 6-12
 DRIVER
tain a mixture ( hybrid) of tubes and
TO
f_ o PA semiconductors, while other circuits have
GRID
no vacuum tubes at all. If tubes are used
0.001 0.001 ( HI- Z)
in a hybrid circuit, they are generally
VI
restricted to the driver and PA sections of
6GK6 the transmitter. There is no particular
reason why tubes should be used in
preference to power transistors for output
INPUT 0-I
(HI - Z) powers up to, say, 150 watts, despite the
0 001
prevailing myth that tubes are more
0.01 rugged, operate more stably, and produce
less spurious output. It is true that
transistors are less tolerant than tubes to
SWR levels in excess of 2:1, but a
0.01
+ 275V correctly designed transistor amplifier can
be operated safely if SWR-protection
BIAS
(-V) (A) circuitry is included. Furthermore, spec-
tral purity can be just as good from a
solid-state amplifier as it is from a tube
DRIVER
type of amplifier. A harmonic filter
01
2N4427 TO normally follows a solid-state power
r, PA
GRID
stage, whereas this measure may not be
(HI-Z) required when tubes are used in the
amplifier. Amplifier IMD ( third- and
fifth- order products) in solid-state power
stages which operate linearly is fully as
acceptable as that which is observed in
most tube types of linear amplifiers.
Typically, if a design is correct, the IMD
will be on the order of — 33 dB from the
reference power value.
The major area of concern when
designing a solid-state driver or PA
section is to prevent low- frequency self-
oscillations. Such parasitics tend to
modulate the carrier and appear as
spurious responses within the amplifier
BROADBAND DRIVER passband. The low- frequency parasitics
01 occur as a result of the extremely high
gain exhibited by hf and vhf transistors at
the low- frequency end of the spectrum.
560 The theoretical gain increase for a given
transistor is 6 dB per octave as the
Z. 200f1 operating frequency is lowered. The same
560
is not true of vacuum tubes. Therefore, it
INPUT° )
is necessary to employ quality decoupling
TO PA
01 BASE
and bypassing in the circuit. It is similarly
(L0-2) important to use low- Q, low- inductance rf
chokes and matching networks to dis-
courage low- frequency tuned- base, tuned-
collector oscillations. The suppression
concepts just discussed are illustrated in
O. 01
RFC Fig. 20 at B and C. In the circuit at B there
are two 950-mu ferrite beads added over
the pigtail of RFC1 to swamp the Q of the
22pF choke. Three bypass capacitors ( 0.001,
o 0.01 and 0.1/2 F) are used with RFC2 of
) +vcc Fig. 20B to provide effective rf decoupling
from vhf to mf. A 22-uF capacitor is used
(C)
near RFC2 to bypass the 4-V c,line at low
frequency and audio. This method is
Fig. 20 — Circuit examples of transistor and tube driver stages for use in transmitters.
recommended for each high-gain solid-
state stage in a transmitter.

Driver Circuits
3. It is a 7-element, low-pass type of pi Driver Stages The circuits of Fig. 20A and 20B are
configuration. The unit is housed in a typical of those which would be employed
small aluminum Minibox and makes use The choice between tubes and transis- to excite a tube type of PA stage. The
of BNC connectors for the input and out- tors in low-level amplifier and driver 6GK6 tube driver at A can be biased for
put connections. Some practical low-pass stages will depend upon the nature of the Class C or Class AB operation, making it
filter values are given later in this chapter. composite transmitter. Some designs con- suitable for cw or ssb service. Of course,

6-13 Chapter 6
 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (,pF I; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARA DS ( pF OR y,pF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k.
1000. M.1,000,000

Fig. 21 — Practical circuit for a three- stage broadband amplifier/driver. See text.

the AB mode would be suitable for cw and broadband operation ( 1.8 to 30 MHz in troubleshooting. Overall gain for the strip
ssb, and would require considerably less this example) is a reduction in maximum at 7MHz is 31 dB, with slight gain varia-
excitation power than would the same available gain (MAO). Therefore, the out- tions elsewhere in the passband. Ti con-
stage operating in Class C. Other tubes put power from Q1 of Fig. 20C will be less sists of 30 turns of no. 28 enameled wire
that perform well in this circuit are the than Iwatt. The stage operates Class A, (primary) on an FT50-43 toroid. The
6CL6, 12BY7A and 5763. The output making it linear. The emitter is unby- secondary has four turns on no. 28 wire.
tank is designed for high impedance in passed to provide emitter degeneration. T2 uses 16 turns of no. 28 enameled wire
order to interface properly with the Shunt feedback is used between the base (primary) looped through an Amidon
high- impedance grid of the PA. It may be and collector to enhance stability and con- BLN-43-302 ferrite balun core. The secon-
necessary to include a neutralization tribute to the broadband characteristic of dary contains four turns of no. 28 wire.
circuit with this type of amplifier, the circuit. T1 is a broadband conven- RFC I, RFC2 and RFC3 are 250-pH units.
especially if careful layout is not used. The tional transformer wound on a toroid They are made by winding 20 turns of no.
high transconductance of the 6GK6 series core. The turns ratio is adjusted to match 28 enameled wire on FT37-43 toroid
encourages self-oscillation near the opera- the approximate 200-ohm collector im- cores. D1 and D2 are 1-A, 50 PRV rec-
ting frequency. Z1 is a parasitic choke pedance to the base impedance of the tifier diodes. This driver was designed to
which should be included as a matter of transistor PA stage. The latter is typically excite aMotorola MRF449A PA stage to
course to prevent vhf parasitics. less than 5ohms. Heat sinks are required apower-output range from 15 to 30 watts.
A transistor amplifier which is suitable for the transistors of Fig. 20B and C. The C1at the emitter of Q1 can be selected to
for driving aClass C tube PA is presented primary of Tl should have areactance of provide the overall gain needed in this
in Fig. 20B. Q1 operates Class C, so it is roughly four times the collector im- strip. The value given at Cl proved
not satisfactory for amplifying ssb energy. pedance. This is related to the lowest pro- suitable for the ARRL version of this
However, forward bias (approximately posed operating frequency. Therefore, for amplifier. The final value will depend on
0.7 volt) can be added to move the 1.8 MHz the primary winding would be 70 the gain of the individual transistors ac-
operating curve into the Class AB (linear) pH ( XL = 800 ohms). This can be quired for this circuit.
region, thereby making the stage suitable achieved easily by using an FT50-43
for ssb signal amplification. A 1.5-ohm Amidon core. The primary advantage to a Coupling Between Transmitter Stages 4
resistor can be added between the emitter broadband driver is that it need not be Correct impedance matching betw
and ground to help prevent thermal band-switched or peaked by means of a stage and its load provides m
runaway and to introduce degeneration front-panel control. The transistor transfer of power. The load can
(feedback) for enhancing stability. No selected for broadband service should antenna or a succeeding Stage ifpa
bypass capacitor would be used from have avery high f-r rating. It needs to have transmitter. Thus, the output impedance
emitter to ground if this were done. T1is a high beta as well. Transistors designed for of astage must be matchefl to the input of
narrow- band toroidal rf transformer that uhf service are excellent as hf-band the following stage. Various forms of
has aturns ratio suitable for transforming amplifiers when broadbanding is con- coupling networks are popular for use in
the collector impedance to the grid templated. Neutralization is not necessary tube or transistor circuits. The choice will
impedance (determined by the value of the when using bipolar-transistor amplifiers. depend on anumber of considerations —
grid resistor of the PA) of the final A practical three-stage broadband am- available driving power versus tolerable
amplifier. The secondary winding of T1is plifier strip is shown schematically in Fig. mismatch, selectivity required and the
tuned to resonance at the operating 21. With an input level of 10 mW it is impedance levels being matched. When
frequency. Approximately 1 watt of possible to obtain 1.4 watts of output working with transistors, the collector
power output can be taken from Q1 in the from 3.5 to 29 MHz. A keying transistor impedance can be approximated by
hf region when a 12- volt Vcc is used. This (Q4) is included for turning the amplifier
is ample power for driving apair of 6146B off by means of aVOX, or for keying it Z = V "1
tubes in Class ABl. during cw operation. 2Po
A broadband type of solid-state driver Rms and de voltages are noted on
is shown in Fig. 20C. The tradeoff for the diagram of Fig. 21 to aid in where Z is in ohms and P0 is the power

HF Transmitting 614
 penalty for using a low-Q resonant
network is poor selectivity: There is little
attenuation of harmonic or other spurious
energy. Conversely, tube stages operate at
relatively high impedance levels ( plate and
grid) and can be neutralized easily ( not
true of transistors). This permits the
employment of high-Q networks between
stages, which in turn provide good
selectivity. Most solid-state amplifiers use
matching networks with loaded Qs of 5or
less. Tube stages more commonly contain
networks with loaded Qs of 10 to 15. The
higher the Q, up to a practical limit,
the greater the attenuation of frequencies
other than the desired ones. In all cases,
the input and output capacitances of tubes
and transistors must be included in the
network constants, or to use the en-
gineering vernacular, " absorbed" into the
network. The best source of information
on the input and output capacitances of
power transistors is the manufacturer's
data sheet. The capacitance values are de-
pendent upon the operating frequency
and power level of the transistor — avery
complex set of curves. Most tube data
sheets list specific values of input and out-
put capacitance, which do not vary with
the operating frequency or power level.
The interstage coupling method shown
in Fig. 22A is a common one when
vacuum tubes are employed. The driver
plate has atuned circuit which is resonant
at the operating frequency. A low-value
coupling capacitor ( 100 pF in this ex-
ample) routes the drive from the plate of
VI to the grid of V2 across a high-
impedance element, RFC2. The other
choke, RFC1, is used as part of the
decoupling network for the supply voltage
to VI.
Band-pass coupling between tube stages
is demonstrated at Fig. 22B. C1has avery
small capacitance value and is chosen to
provide asingle-hump response when the
two resonators (LI and L2) are peaked to
the operating frequency. The principal ad-
vantage to this circuit over that of Fig.
22A is greater purity of the driving energy
to V2 by virtue of increased selectivity. As
Fig. 22 — Typical coupling methods for use between amplifier stages. See text.
an alternative to capacitive coupling (Cl),
link coupling can be used between the cold
ends of LI and L2. Similar band-pass net-
works are applicable to transistor stages.
output from the stage. However, deter- in which both the inductance and capaci- The collector and base of the two stages
mining the input impedance of the base tance elements are variable to allow lati- would be tapped down on LI and L2 to
of the following stage is difficult to do tude of adjustment while securing a minimize loading. This helps preserve the
without expensive laboratory equipment. matched condition. On the other hand, loaded Q of the tuned circuits, thereby
Generally, when the PA delivers in excess some designers purposely introduce a aiding selectivity.
of 2 watts of output power, the base mismatch between stages to control the A common form of transformer cou-
impedance of that stage will be less than power distribution and aid stability. pling is seen at Fig. 22C. TI is usually a
10 ohms — frequently just 1or 2 ohms. When this technique is used it is necessary toroidal inductor for use up to approxi-
For this reason some kinds of LC to have more driving power than would be mately 30 MHz. At higher frequencies it is
matching networks do not lend them- needed under a matched condition. An often difficult to provide asecondary win-
selves to the application. Furthermore, intentional mismatch results in atradeoff winding of the correct impedance ratio re-
without being able to predict the precise between gain and the desired end effect of spective to the primary winding. Depend-
input impedance of a transistor power introducing a mismatch. ing on the total number of transformer
amplifier, it becomes desirable to use what In the interest of stability it is common turns used, the secondary might call for
is sometimes referred to as a "sloppy" practice to use low-Q networks between less than one turn, which is impractical.
matching network. This is an LC network stages in a solid-state transmitter. The However, for most of the spectrum up to

6-15 Chapter 6
30 MHz this technique is entirely satisfac-
tory. The primary tap on TI is chosen to
transform the collector impedance of Q I
to the base impedance of Q2 by means of
the turns ratio between the tapped section
and the secondary winding of the trans-
former. R Imay be added in shunt with
the secondary to stabilize Q2 if there is a
tendency toward self-oscillation. The
value used will be in the 5- to 27-ohm
range for most circuits. The rule of thumb
is to use just enough resistance to tame the
instability.
A method for coupling between stages
Fig. 23 — Parallel and series equivalent cir-
by means of a capacitive divider is il- cuits and the formulas used for conversion.
lustrated in Fig. 22D. The net value of C1
and C2 in series must be added to the
capacitance of C3 when determining the
inductance required for resonance with
LI. The basic equation for calculating the
capacitance ratio of C1and C2 is included
in the diagram. RFC1 serves as adc return
for the base of Q2. The Q of the rf choke
is degraded intentionally by the addition (A)
of two 950-mu ferrite beads. This aids
stability, as discussed earlier in this
chapter. An advantage to using this type Fig. 25 — Circuit and equations for network
of circuit is that vhf and uhf parasitics are no. 2. Actual circuit (A) and series equivalent
discouraged and harmonic currents are at- (B).

tenuated when C2 is fairly high in

capacitance. This is not true of the circuit
in Fig. 22C.
When the impedance levels to be
matched are of the proper value to permit
employing specific-ratio broadband (B)
transformers, the circuit of Fig. 22E is
useful. In this example two 4:1
transformers are used in cascade to pro-
C2
vide a 16:1 transformation ratio. This
satisfies the match between the 80-ohm
collector of Q1 and the 5-ohm base of Q2. Te,
The shortcoming of this technique is the jR s

lack of selectivity between stages, but the

advantage is in the broadband ,,
characteristic of the coupling system. The (C)
phasing dots on the diagram near T1and
12 indicate the correct electrical relation-
ship of the transformer windings. WHEN Rs < R, NETWORK I

Network Equations 1 SELECT OL

2 - ALOOLRK+ec.
The three networks shown in Figs. 24, 3 - Acz • A R1

25 and 26 will provide practical solutions 8

4 - Ac ,•
to many of the impedance-matching pro-
blems encountered by amateurs. In each
WHERE A.1 [R8 tiR*IQL!) ] - 1
of the figures it is assumed that the output
impedance being matched is lower than
the input impedance of the following B.R,(1+0J)

stage. If this is not the case the network

Fig. 24 — Circuit and mathematical solution Fig. 26 — Network-solution equations and cir-
(the circuit elements between the points cuit for network no. 3. Actual circuit (A) and
for matching network no. 1. Actual circuit (A),
marked A and B) can be turned around to series equivalent ( B).
parallel equivalent ( B) and series equivalent (C).
provide the correct transformation.
Normally, the output impedance of a
transistor is given as a resistance in
parallel with a capacitance, Cow .To use
enough that it may be neglected; the values. Some designers feel that of the
the design equations for these three net-
resulting error is compensated for by various networks used in solid-state work,
works, the output impedance must first be
using variable components in the net- the T network is best in terms of collector
converted from the parallel form ( 12 0u1
work. efficiency. The harmonic suppression af-
and C0u1 )to the equivalent series form ( R,
The low-pass T network (Fig. 26) has forded by the T network varies with the
and CO. These equivalent circuits and the
the advantage of matching awide range of transformation ratio and the QL of the
equations for conversion are given in Fig.
impedances with practical component network. For stages feeding an antenna
23. Often the output capacitance is small

HF Transmitting 6.16
 powdered- iron toroid cores of suitable
Li
3.5 MHz
L2
cross-sectional area for the power in-
AMP
2.7 2n volved. This is explained in an earlier
01
chapter of this book. LIand L2 should be
separated from one another by mounting
them apart and at right angles. Al-
ternatively, a shield can be used between
the inductors. This will prevent unwanted
capacitive and inductive coupling effects
RFC2 42Q1 (1.5pH) between the input and output terminals of
the network. Despite the self- shielding
nature of toroidal inductors, some cou-
pling is possible when they are in close
proximity.
NETWORK 3
Stable Operating Conditions
DESIGN EXAMPLE
+12V Purity of emissions and longevity of the
active devices in a tube or transistor
Vcc 2 144 circuit depend heavily upon stability
Rout = 7.2
21. 0 20 during operation. The subject of power-
lead decoupling has already been treated,
= 45.5
XCout (2n x 3.5 x 106 x 1000 x 10 „'` ) wherein bypassing for vhf, hf and If is
essential in the dc leads to each transistor
Rp 7.2
R, = - 7.0 amplifier stage. The bypass capacitors are
1 + (
Re p)
2 = 1 + (7.2/45.5) 2 used in combination with low- inductance
rf chokes in most instances. Although the
Xps = Rs ( R P )
= 7.0 ( z
= 1.1
same concept can be applied to tube types
\X / 45.5 ) of amplifiers, the possibility of self-
oscillations at frequencies lower than vhf
RL = 50
are not as pronounced. For the most part,
OL = 4
tube amplifiers will operate stably if
input-output shielding is provided for
XL1 = ( RsOL) + Xos = (7.0 x 4) + 1.1 = 29.1 high-gain stages (grid circuitry shielded
from plate circuitry). Depending upon the
XL1 29.1
inter-electrode capacitances of tubes, a
2n f(MHz) - 2n x 3.5 = 1.3 141-1
neutralization circuit may be necessary.
A = R5(1 + ID L2) = 7.0 ( 1 + 42) = 119
This will cancel positive feedback and
prevent regeneration. It involves sampling
=j
B i A `i = ji 119 )
RL \ 50
1 = 1.
17
a small amount of the output energy
(opposite phase of the input energy) and
feeding it back to the amplifier input,
XL2 = RL B = 50 x 1.17 = 58.70
thereby cancelling the unwanted in- phase
XL2 _ 58.7 (positive) feedback. A typical circuit is
L2(yH) = - 2.7 uti
2n f(MHz) 2rr x 3.5 given in Fig. 28. L2 provides a 180- phase
reversal because it is center tapped. C1is
XCI A _ 119 used between the plate and the lower half
B) (4 + 1.17) =
=at_ + (23.00
of the grid tank to permit cancellation of
C1 (i4)1 _ 1 = 0.002 uF the unwanted feedback voltage. C1is set
- 2n f - 2n x 3.5x 23.0
for the approximate value of the grid-
plate capacitance of the tube, the value of
which can usually be found on the tube
Fig. 27 - A practical example of network no 3 and the solution to the network design.
data sheet. C1is adjusted in one of two
ways: It is set at a value which results in
no change in tube grid current as the plate
additional harmonic suppression will nor- so examples for networks 1and 2will not tank is tuned through its range. Alterna-
mally be needed. This is also true for net- be given. In Fig. 27 the component "Cmit " tively, operating voltages are applied to
works 1and 2. These three networks are is taken from the manufacturer's data the tube, but no drive is used. A scope or
covered in detail in the Motorola Applica- sheet. If it is not available it can be ig- sensitive rf meter is connected to the plate
tion Note AN-267. Another excellent paper nored at the expense of aslight mathema- tank and Cl is adjusted for zero output
on the subject was written by Becciolini - tical error in the network determination. signal - indicating that self-oscillation is
Motorola Application Note AN-27I. By making Cl variable the network can be not taking place. Extreme care must be
The equations for networks 1, 2and 3 made to approximate the correct trans- exercised when the tube operating voltages
were taken from AN-267. That paper con- formation ratio. At the lower frequencies are present! Always keep the probe of the
tains computer solutions to these net- Cl will be fairly large in value. This may measuring instrument connected to acir-
works and others, with tabular informa- require afixed-value silver-mica capacitor cuit point which does not contain dc vol-
tion for various Qs and source im- being used in parallel with a mica tage. Sampling at L4 is recommended for
pedances. A fixed load value of 50 ohms is compression trimmer to obtain the exact the circuit of Fig. 28. C1needs to have
the base for the tabular data. value of capacitance needed. The equa- ample plate spacing to prevent voltage
A design example for network 3is given tions will seldom yield standard values of breakdown when the amplifier is operat-
in Fig. 27. The solutions for the other two capacitance. ing.
networks follow the same general trend, LIand L2 of Fig. 27 can be wound on All leads which conduct rf energy

6-17 Chapter 6
 both circuit locations. Generally, the low-
est power port is best suited for the sup-
pression devices discussed here. This
means that the resistor or ferrite beads
should be located at the base terminal of
the transistor.
Because of the rising gain characteristic
of bipolar transistors as the frequency is
lowered, shunt and degenerative feedback
are often used to prevent instability. The
net effect is that in the regions where
low-frequency self-oscillations are most
likely to occur, the feedback increases by
nature of the feedback network. The
Fig 28— Example of neutralization of a single- ended rf amplifier heavier the feedback, the lower the
amplifier gain. In the circuit of Fig. 30 Cl
and R3 provide negative feedback which
increases progressively as the frequency is
lowered. The network has some effect at
the desired operating frequency — a
gain/stability tradeoff — but has a
pronounced effect at the lower frequencies.
The values for Cl and R3 are chosen ex-
perimentally in most instances, the precise
values being dependent upon the operat-
ing frequency of the amplifier and the
amount of feedback voltage available
from the tap-off point. Cl will usually be
between 220 pF and 0.0015u Ffor hf-band
amplifiers. R3 may be avalue from 51 to
5600 ohms. A rule of thumb that may
prove helpful is to use anetwork that re-
duces the stage gain by apprcximately 1.5
dB at the lowest operating frequency.
R2 of Fig. 30 provides emitter degene-
ration at low frequencies when the bypass
capacitor, C2, is chosen for adequate rf
bypassing at the intended operating fre-
quency. Below the desired frequency, C2
becomes progressively less effective as the
Fig 29 — Suppression methods for vhf and uhf parasitics in solid-state amplifiers. frequency is lowered, thereby increasing
the degenerative feedback caused by R2.
This lowers the amplifier gain. R2 in a
power stage is seldom greater than 10
should be kept as short as possible in an suppression can be had by inserting a
ohms in value, and may be as low as 1
amplifier circuit, and likewise with the low-ohmage resistor ( 10 to 51 ohms) in ohm. It is important to consider that
pigtails of bypass capacitors. This applies series with the tube input, near the tube under some operating and layout condi-
to tube or transistor amplifiers. socket. This is illustrated by RI of Fig. 28. tions R2 can cause instability. This form
Z1 of Fig. 28 is avhf parasitic choke. Vhf or uhf parasitics can be detected by of feedback should be used only in those
Such anetwork will damp self-oscillations means of a high-frequency scope, or by circuits where unconditional stability can
at vhf and uhf by acting as a series probing the plate tank with a sensitive
be achieved.
impedance which breaks up the usual wavemeter which tunes from 30 MHz and
Solid-state amplifiers that are built on
unwanted vhf/uhf circuit path. Z1 con- higher. pc boards can be made stable (in addition
sists of a non-inductive resistor between Parasitic oscillations can be prevented
to the foregoing measures) by utilizing
51 and 100 ohms. A coil is wound around in solid-state amplifiers by using asmall double-clad pc board material. The
the resistor body to provide abroadband amount of resistance in the base or
copper on the component side of the
rf choke which presents ahigh impedance collector lead of low-power amplifiers board is used as aground-plane surface by
at vhf and higher, but looks like a low (Fig. 29A). The value of RI or R2 is
removing the copper around each hole
reactance in the hf region and lower. A typically between 10 and 22 ohms. where acomponent is to be mounted. This
typical parasitic suppressor for a power Resistors are seldom necessary at both ground plane is made electrically common
level up to 150 watts contains 6to 8turns points in a circuit, but can be used to the ground elements on the etched side
of no. 20 wire wrapped around a56-ohm, effectively at either point. RI or R2 of the board. Such a technique helps
1-watt composition resistor. The coil ends should be located as close to the transistor
prevent unwanted ac ground loops which
are soldered to the resistor pigtails near as practical. can cause feedback and instability. Fur-
the body of the resistor. Z1 is then placed At power levels in excess of approxi-
thermore, the nonground etched elements
as close to the tube plate pin or cap as mately 0.5 Watt, the method of parasitic form low-capacitance bypass capacitors
possible. For higher rf powers it is suppression shown in Fig. 29B is suggested.
against the ground-plane surface of the
practical to use a high-wattage Globar The voltage drop across aresistor would
board. This aids in reducing the chance
resistor, or a25-watt noninductive (NIT) be prohibitive at the higher power levels,
for vhf and uhf parasitic oscillations.
power resistor around which a suitable so one or more ferrite beads can be substi-
R1of Fig. 30 is useful in swamping the
number of wire turns (no. 14 or 12 wire) tuted (Z1 and Z2). A permeability of 125
will suffice. The beads need not be used at input of an amplifier. This reduces the
have been wound. Additional parasitic
HF Transmitting 6-18
 chance for low-frequency self-oscillations,
but has a minor effect on the amplifier
performance in the desired operating
range. Values from 3 to 27 ohms are
typical. When they are in shunt with the
normal (low) base impedance of apower
amplifier, they contribute only slightly to
the lowering of the device input im-
pedance. The rule of thumb is to use the
largest value of resistance that will ensure
stability. RI should be located as close to
the transistor base terminal as possible.
The pigtails must be kept short to prevent
stray inductances from forming. It is
helpful to use two resistors in parallel to Fig. 30— Illustration of shunt feedback in atransistor amplifier Components C 1and R3 comprise the
limit the amount of inductive reactance feedback network.
introduced by asingle resistor.
C3 of Fig. 30 can be added to some capacitance of C3 must be absorbed into expressions " bal-oon" and " bal- um" are
power amplifiers to damp vhf/uhf parasi- the network design in the same manner as not correct.
tic oscillations. The capacitor should be the Cout of the transistor. The broadband transformers illustrated
low in reactance at vhf and uhf, but must in Figs. 31, 32 and 33 are suitable for use
present ahigh reactance at the operating Broadband Transformers in solid-state circuits, as matching devices
frequency. The exact value selected will The usefulness of toroidal broadband between circuit modules and in antenna-
depend upon the collector impedance. A transformers is practically beyond de- matching networks. For low power levels
reasonable rule of thumb is to use an >C c of scription in this text. But, some of the the choice of core material is often ferrite.
10 times the collector impedance at the more popular transformer configurations Powdered-iron is more often the designers
operating frequency. Silver-mica or ceramic- are presented here for those who wish to preference when working with fairly high
chip capacitors are suggested for this ap- employ them in matching networks levels of power. The primary objection of
plication. For example, a3.5-MHz ampli- associated with solid-state devices and some, respective to the use of ferrite at
fier with a 10-ohm collector impedance tubes. It is important to realize that high power, is damage to the core material
would use acapacitor with an X, of 100 broadband transformers are best suited to during saturation and overheating. This
ohms. C1would be 454 pF under this rule. low-impedance applications, say, up to a can alter the permeability factor of the
At 150 MHz the same capacitor would few hundred ohms. They should be core material permanently. Powered-iron
have an Xc of only 2.3 ohms, making it an thought of as devices which can transform is more tolerant in this regard.
effective vhf and higher bypass element. one impedance to another, in terms of the Fig. 31 shows two types of 4:1
An additional advantage is seen in the by- transformation ratio they make possible. transformers, plus a method for con-
passing action for vhf and uhf harmonic They should not be regarded as devices necting two of them in series to effect a
energy in the collector circuit. C3 should which are built for some specified pair of 16:1 transformation. The circuit at E is
be placed as close to the collector terminal impedances, such as 200 ohms to 50 ohms often used between a50-ohm source and
as possible, using short leads. The effects in the case of a4:1 transformer. The term the base of an rf power transistor.
of C3 in a broadband amplifier are "balun," despite its misuse, pertains only Two styles of 9:1 transformer are seen
relatively insignificant at the operating to a broadband transformer which con- in Fig. 32 at A and C. They are also found
frequency. However, when anarrow-band verts aba/anced condition to one which is at the input to transistor amplifiers and
collector network is employed, the added unbalanced, or vice versa. The often-heard between the collector and the load. The

Fig. 31 — Circuit illustrations of 4:1 broadband transformers.

6-19 Chapter 6
Fig. 32— Circuit examples of 9 1broadband transformers ( A and C) and avariable- impedance transformer ( E)

variable- ratio transformer of Fig. 32 C is It is important to remember that true the tube must dissipate more heat. Other
excellent for obtaining a host of im- plate, screen or biasing voltage is the types of operation, such as cw or
pedance transformations. This trans- voltage between the particular electrode single-sideband phone are intermittent in
former was developed by W2FMI for use and filament or cathode. Only when the nature, resulting in less average heating
in matching ground- mounted vertical cathode is directly grounded to the chassis than in other modes where there is a
antennas. may the electrode-to-chassis voltage be continuous power input to the tube during
Phase- reversal, 1:1 balun and hybrid- taken as the true voltage. The required rf transmissions. There are also different
combiner transformers are shown in Fig. driving voltage is applied between grid ratings for tubes used in transmitters that
33. The circuit at E of Fig. 33 is useful and cathode. are in almost constant use (CCS —
when it is necessary to feed two signals to Plate power input is the dc power input Continuous Commercial Service), and for
asingle load. When the input signals are to the plate circuit ( dc plate voltage X dc tubes that are to be used in transmitters
on different frequencies the power is split plate current). Screen power input like- that average only a few hours of daily
evenly between R3 and R4. When the wise is the dc screen voltage X the dc screen operation ( ICAS — Intermittent Com-
input voltages are on the same frequency current. mercial and Amateur Service). The latter
(as with two transistor amplifiers feeding Plate dissipation is the difference are the ratings used by amateurs who wish
a single load), with the amplitudes and between the rf power delivered by the tube to obtain maximum output with reasonable
phase identical, all of the power is to its loaded plate tank circuit and the dc tube life.
delivered to R4. plate power input. The screen, on the
other hand, does not deliver any output Maximum Tube Ratings
RF Power Amplifier Circuitry
power, and therefore its dissipation is the Maximum ratings, where they dip'r
In addition to proper tank and output- same as the screen power input. from the values given under typical
coupling circuits, an rf amplifier must be
operating values, are not normally of
provided with suitable operating voltages Transmitting- Tube Ratings
significance to the amateur except in
and an rf driving or excitation voltage. All Tube manufacturers specify the maxi- special applications. No single maximum
rf amplifier tubes require a voltage to mum values that should be applied to the value should be used unless all other
operate the filament or heater (ac is tubes they produce. They also publish sets ratings can simultaneously be held within
usually permissible), and a positive dc of typical operating values that should the maximum values. As an example, a
voltage between the plate and filament or result in good efficiency and normal tube tube may have a maximum plate-voltage
cathode (plate voltage). Most tubes also life. rating of 2000, amaximum plate-current
require a negative dc voltage ( biasing The same transmitting tube may have rating of 300 mA, and a maximum
voltage) between control grid (grid no. I) different ratings, depending upon the plate-power-input rating of 400 watts.
and filament or cathode. Screen-grid manner in which the tube is to be Therefore, if the maximum plate voltage
tubes require in addition a positive operated and the service in which it is to of 2000 is used, the plate current should be
voltage ( screen voltage or grid no. 2 be used. These different ratings are based limited to 200 mA ( instead of 300 mA) to
voltage) between screen and filament or primarily upon the heat that the tube can stay within the maximum power- input
cathode. safely dissipate. Some types of operation, rating of 400 watts.
Biasing and plate voltages may be fed to such as with grid or screen modulation,
the tube either in series or parallel with the are less efficient than others, meaning that Maximum Transistor Ratings
associated rf tank circuit. Transistor data sheets specify a maxi-

HF Transmitting 6-20
 RI R2
50 50 R1
UN BAL UNBAL. 50
BAL
•
1:1 PHASE- REVERSAL
UNBALANCED IRAN.
• - INDICATES PHASING 11 BALANCED TO

SINGLE- ENDED
HYBRID COMBINER

RI SIG 1

RI
50
BAL.
Ri
UNBAL

R2
R2 50
UNBAL UNBAL

Fig. 33— Assorted broadband transformers.

mum operating voltage for several condi- frequency and is by no means all-inclusive facturers push the power margin abit har-
tions. Of special interest to amateurs is the from, for example, medium frequency up der, utilizing atransistor which delivers a
V„ 0 specification (collector-to-emitter vol- to the vhf spectrum. The frequency at power output which is as great as 3/4 the
tage, with the base open). When atransis- which a particular gain figure applies is PD rating. So close a safety margin is
tor is called upon to handle an ac signal, stated on the transistor data sheet. Gene- somewhat risky for inexperienced builders.
the collector-to-emitter voltage can rise to rally, the gain will be higher below that
Sources of Tube Electrode Voltages:
twice the dc supply. Thus, if a12- volt sup- frequency and it will decrease above that
Filament or Heater Voltage
ply is used, the transistor should have a frequency. Gain information is useful in
V0, 0 of 24 or greater to prevent damage. If predicting how much output power can be The heater voltage for the indirectly
that same transistor is amplitude-modulated obtained for a given input power; i.e., a heated cathode-type tubes found in low-
(as in the PA of an a- m transmitter), a 13-dB gain transistor delivering an output power classifications may vary 10 percent
collector-emitter voltage swing (theoreti- of 10 watts would require adriving power above or below rating without seriously
cal) as great as four times the supply vol- of 0.5 W (Gain(dB) = 10 log [ P2/P1]) reducing the life of the tube. But the vol-
tage can occur. A transistor chosen for Power dissipation for atransistor is ex- tage of the higher-power, filament- type
this application should have aVce0 of 48 pressed symbolically as PD. This maximum tubes should be held closely between the
or greater. rating is based on acase temperature of rated voltage as aminimum and five per-
The fT rating of a common-emitter 25°C. For example, atotal device dissipa- cent above rating as a maximum. Make
transistor amplifier is based on the point tion of 30 watts might be specified at a sure that the plate power drawn from the
at which the transistor gain is unity ( 1) case temperature of 25°C. If greater tem- power line does not cause adrop in fila-
with respect to operating frequency. In the peratures were expected, the transistor ment voltage below the proper value when
interest of predictable performance and would have to be derated in mW per de- plate power is applied.
amplifier stability it is best to select a gree C. A Motorola MRF215 would be Thoriated-type filaments lose emission
transistor that was designed for a par- derated 177 mW per additional degree C. when the tube is overloaded appreciably.
ticular frequency range. When this is not The effectiveness of the transistor heat If the overload has not been too pro-
practical, the fr should be roughly 5to 10 sink plays an important role in maximum longed, emission sometimes may be re-
times the operating frequency. Therefore, power utilization of a given device. It is stored by operating the filament at rated
a suitable transistor for use at 3.5 MHz not unusual to see acooling fan used in voltage with all other voltages removed
would have an f-1- between 17.5 and 35 combination with alarge heat sink to aid for a period of 10 minutes, or at 20 per-
MHz. If a much higher fT were selected, in lowering the transistor case tempera- cent above rated voltage for afew minutes.
say, 250 MHz, the published rf perfor- ture: Heat is one of the worst enemies of Plate Voltage
mance curves for the device would be power transistors.
quite inaccurate at 3.5 MHz, and the tran- A rule of thumb for selecting aPD rat- De plate voltage for the operation of rf
sistor gain would be extremely high com- ing which is suitable for agiven rf power amplifiers is most often obtained from a
pared to the rated gain at the intended output amount is to choose a transistor transformer-rectifier- filter system ( see
operating frequency of the device. which has amaximum dissipation of twice power-supply chapter) designed to deliver
Power transistor gain is normally the desired output power. Hence, a 20- the required plate voltage at the required
specified as " typical" dB. This informa- watt transistor would be picked for use in current. However, batteries or other dc-
tion applies to some specified operating a 10-watt-output amplifier. Some manu - generating devices are sometimes used in

6-21 Chapter 6
certain types of operation (see portable- operation . Fig. 35A), a resistance of the
mobile chapter). appropriate value can be placed in the
emitter return as shown. Most transistors
Bias and Tube Protection will operate in Class C without adding
Several methods of obtaining bias are bias externally, but in some instances the
shown in Fig. 34. At A, bias is obtained by amplifier efficiency can be improved by
the voltage drop across aresistor ( R1) in means of emitter bias. Reverse bias
the grid dc return circuit when rectified supplied to the base of the Class C
grid current flows. The proper value of transistor should be avoided because it
resistance may be determined by dividing will lead to internal breakdown of the
the required biasing voltage by the dc grid device during peak drive periods. The
current at which the tube will be operated. destruction is frequently a cumulative
Then, so long as the rf driving voltage is phenomenon, leading to gradual destruc-
adjusted so that the dc grid current is the tion of the transistor junction.
recommended value, the biasing voltage A simple method for Class AB biasing
will be the proper value. The tube is is seen in Fig. 35B. D1 is asilicon diode
biased only when excitation is applied, which acts as abias clamp at approximately
since the voltage drop across the resistor 0.7 V. The forward bias establishes linear-
depends upon grid-current flow. When amplification conditions. That value of
excitation is removed, the bias falls to bias is not always optimum for aspecified
zero. At zero bias most tubes draw power transistor in terms of IMD. Variable bias
far in excess of the plate-dissipation of the type illustrated in Fig. 35C permits
rating. It is advisable to make provision for the designer sufficient variance to locate
protecting the tube when excitation fails by the best operating point respective to linea-
accident, or by intent as it does when a rity.
preceding stage in a cw transmitter is
keyed. Screen Voltage for Tubes
If the maximum cw ratings shown in the For cw and fm operation, and under
tube tables are to be used, the input certain conditions of phone operation
should be cut to zero when the key is (amplitude modulation) the screen may be Fig 34— Various techniques for providing
open. Aside from this, it is not -necessary operated from apower supply of the same operating bias with tube amplifiers
that plate current be cut off completely type used for plate supply, except that
but only to the point where the rated voltage and current ratings should be
dissipation is not exceeded. In this case appropriate for screen requirements. The
plate- modulated phone ratings should be screen may also be operated through a
used for cw operation, however. series resistor or voltage-divider from a
With most tubes this protection, plus source of higher voltage, such as the
the required operating bias, can be plate- voltage supply, thus making a
supplied by obtaining all bias from a separate supply for the screen unnecessary.
source of fixed voltage, as shown in Fig. Certain precautions are necessary, depend-
34B. ing upon the method used.
Fixed bias may be obtained from dry It should be kept in mind that screen
batteries or from a power pack ( see current varies widely with both excitation
power-supply chapter). If dry batteries are and loading. If the screen is operated from
used, they should be checked periodically, a fixed- voltage source, the tube should
since even though they may show normal never be operated without plate voltage
voltage, they eventually develop a high and load, otherwise the screen may be
internal resistance. damaged within a short time. Supplying
In Fig. 34C and D, bias is obtained the screen through a series dropping
from the voltage drop across a Zener resistor from a higher-voltage source,
diode in the cathode (or filament center- such as the plate supply, affords a
tap) lead. Operating bias is obtained by measure of protection, since the resistor
the voltage drop across VR Ias aresult of causes the screen voltage to drop as the
plate ( and screen) current flow. The current increases, thereby limiting the
Zener-diode wattage rating is twice the power drawn by the screen. However,
product of the maximum cathode current with a resistor, the screen voltage may
times the developed bias. Therefore, a vary considerably with excitation, making
tube requiring 15 volts of bias during a it necessary to check the voltage at the
maximum cathode-current flow of 100 screen terminal under actual operating
mA would dissipate 1.5 W in the Zener conditions to make sure that the screen
diode. The diode rating, to allow a voltage is normal. Reducing excitation
suitable safety factor, would be 3 W or will cause the screen current to drop,
greater. The circuit of Fig. 34D illustrates increasing the voltage; increasing excita-
how D1 would be used with a cathode- tion will have the opposite effect. These
driven (grounded-grid) amplifier as op- changes are in addition to those caused by
posed to the grid- driven example at C. changes in bias and plate loading, so if a
screen-grid tube is operated from aseries
Transistor Biasing resistor or a voltage divider, its voltage
Solid-state power amplifiers generally should be checked as one of the final ad-
justments after excitation and loading Fig. 35— Biasing methDds for use with transistor
operate in Class C or Class AB. When
amplifiers.
some bias is desired during Class C have been set.

HF Transmitting 6-22
 An approximate value for the screen- conditions. These figures, however, do not impedance step-up is necessary if the grid
voltage dropping resistor may be obtained include circuit losses. In general, the is to be fed from a low-impedance
by dividing the voltage drop required from driver stage for any Class C amplifier transmission line.
the supply voltage (difference between the should be capable of supplying at least
three times the driving power shown for Cooling: Tubes
supply voltage and rated screen voltage)
by the rated screen current in decimal typical operating conditions at frequencies Vacuum tubes must be operated within
parts of an ampere. Some further ad- up to 30 MHz and from three to 10 times at the temperature range specified by the
justment may be necessary, as mentioned higher frequencies. manufacturer if long tube life is to be
above, so an adjustable resistor with a Since the dc grid current relative to the achieved. Tubes with glass envelopes
total resistance above that calculated biasing voltage is related to the peak rated at up to 25 watts of plate dissipation
should be provided. driving voltage, the dc grid current is may be run without forced-air cooling, if a
commonly used as a convenient indicator moderate amount of cooling by con-
Protecting Screen-Grid Tubes of driving conditions. A driver adjustment vection can be arranged. If aperforated-
Considerably less grid bias is required that results in rated dc grid current when metal enclosure is used, and a ring of
to cut off an amplifier that has a the dc bias is at its rated value, indicates 1/4-inch diameter holes are placed around
fixed-voltage screen supply than one that proper excitation to the amplifier when it the tube socket, normal air flow can be
derives the screen voltage through ahigh is fully loaded. relied upon to remove excess heat at room
value of dropping resistor. When a " stiff' In coupling the grid input circuit of an temperatures.
screen voltage supply is used, the neces- amplifier to the output circuit of adriving For tubes with greater plate dissipation,
sary grid cutoff voltage may be determined stage the objective is to load the driver or those operated with plate currents in
from an inspection of the tube curves or plate circuit so that the desired amplifier excess of the manufacturer's ratings
by experiment. grid excitation is obtained without ex- (often the case with TV sweep tubes)
ceeding the plate-input ratings of the forced air cooling with afan or blower is
Feeding Excitation to the Grid driver tube. needed. Fans, especially those designed
The required rf driving voltage is for cooling hi-fi cabinets, are preferred
Driving Impedance
supplied by an oscillator generating a because they operate quietly. However, all
voltage at the desired frequency, either The grid-current flow that results when fans lose their ability to move air when ex-
directly or through intermediate amplifiers, the grid is driven positive in respect to the cessive back pressure exists. For applica-
mixers, or frequency multipliers. cathode over a portion of the excitation tions where a stream of air must be
The grid of an amplifier operating under cycle represents an average resistance directed through atube socket, ablower is
Class C conditions must have an exciting across which the exciting voltage must be usually required.
voltage whose peak value exceeds the developed by the driver. In other words, One method for directing a flow of air
negative biasing voltage over aportion of this is the load resistance into which the around a tube envelope or through tube
the excitation cycle. During this portion driver plate circuit must be coupled. The cooling fins involves the use of a
of the cycle, current will flow in the grid- approximate grid input resistance is given pressurized chassis. This system is shown
cathode circuit as it does in adiode circuit by in Fig. 36. A blower is attached to the
when the plate of the diode is positive in chassis and forces air up through the tube
respect to the cathode. This requires that Input impedance ( ohms) socket and around the tube. A chimney
the rf driver supply power. The power re- driving power (watts) (not shown in this drawing) is used to
quired to develop the required peak x 620,000 guide the air around the tube as it leaves
dc grid current (mA) 2
driving voltage across the grid-cathode the socket. A chimney will prevent the air
impedance of the amplifier is the rf from being dispersed as it hits the
driving power. For normal operation, the driving power envelope or cooling fins, concentrating
The tube tables give approximate and grid current may be taken from the the flow for maximum cooling.
figures for the grid driving power required tube tables. Since the grid input resistance Most manufacturers rate tube cooling
for each tube under various operating is a matter of a few thousand ohms, an requirements for continuous-duty opera-
tion. The manufacturer's literature will in-
dicate the required cubic feet per minute
(CFM) of air flow at some particular back
EXHAUST pressure. Back pressure is the pressure
that is built up inside the airtight chassis
\Lit/ TuBE when the blower is operational. Forced air
entering the chassis from the blower can
escape only through the tube socket/tube/
MANOMETER chimney assembly. Since this assembly
AIR SYSTEM represents a certain amount of resistance
SOCKET
to the flow of air, an amount of pressure
is built up inside the chassis. The exact
amount of pressure will depend on the
blower and the tube socket/tube/chimney
characteristics. Blowers vary in their abili-
ty to work against back pressure so the
matter of blower selection should not be
taken lightly.
BLOWER

Values of CFM and back pressure for

AIR TIGHT CHASSIS
some of the more popular tubes, sockets
and chimneys are given in Table 6. Back
pressure is specified in inches of water and
Fig. 36 — Air is forced into the chassis by the blower and exits through the tube socket. The can be easily measured as indicated in
manometer is used to measure system back pressure, which is an important factor in determining Figs. 36 and 37, by means of a
the proper size blower.
manometer. A manometer is nothing

6-23 Chapter 6
 quacy. As an example, assume that an
ATMOSPHERIC ATMOSPHERIC
amplifier is to be built using a 3-1000Z
PRESSURE --"" PRESSURE tube. A blower capable of supplying 25
CFM at a back pressure of 0.38 inch of
MANOMETER
water is required. Referring to Table 7it
appears that the second blower listed would
be suitable, although it may be marginal
PRESSURE since it can only supply 25 CFM into aback
DIFFERENCE
pressure of 0.4 inch of water. The next
larger size would provide a margin of
safety.
When apair of tubes is used, the CFM
rating is doubled, but the back pressure re-
CHASSIS
HA SS IS
BLOWER " ON"
mains the same as that for one tube. A pair
BLOWER " OFF"
of 3-1000Z tubes, for example, would re-
quire 50 CFM at aback pressure of 0.38
inch of water. In this case the fifth blower
listed in the Table would be suitable since
(B)
(A)
it can supply 85 CFM at aback pressure
of 0.4 inch of water. Always choose a
blower that can supply at least the required
Fig. 37 — At A the blower is " off" and the water will seek its own level in the manometer. At B
the blower is " on" and the amount of back pressure in terms of inches of water can be measured amount of air. Smaller blowers will almost
as indicated. certainly lead to shortened tube life.
Depending on one's design philosophy
Table 6 and tube supply sources, some com-
Specifications of Some Popular Tubes, Sockets and Chimneys promises in the cooling system may be ap-
Tube CFM Back Pre ssure Socket Chimney propriate. For example, if glass tubes are
(inches) available inexpensively as broadcast pulls,
3-400Z/8163 13 0.13 SK-400, SK-410 SK-416 a shorter lifespan may be acceptable. In
3-500Z 13 0.082 SK-400, SK-410 SK-406 such acase, an increase of convenience and
3CX800A7 19 0.35 EIMAC P/N 154353 areduction in cost, noise, and complexity
3-1000Z18164 25 0.38 SK-500, SK-510 SK-516
0.41 SK-2200, SK-22 10 SK- 2216 can be had by using a pair of " muffin"
3CX1500/8877 35
4-250A/5022 2 0.1 SK-400, SK-410 SK-406 fans. One fan may be used for the filament
4-400A/8438 14 0.25 SK-400, SK-410 SK-406 seals and one for the anode seal, dispens-
4-1000A/8166 20 0.6 SK-500,SK-510 SK-506 ing with ablower and air-system socket and
4CX250R/7850W 6.4 0.59 SK-600, SK-600A, SK-602A, SK-606
SK-610, SK-610A, SK-611, SK-626
chimney. Many amateurs have used this
SK-612, SK-620, SK-620A cooling method successfully in low-duty-
SK-621, SK-630 cycle cw and ssb operation, but it is not
4CX300/1
418167
/ 7.2 0.58 SK-700, SK-710, SK- 711A, SK-606
recommended for a-m, SSTV or RTTY
SK-712A, SK-740, SK- 760,
SK-761, SK- 770
service.
4CX350A/8321 7.8 1.2 Same as 4CX250R Table 6also contains the part numbers
4CX1000A/8168 25 0.2 SK-800B, SK-810B, SK-89013 SK-806 for air-system sockets and chimneys to be
4CX1500/8660 used with the tubes that are listed. The
8874 8.6 0.37
builder should investigate which of the
These values are for sea- level elevation. For locations well above sea level ( Denver, Colorado, for
sockets listed for the 4CX250R, 4CX300A,
example), add an additional 20% to the figure listed.
4CX1000A and 4CX1500A best fits the cir-
cuit needs. Some of the sockets have cer-
Table 7 tain tube elements grounded internally
through the socket. Others have elements
Blower Performance Specifications
bypassed to ground through capacitors that
Wheel Wheel RPM Free Back Pressure (inches) Cutoff Stock are integral parts of the sockets.
Dia. Width Air 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 No.
An efficient blower is required when us-
2" 1" 3160 15 13 4 — — — 0.22 2C782
3' 1-15/32" 3340 54 48 43 36 25 17 0.67 40012 ing the external-anode tubes, such as the
3" 1-7/8" 3030 60 57 54 49 39 23 0.60 40440 4CX250R. Such tubes represent atrade-off
3" 1-7/8" 2880 76 70 63 56 45 8 0.55 40004 which allows high-power operation with a
3-13/16" 1-7/8" 2870 100 98 95 90 85 80 0.80 4C443
physically small device at the expense of in-
3-13/16" 2-1/2" 3160 148 141 135 129 121 114 1.04 4C005
creased complexity in the cooling system.

Transistor Cooling
more than apiece of clear tubing, open at and the results will be sufficiently accurate.
both ends and fashioned in the shape of a Table 7 illustrates the performance Some bipolar power transistors have
"U." The manometer is temporarily con- specifications for Dayton blowers, which the collector connected directly to the case
nected to the chassis and is removed after are available through W. W. Grainger of the device, as the collector must
the measurements are completed. As shown outlets throughout the U.S. In addition to dissipate most of the heat generated when
in the diagrams, asmall amount of water the wheel dimensions, the seals are vitally the transistor is in operation. Others have
is placed in the tube. At Fig. 37 the blower important to efficient operation. Blowers the emitter connected to the case. How-
is " off" and the water will seek its own having wheel diameters similar to those in ever, even the larger case designs cannot
level. At B, the blower is " on" (socket, Table 7 will likely have similar flow and conduct heat away fast enough to keep the
tube and chimney in place) and the pressure back-pressure characteristics. If in doubt operating temperature of the device
about specifications, consult the manufac- functioning within the safe area, the
difference, in terms of inches of water, is
measured. For most applications a stan- turer, but the setup of Fig. 36 is the maximum temperature that a device can
dard scale can be used for the measurement authoritative determinant of cooling ade- stand without damage. Safe area is usually

HF Transmitting 6-24
 ,

CONVECTION

co
u. co
THERMAL RESISTANCE ° C/W FOR NATURAL

üi

Device Case 5W 10 W 25 W 50 W 100 W

n,

TO-5 17.2 7.2 1.2 0.71 0.35

TO-44 1.2 9.2 0.44 n/a rite

--
O

(0)
œ
9 0 o
is)ô,
O 0
•

lJ.1
2 3 4 5 8 10 20 30 50 80 100 200 300 500 1000
VOLUME IN CUBIC INCHES OF FINNED -TYPE HEAT SINK (
A)

Fig. 38 — Heat-sink thermal resistance versus size. The sink volume can be determined by multiplying the height and cross-sectional area. At B are
numbers which show the approximate thermal resistance needed for operating at various power levels with adequate cooling. TO-5 and TO-44 case
styles are listed.

0.001
specified in a device data sheet, often in 2000 V

graphical form. Germanium power tran- If 0.005

L2
2000V
sistors may be operated at up to 100° C OUTPUT
CI
while the silicon types may be run at up to 5p F r- vi
65%,

200° C. Leakage currents in germanium NEUT 61468

devices can be very high at elevated 100

RIC 3
......___ 0.005
temperatures; thus, for power applica- I
NPUT
I(
2000V
tions silicon transistors are preferred.
A thermal sink, properly chosen, will
1,4,6 loon PLATE ,1 ,
r -T7 CURRENT
remove heat at a rate which keeps the 0-200
+ 1Mf1.
0-1 ( 1000 V )

transistor junction temperature in the safe

area. For low- power applications asimple 1-200 V
+750 V
BICI 0-10
clip-on heat sink will suffice, while for VI

100-watts input power a massive cast- 27

001
aluminum finned radiator will be neces- 6.3 V
o

'Tr -75 V
sary. In general, the case temperature of
CLASS C AMP
apower transistor must be kept below the
(A)
point at which it will cause discomfort
when touched. Silicone grease should be
VI
used between the transistor body and the 6HF 5

heat sink to aid heat transfer.

0 01
4,10
Heat-Sink Design
Simple heat sinks, made as described in
,1,
the Construction Practices chapter, can be
made more effective ( by 25 percent or 0.005
LI
001
more) by applying a coat of flat- black INPUT
2000 V
OUTPUT

paint. Finned radiators are most effective (50fli 150 W

10 W
when placed where maximum air flow can TUNE

be achieved — outside acase with the fins LOAD RFC 2

placed vertically. The size of afinned heat

sink required to give a desired thermal
resistance, a measure of the ability to
dissipate heat, is shown in Fig. 38A. Fig.
38B is a simplified chart of the thermal ,47 0.005
CLASS AB1 AMP
(B)
resistance needed in a heat sink for 2000 V

transistors in TO- 5 and TO-44 cases. CHOOSE FOR

30 NA NO -SIG
ip

0-500
001

Fig. 39 — Circuit examples of typical single- +700 V

ended and push-pull tube amplifiers.

6-25 Chapter 6
These figures are based on several excitation is keyed in a cw transmitter, Grid- (control or . screen) modulated
assumptions, so they can be considered a Class C operation of subsequent amplifiers output amplifiers in a-m operation run at
worst-case situation. Smaller heat sinks will, under certain conditions, introduce acarrier efficiency of 30 to 35 percent, and
may be usuable. key clicks not present on the keyed excita- a grid- modulated stage with 100 watts
The thermal design of solid-state cir- tion ( see chapter on Code Transmission). input has a carrier output of 30 to 35
cuits has been covered in April 1972 QST. The peak envelope power (PEP) input or watts. (The PEP output, four times the
The surface contact between the transistor output of any cw (or fm) transmitter is the carrier output, is 120 to 140 watts.)
case and the heat sink is extremely "key-down" input or output. Running the legal input limit in the
important. To keep the sink from being United States, a plate-modulated output
"hot" with dc, amica insulator is usually A-M stage can deliver acarrier output of 650 to
employed between the transistor case and In an amplitude-modulated phone trans- 750 watts, while a screen- or control-
the heat dissipator. Newer types of mitter, plate modulation of aClass C out- grid- modulated output amplifier can deli-
transistors have a case mounting bolt put amplifier results in the highest output ver only acarrier of 300 to 350 watts.
insulated from the collector so that it may for agiven input to the output stage. The
be connected directly to the heat sink. efficiency is the same as for cw or fm with SSB
the same amplifier, from 65 to 75 Only linear amplifiers can be used to
Output Power from Transmitters: percent. ( In most cases the manufacturer amplify ssb signals without prohibitive
CW or FM rates the maximum allowable input on distortion, and this limits the choice of
In acw or fm transmitter, any class of plate-modulated phone at about 2/3 that output amplifier operation to Classes A,
amplifier can be used as an output or of cw or fm.) A plate-modulated stage AB:, AB2 and B. The efficiency of
intermediate amplifier. ( For reasonable running 100 watts input will deliver a operation of these amplifiers runs from
efficiency, a frequency multiplier must be carrier output from 65 to 75 watts, about 20 to 65 percent. In all but Class A
operated Class C.) Class C operation of depending upon the tube, frequency and operation the indicated (by plate-current
the amplifier gives the highest efficiency circuit factor. The PEP output of any a-m meter) input will vary with the signal, and
(65 to 75 percent), but it is likely to be signal is four times the carrier output it is not possible to talk about relative
accompanied by appreciable harmonics power, or 260 to 300 watts for the inputs and outputs as readily as it is with
and consequent TV! possibilities. If the 100-watt input example. other modes. Therefore linear amplifiers
are rated by PEP ( input or output) at a
given distortion level, which indicates not
only how much ssb signal they will deliver
27W
MAX
VI
61373
0.001
but also how effective they will be in
INPUT 500W
amplifying an a-m signal.
o
DLi TPu T

Linear Amplifiers for A-M

RFC2
In considering the practicality of adding
a linear output amplifier to an existing
a-m transmitter, it is necessary to know
the carrier output of the a-m transmitter
and the PEP output rating of the linear
amplifier. Since the PEP output of an a-m
0-1 signal is four times the carrier output, it is
CATHODE 1P. 22 TO 500mA obvious that a linear with a PEP output
CURRENT
rating of only four times the carrier
output of the a-m transmitter is no
CLASS AB2 AMP
(B) amplifier at all. If the linear amplifier has
aPEP output rating of eight times the a-m
transmitter carrier output, the output
CI
0.001
2000V
power will be doubled and a 3-dB
improvement will be obtained. In most
VI
61466 NiUT cases a 3-dB change is just discernible by
the receiving operator.
By comparison, alinear amplifier with
OUI1PuT
a PEP output rating of four times an
INPUT 120W existing ssb, cw or fm transmitter will.
TUNE
quadruple the output, a 6-dB improve-
ment, it should be noted that the linear
0 + 200V
/4- 7 amplifier must be rated for the mode ( ssb,
cw or fm) with which it is to be used.
Lr'AD
Z2

/ Grounded-Grid Amplifiers
0.005
RFCI p l :000V
. The preceding discussion applies to
vacuum-tube amplifiers connected in a
A
0.001
C2 2000V
grounded-cathode or grounded-grid cir-
SET FOR 50 rnA
-wr
5
)1
p l
0.005
./2000V
cuit. However, there are afew points that
NO- SIG 1p NEWT 0 - 500 apply only to grounded-grid amplifiers.
VI V2
A tube operated in agiven class(ABI, B,
7
6.3V
+750 V
C) will require more driving power as a
grounded-grid amplifier than as agrounded-
cathode amplifier. This is not because the
CLASS AD1 AMP
grid losses run higher in the grounded-
(D)
grid configuration but because some of

HF Transmitting 6-26
the driving power is coupled directly ended amplifier which operates Class AB ' 100-ohm resistors in the screen-grid leads
through the tube and appears in the plate in grounded-grid fashion. Ti is a broad- are used to discourage vhf oscillations and
load circuit. Provided enough driving band, trifilar transformer which keeps the to help equalize the screen currents of the
power is available, this increased require- cathode and filaments above ac ground to tubes. Several sweep tubes can be parallel-
ment is of no concern in cw or linear opera- provide amethod for driving the cathode connected as shown to obtain a 1- kW-dc
tion. In a-m operation, however, the fed- of VI. Operating bias is developed by in- input linear amplifier. Attention must be
through power prevents the grounded-grid serting D1 in the cathode return. Z1 is a paid to selecting aset of tubes with nearly
amplifier from being fully modulated ( 100 vhf parasitic suppressor. RFC2 functions matched dynamic characteristics. If this is
percent). as a safety device in the event the plate not done, one or more of the tubes may
blocking capacitors short and dc flows in- draw the major part of the current during
Amplifier Circuits: Parallel and to the load (antenna or Transmatch). The the driven period. This would cause them
Single-Ended Amplifiers rf choke permits high dc current to flow to to operate in excess of their safe plate-
The circuits for parallel-tube amplifiers ground, blowing the power supply fuses dissipation ratings and be destroyed.
are the same as for a single tube, similar and destroying the choke. It should have The circuit concepts shown in Fig.
terminals of tubes being connected to- an XL which is at least 10 times the load 39 are applicable to all types of transmit-
gether. The grid impedance of two tubes resistance. ting tubes and power levels. Specific types
in parallel is half that of a single tube. TV sweep tubes used in parallel are seen of tubes are shown merely to provide
This means that twice the grid tank capaci- at Fig. 39B. Each plate lead contains a practical examples during this treatment.
tance should be used for the same Q. parasitic choke (Z1and Z2). D1 is chosen
The plate load resistance is halved so to provide the necessary idling current for
the class of operation desired. The unique Grounded-Gild Amplifiers
that the plate-tank capacitance for asingle
tube also should be doubled. The total feature of this circuit is that the control Fig. 40A shows the input circuit of a
grid current will be doubled, so to grids of VI and V2 are tied together and grounded-grid triode amplifier. In con-
maintain the same grid bias, the grid-leak driven across a 50-ohm resistor. This figuration it is similar to the conventional
resistance should be half that used for a method eliminates the need for a tuned grounded-cathode circuit except that the
single tube. The required driving power is circuit or matching transformer at the grid, instead of the cathode, is at ground
doubled. The capacitance of a neutraliz- amplifier input. Additionally, by strap- potential. An amplifier of this type is
ing capacitor should be doubled and the ping the grids to a low impedance (50 characterized by a comparatively low in-
value of the screen dropping resistor should ohms), amplifier stability can be realized put impedance and arelatively high driver
be cut in half. without the need for neutralization. The power requirement. The additional driver
In treating parasitic oscillation, it is
often necessary to use a choke in each
plate lead, rather than one in the common
lead. This avoids building in a push-pull
type of vhf resonance, which may cause
inefficient operation at higher frequen-
cies. See Fig. 39B.
Two or more transistors are often
operated in parallel to achieve high output
power, because several medium-power
devices often cost less than a single
high-power type. When parallel operation
is used, precautions must be taken to
insure that equal drive is applied to each
transistor. Otherwise, one transistor may
"hog" most of the drive and exceed its
safe ratings.
In practice, it is not wise or necessary to
use transistors in parallel. A push-pull cir-
cuit, such as that of Fig. 43 is preferable
and it tends to cancel even harmonics — a
benefit. Alternatively, single-ended
amplifiers can be joined to deliver power
to asingle load by means of hybrid com-
biners. This technique was illustrated by
Granberg in April and May 1976 QST. He
used combiners to parallel the outputs of
four 300-watt, push-pull, solid-state
amplifiers. Fig. 33E shows the circuit of a
hybrid-combiner transformer.
A typical single-ended tube amplifier
which employs a 6146B in Class C is
shown in Fig. 39A. Neutralization is pro-
vided by means of Cl. LI has atap near
the ac-ground end to provide a small
amount of feedback voltage of the correct
phase for neutralization. Meters are
placed in the appropriate circuit points for
monitoring the important voltages and
currents.
Fig. 39B shows the circuit of a single- Fig. 40 — Methods for driving grounded-grid amplifiers.

6-27 Chapter 6
 IW
NIPUT CLASS C AMP 7 MHz
son 01
I5W
7MHz OUTPUT
MRF449A Z.5.6n
T1 oI
z.sn 0.6»H _Z 11p11
7..1500pF
7p 14 P-7-7 01

10..,
FC
11 pH
Z RATIO
16.1
RFC
3pH

T,
, r
-1- "
r.0Ir770.1
r fl 22»F + 13.5 V

Fig. 42 — Typical circuit for a single-ended, Class C transistor power amplifier.

Dl

r - 1

2N 5
)320
'

1.8 - 2.0
MH I V 2.221-1
HARMONIC FILTER
1.8-2.0 MHz

0 5W
INPUT OU -,
5011

Fig. 41 — A 30-A filament choke for use with 02

grounded-grid amplifiers. It contains 28 turns r"
of no. 10 enameled wire, closewound in bifilar
fashion on a 7- inch ( 178-mm) by 1/2-inch e+7 2a320
(13-mm) ferrite rod. The core permeability can
be 950 or 125.

power is not consumed in the amplifier

3pH
but is " fed through" to the plate circuit

,T,
001 0.122pF
where it combines with the normal plate 25V

output power. The total rf power output

is the sum of the driver and amplifier out-
put powers less the power normally re-
quired to drive the tube in a grounded-
cathode circuit. Fig. 43 — Circuit example of a broadband, push-pull, solid-state power amplifier.

Positive feedback is from plate to

cathode through the plate-cathode capaci-
tance of the tube. Since the grounded-grid grid for rf, operation is very much like work provides benefit other than im-
is interposed between the plate and cathode, that of a triode except that the positive pedance matching — a reduction in the
this capacitance is small, and neutraliza- voltage on the screen reduces driver- IM distortion produced by the stage when
tion usually is not necessary. power requirements. amplifying an ssb signal.
In the grounded-grid circuit the cathode In indirectly-heated cathode tubes, the
Transistor Amplifiers
must be isolated for rf from ground. This low heater-to-cathode capacitance will
presents apractical difficulty especially in often provide enough isolation to keep rf Fig. 42 contains the circuit of a typical
the case of a filament-type tube whose out of the heater transformer and the ac single-ended transistor amplifier. It •e:*
filament current is large. In plate- lines. If not, the heater voltage must be shown for Class C operation. T1is a
modulated phone operation the driver applied through rf chokes. ventional toroidal broadband transfor
power fed through to the output is not In a directly-heated cathode tube, the which matches the 50-ohm driver load to
modulated. filament must be maintained above rf the 5-ohm base of Ql. The primary of T1
The chief application for grounded-grid ground. This can be done by using a requires sufficient reactance to look like
amplifiers in amateur work below 30 bifilar-wound filament choke ( Fig. 40B four times the 50-ohm source impedance.
MHz is in the case where the available and C). With this method, a double A 7-1.41-1 winding satisfies the need at
driving power far exceeds the power that solenoid (often wound on aferrite core) is 7MHz. The collector circuit employs aT
can be used in driving a conventional generally used, although separate chokes network to transform the 5.6-ohm collec-
grounded-cathode amplifier. can be used, or a toroid core of large tor to a 50-ohm load. The collector rf
Screen-grid tubes are also used some- cross-sectional area can be used. A typical choke is followed by asecond one, which
times in. grounded-grid amplifiers. In filament choke is shown In Fig. 41. with the associated bypass capacitors
some cases, the screen is simply connected The input impedance of a grounded- decouples the amplifier from the 13.5-volt
in parallel with the grid and the tube grid power stage is usually between 30 and power supply.
operates as a high- u triode. In other 150 ohms. A high-C, low-Q pi-section net- A push-pull, broadband, solid-state
cases, the screen is bypassed to ground work can be used to obtain an SWR of 1:1 amplifier circuit is seen in Fig. 43. As
and operated at the usual dc potential. between the exciter and the amplifier. shown, it is biased for Class C operation.
Since the screen is still in parallel with the This is shown in Fig. 40C. The input net- However, if linear amplification were

HF Transmitting 6-28
desired, the center tap of Ti could be
lifted from ground (but bypassed with a
capacitor) and forward bias applied at
that point. If that were done, the 10-ohm,
base-swamping resistors would be re-
turned to the transformer center tap in-
stead of being grounded as shown.
T2 of Fig. 43 is a phase- reversal choke
which places the collectors of QI and Q2
in the correct phase ( 180 degrees apart).
T3 is a conventional transformer which
matches the 44-ohm collector-to-collector
Fig. 45 — Inductive- link output coupling cir-
impedance to a 50-ohm harmonic filter,
cuits.
FL I. The collector coupling capacitors arc Cl — Plate tank capacitor — see text and Fig.
pairs of 0.1-µF capacitors in parallel. This 44 for capacitance.
method will pass more current with less Li — To resonate at operating frequency with
Cl. See LC chart and inductance formula
capacitor heating than would be the case
in electrical- laws chapter, or use ARRL
if only one capacitor were used at each Lightning Calculator.
point in the circuit. Ceramic chip L2 — Reactance equal to line impedance. See
capacitors arc recommended. DI and D2 reactance chart and inductance formula in
electrical- laws chapter, or use ARRL Light-
may be added as protection against dc
ning Calculator.
voltage spikes on the 13.5-V line. Also, if R — Representing load.
the amplifier should break into self-
oscillation, the Zener diodes will limit the
collector swing and prevent damage to the
transistors. The diodes are helpful also Transistor:
when the amplifier is not terminated in a Fig. 44 — Chart showing plate tank
= (Collector Volts) 2
proper load. ARRL lab tests show that capacitance required for a Q of 10. Divide the RL
Zener diodes used in the manner indicated tube plate voltage by the plate current in 2 X Power Output (Watts)
milliamperes. Select the vertical line cor-
have no significant effect on amplifier
responding to the answer obtained. Follow this Parallel- Resonant Tank
performance, and they do not enhance the vertical line to the diagonal line for the band in
generation of harmonic currents. The question, and thence horizontally to the left to The amount of C that will give aQ of
reason is that the diodes are not conduct- read the capacitance. For a given ratio of plate 10 for various ratios is shown in Fig. 44.
voltage/plate current, doubling the capacitance For a given plate-voltage/plate-current
ing under normal conditions. They have shown doubles the Q. When a split-stator
been proven effective as high as 30 MHz, capacitor is used in a balanced circuit, the
ratio, the Q will vary directly as the tank
and may function satisfactorily into the capacitance of each section may be one half capacitance, twice the capacitance
vhf region. Matching networks and their the value given by the chart. doubles the Q, and so on. For the same Q,
design procedures can be found earlier in the capacitance of each section of asplit-
this chapter. stator capacitor in a balanced circuit
should be half the value shown.
RF Power-Amplifier Tanks and by the ratio of loaded Q to unloaded Q by These values of capacitance include the
Coupling for Tubes the relationship: output capacitance of the amplifier tube,
the input capacitance of a following
Tank Q Eff. = 100 ( I— Qi —) amplifier tube if it is coupled capacitively,
Rf power-amplifiers used in amateur Qu and all other stray capacitances. At the
transmitters are operated under Class C or where QL is the loaded Q and Qu is the higher plate-voltage/plate-current ratios,
AB conditions. The main objective, of unloaded Q. the chart may show values of capacitance,
course, is to deliver as much fundamental The Q is determined ( see chapter on for the higher frequencies, smaller than
power as possible into aload, R, without electrical laws and circuits) by the L/C those attainable in practice. In such a
exceeding the tube ratings. The load ratio and the load resistance at which the case, a tank Q higher than 10 is
resistance, R, may be in the form of a tube is operated. The tube load resistance unavoidable.
transmission line to an antenna, or the is related, in approximation, to the ratio
Inductive-Link Coupling: Coupling
input circuit of another amplifier. A of the dc plate voltage to dc plate current
to Flat Coaxial Lines
further objective is to minimize the at which the tube is operated and can be
harmonic energy (always generated by an computed from When the load R in Fig. 45 is located
amplifier) fed into the load circuit. In for convenience at some distance from the
attaining these objectives, the Q of the Class-A Tube: amplifier, or when maximum harmonic
tank circuit is of importance. When aload reduction is desired, it is advisable to feed
is coupled inductively, the Q of the tank R = Plate Volts the power to the load through a low-
circuit will have an effect on the L impedance coaxial cable. The shielded
1.3 X Plate Current
coefficient of coupling necessary for construction of the cable prevents radia-
proper loading of the amplifier. In respect tion and makes it possible to install the
Class-B Tube:
to all of these factors, atank Q of 10 to 20 line in any convenient manner without
is usually considered optimum. A much danger of unwanted coupling to other cir-
Plate Volts
lower Q will result in less efficient opera- cuits.
R L = 1.8 x Plate Current
tion of the amplifier tube, greater har- If the line is more than asmall fraction
monic output, and greater difficulty in of a wavelength long, the load resistance
coupling inductively to a load. A much Class-C Tube: at its output end should be adjusted, by a
higher Q will result in higher tank current matching circuit if necessary, to match the
with increased loss in the tank coil. Plate Volts impedance of the cable. This reduces los-
RL =
Efficiency of atank circuit is determined 2 x Plate Current ses in the cable and makes the coupling

8-29 Chapter 6
 OUTPUT

+S.G +H V
(A)

PI NETWORK

Li L2

OUTPUT
TO TUBE

(B)

PI— L NETWORK

Pig. 47 — Examples of pi (
A) and pi-L(
B) networks.

Fig. 46 — With flat transmission lines, power

transfer is obtained with looser coupling if the
line input is tuned to resonance. C1 and L1
should resonate at the operating frequency.
mum coil is one whose self-inductance is practicable values of inductance and
See table for maximum usable value of C1. If
the circuit does not resonate with maximum such that its reactance at the operating capacitance connected in series with the
C1 or less, inductance of L1 must be increased frequency is equal to the characteristic im- line's input terminals. Suitable circuits arc
or added in series at L2. given in Fig. 46 at B and C. The Q of the
pedance, Zo,of the line.
3) It is possible to make the coupling coupling circuit often may be as low as 2,
between the tank and pickup coils very without running into difficulty in getting
tight. adequate coupling to atank circuit of prop-
Table 8 The second in this list is often hard to er design. Larger values of Q can be used
meet. Few manufactured link coils have and will result in increased ease of cou-
Capacitance in pF for Coupling to Flat
adequate inductance even for coupling to pling, but as the Q is increased the fre-
Coaxial Lines with Tuned Coupling Circuit
a 50-ohm line at low frequencies. quency range over which the circuit will
Frequency Characteristic Impedance of Line If the line is operating with alow SWR, operate without readjustment becomes
Band 52 75
the system shown in Fig. 46A will require smaller. It is usually good practice,
(MHz) (ohms) (ohms)
tight coupling between the two coils. Since therefore, to use acoupling-circuit Q just
3.5 450 300
the secondary (pickup coil) circuit is not low enough to permit operation, over as
7 230 150
14 115 75 resonant, the leakage reactance of the much of aband as is normally used for a
21 80 50 pickup coil will cause some detuning of particular type of communication,
28 60 40 without requiring retuning.
the amplifier tank circuit. This detuning
effect increases with increased coupling, Capacitance values for aQ of 2and line
'Capacitance values are maximum usable.
but is usually not serious. However, the impedances of 52 and 75 ohms are given in
Note: Inductance in circuit must be adjusted to
resonate at operating frequency. amplifier tuning must be adjusted to the accompanying table. These are the
resonance, as indicated by the plate- maximum values that should be used. The
current dip, . each time the coupling is inductance in the circuit should be ad-
changed. justed to give resonance at the operating
frequency. If the link coil used for apar-
adjustments at the transmitter indepen- Tuned Coupling ticular band does not have enough induc-
dent of the cable length. The design difficulties of using "un- tance to resonate, the additional induc-
Assuming that the cable is properly ter- tuned" pickup coils, mentioned above, tance may be connected in series as shown
minated, proper loading of the amplifier can be avoided by using acoupling circuit in Fig. 46C.
will be assured, using the circuit of Fig. tuned to the operating frequency. This
Characteristics
46A, if contributes additional selectivity as well,
1) The plate tank circuit has reasonably and hence aids in the suppression of spu- In practice, the amount of inductance in
higher value of Q. A value of 10 is usually rious radiations. the circuit should be chosen so that, with
sufficient. If the line is flat the input impedance somewhat loose coupling between Li and
will be essentially resistive and equal to the the amplifier tank coil, the amplifier plate
2) The inductance of the pickup or link
Z, of the line. With coaxial cable, acircuit current will increase when the variable
coil is close to the optimum value for the
of reasonable Q can be obtained with capacitor, Cl, is tuned through the value
frequency and type of line used. The opti-
HF Transmitting 6-30
 of capacitance given by the table. The
coupling between the two coils should Table 9
then be increased until the amplifier loads PI- Network Values for Various Plate Impedances with aLoaded Q of 12
normally, without changing the setting of
Cl. If the transmission line is flat over the MHz 1500(12) 2000(12) 2500(12) 3000(12) 3500(12) 4000(12) 5000(13) 6000(14) 8000(16)
entire frequency band under consideration, Cl 3.5 364 273 218 182 156 136 118 106 91
it should not be necessary to readjust C1 7 182 136 109 91 78 68 59 53 46
when changing frequency, if the values 14 91 68 55 46 39 34 30 27 23
given in the table are used. However, it is 21 61 46 36 30 26 23 20 18 15
28 46 34 27 23 20 17 15 13 11
unlikely that the line actually will be flat
over such a range, so some readjustment C2 3.5 1755 1455 1242 1076 940 823 766 736 716
7 877 728 621 538 470 411 383 368 358
of C1may be needed to compensate for 14 439 364 310 269 235 206 192 184 179
changes in the input impedance of the line. 21 293 243 207 179 157 137 128 123 119
If the input impedance variations are not 28 279 182 155 135 117 103 96 92 90
large, Cl may be used as aloading control, L1 3.5 6.59 8.57 10.52 12.45 14.35 16.23 18.56 20.55 23.81
no changes in the coupling between Li 7 3.29 4.29 5.26 6.22 7.18 8.12 9.28 10.28 11.90
and the tank coil being necessary. 14 1.64 2.14 2.63 3.11 3.59 4.06 4.64 5.14 5.95
The degree of coupling between LIand 21 1.10 1.43 1.75 2.07 2.39 2.71 3.09 3.43 3.97
28 0.82 1.07 1.32 1.56 1.79 2.03 2.32 2.57 2.98
the amplifier tank coil will depend on the
coupling circuit Q. With a Q of 2, the These component values are for use with the circuit of Fig. 47A and were provided by W6FFC.
coupling should be tight - comparable
with the coupling that is typical of
"fixed-link" manufactured coils. With a
swinging link it may be necessary to
increase the Q of the coupling circuit in
order to get sufficient power transfer. This Table 10
can be done by increasing the L/C ratio.
PI-L•network values for various plate Impedance and frequencies.
Pi and Pi-L Output Tanks These values are based on aloaded Q of 12.
A pi-section and pi- L tank circuit may
z. Freq CI Li C2 L2
also be used in coupling to an antenna or (
Ohms) (MHz) (pF) (uH) (pF) (uH)
transmission line, as shown in Fig. 47. The 1500 350 403. 7.117 1348. 4.518
optimum values of capacitance and induc- 1500 4.00 318. 7.117 991. 4.518
tance are dependent upon values of 1500 7.00 188. 3.900 596. 2.476
amplifier power input and output load 1500 7.30 174, 3.900 543. 2.476
1500 14.00 93. 1.984 292. 1.259
resistance.
1500 14.35 89. 1.984 276. 1.259
Values l'or Land C may be taken direct- 1500 21.00 62. 1.327 191. 0.843
ly from Tables 9and 10 if the output load 1500 21.45 59. 1.327 185. 0.843
resistance is the usual 52 ohms. It should 1500 28.00 48. 0.959 152. 0.609
1500 29.70 43. 0.959 134. 0.609
be borne in mind that these values apply
only where the output load is resistke, 2000 3.50 304. 9.086 1211 4.518
i.e., where the antenna and line have been 2000 4.00 239. 9.086 894. 4.518
matched. 2000 7.00 142. 4.978 534. 2.476
2000 7.30 131. 4.978 490. 2.476
Output-Capacitor Ratings 2000 14.00 70. 2.533 264. 1.259
2000 14.35 67. 2.533 249. 1.259
The voltage rating of the output 2000 21.00 47. 1.694 173. 0.843
capacitor will depend upon the SWR. If 2000 21.45 45. 1.694 167 0.843
2000 28.00 36. 1.224 135. 0.609
the load is resistive, receiving-type air 2000 29.70 32. 1.224 120. 0.609
capacitors should be adequate for amplifier
input powers up to 2- kW PEP when feed- 2500 3.50 244. 11.010 1115. 4.518
ing 52 -75 -ohm loads. In obtaining the lar - 2500 4.00 191. 11.010 827. 4.518
ger capacitances required for the lower2.4762500 7.00 114 . 6.033 .493
2500 7.30 105. 6.033 453. 2.476
frequencies, it is common practice to 2500 14.00 56. 3.069 240 1.259
switch one or more fixed capacitors in 2500 14.35 53. 3.069 230. 1.259
parallel with the variable air capacitor. 2500 21.00 38. 2.053 158. 0.843
While the voltage rating of a mica or0.8432500 21.45 36. 2.053 154
2500 28.00 29. 1.483 127 0.609
ceramic capacitor may not be exceeded in 2500 29.70 26. 1.483 111. 0.609
aparticular case, capacitors of these types
are limited in current-carrying capacity. 3000 3.50 204. 12.903 1042. 4.518
Postage-stamp silver-mica capacitors should 3000 4.00 159. 12.903 777, 4.518
3000 7.00 94. 7.070 468. 2.476
be adequate for amplifier inputs over the 3000 7.30 87. 7.070 426. 2.476
range from about 70 watts at 28 MHz to 3000 14.00 47 3.597 222. 1.259
400 watts at 14 MHz and lower. The 3000 14.35 44. 1597 217. 1.259
larger mica capacitors (CM-45 case) hay- 3000 21.00 32. 2.406 146. 0.843
ing voltage ratings of 1200 and 2500 volts 3000 21.45
28.00 30.
24. 2.406
1.738 145.
115. 0.84 3
0.609
are usually satisfactory for inputs varying 3000 29.70 21. 1.738 105. 0.609
from about 350 watts at 28 MHz to 1kW
at 14 MHz and lower. Because of these 3500 3.50 174. 14.772 997. 4.518
. .
current limitations, particularly at the 3500 4.00
7.00 136
81. 14.772
8.094 444.
738 4.51 8
2476
higher frequencies, it is advisable to use as 3500 7.30 75. 8.094 404. 2.476
large an air capacitor as practicable, using 3500 14.00 40. 4.118 215. 1.259
the micas only at the lower frequencies.

6-31 Chapter 6
Broadcast- receiver replacement- type to emitter or cathode. In general, the best amplifier, it is usually necessary to load
capacitors can be obtained reasonably. arrangement using atube is one in which the grid circuit, or to use a neutralizing
Their voltage insulation should be ade- the cathode connection to ground, and the circuit.
quate for inputs of 1000 watts or more. plate tank circuit are on the same side of The capacitive neutralizing system for
the chassis or other shielding. The " hot" screen-grid tubes is shown in Fig. 48A. C1
More About Stabilizing Amplifiers lead from the input tank ( or driver plate is the neutralizing capacitor. The capaci-
A straight amplifier operates with its tank) should be brought to the socket tance should be chosen so that at some ad-
input and output circuits tuned to the through a hole in the shielding. Then justment of C,
same frequency. Therefore, unless the when the grid tank capacitor or bypass is
coupling between these two circuits is grounded, areturn path through the hole
C1 Tube grid- plate capacitance ( or Cgp )
brought to the necessary minimum, the to cathode will be encouraged, since
transmission- line characteristics are simu- C3 = Tube input capacitance ( or C1N)
amplifier will oscillate as a tuned-plate,
tuned-grid circuit. Care should be used in lated.
arranging components and wiring of the The grid-cathode capacitance must in-
Screen- Grid Tube Neutralizing Circuits
two circuits so that there will be negligible clude all strays directly across the tube
opportunity for coupling external to the The plate-grid capacitance of screen- capacitance, including the capacitance of
tube or transistor itself. Complete shiel- grid tubes is reduced to a fraction of a the tuning-capacitor stator to ground.
ding between input and output circuits picofarad by the interposed grounded This may amount to 5 to 20 pF. In the
usually is required. All rf leads should be screen. Nevertheless, the power sensitivity case of capacitance coupling, the output
kept as short as possible, and particular of these tubes is so great that only avery capacitance of the driver tube must be
attention should be paid to the rf return small amount of feedback is necessary to added to the grid-cathode capacitance of
paths from input and output tank circuits start oscillation. To assure a stable the amplifier in arriving at the value of
Cl

Neutralizing aScreen-Grid
Amplifier Stage
There are two general procedures
Zal Freq Cl Li C2 L2 available for indicating neutralization in a
(Ohms) (MHz) (pF) ( uH) (pF) (uH) screen-grid amplifier stage. If the screen-
3500 14.35 38. 4.118 206. 1.259 grid tube is operated with or without grid
3500 21.00 27. 2.755 136. 0.843 current, a sensitive output indicator can
3500 21.45 25. 2.755 138. 0.843 be used. If the screen-grid tube is operated
3500 28.00 21. 1.989 106. 0.609
with grid current, the grid-current reading
3500 29.70 18. 1.989 99. 0.609
can be used as an indication of neutraliza-
4000 3.50 153. 16.621 947. 4.518 tion. When the output indicator is used,
4000 4.00 119. 16.621 706. 4.518 both screen and plate voltages must be re-
4000 7.00 71, 9.107 418. 2.476
moved from the tubes, but the dc circuits
4000 7.30 65. 9 107 387. 2.476
4000 14.00 35. 4.633 204. 1.259 from the plate and screen to cathode must
4000 14.35 33, 4.633 197. 1.259 be completed. If the grid-current reading
4000 21.00 23. a099 137. 0.843 is used, the plate voltage may remain on
4000 21.45 22. 3.099 132. 0.843
but the screen voltage must be zero, with
4000 28.00 18. 2.238 107. 0.609
4000 29.70 16. 2.238 95. 0.609 the dc circuit completed between screen
and cathode.
5000 3.50 123. 20.272 872. 4.518 The immediate objective of the neutrali-
5000 4.00 95. 20.272 658. 4.518
zing process is reducing to aminimum the
5000 7.00 57. 11.108 387. 2.476
5000 7.30 52. 11.108 360. 2.476 rf-driver voltage fed from the input of the
5000 14.00 29. 5.651 186. 1.259 amplifier to its output circuit through the
5000 14.35 27. 5.651 183. 1.259 grid- plate capacitance of the tube. This is
5000 21.00 19. 3.780 125. 0.843 done by adjusting carefully, bit by bit, the
5000 21.45 18. 3.780 123. 0.843
5000 28.00 15. 2.730 95. 0.609
neutralizing capacitor or link coils until
5000 29.70 13. 2.730 89. 0.609 an rf indicator in the output circuit reads
minimum, or the reaction of the unloaded
6000 3.50 103. 23.873 829. 4.518 plate-circuit tuning on the grid-current
6000 4.00 80. 23.873 621. 4.518
6000 7.00 48. 13081 368. 2.476
value is minimized.
6000 7.30 44. 13.081 340. 2.476 The dipper/wavemeter shown in the
6000 14.00 24. 6.655 172. 1.259 Measurements chapter makes a sensitive
6000 14.35 22. 6.655 173. 1.259 neutralizing indicator. The wavemeter coil
6000 21.00 16. 4.452 117. 0.843
6000 21.45 15. 4.452 116. 0.843
should be coupled to the output tank coil
6000 28.00 13. 3.215 87. 0.609 at the low-potential or "ground" point.
6000 29.70 11. 3.215 84. 0.609 Care should be taken to make sure that
the coupling is loose enough at all times to
8000 3.50 78. 30.967 747. 4.518
8000 4.00 60. 30.967 569. 4.518
prevent burning out the meter or the rec-
8000 7.00 36. 16.968 337. 2.476 tifier. The plate tank capacitor should be
8000 7.30 33. 16.968 312. 2.476 readjusted for maximum reading after
8000 14.00 18. 8.632 165. 1259 each change in neutralizing.
8000 14.35 17. 8.632 159. 1.259
When the grid-current meter is used as
8000 21.00 12. 5.775 104. 0.843
8000 21.45 11. 5.775 106. 0.843 aneutralizing indicator, the screen should
8000 28.00 9, 4.171 86. 0.609 be grounded for rf and dc, as mentioned
8000 29.70 8. 4.171 77. 0.609 above. There will be a change in grid
current as the unloaded plate tank circuit
Operating O -12. Output load - 52 ohms. Computer data provided by Bill Imamura. JA6GW.
is tuned through resonance. The neutrali-

HF Transmitting 6.32
 zing capacitor (or inductor) should be ad-
justed until this deflection is brought to a
minimum. As a final adjustment, screen
voltage should be returned and the
neutralizing adjustment continued to the
point where minimum plate current.
maximum grid current and maximum
screen current occur simultaneously. An
increase in grid current when the plate
tank circuit is tuned slightly on the
high-frequency side of resonance indicates
that the neutralizing capacitance is too O
+v
small. If the increase is on the low-
frequency side, the neutralizing capaci-
tance is too large. When neutralization is
complete. there should be aslight decrease Jr-
in grid current on either side of resonance.

Grid Loading
o
The use of a neutralizing circuit may -v
often be avoided by loading the grid
circuit if the driving stage has some power
capability to spare. Loading by tapping
the grid down on the grid tank coil (or the (
A)

plate tank coil of the driver in the case of

capacitive coupling), or by aresistor from
grid to cathode is effective in stabilizing
an amplifier.

Low-Frequency Parasitic Oscillation

The screening of most transmitting
screen-grid tubes is sufficient to prevent
low-frequency parasitic oscillation caused
by resonant circuits set up by rf chokes in (B)
grid and plate circuits. When rf chokes are
used in both grid and plate circuits of a
triode amplifier, the split-stator tank Fig. 48— A neutralization circuit may use either C 1or C2 to cancel the effect of the tube grid- plate
capacitors combine with the rf chokes to capacitance ( A). The circuit at B shows the usual vhf-parasitic circuit in bold lines.

form alow-frequency parasitic circuit, un-

less the amplifier circuit is arranged to
prevent it. Often, aresistor is substituted
for.tbe grid rf choke, which will produce
Table 11
the desired result. This resistance should
.
be aleast 100 ohms. If any grid-leak resis- Typical Tank- Capacitor Plate Spacings
tance is used for biasing, it should be sub- Spacing Peak Spacing Peak Spacing Peak
stituted for the 100-ohm resistor. Inches (mm) Voltage Inches (mm) Voltage Inches (mm) Voltage
0.015 (0.4) 1000 0.07 ( 1.8) 3000 0.175 ( 4.4) 7000
Component Ratings: Output Tank 0.02 (0.5) 1200 0.08 (2.8) 3500 0.25 (6.3) 9000
Capacitor Voltage 0.03 (0.8) 1500 0.125 (3.0) 4500 0.35 (8.9) 11000
0.05 ( 1.3) 2000 0.15 (3.8) 6000 0.5 ( 12.7) 13000
In selecting a tank capacitor with a
spacing between plates sufficient to
prevent voltage breakdown, the peak rf
voltage across atank circuit under load,
but without modulation, may be taken between plates. Typical plate spacings are capacitor shaft and the dial. The section of
conservatively as equal to the dc plate or shown in Table II. the shaft attached to the dial should be well
collector voltage. If the dc supply voltage Output tank capacitors should be grounded. This can be done conveniently
also appears across the tank capacitor, mounted as close to the tube as tem- through the use of panel shaft-bearing units.
this must be added to the peak rf voltage. perature considerations will permit, to
making the total peak voltage twice the dc make possible the shortest capacitive path Tank Coils
supply voltage. If the amplifier is to be from plate to cathode. Especially at the Tank coils should be mounted at least
plate-modulated, this last value must be higher frequencies, where minimum cir- their diameter away from shielding to
doubled to make it four times the dc plate cuit capacitance becomes important, the prevent a marked loss in Q. Except
voltage, because both dc and rf voltages capacitor should be mounted with its perhaps at 28 MHz it is not important
double with 100-percent amplitude modu- stator plates well spaced from the chassis that the coil be mounted quite close to the
lation. At the higher voltages, it is desirable or other shielding. In circuits where the tank capacitor. Leads up to 6or 8inches
to choose a tank circuit in which the dc rotor must be insuleted from ground, the are permissible. It is more important to
and modulation voltages do not appear capacitor should be mounted on ceramic keep the tank capacitor as well as other
across the tank capacitor, to permit the insulators of size commensurate with the components out of the immediate field of
use of a smaller capacitor with less plate plate voltage involved and — most the coil. For this reason, it is preferable to
spacing. important of all, from the viewpoint of mount the coil so that its axis is parallel to
Capacitor manufacturers usually rate safety to the operator — awell-insulated the capacitor shaft, either alongside the
their products in terms of the peak voltage coupling should be used between the capacitor or above it.
6-33 Chapter 6
 1000 watts input on 75-meter a-m would Circuit Description
be adequate for at least 4kW PEP in ssb
Table 12 The schematic diagram of the transmit-
service.
ter is displayed at Fig. 50. QI and
Wire Sizes for Transmitting Coils for Tube
Transmitters RF Chokes associated components comprise a
Colpitts variable- frequency crystal
Power The characteristics of any rf choke will
Input ( Watts) Band (MHz) Wire Size oscillator. Cl is used to adjust the fre-
vary with frequency, from characteristics
1000 28-2 6
quency of the oscillator and C2 is used to
resembling those of a parallel-resonant
14-7 8 limit the span of the oscillator. If no limit
3.5-1.8 10 circuit of high impedance, to those of a is provided the oscillator can operate " on
series-resonant circuit, where the impe- its own" and no longer be under the con-
500 28-21 8
14-7 12 dance is lowest. In between these extremes,
trol of the crystal — an undesirable cir-
3.5-1.8 14 the choke will show varying amounts of
cumstance. Supply voltage is fed to the
150 28-21 12 inductive or capacitive reactance.
14-7 14 oscillator only during transmit and spot
In series- feed circuits, these characteris-
3.5-1.8 18 periods. This prevents the oscillator from
tics are of relatively small importance be-
75 28-21 14 interfering with received stations
14-7 18
cause the rf voltage across the choke is
operating on the same frequency.
3.5-1.8 22 negligible. In aparallel-feed circuit, how- Output energy from the oscillator is
25 or less• 28-21 18 ever, the choke is shunted across the tank
routed to Q2. agrounded-base amplifier.
14-7 24 circuit, and is subject to the full tank rf
3.5-1.8 28
This stage provides some gain, hut more
voltage. If the choke does not present a
important, a high degree of isolation be-
'Wire size limited principally by consideration of 0. sufficiently high impedance, enough power
tween the oscillator and the driver stage:
will be absorbed by the choke to cause it
Pulling and chirp are virtually non-
to burn out.
existent.
To avoid this, the choke must have a The driver stage uses a broadband
sufficiently high reactance to be effective
amplifier that operates Class A. Keying of
There are many factors that must be at the lowest frequency, and yet have no
this stage is accomplished by ungrounding
taken into consideration in determining the series resonances near the higher-frequency
the base and emitter resistors. CIO is used
size of wire (see Table 12) which should be bands. to shape the waveform. Although the key-
used in winding atank coil. The considera- ing is rather hard there is no evidence of
A VX0-CONTROLLED TRANSMITTER
tions of form factor and wire size which
FOR 3.5 TO 21 MHz clicks.
will produce a coil of minimum loss are Two MRF472 transistors are used in
often of less importance in practice than The variable-crystal oscillator (VXO)
parallel for the power amplifier. These
the coil size that will fit into available space represents a convenient method for
transistors were designed for the Citizens
or that will handle the required power generating a highly stable, adjustable-
Band service and work nicely at 21 MHz.
without excessive heating. This is par- frequency signal. With the circuit shown
Each transistor is rated for 4-watts output
ticularly true in the case of screen-grid tubes in Fig. 50 the frequency spans shown in
which gives a margin of safety when
Table 13 can be realized. This circuit
where the relatively small driving power re- operated at the 6-watt output level. L2 is
quired can be easily obtained even if the makes use of fundamental-type crystals
used as adc ground for the bases making
losses in the driver are quite high. It may only and is therefore limited to frequen-
the transistors operate Class C.
be considered preferable to take the power cies belovi. roughly 25 MN/. Most crystals
The low output impedance at the collec-
loss if the physical size of the exciter can produced for frequencies above 25 M1-1/
tors is stepped up by a broadband
be kept down by making the coils small. are overtone types and will not work in
transformer to the 50-ohm impedance
The wire sizes in Table 12 are larger than this circuit. Since the operator is apt to
level. A five-element Chebyshev filter is
favor one portion of aband os er another,
those typically used in modern commercial used to assure aclean output signal. This
and home-built equipment. That is because a few crystals are all that is necessary for
transmitter exceeds current FCC specifica-
coverage of a part of the band. The
it was derived for a-m service, where there tions regarding spectral purity. D2 is used
transmitter, as shown, is rated for 6watts
is a continuous carrier and modulation to clamp the collector voltage waveform
peaks have a PEP four times the carrier of output while running at the 10-watt dc
should the transmitter be operated into an
value. Thus, the no. 10 wire required for input les el.

t.--

Fiq. 49 — Photographs of the completed 6-watt, VXO-controlled transmitter. Miniature coaxial cable ( RG-174/U) is used for connections between the
circuit board, connectors and switches for all runs carrying rf energy.
HF Transmitting 6-34
Table 13
Component Values for the VXO-Controlled, 6-Watt Transmitter

C3, C17, L3, VXO

Band Cl C2 C4 C6 C18 Li L5 L4 Range
80 M 365 - 220 100 820 52 Turns 29 Turns 35 Turns 3-5 kHz
T-37-2 T-502 T-502
40 M 365 — 100 100 470 40 Turns 21 Turns 25 Turns 6-8 kHz
T-37-2 T-50-2 T-50-2
30 M 150 — 68 50 330 30 Turns 18 Turns 22 Turns 8-10 kHz
(10 MHz) T-37-2 T-50-2 T-50-2
20 M 50 10 50 50 240 35 Turns 16 Turns 19 Turns 10-12 kHz
T-37-6 T-50-6 T-50-6
15 M 50 10 33 33 150 27 Turns 15 Turns 18 Turns 12-14 kHz
T-37-6 T-50-6 T-50-6 Fig. 51 — Spectral display of the VXO-
controlled transmitter. Here the transmitter is
operated in the 20- mater band. The second har-
monic is down 56 dB relative to the fundamen-
tal output. Similar presentations were obtained
open circuit or high SWR antenna system. aseparate heat sink w its metallic surface.
on each of the other bands. This transmitter
The transmitter is designed to operate into The only adjustment needed is that of complies with the current FCC specifications
a load that is close to 50 ohms resistive. setting the VXO limit capacitor. This can regarding spectral purity.
SI is used as the transmit/receive be done with the aid of areceiver. Using a
switch. One section transfers the antenna 21- MHz fundamental- type crystal, adjust final check with the receiver by listening
to an accompanying receiver or the output the capacitor for a maximum frequency to the keyed signal from the transmitter.
of the transmitter strip. Another section is spread of approximately 10-15 kHz. If too It should be steady and chirp free. The
used to activate the VXO during transmit much frequency spread is available, in- spectral display of the transmitter is
and the third section is provided for crease the amount of capacitance. Make a shown in Fig. 51.
receiver muting purposes.

Construction
The majority of the circuit components
are mounted on a double-sided, printed-
circuit boards. One side of the board is

R12
etched with the circuit pattern and the
other side is left as a ground plane. A Ce

J 47
t,,
small amount of copper is renio \ cd from
around each hole on the ground- plane R3220 R83900 22»F
side of the board to prevent the leads from 9.1V 25V c T2
shorting to ground. A scale etching pat-
IT/
tern and parts layout guide appear in Figs.
52 and 53. VXO
C5 AMP
C11
Affixed to the front panel are the
transmit/receive switch, spot switch, and R2 o.t ,
the tuning capacitor. The rear apron sup-
ports the antenna and inute jacks, key
jack and binding posts.
10R4
A homemade cabinet measuring 3 x 6 BUFFER
X 8-1/4 inches ( 76 x 150 x 210 mm)
was used in the construction of this
transmitter. The builder may elect to build 02
C6 2N2222A C. 9
his or her own cabinet from sheet
aluminum or circuit- board material. The
layout is not critical except that the lead
LI R9330
from the circuit board to C 1 should be
kept as short as possible—an inch or two
R13
4.7
(25 to 51 mm) is fine.
0.1C7
The final transistors are heat sinked to
the ground plane of the circuit board C1 C2 C10
using mica washers and silicone com- LIMIT
CONTROL
0.1

KEY
'....\
‘\r7-7
pound. With the normal transmit duty cy-
cle this heat sink is sufficient. If for some
reason the prospective builder plans long FREQUENCY
ADJUST
key-down periods, an additional heat sink
connected to the tops of the transistors
would be helpful. Motorola no longer Fig. 50 — Schematic diagram of the VXO-controlled transmitter. All resistors are 1/4-watt carbon
types unless noted otherwise. All resistors are mylar or disc ceramic unless otherwise noted.
manufactures the MRF472 devices speci-
Polarized capacitors are electrolytic or tantalum. Q4 and 05 must be heat sinked to the circuit
fied. However, they are available from board.
several surplus outlets. MRF476 tran- Cl, C2, C3, Cd, C6, C17 and C18 — See Table 13 24 or 26 enam. wire.
sistors may be used, but these have the D1 — Zener diode, 9.1 V, 1W. L2 — 8 turns no. 26 enameled wire on FB73-801
02 — Zener diode, 36 V, 1W. ferrite bead.
base and emitter connections reversed
J1, J2 — Binding post. M1 — 0-1 mA meter, Calector DI-91Z or equiv.
from the 472. A simple expedient is to J3 — Key jack. 01, 02, 03 — Transistor, 2N2222A or equiv.
mount the MRF476 face-down and attach L1, L3, L4, L5 — See Table 13. Wind with no. 03 — Transistor, 2N3866 or equiv.

6-36 Chapter 6
 1

Fig. 52 — Scale etching pattern for the 6-watt transmitter. Black areas represent unetched copper One side of the board is a complete ground plane.
This view is from the circuit foil side of the board.

DESK-TOP KILOWATT FOR

160 METERS
Recent relaxations of frequency and
51C
52 power restrictions on the " top band"
SPOT
O R18 J2
have created a demand for full-power
—‹ + 12.5V equipment for 160 meters. This band is
J3 DC
not included in most commercially
C14 -I- CURRENT
/1/
manufactured amplifiers. Single-band
I RX MUTE operation greatly simplifies the home con-
22,AF 0-IrnA
538 J4
25V
S3A
C15
OUTPUT

/ I / 0. 1 TX
SIB
C T3 ANT
RI9 R2 J5
PA 10k
1K Ds

04
MR , 472 0.01 IN914 RX
lk ANT
R21
J6
/ ) /

L3 L4 L5

R14 R15 C16

18 1.8

C17 C18

05
MRF 47 2 D2

14 /T/ / 1 "-/

36V /4-7

1W

S2 — Push-button switch, spst, normally open.

04, 05 — Transistor, MRF472 or equiv.
S3 — Toggle switch, dpdt.
(see text)
Ti, T2 — Broadband transformer, 10 turns no.
R14 • R17, incl. — Fixed resistor, 1.8 ohms, 24 enameled wire, bifilar wound on an
1/2 W. FT-37-43 core.
T3 — Broadband transformer, 10 bifilar turns Fig. 53 — Component- placement guide for the
R18 — meter shunt, 13-1/2 inches no. 26
enamel wire wound on a high-value 1-watt no. 24 enameled wire on an FT-50-43 core. 6-watt transmitter pc board. The component
resistor. Vi — Fundamental crystal for frequency range side of the board is shown with an X-ray view
Si — Toggle switch, 3pdt. desired. of the circuit foil

HF Transmitting 6-36
 active device is a4-1000A. These tubes are ductance for 160 meters, so ahomemade
widely available as " pulls" from broad- component is called for. An easy way to
cast service. Most of the other com- fabricate the choke is to wind 41 bifilar
ponents are surplus or flea-market items. turns of no. 12 enameled wire on a
Fair Radio Sales (see parts suppliers list in 1/2-inch-diameter dowel. Smooth and
Chapter 17) was amajor source of parts. lacquer the ferrite core and allow it to dry
Careful shopping should produce the re- overnight. After forming the coil on the
quired materials for less than $200. dowel, slip the dowel out and work the
Figs. 54, 57 and 58 reveal most of the coil onto the ferrite core. The winding will
construction details. Omission of an inter- fit snugly with 40 turns. Secure the coil
nal high-voltage supply allows construc- ends with epoxy cement and coat with lac-
tion of a compact, lightweight package. quer when set.
Plate potential may be taken from a No screen or bias supplies are used. The
separate power supply or an existing hf screen terminals must be grounded direct-
amplifier. Two quiet muffin fans cool the ly to the chassis by means of short
tube. One is mounted on the rear chassis I/2-inch wide copper straps. The control
apron and blows across the filament seals grid returns to rf ground through abypass
Fig. 54 — A full- power linear amplifier for 160 through an rf-screened opening. The capacitor. The dc return is via a 1-ohm
meters. From top to bottom, the controls are
other fan, perched atop the filament resistor that develops voltage proportional
PLATE TUNING, ANTENNA LOADING and INPUT
MATCHING. Front panel height is 12 in. transformer, cools the top of the tube to grid current. R, forms acurrent divider
envelope and the finned anode cap. This with the 1-ohm resistor to calibrate a
system provides adequate cooling for milliammeter to read grid current. The
typical amateur ssb and cw service. value of R, depends on the internal
struction of this type of equipment, not A schematic diagram of the rf section is resistance of the movement. Information
only because mechanical band switching is shown in Fig. 55. The tuned input circuit on shunting meters is given in the
eliminated, but also because stability is allows precise impedance matching for measurements chapter. R, plus the inter-
easier to come by: Rf chokes are less proper exciter operation and maximum nal meter resistance should equal 300
critical and parasitic resonances caused by power transfer. About 130-W PEP drive ohms for afull-scale grid current reading
long coil-tap leads are dispensed with. is required for 2-kW PEP amplifier input. of 300 mA.
Another band worth committing an The typical 100-watt-output solid-state A conventional pi network is used in the
amplifier to is 10 meters. transceiver will produce about 900-W plate tank. The loaded Q is 12 to 15,
The unit described here was built by PEP output from the amplifier. RFC1 is a depending on the operating conditions.
Dick Stevens, WI QWJ. Economy was the bifilar choke that isolates the tube fila- Fig. 59 indicates adequate harmonic sup-
major design goal, and the selection of ment from rf ground. Commercially pression. Z1 is aparasitic choke made up
components reflects this philosophy. The manufactured hf chokes lack sufficient in- of three turns of no. 10 solid wire wound
,•

INPUT
e<213
1
,47
K2C OuTPuT
JI@ _CY.
YYL_ 2700 0 v o
J2
10kV

4-10004
1
000
MICA

RFC 2

Fig. 55 — Rf section of the 160-meter amplifier. Unless

otherwise indicated, capacitors are 600 V disc ceramic.
0-i ± 0 001 Components not listed here are described in the text.
5kV J1, J2, J3 — SO-239 coaxial receptacles.
L1 — 12 tno. 10 solid, air-wound, self-supporting,
1-3/8-in. ID x 2- 1/2- in. long.
L2 — 26 1no. 10 solid, 2- 1/2- in. ID x 4 in long on
ceramic form.
RFC1 — 40 bifilar tno. 12 enam. on 1/2- in, dia ferrite
rod, < = 850 ( Radiokit R-33-50-750). See text.
001 RFC2 — See text.

3500
MICA RFC 1

001 001

U-•

+3-4eV

FIL
/(;:)/

6-37 Chapter 6
 52 TEST
6
125 VAC
FIL

6A SI
125 VAC
o 0 0--
REMOTE D53 53 ,26
5AvAc

KI A

052

DS1

50 V
TI IA 47.0

'VkoN
IC
1W +1_ 470pF
12 V
117 V 50
Fig. 56 — Control circuit for the 160-meter IA
amplifier.
131, B2 — Miniature 117-V ac fans (Rotron Sprite or
K1B
equiv.).
DS1, DS2 — Neon pilot lamps with built-in current-
limiting resistors ( RS 272-704).
K1 — Dpdt relay. Contacts: 3A at 125 V ac. Coil: 12
V dc at 50 mA (RS 275-206).
K2 — Dpdt relay. Contacts: 10 A. Coil: 117 V ac BIC
(RS 275-217 acceptable; rf unit preferred).
Si — Spst rocker switch ( RS 275-690). 12
Ti — 12 V at 1A (RS 273-1505).
T2 — 7.5 V at 21 A. o
F25
117V
20k
10W
o 001
600V

75V o
2IA PTT

FIL

,B1114;Paiil=III ,
BISIMP411111w1100011141400wo VP e

eh/

Fig. 58 — Rear view of the 160-meter amplifier with the cover removed
The chassis dimensions are 10 x 12 x 13 inches. Seen here are the
plate-circuit components. K1 is the small relay at the rear of the
chassis. The large cylindrical object above the tank inductor is the
Fig. 57 — Underside of the 160-meter amplifier. Visible in this photo are plate- blocking capacitor. Between the tuning and loading capacitors is
the antenna relay, input tuning network, filament choke and control a 220-pF vacuum capacitor to supplement the variable unit. The loading
wiring. A universal joint in the input tuning capacitor linkage capacitor is a 5-gang assembly. Behind the tube from left to right are
accommodates the dual objectives of short rf connections and a Ti, T2 and RFC2. Directly behind the anode cap and parasitic choke is
pleasing front- panel arrangement. the uppef fan.
 K2, which is the antenna relay.
To tune up the amplifier, apply a very
small amount of drive power without
plate voltage. Tune the input tank for
maximum grid current, reducing drive so
that the meter just deflects. Maximum
grid current and best input match should
coincide. If they don't, move the tap on
the Input coil. Apply about 2000 V of
plate potential and adjust the tuning and
loading capacitors for maximum power
output. The plate supply may now be in-
creased to about 3500 V and the drive in-
Fig. 59 — Harmonic spectrum of the 160-meter creased for resonant grid and plate cur-
amplifier. Horizontal scale is 1 MHz/div. The rents of 170 and 600 mA, respectively.
pip at the extreme left is generated within the (These are single-tone readings into a
spectrum analyzer. Vertical scale is 10 d13/div.
dummy load.) Normal voice peaks will
The fundamental power output is 600 W. This
amplifier complies with FCC requirements for register about 80 mA on the grid meter
purity of emissions. and 250 mA on the plate meter. Best effi-
ciency for 1-kW cw input will occur with Fig. 61 — The completed 140-watt amplifier
board and heat sink. D1 is mounted on the
about 400 mA plate current at 2500 V. To
underside of the circuit board sandwiched be-
be strictly legal under FCC regulations, tween the board and the heat sink.
the combined exciter and amplifier input
power should not exceed 1- kW dc.

A 140-W SOLID-STATE ness response of better than 1dB across

LINEAR AMPLIFIER the band. R 1, R2 and the associated 5600-
Solid-state technology has progressed pF shunt capacitors comprise the input-
to the point where devices capable of correction network. With the negative
producing up to 100-watts output in the hf feedback applied via R3 and R4 through
range are available at reasonable cost. L5, the equivalent of an attenuator is
This unit, designed by K7ES, applies the formed with frequency-sensitive charac-
aforementioned technology to a broad- teristics. At 30 MHz the input power loss
band linear-amplifier design. Power out- is 1to 2 dB, increasing to 10 to 12 dB at
put is 140 watts from 1.6 to 30 MHz. The 1.6 MHz. The gain variation of the rf tran-
Fig. 60 — Two-tone IMD spectrum of the
160-meter amplifier. Third-order products are amplifier described here originally ap- sistors is the reciprocal of this, resulting in
approximately 30-dB down from the PEP output peared in QST for June and July 1977. again flatness of approximately 1dB. In-
of 1200 W. put VSWR is better than 1.75 across the
The Circuit
band.
The MRF454 transistor is specified for The input transformer, Tl, and the
around a parallel combination of three a continuous power output of 70 watts. output transformer, T3, are of the same
150-ohm, 2-watt resistors. RFC2 is The maximum continuous current allow- type. The low- impedance windings consist
another homemade component. It is able is 15 A. Maximum dissipation is of two pieces of metal tubing which are
wound on a 1-inch diameter lacquer- limited to 250 watts. The minimum shorted electrically at one end — the op-
treated hardwood dowel. Other than the recommended collector idling current is posite ends being the connections of the
form material, the choke duplicates the 100 mA per device. windings ( Fig. 63A). The multiturn, high-
design detailed in Chapter 17.
Fig. 62 shows the basic circuit. The bias impedance windings are wound through
The plate ammeter is connected directly
supply uses active components rather than the tubing so that the low- and high-
in the high- voltage lead. This arrangement the common diode clamping scheme. impedance winding connections are at
is necessary because the lack of a self- Some advantages of this system are opposite ends of the transformer. Alterna-
contained plate supply precludes metering line-voltage regulation capability, low tively, copper braid can be substituted for
the B minus-to-ground link. Meters standby current, and a wide range of the metal tubing. The braid can be taken
having unknown insulation ratings or voltage adjustment. With the component from the coaxial cable of the proper
metallic zeroing screws should be installed values shown the bias is adjustable from diameter. This is exemplified in Fig. 63B.
behind a Plexiglas subpanel as a safety 0.5 to 0.9 volt. The 0.5- ohm resistor The primary and secondary coupling
measure. between pins Iand 10 of the MC1723 sets coefficient is determined by the length-
The control circuit is given in Fig. 56. the current- limiting point of the chip at to- diameter ratio of the metal tubing or
Ac primary and PTT/VOX connections I.35A. Temperature- compensating diode braid, plus the gauge and insulation
are made through an octal plug. Si ac- Dl is added for bias tracking as the power thickness of the wire used for the
tivates the filament and relay supplies and devices heat up. This circuit prevents high- impedance winding. A high coupling
provides convenient desk-top control of thermal runaway. The base-emitter junc- coefficient is necessary for good high-
the remotely located plate supply. When tion of a 2N5 190 is used as this diode. frequency response. Both transformers
S2 is in the REMOTE position, the relays Physical dimensions of the 2N5190 allow are loaded with ferrite material to provide
are activated through the exciter it to be used as the center standoff post of sufficient low- frequency inductance.
PTT/VOX line. Switching S3 to TEST the circuit board, ensuring adequate ther- The collector choke ( T2) provides an
energizes the relays independently of the mal bonding of the diode junction to the artificial center-tap for T3. This produces
exciter. In the receive or standby mode, heat sink. even- harmonic cancellation. Additionally,
the amplifier is biased off by the 20-kfl Device input impedances vary across T2 is alow- impedance point that supplies
resistor in the filament center-tap return, the frequency range this amplifier is negative feedback voltage through a
K1C short-circuits this resistor when the designed for. An input frequency-correction separate one- turn winding. The charac-
amplifier is activated and K1B turns on network is employed to give a gain flat- teristic impedance of ac and bd ( windings

8-39 Chapter 6
Fig. 62 — Circuit diagram of the 140-watt amplifier. All capacitors except part of Cl, C2 and the electrolytic types are ceramic chips. Capacitors
with values higher than 82 pF are Union Carbide type 1225 or Varadyne size 14. Others are type 1813 or size 18, respectively.
Cl — 1760 pF ( two 470-pF chip capacitors in 03— 2N5989 or equiv. 12— 6turns no. 18 enameled wire, bif ilar wound.
parallel with an 820-oF silver mica). R1, R2 — Two 3.6 ohm, 1/2 W, in parallel. Ferrite core: Stackpole 57-9322. Indiana
C2 — 1000-pF disc ceramic. R3, R4 — Two 5.6 ohm, 1/2 W, in parallel. General F627-8 01 or equiv.
D1 — 2N5190 or equiv. 11 — Primary: 3turns no. 22 insulated wire. TS — Primary: Braid or tubing loop. Secondary: 4
Ll. L2 — Ferrite choke, Ferroxcube VK200 Secondary: Braid or tubing loop. Core material: turns no. 18 insulated wire. Core material: Two
19/4B, Stackpole 57-1845-24B, Fair- Rite Products Stackpole 57-3238 ferrite sleeves ( 7D material)
L3, L4 — Two Fair- Rite Products ferrite beads 2873000201 or two Fair- Rite Products 0.375- or a number of toroids with similar magnetic
(2673021801 or equiv.) on no. 16 wire. inch OD x 0.2- inch ID x 0.4 inch ( 9.5 x 5.1 X characteristics and 0.175- inch sq. ( 113- mm
L5 — 1turn through torroid of 12. 10.2 mm), Material- 77 beads for type A sq.) total cross-sectional area.
01, 02 — MRF454. (Fig. 63A) transformer. U1 — Motorola MC1723G or equiv.

on T2) should be approximately equal to A large heat sink is required for proper SSTV operation).
the collector-to-collector impedance of Ql dissipation of heat. A nine- inch ( 229- mm)
Tune Up and Operation
and Q2, but it is not critical. For physical length of Thermalloy 6153 or aseven-inch
convenience abifilar winding is used. The (178- mm) length of Aavid Engineering Since this is a broadband amplifier, no
center-tap of T2 is really be, but for stabi- 60140 extrusion is suitable for 100- percent tuning adjustments are necessary. One
lization purposes, band care separated by duty cycle operation ( such as RTTY or need only set the bias control so that the
rf chokes which are bypassed individually.

Construction
A scale pc- board template is shown in
Fig. 64. Double- sided board is used, and
patterns are shown for each side of the
board.
All parts arc mounted on the circuit
board. The MRF454s are soldered to the
board, but the flanges are bolted tightly to
the heat sink. Apply' athin layer of silicone
grease to Q I, Q2 and D Iwhere they will
contact the heat sink. This aids in efficient
heat transfer. The board is attached to the
heat sink by means of five screws. They
are tapped into the heat sink: Four are at
the board corners, and the fifth goes Fig. 63 — Shown are the two methods of constructing the transformers as outlined in the text At
through the board, through D1, and into the left, the one- turn loop is made ( rum brass tubing; at the right, a pire nf roaxiAl cable braid is
used for the loop.
the heat sink

HF Transmitting 6-40
 LOOPS CAN BE PROVIDED FOR
CURRENT- PROBE MEASUREMENTS

L4 L3

X
1
0.6 8. ,
J

0 (8)
E 6800fX
E
0 Ell 0
0 0 X

110µF/20V c E
500µF / 3V 00 i›0 OP F
00

390pF

Q3
SlpF

-15012-
I 20S215W
-0.5S/-
10000F
- C2 -

© 00
I BOTTOM

Fig. 64 - Actual- size layouts for the amplifier. Gray areas represent unetched copper. The pattern at the left is for the top side of the board and the
one at the right for the bottom of the board.

50 ft L2 L4 L6 Band Fc (MHz) VSWR Cl, C7 C3, C5 L2, L6 L4

50 11
160 2.02 1.09 1200 2700 5.42 6.41
80 4.11 1.07 560 1300 2.62 3.13
40 7.98 1.08 300 680 1.37 1.62
C3 C5 C7
30 10.37 1.14 270 560 1.09 1.26
20 15.16 1.09 160 360 0.72 0.85
/ 15 21,69 1,06 100 240 0.49 0.59
10 36.85 1.10 68 150 0.30 0.36

Fig. 65 - This table shows the values for 7-element Chebyshev low-pass filters suitable for use with the amplifier. These filters have been designed
around standard capacitance values for each of the capacitors. Capacitance values are in pF and inductance values are in m1-1. This information was
prepared by Ed Wetherhold, W3NON.

amplifier draws 200 mA of quiescent 50 percent. IMD products are typically 32 ning the maximum legal- power input for
current. A regulated power supply capable to 34 dB below PEP. Power gain is that class license - 250 watts. This
of delivering 13.6 volts dc at 25 A is re- approximately 15 dB, which means that amplifier was designed primarily with this
quired for amplifier operation. approximately 5 watts will drive the in mind. The 250-watt input level also
If direct operation into an antenna is amplifier to the rated output of 140 watts. makes this amplifier compatible with the
expected, filtering of the output is neces- The spectral displays for harmonics and proposed power limit for the new
sary to meet FCC regulations for spectral 1N1D are shown in Fig. 66. 30- meter WARC band. The necessary in-
purity. The filters shown in Fig. 65 will formation on winding the tank coil for
provide more than sufficient harmonic at- THE " 1/4- GALLON" AMPLIFIER - 10- MHz operation is given in Fig. 68. Ap-
tenuation with less than 1dB of loss at the A WARC UPDATE
proximately 25 watts of power are re-
operating frequency. Some Novice class licensees own quired to drive the amplifier to 165 watts
Collector efficiency is in the vicinity of transmitters that are not capable of run- output on 80 meters. If a 75- watt

6-41 Chapter 6
 Fig. 67 — The completed quarter-kilowatt
Fig. 66 — Spectral photographs of the output from the 140-watt amplifier. The display at the left
amplifier.
was taken with the amplifier operating on the 80-meter band. At the right is a close look at the
IMD products generated by the amplifier. Third-order products are down some 32 to 34 dB below
PEP.

J2
Kic OUTPUT
108
• 1W 2
J1
INPUT
3.5 - 29 MHz
001
3kV TUNE

1095 RFC 5
2.5 re/

6606

0.01

50W
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
4.76 4.7M 4.7M 56M VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (.1.1F 1; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS 1AF OR y.pF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
Ml

k • I000, M• 1000000

ID:PHASING
390k 01

600V
PRI SE

TI
390k 01 330/-1F 3911
390k ' CH
450V

390k 01 3900
k
330MF+ 39k
2 V/
ON

390 1
/

34 J3
117 VAC RELAY
PR. CONTROL
5V 09
V1 32 4700 470/L1F
25V NIA
RFC3
6.3v 61(06 61(06
12 12

0S1

Fig. 68 — Schematic diagram of the 1/4- kilowatt amplifier. Resistors are the 1/2- watt composition type unless otherwise specified. Fixed-value
capacitors are disc ceramic unless otherwise noted. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic. RFC1 — 20 turns no. 24 enam. wire on an
L1 — 16 turns of no. 14 wire 2-in, dia spaced 8 Amidon FT- 82-72 core.
B1 — 117-V ac blower.
turns per inch. The entire coil is used for RFC2. RFC5 — Rf choke, 2.5 mH, 500 mA.
Cl — Variable capacitor, 340 pF maximum,
80-meter operation and is tapped for the RFC3, RFC4 — 15 turns no. 14 enam wire on an
(Millen 19335 or equiv )
other bands as follows: 7 turns for 40 Amidon FT- 82.72 core
C? — Vqrible capacitor, 1095 pF maxirnum
meters; 10 turns for 30 meters; 13 turns for Si — Spst toggle switch, 4A.
(surplus 3- section 365-pF variable).
20 meters; 14 turns for 15 meters; 15 turns S2— Dpdt toggle switch, low current type.
D1 - 1)8, incl.— Silicon diodes. 1000 Volt. 2A.
for 10 meters. Turns are measured from C2 S3 — Spst toggle switch, low current type.
09— Silicon diode, 50 V. 1A
end of coil. S4— Single- pole. 5- position ceramic rotary
D10— Pilot lamp assembly. 12 V
M1 — Panel meter 0-50 uA, Calectro D1-910 switch, single- wafer type.
D11 — Zener diode, 11 V, 50 W.
or equiv. Ti — Television transformer ( see text).
J1. J2 — Coaxial connector. SO- 239.
R1 -- Meter shunt, 10 feet (3.048 m) no. 24 11, 12 — 5turns no. 18 enarn, wire on a47-ohm.
J3 — COnneCtor, pnono type.
enaiti. wife wuund un a laiye UIIIIIiC, value 1- watt resistor.
K1 — Dpdt relay, 12-V field, 2-A contacts.
2-watt composition resistor.
HF Transmitting 6-42
 1 1111111.1 4,,..., winding is connected in series with the 6.3-
volt winding; the total ( 11.3 volts) is rec-
tified, filtered, and used to power the
relay.
A 0-50 1.4A meter is used to measure the
plate voltage and current. The meter reads
0-1000 in the plate-volts position and
0-500 mA in the plate-current position. A
air îà.
0.26-ohm shunt is placed in the high-
voltage lead to facilitate metering of the
plate current. One should be careful if
working near the meter with the power
Fig. 69 — An inside view of the amplifier. Cl is on, as full plate potential will be present
located at the lower right. C2 is mounted between each of the meter leads and
below the chassis and is connected to Li Fig. 70 — Underside of the amplifier. Compo-
ground. Caution: Turn off and unplug the nent layout is not particularly critical.
using a feedthrough insulator.
amplifier before making any changes or
adjustments.

Construction
envelopes to keep them cool during
Perhaps the best way to classify this
operation.
amplifier would be to call it a "junker
transmitter is used to drive the amplifier, type" amplifier. Every attempt was made
Setup and Operation
the transmitter output should be reduced to keep the amplifier as simple and easy to
to alevel just sufficient to drive the ampli- build as possible. The only critical values Attach the transmitter output to the
fier to its full-power input. This can usual- are those for the amplifier plate-tank amplifier input connection. Then, join the
ly be accomplished by lowering the drive circuitry. Reasonable parts substitutions output of the amplifier to a 50-ohm
to the transmitter output stage and elsewhere in the circuit should have little noninductive dummy load. Connect the
reloading. or no effect on the performance of the relay control line to the transmitter or
amplifier. For example, if 330-u F filter external antenna-relay contacts. Then
The Circuit plug in the line cord and turn the power
capacitors are not available, 250- or
The main ingredient in this amplifier is 300-14F units could be substituted. They switch to the ON position. With the meter
apair of 6K D6 television-sweep tubes (see should be rated at 450 volts or greater to switch in the PLATE VOLTS position,
Fig,. 68. Although the tubes are rated at 33 provide a margin of safety. If a0.001-/.4F the reading on the meter should be
watts of plate dissipation, they can plate-blocking capacitor is not on hand approximately 425, which corresponds to
handle temporary overloads of at least and a 0.005-uF unit is, use it. Builders 850 volts. If the power transformer used
100 watts without sustaining permanent often attempt to match parts exactly to has a high-voltage secondary other than
damage. These tubes were chosen over the type specified in aschematic or parts 600 volts, the reading will vary according-
811s or 572Bs because they can often be list. A few projects are this critical in ly. If no plate voltage is indicated by the
"liberated" from old television sets or can nature, but the majority, including this meter, check your wiring for possible er-
be purchased new from most TV service one, are not. rors or defective components. Next, place
shops. The transformer used in this amplifier meter in the PLATE CURRENT posi-
Dll, an 11-volt Zener diode, provides was garnered from an old TV set. Any tion, the band switch to the 80- meter
cathode bias for the tubes and establishes hefty transformer with a high-voltage band, and apply asmall amount of drive
the operation as Class B. That class of secondary between 550 and 700 volts to the amplifier — enough to make the
amplifier requires less driving power than should be adequate. Most of these meter read 50 mA ( 5on the meter scale).
does a Class C stage for the same power transformers will have multiple low- With the plate-tank loading control fully
output. It is easier to reduce the output voltage secondaries suitable for the tube meshed, quickly adjust the plate tuning
from a transmitter that has more than filaments and relay requirements. capacitor for adip in plate current. Apply
enough power to drive the amplifier than The chassis used to house the amplifier more drive (enough to make the meter
it is to boost the output from atransmitter happened to be on hand and measured 3X read 100 mA), advance the loading con-
that provides insufficient drive. Class B 10 X 14 inches (76 X 254 X 356 mm). No trol approximately one-eighth turn and
operation was chosen for that reason. doubt the amplifier could be constructed readjust the plate tuning control for adip
The power supply uses an old TV-set on a smaller chassis. The beginner is in the plate current. Continue this proce-
transformer that has three secondaries: cautioned not to attempt to squeeze too dure until the plate-current maximum dip
600, 6.3 and 5.0 volts. The 600-volt much in too small a space. is approximately 300 mA. The final value
winding supplies the full-wave bridge rec- The front, rear, side and top panels are of plate current at which the amplifier
tifier with ac energy. Dc output from the constructed from sheet aluminum and should be run depends on what the plate
rectifier assembly is filtered by means of help to keep the amplifier " rf tight." Any voltage is under load. In our case this
three 330-µF capacitors. The 47-kfi resis- air-flow openings are " screened" with value was 800 volts. Therefore, the amount
tors across each of the capacitors equalize perforated aluminum stock. The front- of current corresponding to 250 watts in-
the voltages across the capacitors and panel meter opening is shielded by means put is approximately 310 mA. ( I = P/E, I
drain the charge when the power supply of an aluminum enclosure (a small = 250/800, 1 = 312.5 mA.) The same tune-up
is turned off. Equalizing resistors are used Minibox would serve quite nicely). The procedure should be followed for each of
across each of the diodes to ensure that on-off power switch, pilot light, meter the other bands. The amplifier efficiency
the reverse voltage will divide equally be- switch, band switch, tuning and loading on 80 through 20 meters is approximately
tween the two diodes in each leg. The controls, and amplifier in-out switch are 65 percent, dropping to 60 percent on 15
capacitors across each diode offer spike all located on the front panel. On the rear meters. On 10 meters, efficiency is slightly
protection. Each 6KD6 draws 2.85 am- panel are the amplifier input and output less than 50 percent. Poor efficiency on
peres of filament current. Both filaments connections, relay control jack and the the higher bands is caused primarily by
are connected in parallel across the 6.3- fuse holder. As can be seen from the the high-output capacitance characteris-
volt transformer winding. The 5-volt photograph, afan is located near the tube tics of sweep tubes.

6-43 Chapter 6
AN ECONOMY 2- kW AMPLIFIER SK-406 chimneys. A blower, which is (51 mm) in diameter and is flexible, through
mounted external to the amplifier chassis, the pressurized chassis and out the air
The amplifier described here was built
forces air through a length of automobile system sockets and chimneys. By mount-
with mostly junk- box components. A pair
defroster hose, approximately 2 inches ing the blower away from the amplifier,
of 4-400A tubes are run in grounded- grid
fashion and can de‘elop 2- kW PEP input
when driven from a 100- watt exciter. Ap-
proximately 40 watts of drive is required
for I-kW operation and 100 watts for
2- kW operation. The amplifier makes use
of Eimac SK-410 air-system sockets and J2
ANT

o
RIB

J1
INPUT

RFC 3

RIA 2 5 (. H
001

500
Fe C3

2, 4

RFC 1 RFC 2

3400V

Fig. 71 — This is a photograph of the front

I7/ T /
CO
1000

sok 8.2V/50W -3400 V

panel of the 4-400A amplifier. The amplifier is
now
2
relatively compact, measuring 10 x 14 x 10
47
inches (254 x 356 x 254 mm). The PEP input
for this amplifier is 2 kW. RI
0 33

254
1 00 0V
28 •
FUSE
AMP
S4
0.21 J3 CONTROL
OUT
o

HIGH /
VOLTAGE SUPPLY
CONTROL LINE

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS Ile I;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR J...pF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
k • I000, M• 1000 000,

Fig. 72 — A top view of the amplifier. The

transmit/receive relay can be seen between
the filament transformer and one of the Fig. 74 — Schematic diagram of the amplifier. A pair of 4-400A tetrodes is used.
4-400A tubes.
C1. C4 — Transmitting ceramic, 1000 pF. or equiv.
C2 — Variable. 150 pF. 4500 V. Johnson 154-15 R1 — Grid meter shunt, 0.33 ohms. Wind 2 Wilt
Or equiv. (610 mm) no. 32 wire on a large value 1- or
C3 — Variable, 1095 pF. receiving type. 3 sec- 2- watt resistor.
tion. 365 pF per section used here. R2 — Plate- meter shunt. 00733 ohms. Wind 1
J1. J2 — Coaxial connector, builder's choice. foot, 1 inch ( 330 mm) no. 32 wire on a large
J3 — Phono connector. value 1- or 2- watt resistor.
K1 — Relay. dpdt. 12- volt field RFC1 — Filament choke, 20 bifilar turns on no.
K2 — Relay. spdt. 12-volt field. 12 enameled or plastic covered wire on a
L1 — Copper tubing. 3/16- inch (4.7 mm) 950 mu, 7 x 1/2 inch ( 178 x 13 mm) ferrite
diameter. 6-1/2 turns at 2- inch ( 51 mm) dia- rod.
meter tapering into 6 turns at 3- inch ( 76 mm) RFC2 — Plate choke, B&W 800 or equiv.
diameter. Tap at 5-1/4 turns for 10 meters, RFC3 — Choke, 2.5 mH. 300 mA.
6-1/4 turns for 15 meters, 9-1/4 turns for 20 Si — Band switch, 5 position. Millen 51001 çir
meters. ( 10 meters, 2.3 pH; 15 meters 3.2 ml-l; equiv.
20 meters. 4.9 ,( 1-1. Note: stray inductances S2 — Toggle switch, spdt.
must be subtracted from these figures.) S3. S4 — Toggle switch, spst.
L2 — 14-1/2 turns no. 12 wire, 6 turns Ti — Filament transformer, 5 volts, 30
per inch. B&W 3033 or equivalent. Tap amperes, 117- volt primary. Stancor P6492 or
at 4-3/4 turns from L1 end for 40 equiv.
meters. Use entire coil for 80 meters. T2 — Transformer, 12.6 volts, 300 mA.
Fig. 73 — Photograph of the underside of the (40 meters. 9.6 pH; 80 meters, Z1. Z2 — Parasitic suppressor, 2 turns 5/16
chassis Component placement is not critical 175 pH Note: stray inductances inch (8 mm) wide copper strap wound around
The builder should plan a layout that suits his muot be oubtractcd from them figureo.) three 100 ohm, 2watt resistors in parellel
or her components. M1 — 0-150 mA panel meter. Simpson 06400

HF Transmitting 11444
 for each band are given in Fig. 74 so that structed from adiscarded rack panel and
the builder may adapt junk-box coils for measures 10 x 14 inches (254 x 356 mm)
the tank circuitry. making the overall dimensions of the
KIis a plug-in type of relay with con- amplifier 14 x 10 x 10 inches ( 356 x 254
tacts that are rated for 10 amperes of cur- X 254 mm).
rent. This relay plugs into an octal socket Layout of the components is not
that is located between the filament trans- especially critical, however the builder
former and one of the 4-400A tubes. K2 is should strive to keep the tank-circuitry
asmall spdt relay that was garnered from leads as short as possible to avoid stray
the junk box and is of unknown origin. capacitances and inductances. The general
Fig. 75 — Front view of the modified SB-200 Any similar relay should work fine. layout of this amplifier can be seen in the
linear amplifier. A small false panel covers the
accompanying photographs.
original panel holes and adds a contrasting Construction
green color to the white front panel. Green
A flange made from Plexiglass tubing
Dymo tape labels identify the control The amplifier was built on a 10 x 14 X and flat 1/4- inch Plexiglass stock is used
functions. 3-inch (254 x 356 x 76- mm) aluminum to connect to the defroster hose. Part of
chassis. A heavy duty front panel was con- this flange is visible in the photograph of

and therefore the operating position, this

source of noise can be greatly reduced, if
not eliminated.

The Circuit
The schematic diagram of the amplifier 2000 V

is shown in Fig. 74. Relay KIis used to

switch " around" the amplifier during
receive periods or when it is desired to 100
bypass the amplifier. S4 allows the operator CI T C3
400

to switch around the amplifier while leav- C2 -

TLe PLATE L2

,),
TUNING
5PN
ing it in a standby condition, ready for
operation. Filament voltage is fed through
a heavy duty bifilar-wound choke that
To ALc O
uses a950- mu ferrite rod 1/2 inch ( 13 mm) -r-
W 1w 40
in diameter and 7inches ( 178 mm) long of S1

material. Power is fed directly into the fila- V2

5;28 5728
ment without the aid of an input matching 1160
L4

network. The input VSWR is such that C4 T 10 .

0,0

240
most transmitters should have no difficul-
ty in driving the amplifier.
The 8.2-volt Zener diode develops bias
and allows the tubes to run in Class AB. T- R

The 50-k9/10 watt resistor in conjunction 33à RFC 2

RF
RELAY
OUTPUT
C7 C6 C5
with K2 cuts the amplifier off during 213 p.

900 500 150

receive or standby periods. A single 0-150 002 =11./ I"

mA panel meter is used to monitor either /

-7-7 /- 7- 7
63V
plate or grid current — selectable with a GRID LOADING
CURRENT
15
front-panel switch, S2. For plate-current METER CPT
05w

measurements the meter reads 0-1.5 T- R RELAY

Lo If• SILVER MICA

amperes ( utilizing meter shunt R2) and RF INPUT 27 k

I1A1

reads 0-450 mA for grid- current -120

measurements (using meter shunt R1). DI 154003

T- P
A small power supply capable of RELAY
REVINS
RELAY 02 154003

operating K1 and K2 is included in the

amplifier. An amplifier control jack located loo

on the rear apron of the amplifier is 01

grounded for amplifier operation. 253439

T
The pi network consists of two coils — 0001

one wound from 3/16- inch (4.7 mm) cop- /-7-7 )

per tubing and one wound from large Mini-
ductor stock. The coil made from copper
tubing is wound in two different diameters.
Fig. 76 — Circuit diagram of the SB-200 amplifier modified for 160-, 80- and 40-meter operation.
It starts out from the 4-400A plates at the
Consult the Heath manual for additional details. See text for parts not described in the parts
smaller diameter (for 10 arid 15 meters) and list.
progresses to the larger diameter ( for 20 C1, C2, C4, C5, C6, C7 — TV " doorknob" or rod (Amidon R61-050-750), 0.5- in, dia x
metersrall with one continuous piece of ceramic transmitting capacitor. 7.5- in. long ( see text).
D1, D2 — Silicon diode, 1A, 200 Ply. RFC3 — Plate choke, approx. 1 mH, 600 mA
tubinge* portion of the copper tubing is
L1 — 18 turns no. 24 enam. on T37-2 (see text).
used on 40 meters along with a length of powdered- iron toroidal core. Si — Single- pole, 3- position ceramic-wafer
Miniductor stock. The builder may wish to L2, L3 — 10 turns no. 14, 8 tpi, 2- in. dia., air- rotary switch.
end the copper tubing coil at the 20- meter core solenoid. Ti — 17 turns no. 24 enam. bifilar on
L4 — 29 turns no. 14 enam. on 1200-2 FT114-61 ferrite toroidal core.
tap position and continue on from that
powdered- iron toroidal core. Z1, Z2 — 4 turns no. 20 tinned copper wire
point with the Miniductor stock for 40 and Q1 — Npn silicon transistor, 200 V, 200 mA. wound on 91-0, 2-W carbon composition
80 meters. The inductance values required RFC1 — 33 turns no. 18 ac line cord on ferrite resistor.
6-45 Chapter 6
the underneath of the chassis. An alter- permeability of 125. No. 18 wire was used
native to building your own flange would to allow enough turns to achieve the induc-
be to purchase one from asupplier of cen- tance. However, the voltage at the filament
tral vacuum cleaning systems. Of course, pins is down to 6.1 from anominal 6.3 at
there is no reason the builder couldn't normal line input. Performance is adequate
mount the blower directly on the rear (600-700 watts output for 100 watts drive),
panel of the amplifier. but cathode emission may suffer at low line
A perforated aluminum cover ( not voltage, especially with older tubes. This
shown in these photographs) is used to compromise can be avoided by using no.
enclose the top of the amplifier. Good 16 wire and acore having apermeability
contact between this cover and the mating of 800 (Amidon R33-050-750).
surfaces is important for effective The T-R control circuitry has been ex-
shielding. Make sure to remove any paint tensively altered. The bias and antenna
to ensure agood metal-to-metal contact. relay functions have been separated to
allow electronic bias switching and relay
Operation "speed up" techniques for break-in cw.
This amplifier is designed to operate at These two jacks may be paralleled and ac-
the 1-kW level for cw operation and at the tuated by a common ground in normal
2- kW PEP level for ssb. This amplifier operation.
was optimized for the 1500-watt level, A loaded output circuit Q of 10-12 is
thereby providing reasonable efficiency at maintained on all three bands for acom- Fig. 77 — Rear view of the low-band amplifier,
both the 1and 2 kW levels without the promise between efficiency and spectral showing the location of the new input circuit
need for switching the power-supply purity. The latter consideration is impor- components.
voltage. With 3400 volts on the plate, the tant in kilowatt amplifiers that employ a
1kW plate current should be 294 mA and simple pi-network output circuit instead of
the grid current should be roughly 100 something more elaborate. This unit com-
mA. At 2kW the plate current will be 588 plies with FCC regulations regarding spec-
mA and the grid current approximately tral purity. The original plate choke had in-
200 mA. Idling plate current will run ap- sufficient inductance for 160 meters and
proximately 120 mA. Efficiency on all was replaced by a National R-175. This
bands should be roughly 60 percent. component is no longer available, but a
satisfactory unit may be fashioned from the
information in Chapter 17. An inductive
A KILOWATT AMPLIFIER FOR reactance of about 20 kit at 1.8 MHz is re-
160, 80 AND 40 METERS quired with no impedance dips below 10
This project is arefinement of the Heath MHz. Finally, the bypass capacitors at the
SB-200 modification that was described by cold end of the plate choke should be in-
DeMaw in September 1979 QST. "Top creased In value. Refer to the SB-200
band" power restrictions have been lifted manual for circuit information not covered
in many areas, and interest in low-band here.
DXing traditionally increases during the
Retrofitting
declining portion of the solar cycle. Hence
the revival and update of this popular Fig. 77 shows the arrangement of the
amplifier. Although an SB-200/201 chassis new input circuit. The individual SB-200
is aconvenient starting point for this ampli- matching inductors are removed and
fier, one can begin from scratch if desired. discarded. The new filament choke is
spaced from the rear wall of the plate com-
Circuit Changes partment by large tightly fitting grommets
Fig. 76 is the amplifier schematic and secured with locking nylon cable ties
diagram. The standard grounded-grid con- through the compartment wall. T1is an-
figuration is retained, but many of the com- chored by aterminal strip and anylon cable
ponents have been changed to allow clamp.
160-meter operation. Relocation of the Plate compartment alterations are fir

plate tuning capacitor (to the position depicted in Fig. 78. The 40- and 80-meter
Fig. 78 — Plate compartment of the low-band
formerly occupied by the band switch) tank coils are perpendicular to reduce their
amplifier. The small coil inside L3 was used in
forced the use of a single-wafer band mutual inductance. If they were tightly an experiment and is not part of this project.
switch. This change necessitated abroad- coupled, the shorted turns of the 80-meter
band input circuit, consisting of abifilar coil would degrade the unloaded Q of the
toroidal transformer and the L1-C8-C9 40-meter tank, reducing the efficiency. The
reactance-compensating network. The in- 40-meter coil (horizontal axis) is suspend-
put VSWR is less than 1.5:1 with 100 watts ed from aceramic pillar, the plate tuning
of drive over the three bands. capacitor and the top of the 80-meter coil. by the insulating runners. A toroidal induc-
A new filament choke is fabricated from This stiff 3-point mounting prevents ex- tor for 160 meters is mounted on the chassis
ac zip cord wound on aferrite rod. Suffi- cessive movement. beneath the plate compartment. It es neat-
cient inductance (51 µH) was obtained with The 80-meter coil is mounted vertically to ly around one of the fixed loading
33 turns of no. 18 cord on arod having a the band switch and is held off the chassis capacitors.

HF Transmitting 6-46
Chapter 7

VHF and UHF Transmitting

he frequencies above 50 MHz were

once a world apart from the rest of
stage. While relatively simple to construct,
such transmitters can be acause of much
power levels involved, there is no reason
to consider transmitting mixeis differently
amateur radio, in equipment required, in grief unless the builder takes precautions than their receiving counterparts. One
modes of operation and in results to prevent undesired multiples of the thing to keep in mind is that many
obtained. Today these worlds blend oscillator and the multiplier stages from deficiencies in the transmit mixer will
increasingly. Thus, if the reader does not being radiated. For frequencies below 450 show up on the air. Receiver-mixer
find what he needs in these pages to solve MHz the transmitting mixer is not troubles are your problem. Transmit-
a transmitter problem, it will be covered difficult to construct and is recommended mixer troubles become everyone's prob-
in the hf transmitting chapter. This for most applications. Spurious-signal lem!
chapter, deals mainly with aspects of radiation is much easier to prevent with A trio of popular types of transmitting
transmitter design and operation that call the latter, although it does not lend itself mixers is shown in Fig. 2. The doubly
for different techniques in equipment for to compact fm equipment design. For balanced diode mixer at A may be built
50 MHz and up. operation on the higher amateur uhf using either discrete components, or the
bands, the oscillator-multiplier approach phase relationship between ports may be
SSB/CW vs. FM offers definite advantages and is recom- established using etched-circuit strip lines.
Whenever vhf operators gather, the mended at present. Fig. 1shows how the Miniature DBMs are available at low cost
subject of fm vs. ssb and cw is bound to harmonics of a 144- MHz signal may be from several manufacturers. They offer an
come up. Because of their mode differences, multiplied to permit operation on ama- almost-foolproof method of generating
the two types of operation are segre- teur microwave bands. Stability at 144 vhf ssb. Another popular mixer uses apair
gated on the lower four amateur vhf bands. MHz is easy to achieve with the current of FETs in asingly balanced configuration.
Actually, both forms of communications technology, making stable microwave If care is taken in construction and adjust-
have their advantages and disadvantages. signals simple to generate. Varactor ment, local-oscillator rejection will be ade-
They are better discussed subjectively diodes are used as frequency-multiplying quate with this circuit. To be safe, aseries-
among operators. Here we are only in- devices. They are installed in resonant tuned trap, designed to attenuate the LO
terested in- the different requirements each cavities constructed from double-sided leakage even further, should follow this
mode places upon the transmitting equip- pc-board material. Operation will proba- stage. A typical FET balanced mixer is
ment used. In general, equipment used for bly be crystal controlled, as even the best shown in Fig. 2B.
fm is of the oscillator-multiplier type. transceiver/transverter combination used Finally, we see a typical vacuum-tube
Because ssb cannot be passed satisfactori- to generate the 144-MHz signal may create mixer ( Fig. 2C). Because it can handle
ly through afrequency-multiplication stage, problems when the output is multiplied in more power, the tube mixer has endured
generation of vhf ssb signals requires the frequency 40 times! A frequency synthe- at vhf. Its higher output, when compared
use of one or more mixer stages. Vhf cw sizer with astable reference oscillator may to most solid-state mixers, reduces the
may be generated by either method. Re- be used to generate the 144- MHz signal, number of subsequent amplifier stages
cently, manufacturers of synthesized as but its output should be well filtered to
well as crystal-controlled amateur fm eliminate noise.
transceivers have been using a combina- Although spurious outputs of the
tion of both approaches. The multimode various multiplier stages may not cause X9 . 1296 MHz

vhf transceiver, which offers the operator harmful interference, that is no excuse for X16 • 2304 MHz
achoice of cw, ssb, fm and often a-m, is a not removing them. In most cases, the Q
144 MHz X24. 3456 MHz
reality. Here again we find both approach- of successive cavities will suffice. A
es to signal generation. band-pass filter may be used to filter the X40.5760 MHz
final multiplier stage. Construction details
The Oscillator-Multiplier Approach X72•10,368 MHz
of a 432-to- 1296 MHz frequency multi-
This type of transmitter, which may be plier using switching diodes are presented
used for fm or cw, generally starts with a later in this chapter. Fig. 1 — The harmonic relationships of most
crystal oscillator operating in the hf range, microwave bands to the 2- meter band are

followed by one or more frequency- Transmitting Mixers diagrammed here. The 15- mm ( 24 GHz) band
bears no easily utilized integral relationship to
multiplier stages and at least one amplifier With the possible exception of the 144 MHz,

7-1 Chapter 7
Apart from feeling more comfortable with
tubes, this ià the only advantage available F RF
from using them as mixers, at least (LOW -LEVEL ) ( LOW -LEVEL )

on the lower vhf bands.

LO
High-Level Transmitting Mixers (LOW -LEVEL )

When designing atransmitting conver- (A)

ter for vhf, the tradeoffs between the ad-

vantages of mixing at a low power level, VDD

such as in a diode-ring mixer, and using

several stages of linear amplification must
be weighed against the cost of amplifying
RFC
devices. Linear uhf transistors are still
relatively expensive. On 432 MHz and
above, it may be desirable to mix the i - f
and local-oscillator signals at afairly high
level. This method makes it unnecessary RF
to use costly linear devices to reach the (LOW -LEVEL )

same power level. High-level mixing

results in aslightly more distorted signal
than it is usually possible to obtain with
I-F
conventional methods, so it should be (
LOW -LEVEL )
used only when essential. Fig. 3gives the
schematic diagram of atypical 432- MHz
high-level mixer. VI is the final amplifier O
BALANCE LO
tube of aretired commercial 450- MHz fm (
LOW -LEVEL )

transmitter. The oscillator and multiplier (B)

stages now produce local-oscillator injec-
tion voltage, which is applied to the grid BIAS

as before. The major change is in the cath-

ode circuit. Instead of being directly at
ground, aparallel LC circuit is inserted and
RF
tuned to the i -f. In this case a 10- meter i
-f HIGH -LEVEL )
(
was chosen. With the exception of 144
MHz any amateur band could serve as the
i-f. Two meters is unsuitable because the
third harmonic of the i -fwould appear at
the output, where it would combine with 8+

the desired signal. In fact, some additional

output filtering is needed with this circuit.
(C)
The original crystal in the transmitter
is replaced with one yielding an output
at the desired local-oscillator fre- Fig. 2 — Atrio of commonly used vhf transmitting mixers. At A, perhaps the simplest, acommercially available
quency, then the intermediate stages are diode doubly balanced mixer. Rf output is low, requiring the use of several stages of amplification to reach a
retuned. useful level. At B, asingly balanced mixer using FETs. Adjustment of this circuit is somewhat critical to prevent
One disadvantage of the high-level the local-oscillator signal from leaking through. A mixer of this type can supply slightly more output than a
diode mixer. ( 3dBm, as opposed to 1dBm for the mixer shown at A). At C, ahigh-level mixer using avacuum-
mixer is the relatively large amount of
tube triode is shown. VI in this case might be a2C39 or 7289. With the correct circuit constants this mixer
local-oscillator injection required. In most could provide an ssb output of 15 watts on 1296 MHz. Power input would be about 100 watts! In addition, 10
cases it is simpler to mix at alower level watts of LO and 5watts of i -fdrive would be needed. Despite these requirements, such acircuit provides a -
and use linear amplifiers than to construct relatively low-cost means of generating high-level microwave ssb. Spurious outputs at the LO and image -.
the local-oscillator chain. On the higher frequencies will be quite strong. To attenuate them astrip- line or cavity filter should be used at the mixer
output.
bands, it may be feasible to generate
local- oscillator energy at a lower fre-
quency and use a passive varactor mixer
to reach the injection frequency. Here
again, the previous caveats pertaining to gear. This equipment provides accurate the hf trend is to one-package stations,
diode- multiplier spurious outputs pertain. frequency calibration and good mechani- transceivers. The obvious move for many
If the local-oscillator injection is impure, cal and electrical stability. It is effective in vhf operators is a companion box to
the mixer output will be also. Considerable cw as well as ssb communication: These perform both transmitting and receiving
theory concerning mixers is found in qualities being attractive to the vhf conversion functions. Known as transver-
chapters 4and 8of this publication and in operator, it is natural for him to look for ters, these are offered by several manu-
Solid State Design for the Radio Amateur, ways to use his hf gear on frequencies facturers. They are also relatively simple
an ARRL publication. above 50 MHz. to build, and are thus attractive projects
Increasing use is currently being made for the homebuilder of vhf gear.
Designing for SSB and CW of vhf accessory devices, both ready made
The almost universal use of ssb for and homebuilt. This started years ago
voice work in the hf range has had amajor with the vhf converter, for receiving. Transverter vs. Separate Units
impact on equipment design for the vhf Rather similar conversion equipment for It does not necessarily follow that what
and even uhf bands. Many amateurs have transmitting has been widely used since is popular in hf work is ideal for vhf use.
aconsiderable investment in hf sideband ssb began taking over the hf bands. Today Our bands are wide, and piling- up in a

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-2

 220 MHz. At 420 MHz and higher,
coaxial tank circuits are effective. Resonant
cavities are used in some applications
above 1000 MHz. Examples of all types of
circuits are seen later in this chapter. Coil
and capacitor circuits are common in 50-
MHz amplifiers, and in low-powered, mo-
bile and portable equipment for 144 and
even 220 MHz.

Stabilization
Most vhf amplifiers, other than the
grounded-grid variety, require neutrali-
zation if they are to be satisfactorily sta-
ble. This is particularly true of AB1 ampli-
fiers, which are characterized by very
high power sensitivity. Conventional neu-
tralization is discussed in chapter 6. An
example is shown in Fig. 4A.
A tetrode tube has some frequency
where it is inherently neutralized. This is
likely to be in the lower part of the vhf
region for tubes designed for hf service.
Neutralization of the opposite sense may
be required in such amplifiers, as in the
example shown in Fig. 4B.
Conventional screen bypassing methods
may be ineffective in the vhf range. Series-
tuning the screen to ground, as in 4C, may
Fig. 3— Partial schematic diagram of a70-cm ( 432- MHz) mixer, built from aconverted fm transmitter. The be useful in this situation. A critical com-
original oscillator- multiplier-driver stages of the unit now provide LO injection. A strip- line filter should bination of fixed capacitance and lead
be used at the output of the mixer to prevent radiation of spurious products.
length may accomplish the same result.
Neutralization of transistorized amplifiers
is not generally practical, at least where
narrow segment of a band, which the efficiency of the AB1 linear amplifier is bipolar transistors are used.
transceiver encourages, is less than ideal low in a-m service, this type of operation Parasitic oscillation can occur in vhf
use of a major asset of the vhf bands — makes switching modes a very simple amplifiers, and, as with hf circuits, the
spectrum space. Separate ssb exciters and matter. Moving toward the high efficiency oscillation is usually at a frequency
receivers, with separate vhf conversion of Class C from AB1 for cw or fm service considerably higher than the operating
units for transmitting and receiving, tend is accomplished by merely raising the frequency, and it cannot be neutralized
to suit our purposes better than the drive from the low AB1 level. In AB1 out. Usually it is damped out by methods
transceiver-transverter combination, at service the efficiency is typically 30 to 35 illustrated in Fig. 5. Circuits A and B are
least in home-station service. percent. No grid current is ever drawn. As commonly used in 6-meter transmitters.
the grid drive is increased, and grid Circuit A may absorb sufficient fundamen-
Amplifier Design and Operation current starts to flow, the efficiency rises tal energy to burn up in all but low-power
All amplifiers in vhf transmitters once rapidly. In a well-designed amplifier it transmitters. A better approach is to use
ran Class C, or as near thereto as available may reach 60 percent, with only a small the selective circuit illustrated at B. The
drive levels would permit. This was amount of grid current flowing. Unless circuit is coupled to the plate tank circuit
mainly for high-efficiency cw and quality the drive is run well into the Class C and tuned to the parasitic frequency. Since a
high-level amplitude modulation. Class C region, the operating conditions in the minimum amount of the fundamental
is now used mostly for cw or fm, and in amplifier can be left unchanged, other energy will be absorbed by the trap, heat-
either of these modes the drive level is than the small increasing of the drive, to ing should no longer be a problem.
completely uncritical, except as it affects improve the efficiency available for cw or At 144 MHz and higher, it is difficult to
the operating efficiency. The influence of fm. No switching or major adjustments of construct aparasitic choke that will not be
ssb techniques is seen clearly in current any kind are required for near-optimum resonant at or near the operating fre-
amplifier trends. Today Class AB1 is operation on ssb, a-m, fm or cw, if the quency. Should uhf parasitics occur, an
popular and most amplifiers are set up for amplifier is designed primarily for ABI effective cure can often be realized by
linear amplification, for ssb and — to a service. If high-level a-m were to be used, shunting a56-ohm, 2-watt resistor across
lesser extent — a-m. The latter is often there would have to be major operating- a small section of the plate end of the
used in connection with small amplitude- conditions changes, and very much higher tuned circuit as shown in Fig. 5C. The
modulated vhf transmitters, having their available driving power. resistor should be attached as near the
own built-in audio equipment. Where a-m plate connector as practical. Such a trap
output is available from the ssb exciter, it Tank-Circuit Design can often be constructed by bridging the
is also useful with the Class AB1 linear Except in compact low-powered trans- resistor across a portion of the flexible
amplifier, for only awatt or two of driver mitters, conventional coil-and-capacitor strap-connector that is used in some
output is required. circuitry is seldom used in transmitter transmitters to join the anode fitting to
There is no essential circuit difference amplifiers for 144 MHz and higher the plate-tank inductor.
between the AB1 linear amplifier and the frequencies. U-shaped loops of sheet Instability in solid-state vhf and uhf
Class C amplifier; only the operating metal or copper tubing, or even copper- amplifiers can often be traced to oscilla-
conditions are changed for different laminated circuit board, generally give tions in the If and hf regions. Because the
classes of service. Though the plate higher Q and circuit efficiency at 144 and gain of the transistors is very high at the

7-3 Chapter 7
 Capacitive reactance of C is chosen to be
very low at the parasitic frequency. R then
appears as aswamping resistor, damping
the oscillation.

VHF TVI Causes and Cures

The principal causes of TVI from vhf
transmitters are:
I) Adjacent-channel interference in
channels 2and 3 from 50 MHz.
2) Fourth harmonic of 50 MHz in
channels 11, 12 or 13, depending on the
operating frequency.
3) Radiation of unused harmonics of
the oscillator or multiplier stages. Examples
are 9th harmonic of 6MHz, and 7th har-
monic of 8 MHz in channel 2; 10th har-
monic of 8MHz in channel 6; 7th harmonic
of 25- MHz stages in channel 7; 4th har-
monic of 48- MHz stages in channel 9or
10; and many other combinations. This
may include i -
fpickup, as in the cases of
24- MHz interference in receivers having
21- MHz i -fsystems, and 48- MHz trouble
in 45- MHz i-fs.
4) Fundamental blocking effects, in-
cluding modulation bars, usually found
only in the lower channels, from 50- MHz
equipment.
5) Image interference in channel 2from
144 MHz, in receivers having a45- MHz
i-f.
6) Sound interference (picture clear in
some cases) resulting from rf pickup by
the audio circuits of the TV receiver.
There are other possibilities, but nearly
all can be corrected completely, and the
rest can be substantially reduced.
Items 1, 4and 5are receiver faults, and
nothing can be done at the transmitter to
reduce them, except to lower the power or
increase separation between the transmit-
ting and TV antenna systems. Item 6 is
also a receiver fault, but it can be
alleviated at the transmitter by using fm
or cw instead of a- m phone.
Treatment of the various harmonic
troubles, Items 2 and 3, follows the
standard methods detailed elsewhere in
this Handbook. The prospective builder of
new vhf equipment should become familiar.
with TVI prevention techniques and in-
corporate them in new construction pro-
Fig. 4 — Representative circuits for neutralizing vhf single-ended amplifiers. The same techniques are
applicable to stages that operate in push-pull. At A. C1is connected in the manner that is common to most vhf
jects.
or uhf amplifiers. The circuits at Band Care required when the tube is operated above its natural self- Use as high a starting frequency as
neutralizing frequency. At B, Cl is connected between the grid and plate of the amplifier. Ordinarily, ashort possible, to reduce the number of har-
length of stiff wire can be soldered to the grid pin of the tube socket, then routed through the chassis and
monics that might cause trouble. Select
placed adjacent to the tube envelope, and parallel to the anode element. Neutralization is effected by varying
the placement of the wire with respect to the anode of the tube, thus providing variable capacitance at Cl. The crystal frequencies which do not have
circuit at C is avariation of the one shown at B. It too is useful when atube is operated above its self- harmonics in local TV channels. Example:
neutralizing frequency. In this instance, Cl provides alow-Z screen-to-ground path at the operating The 10th harmonic of 8- MHz crystals
frequency. RFC in all circuits shown are vhf types and should be selected for the operating frequency of the
used for operation in the low part of the
amplifier.
50- MHz band falls in channel 6, but
6- MHz crystals for the same band have no
lower frequencies, instability is almost part of the circuit. It is not unusual, for harmonic in that channel.
certain to occur unless proper bypassing example, to employ a0.1-µF disc ceramic If TVI is a serious problem, use the
and decoupling of stages is carried out. in parallel with a0.001-µF chip capacitor lowest transmitter power that will do the
Low- frequency oscillation can usually be in such circuits as the emitter, base, or col- job at hand. Keep the power in the
cured by selecting a bypass-capacitor lector return. The actual values used will multiplier and driver stages at the lowest
value that is effective at the frequency of depend upon the frequencies involved. An practical level, and use link coupling in
oscillation and connecting it in parallel additional stabilization method for solid- preference to capacitive coupling. Plan for
with the vhf bypass capacitor in the same state amplifiers is shown in Fig. SF complete shielding and filtPring of the rf

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-4

 sections of the transmitter, should these
Z1 steps become necessary.
AMP 50 MHz
Use coaxial line to feed the antenna
system, and locate the radiating portion of
50 MHz the antenna as far as possible from TV
receivers and their antenna systems.
A complete discussion of the problems
PARASITIC
INPUT
CHOKE 4 )/I
. OUTPUT and cures for interference is in the ARRL
publication, Radio Frequency Interference.

THREE-WATT TRANSMITTING
0.001,uF CONVERTER FOR 6 METERS

(A) I,, The linear transmitting converter

BIAS B+ shown in Figs. 6 through 10 is a simple,
.....--PARASITIC NETWORK low-cost way to extend the coverage of
any 28- MHz transmitter to the 6- meter
band. Output power is 3 watts PEP and
the 28- MHz drive requirement is 1mW.
This drive level is compatible with the
transverter outputs found on many cur-
INPUT
rent hf transceivers. By selecting the ap-
OUTPUT propriate resistor values, the input at-
tenuator can easily be adjusted for drive
levels as high as 100 mW.
Particular care was taken during the
design stage to ensure that spurious emis-
sions are at aminimum. The IMD perfor-
BIAS B+ mance is such that this unit can be used to
AMP drive a high- power linear amplifier
without generating excessive adjacent-
channel interference.

Circuit Description
LO injection is supplied to the mixer by
a crystal oscillator operating at 22 MHz.
The output of the oscillator is filtered to
reduce harmonics to approximately — 40
dBc and is then applied to a power split-
ter, T2. One port of the splitter feeds the
mixer and the other output is connected to
J1. This output can be used to supply LO
to a receive converter for transceive
operation. A 3-dB attenuator between the
splitter and the mixer provides a wide-
band termination for the mixer LO port.
The power delivered to the mixer is + 7
dBm.
A commercial diode- ring module is
used for the mixer. The excellent balance
of this type of mixer reduces the band-
pass filter requirements following the mix-
er. The IMD performance is also very
good; the third- order products are 40- dB
below each tone of the two-tone output
signal when the input signal is at the
recommended level of — 10 dBm ( each
tone). The attenuator at the i -f port
prevents overdriving the mixer. The 20- dB
Fig. 5 — Representative circuits for vhf parasitic suppression are shown et A, B and C. At A, Z1
(for 6-meter operation) would typically consist of 3 or 4 turns of no. 13 wire wound on a 100-ohm pad shown in Fig. 7allows adriving signal
2-watt non- inductive resistor. Z1 overheats in all but very low power circuits. The circuit at B, alsc of 30 to 40 mW ( PEP) to be used. This at-
for 6-meter use, is more practical where heating is concerned. Z2 is tuned to resonance at the tenuator should be adjusted if other drive
parasitic frequency by C. Each winding of Z2 consists of two or more turns of no. 14 wire —
levels are desired.
determined experimentally — wound over the body of a 100-ohm 2-watt (or larger) noninductive
resistor. At C, an illustration of uhf parasitic suppression as applied to a 2- meter amplifier. Non- The mixer is followed by a broadband
inductive 56-ohm 2-watt resistors are bridged across a short length of the connecting lead be- amplifier, 6- dB pad and a 3-pole band-
tween the tube anode and the main element of the tank inductor, thus forming Z3 and Z4. pass filter. The amplifier has a gain of
The circuit at D illustrates how bypassing for both the operating frequency and lower frequen-
nearly 20 dB at 50 MHz and provides a
cies is accomplished. Low-frequency oscillation is discouraged by the addition of the 0.1e disc
ceramic capacitors. RFC1 and RFC2 are part of the decoupling network used to isolate the two good termination for the mixer. Signal
stages. This technique is not required in vacuum-tube circuits. At E, a capacitor with low reac- level at the filter output is about — 10
tance at the parasitic frequency is connected in series with a 1/2-watt carbon resistor. At 144 dBm. Two more stages of class- A ampli-
MHz, C is typically 0.001e. R may be between 470 and 2200 ohms.
fication follow the band-pass filter, bring-

7- 5
ing the signal level up to the + 16 dBm
necessary to drive the power-amplifier
stage.
The power amplifier uses a Motorola
MRF476 transistor operating class AB.
The MRF476, a low-cost device in a
plastic TO-220 package, will deliver a
minimum of 3 watts PEP with good
linearity at 50 MHz. A cw output of up to
4 watts can be obtained from this con-
verter, but the key-down time should be
limited to 60 seconds. This is because of
the relatively small heat sink used in this
unit. The power-amplifier input and out-
put networks are both designed to match
the transistor to 50 ohms. Their design
was based on data supplied in the
Motorola RF Data Manual ( 2nd edition).
The amplifier output is filtered by a7-pole
low-pass filter designed for a cutoff fre-
quency of 56 MHz and aripple factor of
0.17 dB.

Construction
The converter is constructed in two sec-
tions: the low-level section consisting of
the LO, mixer, band-pass filter, and class-
A amplifiers and the power-amplifier/
low-pass filter section. No printed circuit
board is needed for the low-level section;
rather, the components are mounted
directly on a piece of unetched copper-
clad board. The component leads going to
ground support the components above the
board. Among the many advantages to
this style of construction is the ease with
which the circuits can be modified. Also,
if aprinted circuit board is used, the com-
ponents used to lay out the board, such as
variable capacitors, are likely to be the
only types that can be used. This makes it Fig. 6 — Six-meter transmitting converter and 3-W PEP amplifier.
difficult for the builder to use his junk
box.
Note that the LO and its filter are com-
pletely enclosed by a shield made of
double-sided circuit board material. This MRF476 is made from a 3-1/2 x 1-inch of the last class-A amplifier and 12 volts is
was found to be necessary to ensure that (89 X 25-mm) strip of 1/16-inch applied to the oscillator and class-A
22- MHz LO energy does not find its way (1.6-mm) aluminum folded into a U amplifiers. The oscillator is adjusted by
into the amplifier stages. It was expected shape. Use a small amount of heat-sink setting C2 at mid-range and tuning C3 for
that a 1-inch-high shield around the LO compound between the transistor body maximum output as measured with a
would provide sufficient isolation — this and the heat sink. The MRF476, unlike VTVM and rf probe connected to pin 8of
is not the case; acomplete enclosure is re- many rf transistors, has the collector con- the mixer. C2 can then be adjusted to
quired. It is recommended that a shield nected to the mounting tab; thus the heat bring the frequency to exactly 22 MHz. If
enclosure be constructed around the re- sink is hot for both rf and dc. The center a frequency counter with a high- imped-
maining portion of the low-level section. pin of the transistor is also connected to ance input is used, it should be connected
This will prevent feedback from the the collector, but it is not used as connec- to pin 8of the mixer. If the counter has a
power-amplifier board to the class-A tion to the collector is made through the 50-ohm input it can be connected to Ji.
stages. It was not necessary to do this in mounting tab. The unused pin should be The adjustment of C2 and C3 will interact
the prototype shown in the photographs, cut off at the point where it becomes so the procedure should be repeated. J1
but is good practice when the two boards wider (about 1/8 inch from the transistor should always be connected to aload close
are mounted in the same enclosure (such body). The other pins are bent down to to 50 ohms. If a receive converter is not
as an aluminum chassis). make connection to the circuit board at being used, a50-ohm resistor, mounted in
The power-amplifier board is con- this same point. Connection between the aBNC connector, should be connected to
structed on a printed board (Figs. 9 and two boards can be made with a short J1.
10). It is not necessary that the board be length of RG-174!U coaxial cable. The band-pass filter is aligned by apply-
etched. The layout shown can be used as a ing a28.7-MHz cw signal to the input of
guide and the copper clad cut away with a Tune-Up and Operation the converter and adjusting C5, C6 and
sharp Xacto knife. After cutting through The low-level stages are aligned before C7 for maximum output at the output of
the copper with the knife, applying heat connecting the power-amplifier stage. A the last amplifier. Check the frequency
from asoldering iron allows the foil to be 50-ohm resistor is connected through the response of the filter by varying the fre-
lifted off easily. The heat sink for the 0.01-µF blocking capacitor to the output quency of the input signal from 28 to 29

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-6

 LO OUTPUT
+ 10 dElon 28 MHz INPUT
+12 V
JI J2

62

150
T2 -20 dB

LI L2

-10 dBnk
300 100 (EACH TONE)
-S"Ve L
IF
3,4
10 18
1 LO RF
/77
(+7d8m) 8
C3

LOW-PASS FILTER 300 U1 PINS 2,5,6 ANC, 7

YI I
TO UNO
22MHz 4 7k (2511)

/1/

270 C2 - 3dB

L_

FBs
+12V

0 001

0
00, -I- 1
01

T01 22
3°1e
, 1N4001

/ / 7/ /- 7-7

RFCI
10)H
Lb O L9 L8 L7 FR

J3
50 - MHz L6
C8 HG - 174/U
OUTPUT CII
— 130 _ 75
SY. S.M. CIO

47
/- 77 /- 7-7
(/2 W

LOW-PASS FILTER

(5011)

Fig. 7 — Schematic diagram of the 6-meter transmitting converter.

C2,C3, C5-C7, in. — 2-25 pF air or foil equiv.). L6 — 6-1/2 turns, no. 26 enamel on T37-12 core.
dielectric trimmer. FB — Ferrite bead, Amidon FB101-43. L7 — 9-1/2 turns, no. 22 enamel on T50-12 core.
C8, C9, C11 — 15-115 pF mica trimmer (Arco L1, L2 — 7turns, no. 28 enamel on T25-6 core. L8, L10 — 8turns, no. 22 enamel on T50-12
406 or equiv.). L3- L5, incl. — 12 turns, no. 28 enamel on core.
C10 — 1.5-20 pF mica trimmer (Arco 402 or T37-6 core. L9 — 8turns, no. 22 enamel on T50-12 core.

MHz. The output power should not vary of the final, connect the amplifier output the dc power and adjust RI for acollector
more than 1dB within the passband of the to a wattmeter and 50-ohm load. Attach current of 35 to 40 mA. Apply just
filter. The 50-ohm resistor at the output the amplifier to a12-volt, 1-A power sup- enough drive, at 29 MHz, to the input of
of the last class-A amplifier should now be ply (maximum current drain is approxi- the converter to get an indication on the
removed and the power amplifier con- mately 750 mA for the complete con- wattmeter and peak C8 through C11 for
nected through a short length of coaxial verter) and place a milliammeter in the maximum output. Now increase the drive
cable. collector supply line at the point marked slowly, keeping the networks peaked,
To align the input and output networks X in Fig. 7. With no drive applied, turn on until the output power is 4watts. Do not

7-7 Chapter 7
 +12 V

0 1000
(

BAND-PASS FILTER

+12 V

001

(-

39 * NEAT SINK

Compress winding to cover half of core. RFC2 — 1.2-µI-1 solenoid type rf choke ( Miller F137-61 core.
R1 — 220-ohm, 1-W resistor in series with a 74F126AP or equiv.) 13 — 7 bifilar turns, no. 28 enamel on FT23-43
500-ohm, 1/2-W trimmer. Ti — 27 turns primary, 5 turns secondary, no. core.
RFC1 — 10-H solenoid type rf choke ( Miller 28 enamel on 137-6 core. 14, 15 — 5 bifilar turns, no. 26 enamel on
74F105AP or equiv.). 12 — 5 bifilar turns, no. 26 enamel on FT37-61 core.

maintain the output at 4 watts any 4-watt level. If it is adjusted at a justed as described above, the third-
longer than is necessary. It is important lower level the IMD performance will order IMD products should be at least
that the output network be adjusted be degraded. When the output is ad- 32 dB below the 3-watt PEP level
while the output is at the 3.5- to (Fig. 8C).

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-8

Fig. 8 — Spectral analysis of 6- meter transmitting converter. Display at A shows the fundamental and second harmonic. The harmonic is 73 dB
below the 3- watt carrier. The fundamental has been notched 30 dB to prevent overload of the spectrum analyzer. Each horizontal division is 20 MHz.
A " close- in display" is shown in B: Each horizontal division is 2 MHz and the center frequency is 50 MHz. The 2 x 28- MHz spurious product ( which
falls in channel 2) is attenuated more than 75 dB relative to the carrier power. The two-tone IMD spectrum is shown in C: The third-order products are
34 dB below PEP. Each horizontal division is 2 kHz. In all three displays each vertical division is 10 dB.

Fig. 9 — Full-scale etching pattern for the power amplifier section of the 6- meter transmitting converter. Black areas represent unetched copper.
This view is from the foil side of the board.

JUMPER
JUMPER Ra• 0.01 IN4001 0.1 0.001
01 0001 130 130

p
FBet

RFC 2
RFC 1
FB
+V

OUTPUT

CIO

MPF476 HEAT SINK 'SEE TEXT

COMPONENT LEADS
MARKED X ARE
SOLDERED TO GND
PLANE

Fig. 10 — Parts- placement guide for Fig. 9. All components mount on the foil side of the board.

7-9 Chapter 7
 A FULL- POWER LINEAR AMPLIFIER
FOR 50 TO 54 MHz
The amplifier pictured in Fig. 11 was
designed and built by Dick Stevens,
W1QWJ. It can be driven by any of the
popular 10- watt- output multi- mode
6-meter transceivers. It uses a4-1000A in
conventional grid-driven tetrode operation
(AB,) and can deliver up to 800 watts PEP
output. The 4-1000A isn't often seen in
6-meter amplifiers, but it can be a highly
cost-effective alternative to a pair of
external- anode tubes such as the 4CX250.
The 4-1000A is often retired from broad-
cast or radar service with plenty of useful
life left for amateur applications. In addi-
tion, the socket is less expensive than that
for other tubes, and one can take shortcuts
with the cooling system that aren't feasi-
ble with external-anode types.

Electromechanical Details
Fig. 12 is the rf section schematic, and
the control circuit is diagrammed in Fig.
13. The grid circuit is heavily swamped by
two 2000-ohm, 2-watt carbon film resistors
in parallel. These, in combination with a
6.8-ohm resistor in series with the grid,
completely stabilize the amplifier and no
neutralization is needed. To ensure stable
operation, the screen circuit should be
duplicated carefully. The two screen ter-
minals are connected with a5/16-inch-wide
Fig. 11 — Front- panel view of the W1QWJ high- power 6-meter amplifier. copper or brass strap. Two small brackets

J2

850pF K2C RF
15 kV L2
OUTPUT

I,H
0 005 —1VVV-1

4 - 10004 C3 C4
GRID H RFC 2
PLATE 75 ANT
K2B
TUNING 6 en 4 TUNING LOADING

RF
OUTPUT
JI

LI
0005
1 0005 10 005 U— •
016
C2 0005 /77
CI P'4 2k
2W

loO
1_
3- 47pF
I,
0005 +-6
T
e-1 0 005

0005 / ) /
RFC I TO) GFD
SHUNT
0005 SCREEN GRID

S1A SIB

TO METERING TO FIG 13 M2
— 0 005
CIRCUIT 000r j•-• 0- ISO
1W
/ + 900V

GRID ç,0 005 +3500 V

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL TO FIG 13
BIAS
VALUES or CAPACITANCE ARE
0 005
IN MICROFARADS I , F IOTHERS
5k ARE IN PICOFARA OS ( pF OR , AF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;

(
-0 FIG 13 7_15. •1000. M• 1000 000

Fig. 12 — Rf schematic diagram of the 6-meter amplifier.

Cl — Trimmer capacitor, 3-47 pF. cold end. RFC2 — 50 turns no. 26 enameled wire close-
C2 — Variable capacitor, 50 pF max. L2 — 3 turns no. 8, 1- 7/8- in. ID, 3/8- in. spacing. wound on a 1/2- in. die., 2- in, long ceramic
C3 — Plate tuning capacitor, see text. M1 — Ammeter. Do not use a movement form.
C4 — Output loading capacitor, 75 pF max., having a metallic adjustment screw. Recess Si — Wafer switch, dpdt. Shaft or handle
400 V spacing. instrument behind a plastic sub- panel if in- must be well grounded to the panel.
J1, J2 — Coaxial receptacles, UHF female, sulation rating isn't known. V1 — Electron tube, 4-1000A.
SO-239. M2 — Milliameter. See safety note for Ml. Z1 — Parasitic suppressor; two 100-0, 2-W
K2 — See Fig. 13 caption. RFC1 — 3/4- in. no. 26 enameled wire close- deposited carbon film resistors soldered
Ll — 4-1/2 turns no. 12. 112-in. ID. 1- 1/4- in. wound on 100-k0 2-W resistor across 1-inch-wirle hrass anode connecting
long, air-wound, tapped 1-1/2 turns from strap.
VHF and UHF Transmitting 710
 KIE Table 1

053
Operating Conditions, 50-54 MHz
REMOTE Amplifier
ToF,O
'2
1 kW 2 kW
7
200,.E 47
07V
Plate voltage 2475 3500
IC 625
Plate current 400 mA 570 mA
(single tone)
Power output 400 W 800 W
16 V
Drive power 5W 10 W

0 005

are fabricated from 3/4-inch-wide brass flat

0 005
stock and bolted to the chassis to serve as
ground returns for the screen bypass
capacitors. These components can be seen
53
OPERATE in detail in Figs. 15 and 16.
J3 Modify the tube socket as follows: Flat-
PTT
ten each pin- holding tab and remove the
pins. Saw 5/8-inch from the bottom of the
plastic chimney. This allows shortening the
TO screen strap and improved filament pin
FIG 12

0001
cooling with the fan system used. Replace
20k each pin and carefully reset the holding
IOW
450 v
tabs. The pins are cut off just above the
locking tabs.
Two small fans cool the tube. One
SCREEN

Fig. 13 — Control-circuit diagram for the 6-meter amplifier. mounted on the rear chassis apron blows
DS1-DS3 — Neon lamp with built-in limiting resistor (RS 273-1505).
K1 — 4pdt 1-A, 117-V-ac contacts, 12-V-dc coil (RS 275-214). around the filament pins and through the
NEW' ROT ONO
K2 — Rf relay, 10-A dpdt contacts, 12-V-dc coil. socket. Another fan mounted on the screen
S1-S3, incl. — Dpdt switch ( RS 275-691).
ill YAC
71 — Primary 117 V ac, 60 Hz. Secondary 650 V, 125 mA.
- transformer is directed at the anode seal.
12 — Primary 117 V ac, 60 Hz. Secondary 7.5 V, 21 A.
13, 14 — Primary 117 V ac, 60 Hz. Secondary 12.6 V, 1.2 A. Fig. 14 shows the anode fan secured with
double-sided tape. Some builders may
prefer to use epoxy.
The amplifier is built on a 10 x 14 x
3-inch chassis that has been stiffened with
aluminum. Flat stock measuring 1/8 x 1/2
inch has been fastened to the bottom lip to
create sufficient mounting area for the
3- 1/8-inch square lower fan. The rear and
sides have 1/2 x 1/8-inch angle stock
added.
The output network is mounted as an
assembly on a3 x 8-inch aluminum plate.
C3, the tuning capacitor, consists of a
single rotor and asingle stator plate, made
from parts of a surplus unit. The
capacitance required is very small, as most
of the tank capacitance comes from the
tube output capacitance and circuit strays.
If asuitable take-apart capacitor can't be
obtained, the builder can make one from
two flat discs. Mount C3 well away from
the aluminum plate to realize the smallest
possible minimum capacitance. RFC2, the
plate choke, is mounted on a bracket at-
tached to the aluminum plate to position
the hot end near the plate connection.
The plate ammeter and screen
milliameter are connected in the un-
grounded legs of the power supplies. For
safety, meters of unknown voltage rating
should be mounted behind clear plastic sub-
panels. A safety item that doubles as an
RFI shield is the perforated aluminum
enclosure. This amplifier has been TVI-free
in a weak- signal Channel 3 area.

Operation
Fig. 14 — Rear view of the 6-meter amplifier, with major components identified. An external 3500-volt power supply is re-
7-11 Chapter 7
 1111•11à

Fig. 18 — Circuit diagram of the harmonic

trap used with the 6-meter amplifier.
Cl, C2 — Variable capacitor, E. F. Johnson
160-104 or equiv.
J1, J2 — UHF female coaxial receptacle, type
SO-239.
Li — 16 turns no. 20 enameled wire, close-
wound, 0.275- in, dia., air core.
L2 — 7 turns no. 18, 0.275- in, dia., air core.
W1 — RG-8/U coaxial cable, 6- in. long.

Jill

Fig. 15 — Under-chassis view of the 6- meter amplifier. Critical components of the grid and
screen circuits are labeled.

Fig. 19 — Second- and third- harmonic trap

with the cover removed to reveal the construc-
tion details.
PIN

005 1
L,
1/2" STRAP

C, C 2

(A)

-1 GROUND
T 3/4" BRASS
PLANE

Fig. 17 — Schematic diagram of a low-pass

filter that can be used after the amplifier.
Good quality capacitors such as silver- mica
types should be used. Fig. 20 — Spectral photograph of the amplifier
(3)
Cl, C2 — 82 pF silver mica, 1000 V. and filter adjusted for 1- kilowatt operation.
Li, L3 — 4 turns no. 14 enam. wire close- Each horizontal division represents 50 MHz
wound on a 5/16 in. ( 8 mm) form. and each vertical division is 10 dB. This
Fig. 16 — Detail of the screen connecting L2 — 5 turns no. 14 enam. wire close-wound amplifier complies with the current FCC re-
strap and bypass tabs. on a 7116 in. ( 11 mm) form. quirements for spectral purity.

quired for the amplifier. The peak plate in ssb linear service. The screen current adjustments, but it will work well only in
current is about 550 mA for full ssb input should be limited to 80 inA. Values greater systems having avery low VSWR. Fig. 20
power. It's agood idea to obtain the ac in- than this indicate excessive drive or insuf- shows the output spectrum with the low-
put for the plate supply through the ficient output loading. pass filter. The dual trap of Figs. 18 and
amplifier switch. C 1and C2 are adjusted Some external filtering is required to sup- 19 can be made to work into awider range
for the best input match with the available press the harmonic output and to meet of impedances without upsetting the
drive, and C3 and C4 are tuned for maxi- FCC regulations. Either of the circuits amplifier tuning. Trap tuning is ac-
mum output. diagrammed in Figs. 17 and 18 will serve complished with adip meter or by listen-
Grid current is metered as atune-up aid adequately. The low pass filter ( Fig. 17) is ing to the harmonics on an fm broadcast
for cw. but nn grid current should be drawn easy to implement because it requires no receiver and a vhf scanner.
VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-12
 choke would have no harmful effects, and
RF CHOKES FOR THE VHF BANDS Rf Chokes for 50-, 144- and 220- MHz
it would not heat up. You won't find one
Many of the construction projects in this Service
that good, but a well-designed choke will
chapter call for fabricating one or more rf Frequency Inductance Description come close. If the choke is not agood one,
chokes. Specific instructions are given in 50 MHz 7.8 to B&W miniductor no.
don't run the test too long at any ap-
9.5 µH 3004, 1-3/8 to 1-9/16
each case, but additional guidance is often preciable power level, or you won't have to
inch long.'
sought by those embarking on projects of 50 MHz 8.3 µH No. 28 double silk look for indications — you'll smell them!
their own design. The information on this covered (dsc), space •
page is abrief tutorial in theory and prac- wound on 1/2- inch
Teflon rod. Winding
tice for those interested in constructing vhf
1-3/4 inch long. See
equipment. text.
Distributed capacitance limits the range 50 MHz 7.2 µH No. 28 dsc, close-
over which an rf choke will work. This wound on 1/4- inch
makes the space- wound choke superior to Teflon rod. Winding
1-7116 inch long.
the close-wound one. A minimum of ce- 144 MHz 2.15 µH No. 22 Nyclad, close-
ment on the windings is also desirable. The wound 1-3/16 inch
space-wound 50- MHz choke in the table on 1/4- inch Teflon
and shown in the upper right of the rod.
144 MHz 1.42 µH 31 turns no. 28 dsc,
photograph is as good as you can make for space-wound on 1/4-
that band, and better than most chokes you inch dia self-
could buy. It is good at 144 MHz as well, supporting.
(The 144- MHz chokes work well on 220 MHz.)
and even serviceable at 220 MHz. A close-
220 MHz 0.6 µH 13 turns no. 22
wound choke of fine wire, heavily doped Nyclad on 1/4- inch
with lacquer, might be usable on only one Teflon rod. Typical handmade vhf chokes. At the rear are
vhf band, and very likely it would not be 220 MHz 0.75 µH 17 turns no. 28 dsc close-wound and space-wound chokes for 50
space-wound on 1/4- MHz wound on 1/4- inch and 1/2- inch Teflon
too good even there.
inch Teflon rod. rod, drilled and tapped for end-mounting.
To construct rf chokes you will need Winding 5/8 inch Three 144- MHz chokes are shown in the
some wire: no. 22 enamel ( Nyclad or long. center; the two at the left being excellent for
Formvar preferred); no. 28 enamel, silk or 220 MHz 0.52 0-1 22 turns no. 22 high-current applications. In front are similar
Nyclad close-wound types to these, but for the 220- MHz band.
cotton covered; and no. 30 or 32, of any
on no. 24 drill, self-
similar insulation. Silk- or cotton-covered supporting.
wires take cement nicely, but enamel is
okay otherwise, and it is usually most Excellent for use except where high temperatures RFC WRONG
are involved.
readily available.
High- value 1/2- or 1- watt carbon
resistors make good winding forms for use
the lead holes, and your choke is done.
at 144 MHz and higher. A 2-watt resistor
Self-supporting chokes of excellent quali-
is big enough for a 50- MHz choke, but
ty can be made by winding no. 22 or 24 wire
Teflon or Nylon rod stock is better. Do not tightly on various drill sizes, and then slip- PLATE CIRCUIT

use polystyrene or Lucite® , if any heat is

ping the drill or other winding form out.
to be involved. These materials will melt RFC
If wound under tension the coil will hold RIGHT
in the heat of an average transmitter its shape when slipped off the form. Turns
enclosure. Teflon rod can be found in
can be spaced by running athin knife blade
plastics supply houses, in 1/4- and 1/2-inch between them.
diameter. It drills and taps nicely, it won't You can tell a good choke from an in-
melt, and its insulating quality is excellent.
ferior one easily enough. Connect it across How a choke is positioned with respect to
Bakelite rod or even wood dowelling is other circuits may be important. The choke at
your driver-stage tuned circuit, and see what
good enough for the less-critical choke the top is coupled to the plate line of the
it does to your final-stage grid current. Also transmitter tuned circuit. Outside the loop, as
applications. The smallest- diameter
note how much you have to retune the shown at the bottom, makes the choke far
prepared coil stock is usable for 50-MHz
driver circuit to restore resonance. A perfect less subject to rf breakdown.
chokes, but it won't stand much heat.
Space-winding rf chokes is easy. First
drill through the rod at spacings indicated
under winding length in the table. Now
measure off slightly more than a half
wavelength of wire for the design frequen-
cy band. Double it back on itself and feed
the end through one of the holes in the rod.
Now wind the coil as if it were to be bifilar.
If you clamp the other end of the double
wire in avise, or tie it down firmly other-
wise, this can be done easily. Keep the wires
under tension, and be sure that they are not
twisted at any point. Wind tightly and then
feed the end through the other rod hole.
Now remove one of the wires by un-
winding carefully, keeping it under tension Transmitter applications for rf chokes vary markedly in regard to the quality of choke needed. In
throughout. The remaining wire will be the grid circuit, RFC5 has no very difficult job to do, and any choke suitable for low- power use
is suitable. The shunt-feed choke, RFC6, must meet severe requirements, especially in high-
space-wound as neatly as if done by
powered amplifiers. It is effectively connected across the transmitter tank circuit, and is sub-
machine. Apply a thin coating of jected to high temperature, current and voltage. The output choke, RFC7, is mainly a safety
polystyrene cement, using abit more around device, and it operates under much less stringent circumstances.

7-13 Chapter 7
A LOW- DRIVE 2- METER PA voltage should be about 325 and bias
should be about — 130 V. AC filament
This amplifier will provide a 200-watt voltage should be about 6.
output with as little as 2watts of drive in Shorting J2 places the amplifier in the
linear service. With more drive, more transmit mode. With no drive applied,
power output can be had (up to 350 adjust bias for an idling plate current of
watts), but at higher power levels the 50 inA. This establishes class of operation
amplifier components get intolerably AB2. Adjustment of the warning-LED
warm. potentiometers requires the use of tem-
porary load resistors. Remove power
The Circuit
from the amplifier. Temporarily connect a
A 4CX 250 tetrode is used in the I50-kfl resistor from the grid terminal tu
grounded-cathode circuit. The 4CX 250 is ground. Turn on the power. Do not short
Fig. 21 — A 500-watt amplifier for the 2- meter
ahigh- mu tube, so high gain is inherent to J2. Adjust R13 until the grid-sensing LED
band, complete with power supply, is housed
the design. The cathode is grounded in this cabinet. The hole plug covers a former just comes on. Turn the power off again.
directly through tabs in the Eimac location of a control. Connect a string of 10 1000-ohm, 1-watt
SK-630 socket, reducing feedback pos- resistors from the screen terminal of the
sibilities. The screen is grounded through tube socket to ground. Turn the power on
a low- inductance bypass capacitor built again. Adjust R26 until the screen sensing
into the tube socket. The socket also has a LED just comes on. Turn the power off
built-in screen- ring shield. All these is in close proximity to the tuned line, link and disconnect the temporary load resis-
measures help eliminate the greatest or tuning capacitor. Cooling air is blown tors.
problem with amplifiers of this type: into the plate compartment through a Connect asource of drive to J1through
feedback and subsequent self oscillation. screened hole. Several screw, nut and an SWR indicator. A 50-ohm dummy
The grid circuit is a simple tuned line flat- washer combinations guarantee good load should be connected to J3. Applying
made from no. 14 bus wire. A link couples electrical contact to the screen. A stan- a small amount of drive, adjust grid
power to this line. At the high- impedance, dard Eimac ceramic tube chimney is capacitor C for a dip in SWR on the
tube end of the line, bias voltage is shunt mounted on a wooden standoff. The indicator. The SWR may not be close to
fed to the grid through a 2700- ohm chimney fits over the tube anode in an 1:1. If not, readjust the position of Li with
resistor. This resistor also swamps the inverted style. The hole in the top cover is respect to L2. Recheck the SWR. Continue
input heavily, assuring amplifier stability screened in the same way as is the fan the process until the input SWR is close to
without neutralization. inlet. Cool air enters through the fan hole 1:1. Since no voltage is applied to the am-
The plate circuit is series tuned. Series and passes through the tube anode cooler. plifier, adjustment is very simple. In the
tuning places the tube output capacitance Tube-warmed air exits through the chim- amplifier shown, the Li adjustment was
in series with the tuning capacitor, ney and out the screened hole in the top. optimum when placed approximately 1/8-
effectively reducing tank circuit capaci- A small portion of the cooling air passes inch ( 3- mm) from and parallel to L2.
tance. This allows for a larger tank coil through the tube socket, cooling the tube Reconnect the system so that apower-
which might otherwise become unwork- base before flowing through the underside indicating device is inserted in the line
ably small if parallel tuning were used. of the chassis. between the dummy ioad and J3. Apply
High voltage is fed to the tube at the low- The output traps are built into a box primary power. Short .12 and apply
impedance point of the tank coil through fabricated from copper-clad circuit board. approximately 2watts of drive. Adjust the
an rf choke. Power output is coupled The easiest approach to mounting it is by grid capacitor for maximum plate current.
through a variable link, reducing har- means of a double- male UHF- type con- Do not key the rig for longer than about
monic content. Series- tuned traps at the nector to the jack on the rear of the plate 20 seconds at atime. Peak the tuning and
second and third harmonics ensure clean compartment. the loading controls alternately for maxi-
spectral response, far surpassing FCC re- An input attenuator may be required to mum output. Since the amplifier is not
quirements. reduce transceiver output power to the neutralized, the plate-current dip will not
The power supply uses a full-wave 2-watt level necessary to drive the coincide with maximum output.
bridge rectifier circuit in the high voltage amplifier. Standard composition resistors If a calibrated wattmeter is available,
circuit. Series-dropping resistors lower the can be used in attenuator construction. output should be measured at about 200
high voltage to the correct value for the The attenuator is built in a separate box watts with a plate current of 200 mA.
tube screen. Screen voltage is regulated by from the amplifier. Efficiency is about 58 percent. These are
a string of Zener diodes. Series LEDs in the normal operating parameters. If either
the bias and screen-voltage lines provide Tune-Up oar! Operation
of the indicator LEDs turns on, either the
warning of excess current flow. Bias is Upon completion, all wiring should be amplifier is not tuned properly, there is
switched between cutoff ( — 120 volts) and thoroughly checked for mistakes. The high too much drive, or some equipment
— 50 volts regulated during transmit voltage present can be lethal if not treated failure has taken place.
operation. carefully. Be sure no wires are touching Adjustment of the traps requires use of
anything they shouldn't. a wavemeter or a dip meter in the
Construction
Primary voltage should initially be wavemeter function. Coupling the wave-
Despite the compact design, few applied through a variable line transfor- meter to the dummy load should indicate
precautions are necessary. Caution with mer. This allows the voltage to be brought some harmonic energy at twice the
respect to high-voltage leads is mandatory, up slowly so that if something is awry it fundamental and three times the funda-
of course. The plate circuitry is entirely can be noticed before any damage can mental. Adjust one trap capacitor for mini-
enclosed by a shielded box, which also occur. Once the primary has been safely mum harmonic energy at the second har-
prevents air leakage. Ihe grid circuit brought up to its normal voltage, voltage monic and the other for minimum third-
should be installed so that no other circuit checks on the tube should be made. Screen harmonic energy.

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-14

 J3 J4 25
.44 MHz
UTPUT INPUT FL1 OUTPUT

L4

L3 15p
JI 5pF
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF INPUT 5P 3 C24
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS 1yF ;
-X C21
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS CPF OR yyF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; RFCI
k • 1000, M.I 000 000. .
--/
-7
VI C25
4 7 L1
44 MHz
2 4CX2508
0001/FT
LI

C26
-420 2700 3 2,4,6,8
r15pF
00 ,

0 001 1 0 001

R26
5000/2W

SCREEN
R1 - R12 - 390k CURRENT
CI 4 - C19
DI - D12 - (000 PRV/ 2.5A R14 - R19 INDICATOR
SET
CI - C12 - 001.0F/1000V

RESISTORS
ALL 39k/10W

R20 - R25 DI 7 - D22 - 56.

013 25VI
X 1 002 Z002

1000 PIV
2 5A -n‘- BIAS CAPACITORS • • I
5W
SET ALL 200»F
450V 2
25W - "C) 02 'ÀÉ 002
117 VAC .41

GRID CURRENT
• •

T° °2
5000/2W INDICATOR SET
2
002
22 25W
•-••

200» F
350V 10k
1

8-A FUSE

35"
(891P,P)

1 5"
22 — Schematic diagram of the low-drive 144- MHz amplifier. Inches x 25.4 = mm. 138ffirn)

B1 — Slower, 15 ft'/min. L1, L2 — See text and Fig. 23

C20,C22 — 15-pF air variable, Hammarlund L3 — 3-1/2 turns no. 10, 1-1/4 inch ID, 2 inch
HF -15.X or equiv. long.
LI ( N0.14 ENAMELED WIRE)
C21 — 5-pF air variable, Hammarlund L4 — 1turn no. 14 enameled, 1- inch ID. (A)
HFA-25-13 with 2 middle rotor plates and two L5, L6 — 3 turns no. 18 tinned, 1/4- inch ID,
end stator plates removed, or equiv. 3/8 inch long.
C23,C24 — 5-pF air variable, E.F Johnson R27 — Meter shunt, 0.05555 ohms, 3.375 feet 3"
76,1,11,)
160-0104-001 or equiv. (1.03 m) no. 22 enam. wire wound on any
C25 — 0.001 MF, 4-kV feedthrough capacitor, large-value, 2-watt resistor).
Erie 2498 or equiv. RFC1 — 20 turns no. 24 enam., wound on
(25mm ,
C26 — Screen bypass capacitor built into 100 k, 1-W resistor.
Elmac SK-630A tube socket. Si — Spat, 10A
Ti — Primary 117 V ac, secondary 1250 V ac, L2 ( N0.18 ENAMELED WIRE 1
D14, 015 — Light emitting diode ( VF = 1.6 V,
1F = 60 mA). 500 mA, Hammond 720 or equiv. (B)

D16 — 33-V, 5-W Zener diode. T2 — Primary 117 V ac, secondary 125 V ac,
J1, J3, J4, J5 — Type SO-239. 50 mA; 6.3 V ac, 2.0 A, Stancor PA-8421 or
J2 — Phono Jack, panel mount. equiv. Fig. 23 — Formation details for Li and L2.

7-15 Chapter 7
 A 2- KW PEP AMPLIFIER FOR 144
MHZ
Large external-anode triodes in a
cathode-driven configuration offer
outstanding reliability, stability and ease
in obtaining high power at 144 MHz.
The techniques employed in the design
and construction of the cathode-driven
3CX1500A7/8877 amplifier described
here (Figs. 26 to 29) have removed many
of the mechanical impositions of other
designs. Those interested in obtaining
complete constructional details should
refer to the two-part article appearing in
December 1973 and January 1974 QST.

2KW PEP
144 MHZ
AMPLIFIER

I
Fig. 24 — Top view of the low-drive 2-meter amplifier. Voltage-dropping resistors and Zener diodes Fig. 26 — Front-panel layout of the 2-meter
may be seen on the left-hand side of the chassis. The small transformer next to the plate com- kilowatt amplifier.
partment is T2. Details of the wood spacer may be seen at right. Output Circuit
The plate tank operates with aloaded Q
on the order of 40 at 2- kW PEP and 80 at
IkW. Typical loaded Q values of 10 to 15
are used in hf amplifiers. In comparison,
we are dealing with a relatively high
loaded Q, so losses in the strip- line
tank-circuit components must be kept
very low. To this end, small- diameter
Teflon rods are used as mechanical drives
for the tuning capacitor and for physical
support as well as mechanical drive for the
output-coupling capacitor. The tuning
vane or flapper capacitor is solidly
grounded through awide flexible strap of
negligible inductance, directly to the
chassis in close proximity to the grid-
return point. A flexible- strap arrange-
ment, similar to that of the tuning
capacitor, is used to connect the output
coupling capacitor to the center pin of a
type- N coaxial connector mounted in the
chassis base. Ceramic (or Teflon) pillars,
used to support the air strip line, arc
located under the middle set of plate-line
dc isolation bushings. This places these
pillars well out of the intense rf field
associated with the tube, or high-im-
pedance end of the line. In operation,
plate tuning and loading is quite smooth
and stable, so a high-loaded Q is
apparently not bothersome in this respect.
In this amplifier, output coupling is ac-
complished by the capacitive probe
method. As pointed out by Knadle': " Ma-
jor advantages of capacitive probe
coupling are loading linearity and elimina-
tion of moving contact surfaces."
Fig. 25 — Bottom view of the amplifier A thin sheet of Teflon has been placed between the elec.
trolytic capacitors and their aluminum mounting strap. At upper right is the power supply rectifier 'Knadle, " A Strip- line Kilowatt Amplifier for 432
board. Details of the grid circuit are also visible. MHz," QST, April and May 1972.

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-16

 Capacitive- probe coupling is a form of
"reactive transformation matching" Table 2
whereby the feed- line ( load) impedance is Performance Data
transformed to the tube resonant- load im- 1kW 1.6 kW
pedance ( RO)of 1800 ohms (at the 2- kW Power input, watts 1000 1600
level) by means of a series reactance (a Plate voltage 2600 2450
Plate current (single tone) 385 mA 660 mA
capacitor in this case). Formulas to Plate current ( idling) 50 mA 50 mA
calculate the transformation values have Grid bias — 10 V — 10 V
been presented in QST. 2 Grid current (single tone) 35 mA 54 mA
Drive power, watts 18 41
Support Electronics Efficiency ( apparent) 59.5% 61.8%
Power gain (apparent) 15.2 dB 13.9 dB
An rf-output monitor is a virtual Power output, watts 595 1000
necessity in vhf amplifiers. In this
amplifier, one of these built-in circuits is
achieved quite handily. The circuit con- BOTTOM

sists of a 10:1 resistive voltage divider,

ENCLOSURE

diode rectifier, filter and adjustable in-

RE , LECTOmETER
dicating instrument. Two 7500- ohm,
2- watt carbon resistors are located in the 144PAHr
INPUT LI
144 Milo

plate compartment connected between the

type- N rf-output connector and a BNC
connector. A small wire was soldered to L2

the center pin of the BNC connector, in-

side aMinibox, with the I500- ohm, 1- watt
composition resistor and the rectifier loo
.
5W
1 4143666
DI

diode joined at this point. Relative output 0.001

8 M. IRFCO
voltage is fed, via feedthrough capacitors, SWR
0.001 ,Pt

to the level- setting potentiometer and

250
multimeter switch.
Testing and Operation
The amplifier is unconditionally stable,
with no parasitics. To verify this, a 200 100
IOW 25W
zero- bias check for stability was made.
This involved shorting out the Zener 02

diode in the cathode return lead, reducing CAIHODE JI

CURREN ,

bias to essentially zero volts. Plate voltage IN2071 IN 33I1

512V
was applied, allowing the tube to dissipate
E0CEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL 0N
03 TO VOX RELAY
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
CONTACTS
about 885 watts. The input and output IN MICROFARADS I 1 ; OTHERS 10---6-1~,--•
200
0-100
GRID
ARE IN PICOFARA DS DF OR 00.4F );
circuits were then tuned through their RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
O IOW rt.
CURRENT

5-
ranges with no loads attached. There was •I000. 1.1 • I000 000

no sign of output on the relative output B. M. BUTTON MICA

meter and no change in the plate and grid

currents. As with most cathode- driven
amplifiers, there is a slight interaction
between grid and plate currents during
normal tune-up under rf-applied con-
ditions. This should not be misconstrued
as amplifier instability.
Tolerances of the Zener diode used in
the cathode return line will result in values
of bias vc1tage and idling plate currents
other than those listed in Table 2. The
1N3311, a 20- percent tolerance unit, is
rated at 12 volts nominal but actually
operates .at 10 volts in this amplifier
(within the 20- percent tolerance).
To commence routine operation, the
variable capacitor in the input circuit
should be set at the point where lowest

'Belcher, " Rf Matching Techniques, Design and

Example," QST, October 1972.

Fig. 27 — The placement of input-circuit com-

ponents and supporting bracket may be seen
in this bottom view. When the bottom cover is
in place, the screened air inlet allows the
blower to pull air in, pressurizing the entire
under-chassis area. The Minibox on the rear
apron is a housing for the input reflectometer
circuit.

7-17 Chapter 7
 Fig. 29 — Schematic diagram of the 144- MHz
r — amplifier. Included is information for the input
reflectometer used as an aid to tuning the
91 iQ cathode circuit for low SWR. C7, C8 and C9 are
(SEE TEXT)
fabricated as described in the text and Fig. 26.
RFC 2
Inches x 25.4 = mm.
B1 — Blower, Fasco 59752- IN or Dayton 2C610.
C11 Wheel diameter is 3-13/16 Inches.
500 C2 — 5- to 30-pF air variable, Hammarlund
e HF - 30-X or equiv.
C3, C4, C5, C6 — 0.1 j.F, 600-V, 20-A
feedthrough capacitor. Sprague 80P3 or
equiv.
0- RFC I CB./
144 PAM: J1, J2, J6 — Type BNC.
L5
C
7 J3 — Type N.
•••• (SEE TE XT
J4 — Coaxial panel jack, UG-22B/U, Amphenol
82-62 or equiv.
J5 — HV connector, James Millen 37001 or
7500 7500
MF.
equiv.
•—/VVV— e\AA--• L1 — Double-sided pc board, 1-1/4 x 4-7/16
inches.
L2 — 4-1/4 inches of no. 18 wire. L1 and L2 are
part of the input reflectometer circuit.
L3 — 6 turns no. 18 enam., 5/8- in, long on
1.1.432
3/8- in, dia form (white slug).
D,
e194445 L4 — 3 turns no. 14 enam., 5/8- in, long x
9/16- in. ID. Lead length to L3 is 5/8- in. Lead
oco'
length to cathode bus is 3/4- in.
L5 — Air-dielectric stripline. See text.
RFC 4
P1 — Type BNC.
P2 — Type N.
° (0 001
R1 — Meter range multiplier. Ten 500-kfl, 2-W
composition resistors in series.
RFC1 — 7 turns no. 16 tinned, 1/2- in. ID x
1- in. long.
RFC2 — 18 turns no. 18 enam., close wound
on 1- MO, 2- watt compostiton resistor.
RFC3, RFC4 — Each 2 ferrite beads on com-
ponent leads.
o RFC5, RFC6 — 10 turns no. 12 enam., bifilar
wound, 518- in. dia.
OUTPUT Si — Single- pole, three position rotary switch,
CAL. non-shorting contacts.
Ti — 5-V, 10-A secondary, center tap not used,
Stancor P-6135 or equiv.
INPUT SWR

SI

BLOWER
0-I input VSWR was obtained during the
MULTIME TER
"cold- tube" initial tune-up. The ability of
the plate tank to resonate at 144-145 MHz
with the top cover in place should be
verified with a grid-dip meter, via a
one- turn link attached to the rf output
connector. Top and bottom covers are
then secured. As with all cathode driven
amplifiers, excitation should never be
applied when the tube heater is activated
and plate voltage is removed. Next, turn on
the tube heater and blower simulta-
neously, allowing 90 seconds for warm-up.
A plate potential between 2400 and 3000
volts then may be applied and its presence
verified on the multimeter. The power
supply should be able to deliver 800 mA
or so. With the VOX relay actuated,
resting current should be indicated on the
cathode meter. A small amount of drive is

Fig. 28 — The tube and plate line is in place,

with the top and side of the compartment
removed for clarity. The plate-tuning vane is at
bottom center. A bracket is attached to the
side panel to support the rear of the Teflon rod
supporting the tuning vane. The coil at the op-
posite end of the plate line is RFC1, connected
between the high-voltage- bypass plate and the
top section of the plate- line sandwich. Items
outside the tube enclosure include the filament
transformer, blower motor, relays, and e power
supply to operate a VOX•controlled relay
system.

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-18

applied and the plate-tank circuit tuned rent and aconsiderable increase in relative
for an indication of maximum relative power output. Plate- current dip is not ab-
power output. The cathode circuit can
now be resonated, tuning for minimum
solutely coincident with maximum power
output, but it is very close. Tuning and
SE
reflected power on the reflectometer, and output- loading adjustments should be for . .
not for maximum drive power tiansfer. maximum efficiency and output as in-
Tuning and loading of the plate- tank cir- dicated on the output meter. Final adjust-
cuit follows the standard sequence for any ment for lowest VSWR at amplifier in-
cathode driven amplifier. Resonance is ac- put should be done when the de-
companied by a moderate dip in sired plate input- power level has been
plate/cathode current, a rise in grid cur- reached.

Fig. 30 — Front- panel layout of the 220- MHz

kilowatt.
J2
ANT.
220 MHz

1
C8 1
1
08+
J3

RFC5 C10
500
Cg: 5000V

VI
8877
2,3,4, 3CXI500A
6,7

220 MHz
INPUT PLATE ENCLOSURE
.11 LI L2

5?- 5.100 CI CAT HODE ENCLOSURE

S.M.
RFC1 /- 7- 7 RFC3

500

1 00 1

0.01
/T/
r
-
J4 ON- OFF
3 220

6801

10k
25W

04
-
5V
10.5A

12 V
50W

S.M. • SILVER MICA

0-100

RUNNING
TIME
10W

/-7-7

.15

Fig. 31 — Schematic diagram of the 220- MHz amplifier. Unless otherwise specified, all capacitors are disc ceramic and resistors are 1/2-watt carbon
composition. Inches x 25.4 . mm.
Cl — Air variable, 15 pF. J3 — High-voltage connector ( Millen). 3/4- inch long.
C2, C3 — Button mica, 500-pF, 500-V rating. Li — 3 turns no. 14, I/4- inch ID, 3/4-inch long. RFC2, RFC3 — 10 turns no. 18 enam. bifilar
C4-C9, inclusive — Teflon capacitor ( use 10-mil L2 — 1/4- inch wide, 2-3/8 inch long copper wound on 3/4- inch Teflon rod close wound.
Teflon sheet). flashing strap. RFC4 — 5 turns no. 16 enam. wound on 1-M0,
C10 — Doorknob capacitor, 500 pF, 5-kV rating. L3 — Plate inductor ( see Fig. 32). 2-watt composition resistor.
D1-04 — 1000 PRV, 3A. RFC1 — 8 turns no. 18 enam. 1/2- inch dia.. Ti — Filament transformer, 5.0 V at 10.5 A.
JI, J2 — Coaxial receptacle, type N.

7-19 Chapter 7
A 220-MHZ HIGH- POWER AMPLIFIER

This amplifier employs the

3CX1500A7/8877 in acathode- driven cir-
cuit. The grid is grounded directly to the
chassis, adding to the stability. The
amplifier ( Figs. 30 to 34) is unconditional-
ly stable — more so than some amplifiers
built for the hf region.

Circuit Details
The input circuit consists of a T net-
work. Medium values of Q were chosen to
provide high efficiency. Both the cathode
and the heater are operated at the same rf
potential; the heater is held above rf
ground by the impedance of the filament
choke. The plate tank is apair of quarter-
wavelength striplines placed symmetrical-
ly about the tube. This arrangemement
permits a more uniform flow of current
through the anode, preventing " hot
spots" on the anode conducting surface.
Additionally, tube output capacitance is
effectively halved, as one-half the tube
capacitance ( 13 pF) is used to load each
stripline. Striplines act as low-pass circuit
elements even with the high unloaded- Q Fig. 32 — Bottom view of the amplifier. RFC2 and RFC3 can be seen above tube socket (bifilar
conditions found at 220 MHz. Linear in- winding). Copper strap is L2 shown connected to Cl. Small coil is L1 and larger coil is RFC1. The
grid of the tube should be grounded to the chassis with finger stock similar to that used in the
ductors also offer control of odd-mode
plate line. Component mounted on the heat sink at left is the Zener diode used for biasing
harmonics. No spurious responses could purposes.
be found in this amplifier up through the
900-MHz region.
A strip- line impedance can be varied by
changing its width and relation to its
ground planes. Physical dimensions of the circuit board was once again sandwiched efficiency for a given power input. Low
tube limit the position of the stripline with Teflon sheet to the side wall of the heat dissipation yields longer tube life.
above one ground plane. In order to chassis. This technique is used effectively High- power amplifiers require consid-
utilize commercially available chassis, the throughout as an inexpensive bypass or erable attention to cooling. The plate
stripline was placed 1-1/4 inch ( 32- mm) feedthrough capacitor at vhf. compartment is pressurized by air from an
above one side of an inverted 4- inch Amplifier output is coupled through a external blower, and holes in the chassis
(102- mm) high chassis. This means that capacitive probe. Transformation of the allow aportion of this air to pass through
approximately 75 percent of the rf current load impedance to the tube resonant- load the grid and cathode structure. Most of
flows through the chassis, but only 25 impedance is achieved by means of a the air flows through the anode, a
percent flows through the top shield series reactance ( the loading capacitor). handmade Teflon chimney, then out the
cover. The small percentage flowing The tuning capacitor is solidly grounded top cover. Aluminum screening is tightly
through the top reduces the effect of any by means of a flexible strap of negligible bonded around these two openings. No
mechanical anomalies associated with a inductance. radiated rf could be detected around the
removable cover. A rather elaborate metering system is chassis except within one inch of the
For quarter- wavelength lines, the ratio employed. Although all of the meters anode exhaust hole.
of line impedance to reactance should be provide useful data, only the plate and To commence operation, the input
between 1.5 and 2.0 for the best band- grid meters are necessary for proper should be adjusted for minimum VSWR
width. Taking stray capacitance into ac- amplifier use. At a repeater site where with no voltages applied. The covers
count, expected tuning capacitance and key-down service is the rule rather than should be in place whenever voltage is
tube output capacitance gives a value of the exception, measurement of heater present. Drive should never be applied
55 ohms for Xc. Values of line impedance usage and voltage provide data requisite without plate voltage and a load con-
versus line length for resonance at 222 to tube replacement. The anode exhaust- nected if the filament is energized.
MHz were computed on aprogrammable temperature metering circuit takes advan- Cooling air must always be supplied
calculator for impedances between 30 and tage of athermal property of semiconduc- whenever the filament is turned on.
100 ohms. These were plotted on agraph. tors. As the temperature changes the for- After a60-second warmup small amounts
Final dimensions were determined using ward resistance of a diode ,langes in a of drive may be applied. The plate circuit
this system, choosing dimensions that fell nearly linear manner. The diode sensor is is then tuned for maximum output
into the middle of the graph, thus made a part of a bridge circuit, allowing indication. The drive level is then in-
allowing for any unpredicted effects. calibrated operation. Calibration may creased. Tuning and loading follow the
The plate blocking capacitor consists of be determined by packing the diode normal procedure for any cathode- driven
asandwich of brass plate and the stripline, in ice for the low point ( 0° C) and immers- amplifier: Adjustments are made for
with Teflon sheet as the dielectric. This ing it in boiling water for the high point maximum output and efficiency. When
forms a very low- loss, high voltage (100° C). The amount of heat dissipated the desired plate output power has been
capacitor. The plate bypass capacitor is by the tube is inversely proportional to the achieved, the input circuit should be
built along the same principles. A piece of adjusted for minimum input VSWR.

7-20
 GI

Fig. 33 — Construction details of the 220- MHz

plate line and associated components. Inches
x 25.4 = mm.

A GROUNDED- GRID KILOWATT

AMPLIFIER FOR 432 MHZ
An Eimac 8874 high- mu triode was
Fig. 34 — Interior view of the 220- MHz plate compartment. Contact of the tube with " hot side" of
selected for use in this amplifier. Triodes
C8 is accomplished with suitable finger stock ( available from the tube manufacturer). This con-
offer a simpler design approach than ductor, in conjuncticn with a similar one separated by the Teflon insulator, forms the L3/C8 com-
multigrid tubes, such as those in the bination. The entire assembly is sandwiched together by means of four insulated bushings ( ap-
popular 4CX250 family. No screen or bias proximately 3/4-Inch or 19-mm diameter). Placement of bushings is not critical. RFC4 can be seen
supplies are required and stability is all at the right connected to C9. C8 is seen at the right of the photo and has a nominal spacing of 1
inch (25 mm) to a similar plate soldered to L3. Tuning capacitor, C7, can be seen at the left con-
but guaranteed. The only price that must nected to C6. Drive mechanism can be of builder's choice.
be paid for these conveniences is the
added drive- power requirement. Approxi-
mately 25 watts of energy is required to
drive this amplifier to the 1-kW input
level. The amplifier will deliver over 500
watts of output when adjusted for opera-
tion at 1 kW input. This amplifier was
originally described in the October 1979
issue of QST by Stephen Powlishen,
K1FO.

Circuit Description
A schematic diagram of the 432- MHz
kilowatt is given in Fig. 36. WI is a half-
wavelength stripline which is tuned and
loaded by C6 and C7 respectively. Plate
choke RFC4 is connected at the approxi-
mate electrical center of the plate line. C8
functions as the plate- bypass capacitor.
Fig. 35 — The high- power uhf amplifier. The toggle switches control filament power and stand-
The half-wavelength cathode line is com-
by/operate functions respectively. Multimeter function is selected with the switch located be-
prised of W2, L2 and C2. LI and C 1serve tween the meters, while the plate tuning and loading controls are at the right. Modern knobs and
to match the tube input impedance to the homemade meter faces give the amplifier a commercial appearance.

7-21 Chapter 7
 J3
R7 Re R5
33k
Ce
RF OUT
1W C) J2

/47
RFC 4 /C7
LOAD
WI

VI, 8074
COLLET ONLY
C.
RF TUNE
IN Jt
15

RFC 3
64A
FROM 1112 NV
RF SAMPLER RELAY CONTACTS
S3
GRID
NO - NORMALLY OPEN
_ _ NC - NORMALLY CLOSED AMPLIFIER
J7
RF SWITCHING
(CONTACTS
R2 NOT SHOWN )
400/10W DI CW 10* 120W
O - 600 SSS
0. • 0
122V/ 625 SEC.
SA A es_IL
6K NO
L 54 6
J
TI
It•
21V/50V/
D2 AD3 RI
200/10W
NC
* OPTIONAL - SEE TEXT
K2C

K;IEi rzy,../ 32 04
T

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF PR).

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( Je
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( PF OR .P.PF).
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS,
k • I000, kl • 1000 000. PTT
5".F2pi
FI 25V 611
SA

OND J4

NEUTRAL HOT
117 117
VAC VAC

Fig. 36 — Schematic diagram of the amplifier.

J2 — Chassis mount N female connector, provide 600-mA full-scale deflection.
B1 — 50-f t 3 ( 1.4-m 3)/min blower, Ripley
UG-58A/U. M2 — 1-mA meter movement with shunts to
Sk2754-2A or equiv.
J3 — High-voltage connector, Millen 37001, provide 90-mA (grid current) and 3-kV (plate
Cl, C2 — Air-variable capacitor, 15 pF,
E. F. Johnson 189-0565-001, 160-0107-001 or J4, J5 — Power connectors, as available. voltage) full-scale deflection.
J6, J7 — RCA phono jacks. R4 — Grid-current shunt.
equiv.
K1 — Time-delay relay, 90 second, normally RFC1 — 10 turns no. 18 enam. wire, close
C3-05, incl. — Feedthrough capacitor, 500 pF,
open contact, Amperite 115N0907. wound, 1/4 inch (6 mm) diameter.
300 V.
C6-C8, incl. — Homemade " flapper" capacitor. K2 — Control relay, 28-volt coil, 1-A 4pdt RFC2, RFC3 — 10 turns no. 16 enam. wire,
contacts. close wound, 1/4 inch (6-mm) diameter.
Details of construction in text and Fig. 41.
K3, K4 — Coaxial relays equipped with suit- RFC4 — 5 turns no. 16 wire, one inch (25 mm)
C9, C10 — Electrolytic capacitor, 500 e4F, 25 V.
able connectors. K4 should have N con- long, 1/4 inch (6-mm) diameter.
D1 — 50-watt, 8.2-volt Zener diode, IR Z-3307-C
nectors, K3 may be BNC or N. Si — Toggle switch, spst.
or equiv.
D2- D5, incl. — 1-A 1000- Ply diode, 1N4007 or L1 — 3-1/2 turns no. 16 enam. wire, 3/4- inch S2 — Toggle switch, spst.
(19 mm) long, 1/4- inch (6 mm) diameter. S3 — Rotary switch, single pole, three
equiv.
L2 — 1-1/2 turns no. 16 enam. wire, 5/8-inch position.
D6 — 50-watt, 21-volt Zener diode (optional —
(16 mm) long, 114 inch (6 mm) diameter. S4 — Toggle switch, spat (optional, see text).
see text).
M1 — 1-mA meter movement with shunt to Ti — Filament transformer, 6.3-volt, 3-A,
F1, F2 — 3AG fuses.
Stancor P-6466 or equiv.
J1 — Chassis mount BNC female connector,
T2 — Transformer, 12.6 volts, 1A.
UG-1094/U.

voltage supply negative- return lead. M2 is Separate coaxial relays attached to the
amplifier 50-ohm input. As the grid is
grounded for dc as well as rf, DI is used to switched to read grid current, high voltage input and output terminals allow the
develop operating bias at the cathode. R3 and relative output. The latter function is amplifier to be switched in and out of the
by means of an external line sampler.' line in a manner popular with hf
is switched in to supply near-cutoff bias
during standby periods. MI is used solely amplifiers. Time-delay relay KI prevents
the amplifier from being switched into ser-
to monitor plate current in the high- 'McMullen, " The Line Sampler," QST, April 1972.

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7-22

 obtained with the unplated solid-copper
line. The line is supported by 1.5- inch
(38-mm) long ceramic insulators,
although standoffs made of Teflon will
also serve. C6 and C7 are made from
beryllium-copper sheet. Details of their
construction appear in Fig. 41. These
"flappers" are moved with fishing line
which is tied to 1/4- inch (6.4-mm) fiber
shafts. These shafts may be seen in the
underside view.
The anode collet ( Eimac no. 008294) is
secured to the bottom of WI with stan-
dard 60/40 solder. Use no. 4-40 screws
and nuts to hold the collet in place during
the soldering operation. The grid collet
(Eimac no. 882931) is attached to the
chassis with eight no. 4-40 machine screws
and nuts. A poor ground connection for
the grid will greatly increase the amplifier
drive requirements or make the unit total-
ly inoperative.
C8, the plate- bypass capacitor, is made
from two brass plates, one mounted on
Fig. 37 — Top view of the amplifier, with the plate compartment cover removed. The tube, plate either side of the plate compartment. A
line (W2) and RFC4 may be seen at the top of the photo. Note the large number of holes drilled in 0.005-inch (0.13-mm) thick piece of
the plate compartment to receive the cover hold-down screws. A tight seal is required to prevent Teflon sheet is used for the dielectric
rf and air leaks.
material. While this Teflon thickness may
seem inadequate, it is rated at 1000 volts
per mil (0.03 mm) thickness. It is
necessary to coat the dielectric with Dow
Corning type DC-4silicone grease to fill in
any imperfections in the surface that
might allow a leakage path and subse-
quent capacitor breakdown. This silicone
grease has dielectric properties similar to
Teflon. A no. 8 (4-mm) brass screw is
used to hold the plates in place, and also
acts as the high-voltage feedthrough ter-
minal. A 3/8- inch ( 10-mm) diameter
washer was sliced from a Teflon rod and
used to center the screw in the hole. Fig.
41 gives details of the remaining
metalwork.
An enclosure attached to the rear wall
houses the meter dropping resistors and
Fig. 36 — This bottom view shows the cathode compartment and the shafts for C6 and C7. provides a protective hood over the high-
A cover is placed over the cathode compartment during tune-up and operation.
voltage terminal. Imade this cover 3 x 4
X 1.5 inches ( 76 x 102 x 38 mm) in
size, but the dimensions are not critical.
vice for 90 seconds after the tube heater is 76- mm) plate compartment may be seen in As a final note on construction, it is
energized, allowing the element to reach the top view photo. Construction of the necessary to isolate the shaft of C 1from
operating temperature. A normally closed cathode compartment is similar, and may ground, if the rotor is connected to the
contact of K2 applies full voltage to the be seen in the photo of the underside. It shaft of the capacitor. Rf potential at this
heater during standby periods. The measures 4 x 4 x 1-3/4 inches ( 102 x point is low, allowing the capacitor to be
voltage is reduced during operation as 102 x 44 mm). The aluminum brackets mounted on a small piece of plastic if an
recommended by the manufacturer. holding the rf enclosures to the front insulated unit is not available.
panel also serve as end covers for the com-
Construction Cooling the Amplifier
partments. Compartment spacing from
Plate and cathode-compartment con- the panel is four inches ( 102 mm). A 5-1/4 This amplifier is thermally stable; that
struction is from 0.032-inch (0.8-mm) x 19-inch ( 133 x 483- mm) rack panel is is, heat-induced warping of tuned-circuit
thick aluminum sheet attached to 1/2- inch used. components and the resulting decrease in
(13-mm) aluminum angle stock. Some The plate line was fabricated from a power output is minimal. A major reason
angle stock may be anodized, giving the piece of 1/16-inch ( 1.6-mm) thick brass. is no doubt the effective cooling system
surface a dull appearance. This material Fig. 39 gives detailed information for used. The cathode compartment is
must be lightly sanded to remove the making the line. In addition to brass, lines pressurized with a medium-sized blower.
anodized metal, which is a poor conduc- were made from copper, both unplated Any convenient unit capable of supplying
tor. Holes are drilled in the angle stock to and silver plated, with no discernible dif- 50 ft'/min. ( 1.4 m'/min.) may be used. A
allow attachment of the covers; these are ference in efficiency. Double-sided G-10 piece of copper window screen is attached
tapped for no. 4-40 screws. Details of the printed circuit board would probably to the side cover with aluminum solder, to
10.5 x 4 x 3-inch ( 267 x 102 x work as well. Best thermal stability was shield the air inlet. Air flows from the

7-23 Chapter 7
 H 2-1/2" mm L. INCHES IL 25.4 FRONT TOP VIEW

SOCKET MOUNTING
NO. 29 TABS ARRANGED
1-3/4" DIA. NO.19 DRILL 0.166" (0.136 IN.) THIS WAY
FOR FISHLINE TO
FLAPPERS NO.35
(0.11 IN.) TUBE SOCKET HOLE
1-1/4" DIA
1-1/6"

1-1/e"

«It- 3 1/4 "-).

4"

6 3/4"

8.4" 3/8"
3-1/8"

10 1/2"
Fig. 39 — Dimensions of the plate line are given here. The line may be
constructed from 1/16-inch ( 1.6-mm) thick copper or brass. Corners of mm z INCHES z 25.4
the line should be filed to give a 3/16-inch (5-mm) radius.
(Al

2
CLEARANCE HOLE FOR
HV FEED - THROUGH
FOR N CONNECTOR
5/8" DIA
NO. 33 ( 0.113 IN.)

CATHODE LINE PLATE TUNING

10 1/2"
NO. 29
0.136"
mm INCHES It 25.4

mm z INCHES It 25.4 11/16"

(8)

LOADING

Fig. 41 — Dimensions of the cathode line and the flappers used to tune
and load the plate circuit are given here. Additional information Fig. 40 — At A, dimensions of the plate compartment bottom cover. At
is contained in the text. B, dimensions of the rear panel of the amplifier.

cathode compartment through the socket window screening is soldered over it. On ture. Now energize K2 and adjust R9 to
and into the plate compartment, pro- the side opposite the screening is soldered place 5.7 volts at the socket pins. Apply
viding some cooling of the grid area of the a 3/8-inch (9.5-mm) long piece of plate voltage (about 2000 volts). Idling
tube as well. A chimney is made of 1- 1/2-inch ( 38-mm) copper pipe. This plate current should be approximately 30
0.01-inch (0.25-mm) Teflon sheet, 1.5 x pipe has an outside diameter of 1-5/8 mA. Apply drive and adjust its level to
12 inches ( 38 x 305 mm) in size. A piece inches (41 mm) and should fit snugly into bring the plate current up to 150 mA. Ad-
of 1- 5/8-inch (41-mm) OD copper pipe the hole. The Teflon chimney will be held just C6 (plate tuning) for maximum out-
was used as aform to make the chimney. firmly in place and no air should leak put. Input capacitors C1and C2 may then
The Teflon is held together with RTV from the box without passing through the be coarsely adjusted for maximum plate
(room-temperature vulcanizing) adhesive. anode cooler. current. Simultaneously increase drive
Air in the plate compartment must now and adjust plate tuning and loading for
flow through the anode cooling fins to Operation maximum output until input power
escape. The air outlet is built on a Adjust R9 to place maximum resistance reaches one kilowatt or the desired level.
2- 1/4-inch (57-mm) square copper plate. in series with the tube heater. Apply The input circuit may be adjusted for
A 1- 5/8-inch (41-mm) diameter hole is heater power and allow two minutes for minimum reflected power when the prop-
made in the plate and a piece of copper the element to reach operating tempera- er drive level is established.

VHF and UHF Transmitting 7.24

 soldering iron used for the minimum time
BIAS necessary to make each joint. The top and
432- MHz 432 MHz ADJ.
INPUT C2 bottom surfaces of the stack should then
1000/FT
be made flat by filing, and then with
emery paper. It will be helful to place the
/296 MHz
L4 emery paper grit-side up on a hard sur-
face, such as glass, and then draw the
I D1 102 103 104 I DS C6 plate across its surface. Mating surfaces of
• • • the chassis and Li should also be carefully
C /-1-2
r7"7 flattened to ensure good thermal contact.
FT • FEEDTHROUGH 1296- MHz Output loop L5 is made of no. 18 wire,
OUTPUT
1/2-inch ( 13-mm) long, placed as near to
Li as possible.
The output filter, shown in Fig. 43C, is
Fig. 42 — Schematic diagram and parts list for the 432- to 1296- MHz tripler.
asimple cavity resonator. It may be built
C1-C3 — Air-variable capacitors, 3-11 pF. D1- D5 — 1N914 diodes or equiv. from thin brass or copper sheet. Before
C4-C6 — Piston-trimmer capacitors, 1-5 pF. R1 — 10-M1potentiometer, linear taper. drive is applied to the tripler, the filter
should be aligned. This may be done by
connecting it to areceiver and peaking on
AN INEXPENSIVE DIODE diodes aheat sink is fabricated, allowing aweak signal. Insertion loss should be less
MULTIPLIER FOR 23 CM up to 6watts drive at 432 MHz and 2watts than 1dB. The lock nut should be tight-
Instead of expensive and hard-to- find output at 1296 MHz. The five diodes are ened and the filter connected between the
varactors this tripler, designed by connected between two 1 x 5/8-inch (25 tripler and aload.
G8AZM, mes computer switching diodes. x 16-mm) plates to form astack, one side Adjust RI to its centerpoint and con-
It has been described in several RSGB of which is bolted to the chassis. The nect ahigh-impedance dc voltmeter across
publications. other side is fastened to LI. Great care it. When 5-watts drive at 432 MHz is ap-
A schematic diagram of the tripler is must be taken when soldering the diodes. plied to the tripler, Cl, C2 and C3 should
shown in Fig. 42. The unit is fabricated Lead length should be as short as possible. be adjusted for maximum meter deflec-
from sheet brass or copper. Construction To reduce the risk of damaging the tion (about 20 volts). RI and all tuning
details are shown in Fig. 43A and B. To diodes, the leads and the holes in the capacitors should then be adjusted for
increase the dissipation ability of the plates should be pretinned and a hot maximum rf output.

4"

2" 3/8"
BRASS TUNING SCREW

71 LOCK NUT
I A/
INPUT BEARING
1/16"
432 MHz
GAP ..-NUT

if
mm= IN. X 25.4
TYPE- N
JACKS
(A) 2"

1-5/8"

à 1'. _I
5/16
L1
C3 t- C5 - C6 3/81.
5-1N914 DIODES
xi 3/16" RAD.
1"SO.
9/32" APPROX.

FILTER
(B) (C)

Fig. 43 — Construction information for the tripler and filter. At A, a top view of the tripler, showing the position of the components. At B, a side view
of the tripler, showing the installation of D1- D5. At C, a cavity filter designed to remove undesired harmonics generated in the tripler.
L2 — 3 turns no. 24 enameled wire space after winding), wound on a 3/32- inch form (remove form
wound on a 3/32-inch form (remove form L3 — 12 turns no. 24 enameled wire close after winding).

7-25 Chapter 7
Chapter 8

Receiving Systems

H ow good should receiver performance

be? A suitable answer might be, "As good
being offered by some manufacturers, and
although performance is acceptable in
practical receiver operates. Design data
and related philosophy are included for
as is possible, consistent with the state of many instances, there is considerable those who are inspired toward developing
the amateur art and the money available room for improvement. At least there is a homemade receiver.
to the purchaser." That opens up awide only one mixer to cause intermodulation
area for debate, but the statement is not distortion ( IMD) and overloading prob- Sensitivity
meant to imply that a receiver has to be lems in a single-conversion superhetero- One of the least understood terms
costly or complex to provide good dyne receiver. A strong doubly bal- among amateurs is sensitivity. In acasual
performance: Some very basic, inex- anced mixer ( DBM) and careful gain definition the word refers to the ability of
pensive homemade receivers offer out- distribution in such a receiver can yield areceiver to respond to incoming signals.
standing performance. superb performance if a proper design It is proper to conclude from this that the
For many years the evolution of effort is put forth. Of course, the local better the sensitivity, the more responsive
commercial amateur receivers seemed to oscillator should be stable and low in the receiver will be to weak signals. The
stagnate except for the window dressing noise components to further enhance popular misconception is that the greater
and frills added to the front panels. performance. Thus far, not many com- the receiver front-end gain, the higher the
Emphasis was placed on "sensitivity" mercially built amateur receivers meet the sensitivity. An amateur who subscribes to
(whatever was really meant by that term) foregoing criteria. In terms of dynamic this concept can ruin the performance of a
in the advertising. Some amateurs con- range, some manufactured receivers ex- good receiver by installing a high-gain
cluded, as aresult of the strong push for hibit an M DS ( minimum discernible preamplifier ahead of it. Although this
sensitive receivers, that the mark of agood signal) of — 145 dBm (referenced to the will cause the Smeter to read much higher
unit was seen when atmospheric noise on noise floor), blocking of the desired signal on all signals, it can actually degrade the
the hf bands could push the S-meter does not occur ( 1dB of compression) until receiver sensitivity if the preamplifier is of
needle up to an S2 or S3. Very little the adjacent test signal is some 116-dB inferior design (noisy).
thought, if any, was given to the above the noise floor, and the two-tone A true measure of receiver sensitivity is
important parameters of a receiver — IMD dynamic range is on the order of 85 obtained when the input signal is ref-
high dynamic range, fine readout reso- dB. Greater detail concerning this erenced to the noise generated within the
lution and frequency stability. Instead, measurement technique is given in receiver. Since the significant noise genera-
countless receivers were placed on the Chapter 16. A receiver with the approxi- ted inside a receiver of good design
market with 5- or 10-kHz dial increments mate figures just given is considered to be originates in the rf and mixer stages
and excessive amounts of front-end gain. an acceptable one for use where fairly (sometimes in the post-mixer amplifier), a
The latter caused the mixer (or mixers) to strong signals prevail. However, it is low- noise front end is vital to high
collapse in the presence of moderate and possible to improve those numbers con- sensitivity. The necessary receiver gain
strong signals. Double-conversion super- siderably; it has been done by amateurs can be developed after the mixer — usually
heterodyne receivers were for along time who designed and built their own re- in the i -famplifier section. The internal
the choice of manufacturers and ama- ceivers. Examples are W7ZOI's " Compe- noise is generated by the thermal agitation
teurs. The second i -fwas often 100 or 50 tition Grade Receiver" (March and April of electrons inside the tubes, transistors or
kHz, thereby enabling the designer to get 1974 QST) and the W10ER receiver ICs. It is evident from the foregoing
fairly reasonable orders of selectivity by described in June and July 1976 QST. discussion that a receiver of high sen-
means of high-Q i -ftransformers. That The foregoing suggests strongly that sitivity could be one with relatively low
concept predated the availability of amateurs should consider designing and front-end gain. This thought should be
crystal-lattice and mechanical filters. The building their own receivers. Certainly, kept in mind as we enter the discussion of
low-frequency second i -fdictated the use such an endeavor is within the capability dynamic range and noise figure.
of adouble-conversion circuit in order to of many experimenters. The satisfaction
Noise Figure
minimize image responses. derived from such an effort can't be
Single-conversion receivers offer much measured. The following sections of this The lower the receiver noise figure
cleaner performance in terms of spurious chapter are written for those who wish to (NF), the more sensitive it is. Receiver
responses and dynamic range. They are acquire a better understanding of how a noise figures are established primarily in

Receiving Systems 8-1

 the rf amplifier and/or mixer stages.
Low- noise active devices ( tubes or transis-
tors) should be used in the receiver front
-3dB
end to help obtain alow noise figure. The -3dB
0.707 0.707
unwanted noise, in effect, masks the

AMPLITuDE-••
weaker signals and makes them difficult
to copy. Noise generated in the receiver
front end is amplified in the succeeding Fig. 1 — Block diagram of a noise measure-
stages along with the signal energy. ment setup.
Therefore, it is in the interest of sensitivity
that internal noise should be kept as low f2 fi
as possible. mode" (portion of the tube curve where MHz 1.87 19 1.93
Some amateurs confuse external noise saturation occurs, dependent upon
(man-made and atmospheric, which comes cathode temperature and plate voltage),
in on the antenna) with receiver noise the (excess) dB can be calculated by àf = 30 kHz
during discussions of noise figure. Al-
(excess) dB = 10 log (20R dl
d)
2M = 60 kHz
though the ratio of the external noise to
the incoming signal level has a lot to do
where 1.9
with reception, external noise does not fo
Rd =the noise source output resistance Qu - .2àf( — 3dB) = 06 MHz
—31.6
relate to this general discussion. It is
Id = the diode current in amperes
because external noise levels are quite
Most manufacturers of amateur com-
high on 160, 80, 40 and 20 meters that Fig. 2— A curve and equation for determining
emphasis is seldom placed on a low munications receivers rate the noise
the unloaded Q of a tuned circuit.
receiver noise figure for those bands. characteristics with respect to signal input.
However, as the operating frequency is A common expression is S + Noise/Noise,
increased from 15 meters up through the or the signal-to-noise ratio. Usually the
microwave spectrum, the matter of re- sensitivity is given as the number of pVs (-5413)
ceiver noise becomes aprimary considera- required for an S + Noise/Noise ratio of 18-2.0 MHz

tion. At these higher frequencies the 10 dB. Sensitivity can also be expressed in
CIA C18 5Cf: 7 GIG
terms of the minimum discernable signal
-

receiver noise almost always exceeds that 100 100 100

from external sources, especially at 2 (MDS) or noise floor of the receiver. (See Li I L2 L3 L4

meters and above. chapter 16). 68

Typically, the noise figure for a good 4 68

Noise-Figure Measurements receiver operating below 30 MHz runs
Amateurs can use a thermal noise about 5to 10 dB. Lower noise figures can
source for determining receiver noise be obtained, but they are of no real value I
figure. The resistance of the noise- because of the external noise arriving / )/
generator output must match that of the from the antenna. It is important to
receiver input, 50 ohms to 50 ohms, for remember also that optimum noise figure
example. Fig. 1shows asetup for making in an rf amplifier does not always coincide (A)
these measurements. The first reading is with maximum stage gain, especially at
taken with the noise generator turned off. vhf and higher. It is for this reason that o to
The receiver audio gain is adjusted for a actual noise measurements are important
5
convenient noise reading in dB, as ob- to peak performance.
served on the audio power meter. The 10

noise generator is turned on next, and its Selectivity

-15
output is increased until a convenient Many amateurs regard the expression
20
power ratio, expressed by N2/N i, is "selectivity" as equating to the ability of a
observed. The ratio N2/N i is referred to receiver to separate signals. This is a re
e
25

as the " Y- factor" and this noise figure fundamental truth, particularly with re- ' 30
measurement technique is commonly call- spect to i -f selectivity which has been
35
ed .the Y- factor method. From the established by means of high-Q filters
Y- factor and output power of the noise (LC, crystal, monolithic or mechanical). 40

generator the noise figure can be But in abroader sense, selectivity can be 45
calâlated. employed to reject unwanted signal
-50 \
NF = ENR — 10 log 10 (Y — 1) energy in any part of a receiver — the 175 le 1.85 19 1.95 20 2.05

where: front end, i -

f section, audio circuit or MHz

NF = noise figure in dB local-oscillator chain. Selectivity is a (B)

ENR = excess noise ratio of the noise relative term, since the degree of band-
width can vary from afew hertz to more Fig. 3 — A tunable Cohn type of filter is shown
generator in dB
at A. L5 and L6 are the bottom-coupling induc-
Y = output noise ratio, N2/N i. than a megahertz, depending on the
tors ( 1.45 el). L1 and L4 are 70 mH and L2, L3
The excess noise ratio of the generator is design objectives. Therefore, it is not are 140 H. A response curve for the tunable
uncommon to hear terms like " broadband filter is given at B.
ENR = 10 log 10 (— P
P2 — 1) filter" or " narrow- band filter."
The degree of selectivity is determined 3-dB point and the filter center fre-
where: by the bandwidth of afilter network. The quency is known as àf. The bandwidth of
P2 = noise power of the generator bandwidth is normally specified for the the filter then becomes 2 f. Fig. 2
P1 = noise power from aresistor at 290 minus 3-dB points on the filter response illustrates this principle and shows how
Kelvins. curve: the frequencies where the filter the unloaded Q of a tuned circuit or
If athermal diode such as a5722 tube is output power is half the peak output resonator relates to the band uidth charac-
used as the noise source, and if the circuit power elsewhere in the passband. 1he teristic.
is operated in the "temperature-limited difference in frequency between a minus If atuned circuit is used as afilter, the

8-2 Chapter 8
 higher its loaded Q, the greater the sitivity limit of the receiver. Simply stated,
selectivity. To make the skirts of the dynamic range is the dB difference ( or DETECTOR
response curve steeper, several high-Q ratio) between the largest tolerable re-
resonators can be used in cascade. This ceiver input signal (without causing audible
aids the selectivity by providing greater distortion products) and the minimum
rejection of signals close in frequency to discernible signal ( sensitivity).
RF
the desired one. The desirable effect of Poor dynamic range can cause ahost of NPUT

cascaded filter sections can be seen in Fig. receiving problems when strong signals
3. The circuit is that of a tunable Cohn appear within the front-end passband.
type of three-pole filter for use in the front Notable among the maladies is cross
end of a 160-meter receiver. The response modulation of the desired signal. Another £2 RI

curve is included to illustrate the se- effect is desensitization of the receiver

lectivity obtained. from astrong unwanted signal. Spurious
An ideal receiver with selectivity ap- signals may appear in the receiver
plied to various significant parts of the (A,
tuning range when a strong signal is
circuit might be structured something like elsewhere in the band. This is caused by DETECTOR
this: ¡MD products from the mixer. Clearly.
a) Selective front end for rejecting strong signals cause undesired interference
out-of-band signals to prevent overloading and distortion of the desired signal when a
and spurious responses. receiver's dynamic range is poor. Design
b) Selective i -fcircuit ( two i -ffilters: features of importance to high dynamic RF
,NPuT DI
one for 2.4-k Hz ssb bandwidth and one range receivers will. be appearing in the
for 400- Hz cw bandwidth). theory sections of this chapter. The four
C) RC active or passive audio filter for terms which have been defined in this
audio selectivity to reduce wideband section were thus treated to enable the
noise and provide audio selectivity in the reader to better understand the material
range from 400 to 2500 Hz ( ssb), or avery that follows. e
4
narrow bandwidth, such as 650 to 750 Hz,
for cw. Detection and Detectors ° AF
OUTPUT

d) Selective circuits or filters in the local Detection ( demodulation) is the process AF

GAIN
oscillator chain to reject all mixer in- of extracting the signal information from (B)
jection energy other than the desired a modulated carrier wave. When dealing
frequency. with an a- m signal, detection involves DETECTOR
This illustrates clearly that selectivity only the rectification of the rf signal. 02

does not simply mean the ability of are- During fm reception, the incoming signal
ceiver to separate one amateur signal from must be converted to an a-m signal for
another that is nearby in frequency, or to detection.
RF
INPUT

"separate the stations." More specifically, Detector sensitivity is the ratio of

it means that selectivity can be used to desired detector output to the input.
select one frequency or band of fre- Detector linearity is a measure of the
quencies while rejecting others. Practical ability of the detector to reproduce the
applications of selective circuit elements exact form of the modulation on the
will be found later in the chapter. incoming signal. The resistance or im-
pedance of the detector is the resistance or
Dynamic Range impedance it presents to the circuits it is
Here is another term which seems to connected to. The input resistance is
confuse some amateurs and even some important in receiver design, since if it is Fig. 4 — Simplified and practical diode detec-
tor circuits. A, the elementary half- wave diode
receiver manufacturers. The confusion relatively low it means that the detector
detector; B, a practical circuit with rf filtering
concerns true dynamic range ( as treated will consume power, and this power must and audio output coupling; C, full-wave diode
briefly at the start of this chapter) and the be furnished by the preceding stage. The detector, with output coupling indiciited. The
agc control range in areceiver. That is, if a signal-handling capability means the abili- circuit, L2Cl, is tuned to the signal frequency;
typical values for C2 and R1 in A aild C are 250
receiver agc circuit has the capability of ty to accept signals of a specified
pF and 250 MI, respectively; in 9, C2 and C3
controlling the overall receiver gain by amplitude without overloading or dis- are 100 pF each; R1, 50 kt); and R2 250 kn. C4
some 100 dB from a no-signal to a tortion. is 0.1 pF.
large-signal condition, a misinformed
individual might claim that the dynamic Diode Detectors
range of the receiver is 100 dB. A receiver The simplest detector for a- m is the detector or rectifier is shown in Fig. 5. A
with a true dynamic range of 100 dB diode. A germanium or silicon crystal is typical modulated signal as it exists in the
would be avery fine piece of equipment, an imperfect form of diode ( a small tuned circuit is shown at A. When this
indeed! current can usually pass in the reverse signal is applied to the rectifier, current
Dynamic range relates specifically to the direction), but the principle of detection in will flow only during the part of the rf
amplitude levels of multiple signals that asemiconductor diode is similar to that in cycle when the anode is positive with
can be accommodated during reception.' a vacuum-tube diode. respect to cathode, so that the output of
This is expressed as a numeric ratio, Circuits for both half-wave and full- the rectifier consists of half-cycles of rf.
generally in decibels. The present state of the wave diodes are given in Fig. 4. The These current pulses flow in the load
receiver art provides optimum dynamic simplified half-wave circuit at Fig. 4A circuit comprised of RI and C2, the
ranges of up to 100 dB. This is the includes the rf tuned circuit, L2C I, a resistance of RI and the capacitance of C2
maximum dynamic range attainable when coupling coil, LI, from which the rf being so proportioned that C2 charges to
the distortion products are at the sen- energy is fed to L2C1, and the diode, DI, the peak value of the rectified voltage on
with its load resistance, RI, and bypass each pulse and retains enough charge
'Hayssaid, " Defining and Measuring Receiver capacitor, C2. between pulses so that the voltage across
Dynamic Range," QST, July, 1975. The progress of the signal through the RI is smoothed out, as shown in C. C2

Receiving Systems 8-3

 MODULATED 11 11 9i
SIGNAL APPLIED
TO DETECTOR .411111 11111iii r
.

Fig. 5 — Illustrations of the detection process.

thus acts as afilter for the radio- frequency

component of the output of the rectifier,
leaving adc component that varies in the
same way as the modulation on the
original signal. When this varying dc Fig. 6 — Plate-detection circuits. In each example the input circuit is tuned to the signal fre-
voltage is applied to afollowing amplifier quency. Typical R1 values for the tube circuit at A are 1000 to 5600 ohms. For the FET circuit
through a coupling capacitor ( C4 in Fig. at B, R1 is on the order of 100 to 3900 ohms.
4), only the variations in voltage are
transferred, so that the final output signal
is ac, as shown in D.
In the circuit at 4B, R Iand C2 have
been divided for the purpose of providing
a more effective filter for rf. It is
important to prevent the appearance of
any rf voltage in the output of the
detector, because it may cause over-
loading of a succeeding amplifier stage.
The audio- frequency variations can be
transferred to another circuit through a
coupling capacitor, C4. R2 is usually a
"potentiometer" so that the audio volume
can be adjusted to a desired level.
Coupling from the potentiometer (volume
control) through a capacitor also avoids Fig. 7 — An infinite- impedance detector.
any flow of dc through the moving
contact of the control. The flow of dc
through a high-resistance volume control
often tends to make the control noisy tuned circuit is reduced, bringing about a near the plate- current cutoff point. The
(scratchy) after ashort while. reduction in selectivity. The loading effect same is true of a JFET or MOSFET.
The full- wave diode circuit at Fig. 4C of the diode is close to one half the load Impedance coupling may be used in place
differs in operation from the half- wave resistance. The detector linearity is good, of the resistance coupling shown in Fig.6.
circuit only in that both halves of the rf and the signal- handling capability is high. Usually 100 henrys or more of inductance
cycle are utilized. The full- wave circuit has is required.
Plate Detectors
the advantage that rf filtering is easier The plate detector is more sensitive
than in the half- wave circuit. As a result, The plate detector is arranged so that than the diode because there is some
less attenuation of the higher audio rectification of the rf signal takes place in amplifying action in the tube or transistor.
frequencies will be obtained for any given the plate circuit of the tube or the drain of It will handle large signals, but is not so
degree of rf filtering. an FET. Sufficient negative bias is applied tolerant in this respect as the diode.
The reactance of C2 must be small to the grid to bring the plate current near- Linearity, with the self- biased circuits
compared to the resistance of RI at the ly to the cutoff point, so that application shown, is good. Up to the overload point
radio frequency being rectified, but at of asignal to the grid circuit causes an in- the detector takes no power from the
audio frequencies must be relatively large crease in average plate current. The tuned circuit, and so does not affect its Q
compared to R I. If the capacitance of C2 average plate current follows the changes and selectivity.
is too large, response at the higher audio in the signal in afashion similar to the rec-
tified current in a diode detector. Infinite-Impedance Detector
frequencies will be lowered.
Compared with most other detectors, In general, transformer coupling from The circuit of Fig. 7combines the high
the gain of the diode is low, normally the plate circuit of a plate detector is not signal- handling capabilities of the diode
running around 0.8 in audio work. Since satisfactory, because the plate impedance detector with the low distortion and, like
the diode consumes power, the Q of the of any tube is very high when the bias is the plate detector, does not load the tuned

8-4 Chapter 8
circuit it connects to. The circuit
resembles that of the plate detector, ex-
cept that the load resistance, 27-kfl, is
connected between source and ground
and thus is common on both gate and
drain circuits, giving negative feedback
for the audio frequencies. The source
resistor is bypassed for rf but not for
audio, while the drain circuit is bypassed
to ground for both audio and radio fre-
quencies. An rf filter can be connected
between the source and the output cou-
pling capacitor to eliminate any rf that
might otherwise appear in the output.
The drain current is very low with no
signal, increasing with signal as in the case
of the plate detector. The voltage drop
across the source resistor consequently in-
creases with signal. Because of this and
the large initial drop across this resistor,
the gate usually cannot be driven positive,
with respect to the source, by the signal.
Product Detectors
A product detector is similar in function
to a balanced or product modulator. It is
also similar to amixer. In fact, the latter is
sometimes called a " first detector" in a
receiver circuit. Product detectors are
used principally for ssb and cw signal
detection. Essentially, it is a detector
whose output is approximately equal to
the product of the beat- frequency oscil-
lator ( BFO) and the rf signals applied to
it. Output from the product detector is at
audio frequency. Some rf filtering is
necessary at the detector output to
prevent unwanted i -for BFO voltage from
reaching the audio amplifier which fol-
lows the detector. LC or RC rf decoupling
networks are satisfactory, and they need
not be elaborate. Fig. 9 illustrates this
type of filtering.

Diode Product Detectors

The product detectors shown in Fig. 8
Fig. 8 — Examples of diode product detectors. Singly balanced types are shown at A and B.
are called " passive. - The term means that
A doubly balanced version is illustrated at C.
the devices used do not require an
operating voltage. Active devices ( transis-
tors, ICs and tubes) do require an
operating voltage. Passive mixers and noise figure and good port-to-port signal using adiode-array IC, such as the RCA
detectors exhibit aconversion loss, whereas isolation. This type of detector is excellent CA3019 or 3039. Hot-carrier diodes ace
active detectors can provide conversion at the input of adirect-conversion receiver excellent for the circuits shown. Matched
gain. Passive detectors usually require a (to be treated later in the chapter). 1N914s are the chdide of many amatéur
substantially greater level of BFO in- The transformers shown in the circuits designers.
jection voltage than is the case with active of Fig. 8are broadband, toroidal-wound A singly balanced detector is seen at A
detectors. Therefore, the primary draw- types. The black dots near the windings of in Fig. 8. An improved singly balanced
backs to the use of diodes in these circuits T1and T2 indicate the phasing required. detector is shown at B. Two diodes have
are the loss in gain and the high injection The core material is ferrite and the been added to improve the circuit balance
level required. A typical conversion loss windings are trifilar. Core permeability while presenting amore symmetrical load
for atwo-diode detector ( Fig. 8A) is 5dB. can be 950 for most applications, al- to the BFO. The result is better isolation
The four-diode detectors have a loss of though some designers use cores with less between the BFO and i -finput ports.
approximately 8 dB. The BFO injection initial permeability. An Amidon FT- 50-43 Two broadband transformers are used
level for each of the diode detectors shown is entirely suitable as a transformer core to provide the doubly balanced detector
in Fig. 8is + 13 dBm, or 20 rnW. Since the for the circuits shown. Fifteen trifilar of Fig. 8C. The advantage with this
terminal impedance of the detector is turns are ample for each transformer. configuration is that all three ports are
roughly 50 ohms, an rms BFO voltage of High-speed silicon switching diodes are isolated from one another effectively.
1, or a pk-pk voltage of 2.8 is required. satisfactory for use in the circuits of Fig.
The advantages to the use of diodes in a 8. They should be as closely matched as Simple Active Product Detectors
product detector are circuit simplicity, possible for forward and back resistance. Fig. 9 contains two examples of
low cost, broadband characteristics, low Closely matched diodes can be had by single-ended active detectors which em-

Receiving Systems 8-5

 shown in Fig. 12A. The fm signal is
converted to a-m by means of trans-
former T1. The voltage induced in the Il
secondary is 90 degrees out of phase with
the current in the primary. The primary
signal is introduced through acenter tap
on the secondary, coupled through a
capacitor. The secondary voltages com-
bine on each side of the center tap so that
the voltage on one side leads the primary
signal while the other side lags by the
same amount. When rectified, these two
voltages are equal and of opposite
polarity, resulting in zero-voltage output.
A shift in input frequency causes ashift in
the phase of the voltage components that
result in an increaie of output amplitude
on one side of the secondary, and a
corresponding decrease on the other side.
The differences in the two changing
voltages, after rectification, constitute the
audio output.
RCA developed acircuit that has now
become standard in entertainment radios
and which eliminated the need for a
preceding limiter stage. Known as the
ratio detector, this circuit is based on the
idea of dividing adc voltage into aratio
which is equal to the ratio of the
amplitudes from either side of a dis-
criminator transformer secondary. With a
detector that responds only to ratios, the
Fig. 9 — Active product detectors. A JFET example is provided at A and a dual-gate MOSFET input signal may vary in strength over a
type is at B. wide range without causing a change in
the level of output voltage — fm can be
detected, but not a-m. In an actual ratio
detector, Fig. 12B, the dc voltage required
is developed across two load resistors,
shunted by an electrolytic capacitor.
ploy FETs. They are quite acceptable for tectors are given in Fig. 10. A singly
Other differences include the two diodes,
use in simple receivers which do not balanced version is shown at A. It uses an
which are wired in series-aiding rather
require high performance characteristics. RCA differential-pair IC. Except for the
than series-opposing, as in the standard
The circuit at A uses a JFET which has conversion gain it provides, it performs
BFO injection voltage supplied across the discriminator circuit. The recovered audio
similarly to the singly balanced diode
is taken from atertiary winding which is
source resistor. Because the source is not detector of Fig. 8B. Doubly balanced
tightly coupled to the primary of the
bypassed, instability can occur if the active detectors are seen at Band C of Fig.
transformer. Diode-load resistor values
circuit is used as amixer which has an i -f 10. These ICs contain two sets of
are selected to be lower (5000 ohms or
that is close to the signal frequency. This differential amplifiers each. The "diff
less) than for the discriminator.
problem is not apt to become manifest amps" are cross-connected in the exam-
,when the output is at audio frequency. The sensitivity of the ratio detector is
ples shown to obtain doubly balanced
one half that of the discriminator. In
Slightly more injection power is needed circuits. The virtues of these detectors are
general, however, the transformer design
for circuit A than is necessary for the similar to the equivalent four-diode types,
values for Q, primary-secondary coupling,
detector at B. An rms voltage of roughly but they exhibit several dB of conversion
and load will vary greatly, so the actual
0.8 is typical (6.5 mW). gain. The MC1496G is made by Motorola
performance differences between these
The detector of Fig. 9B operates in a and the CA3102E is an RCA device.
two types of fm detectors are usually not
similar fashion to that of A, but the BFO
significant. Either circuit can provide
is injected on control gate no. 2. FM Detectors
excellent results.
Approximately 1volt rms is needed (0.1 The first type of fm detector to gain A crystal discriminator is shown in Fig.
mW). FETs with proper injection levels popularity was the frequency discrimi-
12C. This provides an adjustment- free
and moderate signal-input amounts have nator. The characteristic of such a
discriminator by virtue of the quartz
excellent IMD characteristics. Generally, detector is shown in Fig. 11. When the fm resonator. The components without as-
they are preferred to single-ended, bipolar- signal has no modulation, and the carrier
signed values are selected to give the
transistor detectors. The circuits at A and is at point zero, the detector has no
desired bandwidth.
B contain rf chokes and bypass capacitors output. When audio input to the fm
in the drain leads to minimize the transfer transmitter swings the signal higher in
of BFO energy to the succeeding audio frequency, the rectified output increases in TRF Receivers
stage. The bypass capacitors are useful
the positive direction. Over a range Tuned-radio-frequency receivers have
also fór rolling off the unwanted high- little value in Amateur Radio today, but
where the discrimination is linear (shown
frequency audio components.
as the straight portion of the line), the in the early days they were suitable for the
conversion of fm to a-m which is taking reception of spark and a-m signals. They
Active Balanced Product Detectors place will be linear. consisted mainly of acouple of stages of
Examples of active IC product de- A practical discriminator circuit is selective rf amplification, an a-m type of

8- 6 Chapter 8
 0.005

SIGNAL HI- Z T LO- Z

12
INPUT AF
OUTPUT

1200
0.01 -
2200 560 21 UI 16

BFO
INJ.
e
+12V BOTTOM
(1.5V RMS 2mW)

(A) Fig. 11 — Characteristic of an fm

discriminator.

uses for the TR F receiver are restricted

mainly to reception of a- m broadcast
(300mV RMS)
BFO signals, for hi-fi reception and for field-
INPUT
strength indicators of cw or a- m signals.
SIGNAL
Superregenerative receivers were quite
INPUT popular among vhf and uhf amateurs in
the ' 30s, '40s and early ' 50s. The principle
15V
4 6
of operation was an oscillating detector
3 7 which had its oscillation interrupted
2 8
1 9
(quenched) by a low- frequency voltage
10 slightly above the audible range ( 20 to 50
BOTTOM kHz being typical). Some superregenera-
tive detectors employed a so-called self-
quenching trait, brought about by means
0.001
of an RC network of the appropriate time
/47 constant. The more esoteric " supergenny"
470 470
or " rushbox" detectors used an outboard
SIGNAL HI- Z
INPUT
T1
0-Z
12 3 0 AF quench oscillator. This type of circuit was
OUTPUT
more sensitive than the straight regenerative
141 detector, but was best suited for reception
8 OHMS
(NOT USED) of a- m and wide- band fm signals. Because
of the quenching action and frequency,
the detector response was extremely
broad, making it unsuitable for narrow-
0.001
band signals versus audio recovery.
- 00
High-Q input tuned circuits helped make
them more selective, but a typical
BFO INPUT
superregenerative receiver which used a
100
(1.5V RMS tuned cavity at the detector input could
4.5 mV/ ) 1500 1500 4700
accommodate only 10 1000-µV, 30-percent
3 4 5 6 7 modulated a-m signals in a range from 144
12V
to 148 MHz without signal overlap. These
2200
•• PHASING tests were performed in the ARRL
laboratory with the 10 signals separated
/ / 141312 11 10 9 8
from one another by equal amounts.
(C) BOTTOM
A major problem associated with the
use of regenerative and superregenerative
Fig. 10 — Examples of IC product detectors. At A is a singly balanced version, while those at receivers was oscillator (detector)
B and C are doubly balanced. radiation. The isolation between the
detector and the antenna was extremely
poor, even when an rf amplifier was
employed ahead of the detector. In many
detector and an audio amplifier. Varia-
could be copied, if they were loud, when instances the radiated energy could be
tions were developed as regenerative and
the regeneration control was set for a heard for several miles, causing intense
superregenerative receivers. The straight
non-oscillating condition. For weak-signal interference to other amateurs in the
regenerative detector was simply aself-os-
a- m reception the regeneration control community.
cillating detector which provided in-
was advanced to increase the detector
creased sensitivity ( similar in function to a Direct-Conversion Receivers
sensitivity and the signal was tuned in at
product detector) and a beat note for cw zero beat, thereby eliminating the het- A more satisfactory type of simple
reception. Amplitude- modulated signals
erodyne from the carrier. Present-day ieceiver is called the direct- conversion or

Receiving Systems 8-7

 selectivity is provided by atuned circuit.
TI Ti is a broadband, trifilar-wound toroid
transformer. It is tapped on the input
tuned circuit at the approximate 50-ohm
point. An rf filter is used after D1 and D2
to prevent LO energy from being passed
on to the audio amplifier.
Fig. 13B illustrates an active singly
balanced IC detector. The input im-
pedance across pins 1 and 5 is roughly
T1- MILLER 12-C45 1000 ohms. However, the secondary
winding of the input tuned circuit can be
FM DISCRIMINATOR ( A) made lower than 1000 ohms to reduce the
signal amount to the detector. This will
ensure improved dynamic range through a
deliberate mismatch. Such a practice is
1N674 1000
useful when an rf amplifier precedes the
detector. For maximum sensitivity when
6800
330 no rf amplifier is included, it is more prac-
8),IF+ tical to use a 1000-ohm transformation
25V from the 50-ohm antenna (larger link at
330 6800 the detector input). An audio transformer
1N67A 1500 is used at the detector output. The
primary winding should have low dc
68

71- MILLER 1606

resistance to provide dc balance between
the collectors of the differential-amplifier
330
pair in the IC. Alternatively, a center-
1000 AF OUT tapped primary can be used. If this is
- r-
done, pin 8 should be connected to one
FM RATIO DETECTOR
end of the winding and the B+ fed to the
(B) center tap. The impedance between pins 6
and 8 is approximately 8000 ohms.
In order to obtain ample headphone
volume during reception of weak signals it
Z1 10k
AF is necessary to use an audio amplifier
OUT
which has between 80 and 100 dB of gain.
The first af amplifier should be a
FROM low- noise type, such as a JFET. The
LIMITER
audio-gain control should follow the first
audio amplifier. Selectivity for ssb and cw
reception can be had by including a
passive or RC active audio filter after the
Z1- SPECTRUM I
100 INT'L ASS",' gain control. Fig. 13C contains a circuit
which shows a typical direct-conversion
receiver in its entirety. As was stated
FM CRYSTAL DISCRIMINATOR
earlier, the detector is operating as a
(C)
product detector rather than amixer, and
the VFO is serving as a BFO. The
difference frequency between the in-
Fig. 12 — Popular types of fm detectors. coming 7- MHz signal and the 7- MHz
BFO injection voltage is at audio fre-
quency (zero i -f). This is amplified by
means of Q I, filtered through a passive
LC audio network, then amplified by two
40-dB op-amp stages. It is possible to
synchrodyne type. Although there is a ahead of the detector at 14 MHz and copy a-m signals with this type of receiver
distinct possibility of signal radiation, it is higher, but it is seldom necessary from 160 by tuning the signal in at zero beat.
considerably lower in level than with through 40 meters. This is because the Direct-conversion receivers of the type
regenerative receivers. This results from atmospheric and man-made noise from illustrated in Fig. 13 provide double-
better isolation between the antenna and the resonant antenna usually exceeds that signal reception. That is, acw beat note
the source of the oscillation. A modern of the detector below 14 MHz. When no rf will appear either side of zero beat. This is
direct-conversion receiver uses a separate stage is used, it is desirable to include a useful during sideband reception, wherein
oscillator and a balanced or doubly tuned network ahead of the detector. the upper sideband is received on one side
balanced detector. Both features help to Fig. 13 shows typical front ends for of zero beat and the lower sideband will
reduce unwanted radiation. direct-conversion receivers. One circuit appear on the opposite side of zero beat.
The detection stage of this receiver is (A) employs apassive detector. The other QRM will be greater, of course, with this
actually a product detector that operates (B) contains an active detector. The latter kind of receiver because there is no
at the desired signal frequency. The is desirable in the interest of increased rejection of the unwanted sideband. Some
product-detector circuits described earlier gain. designers have contrived elaborate circuits
in the chapter are suitable in this kind of The circuit of Fig. 13A shows a singly which, by means of phasing networks,
receiver. A tuned rf amplifier is useful balanced passive detector. Front-end provide single-signal reception. Unfor-

8-8 Chapter 8
 tunately, the circuit becomes nearly as
complex as that of superheterodyne The
benefits obtained aie probably not worth
the effort.
Direct-conversion receivers are not
especially suitable above 14 MHz because
it is difficult to secure adequate BFO
stability at so high a frequency. A
practical solution to the problem is the
employment of a heterodyne BFO chain
in which a 5-M Hz VFO is heterodyned
with crystal-controlled oscillators. Direct-
conversion receivers are ideal for use in
simple transceivers because the BFO can
be used also as the frequency source for
the transmitter, provided the appropriate
frequency offset is included between
transmit and receive to permit copy of ssb
and cw signals without readjusting the
BFO.

Characteristic Faults
A major difficulty connected with
direct-conversion receivers is tnicrophonics.
The effect is noted when the operating
receiver is bumped or moved. An an-
noying ringing sound is heard in the
receiver output until the mechanical
vibration ceases. The simple act of
peaking the front end or adjusting the
volume control can set off a microphonic
response. This trait is caused by the ex-
tremely high gain needed in the audio
amplifier. Slight electrical noises in the
receiver front end, caused by small
vibrations, are amplified many times by
the audio channel. They are quite loud by
the time they reach the speaker or phones.
The best precautionary measure to reduce
inicrophonics is to make all of the
detector and BFO circuit leads and
components as rigid as possible. Addition
of an rf amplifier stage ahead of the
detector will also help by virtue of
increasing the front-end gain. This re-
duces the amount of audio gain needed to
copy a signal, thereby diminishing the
loudness of the microphonics.
The other common problem inherent in
direct- conversion receivers is hum ( Fig.
14). The fault is most pronounced when
an ac type of power supply is used. The
hum becomes progressively worse as the
operating frequency is increased. For the
most part, this is caused by ac ground
loops in the system. The ac modulates the
BFO voltage, and the hum- modulated
energy is introduced in the detector
directly, as well as being radiated and
picked up by the antenna. The most
practical steps toward a cure are to affix
an effective earth ground to the receiver
chassis and power supply, use a battery
power supply, and feed the antenna with
coaxial cable. End- fed wire antennas
increase the possibility of hum if they are
voltage fed ( high impedance at the
receiver end). Decoupling of the ac power
supply leads ( dc leads to the receiver) is
also an effective preventive measure for Fig. 13 — Typical detectors which can be used in the front ends of direct-conversion receivers.
A passive diode detector is shown in A. The active detector ( B) provides considerable conversion
hum. This was explained by Hayward,
gain. An example of a practical direct-conversion receiver for 40 meters is shown in C.

Receiving Systems 8-9

W7Z01, in July 1977 QST, page 51. The
cure is to add a toroidal decoupling
choke, bifilar wound, in the plus and
CORE F.950
minus dc leads from the power supply. COAX
117
FEED
This will prevent high-impedance rf paths VAC

between the power supply and receiver.

The effect is to prevent BFO energy from TOROIDAL
RECEIVER
entering the power supply, being modula- DECOUPLING
CHOKE EARTH GROUND
ted by the rectifier diodes and being EARTH GROUND

reradiated by the ac line. This form

of buzz is called "common-mode Fig. 14 — A method for eliminating common- mode hum in a direct-conversion receiver, as
hum." described by W7Z01.

Superheterodyne Receivers
Nearly all of the present-day communi- various alternatives to the circuits in- by some designers in preference to simple
cations receivers are structured as super- dicated in the block diagram. The local shunt audio noise limiters. An assortment
heterodyne types. Fig. 15 shows asimple oscillator, for example, might utilize a of techniques is being used to improve the
block diagram of a single-conversion phase-locked loop or synthesizer type of overall selectivity of these receivers —
superheterodyne circuit. This basic design LO chain rather than a straight VFO. elaborate i -f filtering, RC active or LC
has been popular since the 1930s, and only Digital readout is used in some models in passive audio filters. However, the basic
a few general circuit enhancements have place of the more traditional analog circuit concept remains unchanged. The
been introduced in recent years. Sophisti- readout method. Rf types of noise advancement of greatest significance in re-
cated versions of this type of receiver use blankers (often very complex) are chosen cent years is the changeover from vacuum

Fig. 15 — Block diagram of a single-conversion superheterodyne receiver for 20 meters. The arrows indicate the direction of signal and voltage
components.

8-10 Chapter 8
tubes to semiconductors. This has in-
creased the life span of the of the equip-
ment, improved overall efficiency, aided
stability (reduced heating), and con-
tributed to greater ruggedness and
miniaturization.
Some manufacturers still produce dou-
ble- or multiconversion superheterodyne
receivers, but the circuits are similar to
that of Fig. 15. Multiconversion receivers
have asecond mixer and LO chain for the
purpose of making the second i -flower
than the first. This helps to increase the
overall selectivity in some designs, but it
often degrades the receiver dynamic range
through the addition of a second mixer.
Multiconversion receivers are more prone
to spurious responses than is the case with
single-conversion designs, owing to the
additional oscillator and mixing fre-
quencies involved. The "cleanest" per-
formance is obtained from properly
designed single-conversion receivers.

Circuit Function
In the example of Fig. 15 it is assumed
that the receiver is adjusted to receive the
20-meter band. Front-end selectivity is
provided by the resonant networks before Fig. 16 — Layout of a typical modern amateur receiver.
and after the rf amplifier stage. This part
of the receiver is often called the which is amplified and fed to aspeaker or setting) over an incoming signal-level
preselector, meaning that it affords a headphones. The BFO is adjusted for variation of 100 dB. The net effect is to
specific degree of front-end selectivity at reception of the upper or lower sideband, prevent overloading of some of the
the operating frequency. The rf amplifier depending on which is appropriate at the receiver stages and to protect the operator
increases the level of the signal from the time. In either case the BFO frequency is from the startling effect of tuning from a
antenna before it reaches the mixer. The offset slightly from the center frequency of weak signal to an extremely loud one. Fig.
amount of amplification is set by the the i -ffilter. For ssb reception it is usually 16 shows the front panel and controls for
designer, consistent with the overall offset approximately 1.5 kHz, in which a typical amateur-band superheterodyne
circuit requirements (gain distribution). case it falls on the slope of the i-fresponse receiver.
Generally, the gain will be from afew dB curve. For cw reception the BFO is offset
to as much as 25 dB. approximately 700 Hz from the i -ffilter Local Oscillators
When the incoming signal reaches the center frequency to produce a 700- Hz A good communications receiver con-
mixer it is heterodyned with the local- peak audio tone in the speaker. Other tains oscillators that operate in a stable
oscillator frequency to establish an i -f values of cw offset are common, but 700 and spectrally pure manner. Poor oscil-
(intermediate frequency). The i -fcan be Hz is preferred by many cw operators. lator performance can spoil the best of
the sum or the difference of the two The overall gain of the receiver can be receivers even though all other parts of the
frequencies. In the example given, the i -fis adjusted manually ( by means of a circuit are functioning in elegant fashion.
the difference frequency, or 9 MHz. panel-mounted control) or automatically. Not only should the oscillator be stable
An i -ffilter ( crystal lattice or ceramic The latter is accomplished by means of an with regard to short- and long-term drift,
monolithic) is used after the mixer. At low agc circuit. Energy can be sampled from it should have minimum noise in the
intermediate frequencies (455 kHz and the i -f amplifier output or the audio output (at least 80 dB below the peak
similar), mechanical filters are often used. amplifier. Depending on the method used, value of the fundamental energy) and be
The i -f filter sets the overall receiver the resultant age is called i -f derived or reasonably free of spurious responses.
selectivity. For ssb reception it is usually audio derived. There are many arguments Concerning the latter, it is not difficult to
2.1 kHz wide at the 3-dB points of the pro and con about which method is best. design an oscillator which has all har-
filter response curve. For cw reception it is They shall not be considered here. In Fig. monics attenuated by 60 or 70 dB.
between 200 and 500 Hz in bandwidth, 15 the age voltage is sampled from the i -f Another important characteristic of an
depending upon the design objective. strip, amplified by the age amplifier and oscillator is quick starting when operating
Wider filters are available for a- m then rectified to provide a dc control voltage is applied.
reception. voltage. A dc amplifier is used to drive the Oscillator instability can result from a
Output from the i -ffilter is increased by age terminals of the rf and i -famplifiers. It host of poor design practices. To improve
one or more amplifier stages. The overall can be used also to operate an Smeter for the stability characteristics it is useful to
gain of most i -fstrips varies from 50 to observing relative signal-strength levels. observe the following:
100 dB. The amount of signal gain is When the incoming signal is weak the 1) Use regulated operating voltages
determined by the design objective, the gain-controlled stages operate fully. As (well filtered).
type of amplifier devices used, and the the incoming signal becomes stronger the 2) Avoid whenever possible the use of
number of gain stages. age circuit starts lowering the gain of the magnetic core material in the oscillator
The amplified i -fenergy is routed to a rf and i-fstages, thereby leveling the audio tank coil. Air-wound or ceramic- form
product detector where it is mixed with output at the speaker. A well-designed age coils are best if they are rigid.
the beat- frequency oscillator output. This system will provide a uniform level of 3) Use temperature-stable, fixed- value
produces an audio- frequency voltage audio output (at a given at-gain control capacitors in the frequency-determining

Receiving Systems 8-11

 +9V
REG
25 0.01

S.M.
- EN>
7M Hz EZI
F°8e1TPUT
50

50 1000

+9V
REG

COLPITTS
PIERCE
(A)
(8)

05C.
2N4416 14 OR 21 MHz OUTPUT

D 42 MHz

Fig. 18 — Method for changing crystals by

means of diode switching.

amounts of feedback to provide operation

which is comparable with that of lively
0.01
z- 7- 7
crystals. Some surplus crystals are slug-
+9V gish, as can be the case with those which
REG.
have been reground or etched for a
HARMONIC OSC THIRD OVERTONE OSC.
different operating frequency. Therefore,
(C)
some experimentation with feedback vol-
tage may be necessary when optimizing a
Fig. 17 — Practical examples of crystal-controlled oscillators. given circuit. As a rule of thumb it is
necessary to use one-fourth of the
oscillator output power as feedback
part of the circuit. Polystyrene and silver- quency. Furthermore, mechanical in- power, to ensure oscillation.
mica capacitors are recommended. stability can result if the slugs are not Fig. 17 shows four common types of
4) Ensure that all mechanical and elec- affixed securely in the coil forms. Toroidal oscillator. The same circuits can be used
trical components are secured rigidly in inductors are similarly unsuitable for use with tubes by applying the appropriate
their part of the circuit. This will lessen in stable VF0s. operating voltages. Cl is included for
the chance for mechanical instability. Oscillator noise can be held to an adjusting the crystal to the frequency for
5) Build the oscillator on a firm, flex- acceptable level by employing high-Q which it has been ground. In circuits
free chassis. tuned circuits. The higher the tank Q, the where considerable shunt capacitance is
6) When practical, enclose the narrower the bandwidth, and hence, the present ( Fig. l7A and C) the trimmer is
oscillator in its own shield compartment lower the noise output voltage. Excessive usually connected in series with the
and use rf filtering in the dc supply leads. LO noise will have a serious effect on crystal. When there is minimal parallel
mixer performance. capacitance ( approximately 6 pF in the
Needless to say, the more constant the
ambient temperature surrounding the High amounts of harmonic current in circuits at B and D, Fig. 17) the netting
oscillator, the greater will be the fre- the LO-chain output can cause unwanted trimmer can be placed in parallel with the
quency stability. mixer injection. If the receiver front-end crystal. Whether a series or parallel(
Precautions should be taken to ensure selectivity is not of high magnitude, trimmer is used will depend also on the
that the oscillator in areceiver looks into spurious signals from outside the band of type of crystal used (load capacitance and
aconstant load impedance. Even minute interest will be heard along with the other factors).
load changes will cause phase shifts which desired ones. Harmonic energy can de- Feedback capacitance (Crb) for the
can affect the oscillator frequency. The grade the performance of some kinds of circuit at B in Fig. 17 must be found
effect is more pronounced with VFOs mixers, making it worthwhile to use experimentally. Generally, avalue of 100
than it is with crystal-controlled oscil- suitable filtering at the LO-chain output. pF will suffice for operation from 3.5 to
lators. Because of these conditions it is 20 MHz. As the operating frequency is
Crystal Oscillators lowered it may require additional ca-
good design practice to couple very lightly
to the oscillator stage. The power level can Although there is a wide variety of pacitance. The drain rf choke should be
be increased by adding one or more crystal-controlled oscillator circuits that self- resonant below operating frequency.
buffer/amplifiers before the oscillator provide acceptable performance in ama- A third-overtone crystal is illustrated at
signal is supplied to the mixer or detector. teur equipment, only afew of the popular Fig. 17D. Satisfactory operation can be
hanges in operating voltage will result ones will be highlighted here. In the had by inserting the crystal as shown by
requency shifts. It is for this reason circuits offered as illustrations, the feed- the dashed lines. This method is especially
lateevoltage is recommended for back must be ample to assure quick useful when low-activity crystals are used
a ts. Zener diodes are adequate for starting of the oscillator. Some circuits in the overtone circuit. However, C1will
the purpose. function quite well without the addition of have little effect if the crystal is connected
Magnetic cores, such as those in external feedback components (internal from gate to drain, as shown. C2-L1 is
slug- tuned coils, change their properties capacitance within the transistor or tube adjusted slightly above the desired over-
with variations in ambient temperature, being adequate). Other circuits need tone frequency to ensure fast starting of
thereby causing inductance changes which external feedback capacitors. Poor-quality the oscillator. The circuits shown in Fig.
can severely affect the oscillator fre- (sluggish) crystals generally require larger 17 can be used with dual-gate MOSFETs

8-12 Chapter 8
 5.V-5.3 17.3-11.6
MHz
MHz

TO I4- MHz
RCVR WHICH
HAS 3.3-MH:
1-F

Fig. 20 - Technique for heterodyne frequency generation in a receiver.

VFO

33k 100k

P77 0.01
1-* 40673
D
G2 • 0+9.
REG
I( G
T 0.01
-.É 100
CI
7
--
- 4É C27-, 5.M. 100k/ 1N 914
, ,
5 0-5 5 MHz

1( °OUTPUT

CI 22
S M.
Fig. 19 — Circuits for two types of VX0s.

also, assuming that gate 2is biased with a

VFO
positive 3 to 4 volts.
A large number of crystals can be
IL
) 1( Clouyou+
22
switched by means of silicon diodes in the SM
manner shown at Fig. 18. The advantage of RFC
this technique is that the switching is done
«DO
at dc, thereby permitting the control point C27 S.M. — 0.01
100k
to be a considerable distance from the 10k
oscillator circuit. DI through D3, in-
001
5 0-5 5 11I-1
clusive, are 1N914 diodes or equivalent.

VXO Circuits C1

Variable-frequency crystal oscillators S M..SILVER MICA o

+150V
(VX0s) are useful in place of con- REG.

ventional crystal oscillators when it is (13)

necessary to " rubber" the crystal fre-
quency a few kHz. AT-cut crystals in
Fig. 21 — Examples of Hartley VF0s.
IIC-6/U type holders seem to provide the
-
greatest frequency change when used in a
VXO. To obtain maximum frequency
shift it is vital to reduce stray circuit Rather, it has gone into the VFO mode. In transistor junction capacitance — a
capacitance to the smallest possible asituation of that kind the high-stability contributing factor to the generation of
amount. This calls for low-capacitance traits of a VXO are lost. harmonic currents. Clamp diodes are used
switches, low minimum-capacitance vari- Fig. 19 contains asimple VXO circuit at for the same purpose in conv'entional FET
able capacitors, and the avoidance of A. By adjusting X Lthe operator can shift VF0s. The circuit of Fig. 19A will provide
crystal sockets. The crystals should be the crystal frequency. The range will start a swing of approximately 5 kHz at 7
spaced well away from nearby metal at the frequency for which the crystal is MHz.
surfaces and circuit components to further cut and move lower. DI in both circuits is An improved type of VXO is presented
reduce capacitance effects. The higher the included to stabilize the FET bias and at B in Fig. 19. Depending upon the e4ct
crystal fundamental frequency, the greater reduce the transistor junction capacitance characteristics of the crystal used me/et
the available frequency swing. For exam- during the peak of the positive rf-voltage swings as great as 15 kHz are possible.
ple, a 3.5-MHz crystal might be moved swing. It acts as aclamp, thereby limiting X L is set initially for a reactance value
atotal of 3kHz, whereas a7- MHz crystal the transistor g ,,, at peak-voltage periods. that will provide the maximum possible
could be shifted 10 kHz. Although some This lowers the junction capacitance and frequency shift when C1is tuned through
amateurs claim shifts as great as 50 kHz at provides greater VXO swing. DI also its range. The frequency shift should be
7MHz, the circuit under those conditions reduces harmonic output from the VXO only that which corresponds to true VXO
is no longer operating as a true VXO. by restricting the nonlinear change in control, even though greater range can be

Receiving Systems 8-13

had after the circuit ceases to be a highly between 7and 10 MHz. For operation at Some typical VFOs are shown in Figs.
stable one. XL is not adjusted again. A higher frequencies it is better to employ a 21 and 22. A vacuum-tube Hartley is com-
buffer stage should be used after either of heterodyne type of VFO. This calls for a pared to a similar one which utilizes a
the VXO circuits to prevent frequency VFO operating at, say, 5MHz. The VFO dual-gate MOSFET in Fig. 21. The
pulling during load changes. output is heterodyned in a mixer with capacitor shown in dashed lines (Cl) can
VX0s of this general type are useful in energy from acrystal-controlled oscillator be used in that part of the circuit rather
portable transmitters and receivers when to provide a resultant sum or difference than at the low end of the tank coil if
full band coverage is sacrificed in ex- frequency at the desired LO-chain output greater bandspread is desired. C 1 is the
change for stability and simplicity. Output frequency. A block diagram is given at main-tuning capacitor and C2 is the pad-
from VX0s can be multiplied several Fig. 20 to illustrate the concept. Most der for calibrating the oscillator. The coil
times to provide LO energy for vhf and modern receivers employ this style of tap is approximately 25 percent of the
uhf receivers and transmitters. When that local-oscillator circuit. The heterodyne total number of turns for proper feed-
is done it is possible to realize 100 kHz or oscillator has a crystal for each amateur back.
more of frequency change at 144 MHz. band accommodated by the receiver. The A comparison is drawn in Fig. 22 be-
crystals and appropriate bandpass filters tween a bipolar transistor and JFET ver-
VFO Circuits are switched by means of a panel- sion of a series-tuned Colpitts oscillator
Variable- frequency oscillators are simi- mounted control. The band-pass filter (sometimes called a " series-tuned
lar in performance to the VX0s which (Fig. 20) is desirable in the interest of Clapp"). This type of oscillator can be
were described in the foregoing text. The preventing 5- and I2.3- M Hz energy from made very stable by using polystyrene
essential difference is that greater fre- reaching the receiver mixer. A doubly capacitors in the frequency-determining
quency coverage is possible, and no balanced mixer is recommended if mini- part of the circuit. Silver- mica capacitors
crystals are used. The practical upper mum unwanted energy is desired at the are satisfactory if they have been graded
frequency limits for good stability range mixer output. out for temperature stability, but most
run-of-the- mili, silver-mica units have un-
predictable characteristics in this regard.
Some are very stable, while others from
the same lot may exhibit positive or
negative drift characteristics. NPO
ceramic capacitors are considerably better
in this respect. These VFO circuits can be
scaled to other operating frequencies by
using the values shown to determine the
reactances of the capacitors. This infor-
mation will enable the designer to select
approximate values in pF for other fre-
quencies.
Fig. 23 illustrates a composite VFO
which has a buffer stage that is followed
by an amplifier. Dl can be included to
provide the necessary frequency offset
when switching the receiver from upper to
lower ssb. This is necessary in order to
eliminate the need to readjust the receiver
Fig. 22 — Colpitts VF0s. A bipolar transistor type is seen at A, while an FET version is
calibration dial when changing sidebands.
given at B. Cl is adjusted for the desired offset

Fig. 23 — Suggested circuit for a stable series-tuned Colpitts VFO. Buffering follows the oscillator to increase the output level and provide load
Isolation.

8-14 Chapter 8
amount. The pi-network output from the
RF AMP
amplifier stage is designed to transform
500 ohms to 50 ohms. The low-impedance 100k 330k
1-12V
output is desirable in the interest of
3.5-4 0 MHz
minimum frequency pulling from load
changes. A 3300-ohm swamping resistor is 001/ ) /

used across the pi-network inductor to

broadband the tuned circuit and to
ANT
prevent any tendency toward instability
when a high-impedance load is attached
to the circuit. Long-term drift measure-
ments with this type of circuit at the
frequency specified indicated amaximum
shift of 60 Hz over a three-hour period. 270 0.01

Output was measured at approximately 1

volt rms across 50 ohms. (A)

Receiver Front Ends

The designer has anumber of options FL1
RF AMP
3.5-3 75 MHz
available when planning the input section
of areceiver. The band-pass characteristics
of the input tuned circuits are of consider- 100 k

able significance if strong out-of-band 330k

signals are to be rejected — an ideal de-

0.01
sign criterion. Most of the commercial re-
ceivers available to the amateur use tuned
circuits which can be adjusted from the
,
40673
front panel of the equipment. The greater 02
D

the network Q, the sharper the frequency 80M

ANT G1
response, and hence, the better the adja- S1A 75M S
cent-frequency rejection. For agiven net-
work design the bandwidth doubles for Ri(FILTER)

each octave higher. That is, an 80-meter 270 0.01

front-end network may have a3-dB band- FL2
width of 100 kHz for agiven Q and load 3.75-4.0 MHz

factor. At 40 meters the same type of net-

work would be 200-kHz wide at the 3-dB
points of the response curve. It is for this
reason that most receivers have atunable
front-end section (preselector). If fixed-
tuned filters were used, at least two such
filters would be necessary to cover from
3.5 to 4 MHz or 1.8 to 2.0 MHz, this (B)
would complicate the design and cost of
the equipment.
Fig. 24 shows the two concepts just Fig. 24 — Method for selecting band-pass filters for 75 and 80 meters at the input to an rf
discussed. The circuit at A covers all of amplifier.
the 80-meter band, and if selective enough
offers some in-band rejection. A pair of receivers when calibration in dB is not a used at the input of a receiver when no
Butterworth band-pass filters might be requisite, and when maintaining an converter is attached will degrade receiver
used at FL1 and FL2 of Fig. 24 to cover impedance match between the tuned sensitivity and noise figure. A receiver
all of the 80-meter band. A lot of circuit and the antenna is not vital. The used frequently for antenna and receiveMe
additional components would be required, circuit at B is preferred because the pads signal dB measurements might hi*
and the in-band rejection of unwanted are of 50 ohm impedance. In the circuit several 3-dB pads included, thereby pro-
signals would be less than in the shown there are three steps available: 6, 12 viding greater resolution during measure-
case of circuit A. The principal advantage and 18 dB, depending on how the switches ments.
to the circuit at B is that front-panel are thrown. The resistance values speci-
peaking adjustments would not be nec- fied are the closest standard ones to the RF Amplifiers
essary once the trimmers in the filters were actual values needed to provide precisely 6 It was implied earlier in the chapter that
set for the desired response. A similar or 12 dB of attenuation. For amateur rf amplifiers are useful primarily to
tuned circuit for either example in Fig. 24 work the accuracy is adequate. Front-end improve the receiver noise figure. When
would be used between the rf amplifier attenuators are useful when vhf converters atmospheric and man-made noise levels
and the mixer. are used ahead of the station receiver. If exceed that of the mixer it should be,
Regardless of the type of LC input the converters have asignificant amount possible to realize better dynamic range
network used, abuilt-in step attenuator is of overall gain they can degrade the by not having an rf amplifier. The gain of
worth considering. It can be used for dynamic range of the main receiver when the rf stage, when one is used, shOuld be
measuring changes in signal level, or to strong signals are present. The attenuators set for whatever level is needed to override
reduce overloading effects when strong can be set to simulate acondition of unity the mixer noise. Sometimes that is only a
signals appear in the receiver passband. gain through the converter, thereby aiding few dB. A good low-noise active device
Fig. 25 shows how this can be done. The receiver dynamic range. It is worth should be employed as the rf amplifier in
example at A is suitable for simple remembering, however, that an attenuator such instances. For hf-band work 40673s,

Receiving Systems 8-15

 MPF 102s and 2N4416s are good. Most
modern receiving tubes specified for use INPUT
as rf amplifiers are suitable also. For vhf TUNED CIRCUIT
TO RF
work the Siliconix E300 and U310 FETs AMP.
are excellent low- noise devices.
A well- designed receiver should not
have agc applied to the rf amplifier. The
best noise figure and rf-stage dynamic
range will result when agc is not applied.
This is because the agc voltage changes
the operating characteristics of the rf (A)
amplifier from Class A to a less linear
mode.
Fig. 26 shows some typical rf amplifiers
for use in amateur receivers. Tube-type -6dB -12dB
circuits have not been included because INPUT
S1B S2A 52B TUNED CIRCUIT
they are not much in vogue, nor do they ANT.
TO RF
AMP
offer any particular advantages over
solid-state amplifiers.
The circuit at A in Fig. 26 is likely to be
the least subject to self-oscillation of the
four examples given. The common-gate
hookup helps to ensure stability if the gate
lead is kept as short as is physically PAD- 1 PAD- 2
possible. The gain from a common-gate
amplifier of this type is lower than that of
a common- source amplifier. However, (B)
gains up to 15 dB are entirely typical. The
drain of the FET need not be tapped Fig. 25 — Front-end attenuators. A simple type is given at A and a step-attenuator version is
down on the drain coil, but if it is there seen at B.

Fig. 26 — Narrowband rf amplifiers are shown from A to C. A fed-back broadband rf amplifier is seen at D.

8-16 Chapter 8
will be less loading on the tuned circuit,
thereby permitting somewhat greater MIXER
tuned-circuit selectivity: The lower the 2N4416
drain tap, the less the stage gain.
All of the FET amplifiers in Fig. 26 are
capable of providing low-noise operation
I - F
and good dynamic range. The common- OUT
source circuits at illustrations Band C can
provide up to 25 dB of gain. However,
they are more prone to instability than is
the circuit at A. Therefore, the gates are
shown tapped down on the gate tank:
Placing the input at a low impedance
point on the tuned circuit will discourage 12
self-oscillation. The same is true of the LO

drain tap. JFETs will hold up under +12 V

(A)
considerable rf input voltage before being
damaged. Laboratory tests of the MPF102
MIXER
showed that 80 volts pk-pk (gate to
source) were required to destroy the +12V

device. However, in the interest of good 33k (00k

operating practices the pk-pk voltage 0 001

1•2
should be kept below 10. Tapping the gate LO °
40673 11+12
12 - f'
down on the input tuned circuit will result pk-pk G2
D

in lower levels of pk-pk input voltage, in GI

addition to aiding stability. I- F
100
A broadband bipolar-transistor rf am- -.7 ° OUT

plifier is shown in Fig. 26 at D. This type SI G. 100k

IN
of amplifier will yield approximately 16 001
560
dB of gain up to 148 MHz, and it will be
unconditionally stable because of the 0.01

degenerative feedback in the emitter and 100

/T/
the negative feedback in the base circuit.
A broadband 4:1 transformer is used in
the collector to step the impedance down (
B +12V

to approximately 50 ohms at the amplifier

output. A 50-ohm characteristic exists at Fig 27 — Two styles of active mixers using FETs.
the input to the 2N5179 also. A band-pass
filter should be used at the input and
output of the amplifier to provide
selectivity. The 4:1 transformer helps to
assure acollector load of 200 ohms, which
is preferred in an amplifier of this type.
This style of amplifier is used in CATV
SINGLY BAL. MIX.
applications where the transformation
from collector to load is 300 to 75 ohms.

Receiver Mixers
One of the most important parts of a
high-performance receiver is the mixer. It
is at this point where the greater
consideration for dynamic range exists.
For best receiver performance the mixer
should receive only enough preamplifier
signal to overcome the mixer noise. When
excessive amounts of signal energy are
permitted to reach the mixer there will be
desensitization, cross-modulation and
IMD products in the mixer. When these
effects are severe enough the receiver can
be rendered useless. Therefore, it is ad-
vantageous to utilize what is often called a
"strong mixer." That is one which can
handle high signal levels without being
adversely affected. +12 V
Generally speaking, diode-ring passive
mixers fare the best in this regard.
However, they are fairly noisy and require
considerably more LO injection than is
the case with active mixers. For the less
Flg. 28 — An active singly balanced FET Iriker.
sophisticated types of receivers it is

Receiving Systems 8-17

 An LC, crystal-lattice, or mechanical
SINGLY BAL MIX. type of band-pass filter is almost always
used after the mixer or the post-mixer
amplifier. This helps to establish the
overall selectivity of the receiver. It also
rejects unwanted mixer products that fall
outside the passband of the filter.
In the interest of optimum mixer
performance, the LO energy supplied to it
should be reasonably clean with respect to
frequencies other than the desired LO
HP- 2800
OR
one. Many designers, for this reason, use a
1N914 band-pass filter between the LO output
and the mixer input. Excessive LO noise
will seriously degrade receiver performance.
LO noise should be 80 dB or more below
the peak level of the desired LO frequen-
(A)
cy. Excessive noise will appear as noise
sidebands in the receiver output.
DOUBLY BAL. MIX.
Typical Mixer Circuits
Fig. 27 shows two single-ended active
SIG
IN mixers which offer good performance.
The example at A employs aJFET with
LO injection supplied to the source across
a 560-ohm resistor. This injection mode
requires somewhat more LO power than
would be used if injection was done at the
gate. However, there is less occasion for
LO pulling when source injection is used,
and there is better isolation between the
LO and antenna than would be the case
D1,- D4, INCL.
HP- 2800 OR 1N914 with gate injection.
The circuit at B in Fig. 27 is similar to
that of A with regard to general perform-
ance. The major difference is that adual-
gate MOSFET is used to permit injection
(B) of the LO energy at gate 2. Since there is
considerable signal isolation between gates
I and 2, LO pulling is minimized and
Fig. 29 — Singly and doubly balanced diode mixers.
antenna- LO isolation is good.
A singly balanced active mixer is
iIlustrated at Fig. 28. Two 40673 dual-gate
DIPLEXER 1-F AMP MOSFETS are connected in push-pull,
but with the LO frequency injected in
L2
parallel at gate 2 of each device. A
potentiometer is used in the sources of the
9MHz
transistors to permit circuit balance. This
mixer offers performance superior to
those shown in Fig. 27.
One of the least complicated or
expensive mixers is the two-diode version
(singly balanced) seen in Fig. 29A. A
trifilar-wound broadband toroidal trans-
former is used at the mixer input. The
shortcoming of this mixer over the one
seen at B is that signal isolation between
all three mixer ports is not possible. A
Fig. 30 — Method for diplexing the mixer output to improve the IMD characteristics. better version is that at B in Fig. 29. In this
case all three mixer ports are well isolated
from one another. This greatly reduces the
probability of spurious responses in the
entirely adequate to use single-ended following the mixer need not have as
much gain as when diode mixers are used. receiver. Conversion loss with these
active mixers, provided the gain dis-
A typical doubly balanced diode mixer mixers is approximately 8 dB. The
tribution between the antenna and mixer
impedance of the mixer ports is ap-
is proper for the mixer device used. will have aconversion loss of some 8dB,
whereas an FET active mixer may exhibit proximately 50 ohms.
Field-effect transistors are preferred by
Improved IMD characteristics can be
most designers; bipolar-transistor mixers aconversion gain as great as 15 dB. The
cost of gain stages in this era is relatively had from a diode-ring mixer, by placing
are seldom used.
small. This easily justifies the use of strong a diplexer after the mixer as seen in
The primary advantage of an active
mixer is that it has conversion gain rather passive mixers in the interest of high Fig. 30. The diplexer consists of a
than loss. This means that the stages dynamic range. high-pass network ( LI) and a low-pass

8-18 Chapter 8
Fig. 31 — CA3028A singly balanced mixer. The circuit for the IC Is given at B.

OUTPUT
+I2V +12V 6

100
e
.1 HIGH-
LEVEL

,47
SIGNAL IN
4 - 7
70-
100
Z RATIO
1510
T1
.01
HIGH-LEVEL,„
V )1 • •
SIGNAL IN OUTPUT LOW -LEVEL
SIGNAL IN
MC1496G
.01
LOW-LEVEL )1
SIGNAL IN
I r jr7
820 510
BIAS
10k

1000
/
—)-7 +12V

(A)
(8)

Fig. 32 — MC1496G doubly balanced mixer and circuit of the IC.

one ( L2). L2 is tuned to the i -f and A relatively new addition to the IC mix- greater the gain change caused by agc
serves as a matching network between 50 er market is the Plessey SL6400C pro- action. The range is on the order of 80 dB
ohms and R I., the FET gate resistor. LI grammable high-level doubly-balanced when two CA3028A ICs are used in the i -f
and the associated series capacitors are mixer. Fig. 33 shows the SL6400C in a strip. A pair of MCI 590G ICs will
tuned to three times the i
-fand terminated broadband circuit. This configuration provide up to 120 dB of gain variation
in 50 ohms. This gives the mixer aproper produced aconversion gain of 8dB and a with agc applied.
resistive termination without degrading third-order output intercept of approxi- Nearly all modern receiver circuits
the 9- MHz i -
f. The high-pass network has mately + 22 dBm 2.The single-sideband utilize ICs as i -f amplifiers. Numerous
a loaded Q of I. noise figure was found to be 11 dB. If the types of ICs are available to provide linear
mixer input and output ports are ter- rf and i-famplification at low cost. The
IC Mixers
minated in 50 ohms, rather than 200 ohms CA3028A and MC1590G ICs are the
Although there are numerous ICs as shown in Fig. 33, the typical conversion most popular ones for amateur work
available for use as mixers, only three are gain will be — 1dB. because they are easy to obtain and are
shown here. Fig. 31 shows a CA3028A relatively low in cost. With careful layout
singly balanced active mixer. The diagram 14- Amplifiers techniques either device will operate in a
at B shows the inner workings of the IC. The amount of i -famplification used in stable manner. .Bypassing should be done
The LO is injected at pin 2of the IC. Con- a receiver will depend upon how much as near to the IC pins as possible. Input
version gain is on the order of 15 dB. signal level is available at the input to the and output circuit elements must be
Fig. 32A illustrates a doubly balanced i-fstrip. Sufficient gain is needed to ensure separated to prevent mutual coupling
IC active mixer which employs an ample audio output consistent with which can cause unstable operation. If IC
MC1496G. A schematic diagram of the IC driving headphones or aspeaker. Another sockets are used they should be the
is shown at B. The performance of this consideration is the amount of agc- low- profile variety with short socket
mixer is excellent, but it is not as strong a initiated i-fgain range. The more i -fstages conductors.
mixer as that of Fig. 29. However, it has used ( a maximum of two is typical) the Fig. 34 contains examples of bipolar
good conversion gain and a fairly low transistor and FET i -famplifiers. Typical
noise figure. 'Referenced to one tone of atwo -
tone test. component values are given. A CA2038A

Receiving Systems 8-19

 0.I,F
ended operation, as shown. The values are
_) + 12 V doubled when either device is operated in
BIAS ADJUST
push-pull with respect to input and output
T2
tuned circuits.
RF • •

Choice of Frequency'
The selection of an intermediate fre-
quency is a compromise between con-
flicting factors. The lower the i -f, the
higher the selectivity' and gain. but a loss
i-f brings the image nearer the desired
signal and hence decreases the image
ratio. A low i -falso increases pulling of
the oscillator frequency. On the other
hand, ahigh i -fis beneficial to both image
ratio and pulling. but the gain is loss ered
and selectivity is harder to obtain by
simple means.
Fig. 33 — Plessey SL6400C doubly balanced mixer. R1 is selected for a bias current of about 12 An i -fof the order of 455 kHz gives
mA. Ti and T2 are broadband transformers wound on ferrite tort:A cores. good selectivity and is satisfactory from
the standpoint of image ratio and
oscillator pulling at frequencies up to 7
MHz. The image ratio is poor at 14 MHz
ss hen the mixer is connected to the
antenna, but adequate when there is a
tuned rf t,mplifier betsseen antenna and
mixer. At 28 MHz and on the very high
frequencies, the image ratio is very poor
unless several rf stages are used. Above 14
MHz, pulling is likely to be bad without
very loose coupling between mixer and
oscillator. Tuned- circuit shielding also
helps.
With an i -f of about 1600 kHz,
satisfactory image ratios can be secured
on 14, 21 and 28 MHz ‘vith one rf stage of
good design. For frequencies of 28 MHz
and higher, a common solution is to use
double conversion, choosing one high i - f
for image reduction ( 9 MHz is frequently
used) and a lower one for gain and
selectivity. A popular i -fat present is 3.3
to 3.4 MHz, which is used by some
commerical designers as the last i -f in
double-conversion receivers.
In choosing an i -fit is sise to avoid
frequencies on which there is considerable
activity by the sarious radio services, since
such signals may be picked up directly by
the i -
f %siring. Shifting the i -for better
shielding are the solutions to this inter-
ference problem.

Fidelity: Sideband Cutting

Amplitude modulation of a carrier
generates sideband frequencies numerically'
equal to the carrier frequency plus and
minus the modulation frequencies present.
If the receiver is to give a faithful
Fig. 34 — Methods for applying agc to abipolar i
-famplifier (A) and adual-gate MOSFET i
-f
reproduction of modulation that contains,
stage ( B).
for instance, audio frequencies up to 5000
Hz. it must at least be capable of
amplifying equally all frequencies con-
IC, connected for differential-amplifier reverse of that which is applied to a tained in a band extending from 5000 Hz
operation, is shown in Fig. 35 as an i -
f CA3028A. With the latter the gain will be above or below the carrier frequency. In a
amplifier. Up to 40 dB of gain is possible maximum with maximum agc voltage. An superheterodyne, where all carrier fre-
with this circuit. The IC is useful up to 120 MC1590G delivers maximum gain at the quencies are changed to the fixed inter-
MHz and has a low noise figure. low agc voltage level. mediate frequency, the i -
f amplification
A Motorola MC1590G IC will provide With both amplifiers (Figs. 35 and 36) must be uniform over a band 5- kHz wide,
up to 50 dB of stage gain when used as an the input impedance is on the order of Mien the carrier is set at one edge. If the
i-famplifier. An example of the circuit is 1000 ohms. The output impedance is close carrier is set in the center. a 10- kHz band is
given in Fig. 36. Agc operates in the to 4000 ohms. These values are for single- required. The signal- frequency circuits

8-20 Chapter 8
Fig. 35 — An IC type of i
-famplifier with ago applied. Fig. 36 — Agc is applied to an IvIC1590G IC.

usually' do not have enough overall

selectivity to affect materially the " adja-
cent-channel" selectivity, so that only the
i-f amplifier selectivity need be con-
sidered.
If the selectivity is too great to permit
uniform amplification over the band of
frequencies occupied by the modulated
signal, some of the sidebands are " cut."
While sideband cutting reduces fidelity, it
is frequently preferable to sacrifice re-
production naturalness in favor of com-
munications effectiveness.
The selectivity of an i -
famplifier, and
hence, the tendency to cut sidebands, in-
creases with the number of tuned circuits
and also is greater with lower intermediate
frequencies. From the communication
standpoint, sideband 'cutting is never
serious with two-stage amplifiers at fre-
quencies as low as 455 kHz. A two-stage
i-famplifier at 85 or 100 kHz will be sharp
enough to cut some of the higher-
frequency sidebands if good transformers
are used. However, the cutting is not at all
serious, and the gain in selectivity is
worthwhile in crowded amateur bands as
an aid to QRM reduction.

I-F Selectivity
The most significant selectivity in a
receiver is that which separates signals
and reduces QRM, assuming that se-
lectivity in other parts of a receiver is
ignored but correct. Narrow- response
filters are used after the last mixer or
post- mixer amplifier to establish the
overall selectivity of a receiver. Most
Fig. 37 — A comparison between crystal i
-ffilters. The selectivity is increased as crystals
receivers which use a second i -fof 455 are added.
kHz contain mechanical filters. Table I
lists various mechanical filters which are
manufactured by Collins Radio Co. half- lattice filter is shown at C of Fig. 37. part of the low- frequency slope (left)
At intermediate frequencies above 500 The single-crystal example shown at A which gives the desired beat note respec-
kHz it is common practice to use crystal of Fig. 37 is best suited for simple tive to fo (approximately 700 Hz), single-
filters. These can be designed with just receivers intended mainly for cw use. C1is signal reception will result. To the right of
one crystal (Fig. 37A), or with two or adjusted to provide the bandpass charac- fo in Fig. 37A the response drops sharply
more crystals. Fig. 37B illustrates a two- teristic shown adjacent to the circuit. to reduce output on the unwanted side of
crystal, half-lattice filter and a cascaded When the BFO frequency is placed on the zero beat, thereby making single-signal

Receiving Systems 8-21

Table 1

Mon 3 dB Min 4 dB Max 60 dB Max 60 dB Max RV Max. RV Max IL Max IL Min 60 dB S&L Res Cap
Part & Type BW # 25°C BW OTR 13W 25°C BW OTR H 25°C OTR H 25° COTR SBR —5% +5%
Numbers (kHz) (kHz) (kHz) (kHz) (dB) (dB) (dB) (dB) (kHz) ohms (pF)
526-9689-010 0375 0.375 35 40 30 4.0 100 12.0 445-F6OL 2000 350
F455FD-04 F6OH-465 350
526-9690-010 12 12 8.7 95 30 40 100 12.0 445-F6OL 2000 350
F455FD-12 F6OH -465 350
F526-9691-010 19 19 5.4 59 3.0 40 100 120 445-F6OL 2000 330
F455FD-19 F6OH - 465 330
526-9692-010 25 25 65 70 30 40 100 12.0 445-F6OL 2000 510
F455FD-25 F6OH - 465 510
526-9693-010 29 29 7.0 80 30 40 100 12.0 445-F6OL 2000 510
F455FD-29 F6OH - 465 510
526-9694-010 38 38 9,0 10.0 30 40 100 120 445-F6OL 2000 1000
F455FD-38 F6OH-465 1000
526-9695-010 58 58 14.0 150 30 40 100 12.0 445-F6OL 2000 1100
F455FD-58 F6OH - 465 1100

OTR = Operating Temperature Range, RV = Ripple Voltage, IL = Insertion Loss, SBR = Stop Band Range. S & L = Source and Load

Courtesy of Collins Radio Co

quency- stability characteristics. This makes

Rs CURRENT FORCE _ FORCE CURRENT it possible to fabricate them for fractional
INPUT DISK
-->--
OUTPUT
bandwidths of a few hundred hertz.
TRANSDUCER RESONATORS TRANSDUCER Bandwidths down to 0.1 percent can be
obtained with these filters. This means
that a filter having a center frequency of
455 kHz could have abandwidth as small
as 45.5 Hz. By inserting awire through the
centers of several resonator disks, thereby
coupling them, the fractional bandwidth
Fig. 38 — Block diagram of a mechanical filter (Collins Radio). can be made as great as 10 percent of the
center frequency. The upper limit is
governed primarily by occurrence of
reception possible. If no i -f filter was frequency spacing between the crystals ap- unwanted spurious filter responses adja-
used, or if the BFO frequency fell at f o, plies. Cl is adjusted for a symmetrical cent to the desired passband.
nearly equal response would exist either response. Mechanical filters can be built for
side of zero beat ( double-signal response) The circuits of Fig. 37 can be built easily center frequencies from 60 to 600 kHz.
as is the case with direct-conversion and inexpensively by amateurs. The The main limiting factor is disk size. At
receivers. QRM on the unwanted- transformers shown are tuned to center the low end of the range the disks become
response side of the i -fpassband would in- frequency. They are wound bifilar or prohibitively large. and at the high limit of
terfere with reception. The single-crystal trifilar on ferrite or powdered-iron cores the range the disks become too small to be
filter shown is capable of at least 30 dB of of appropriate frequency characteristics. practical.
rejection on the high- frequency side of A technique that has recently gained The principle of operation is seen in
zero beat. The filter termination RT ,has a favor with amateurs is that of building Fig. 38. As the incoming i -fsignal passes
marked effect on the response curve. It is crystal filters in the form of a ladder net- through the input transducer it is con-
necessary to experiment with the resist- work, in which all crystals are cut to the verted to mechanical energy. This energy
ance value until the desired response is ob- same frequency. TV color-burst and CB is passed through the disk resonators to
tained. Values can range from 1500 to crystals are commonly used to fabricate filter out the undesired frequencies, then
10,000 ohms. low-cost filters having high performance. through the output transducer where the
A half-lattice filter is shown at B in Fig. The design procedure involves analysis of mechanical energy is converted back to
37. The response curve is symmetrical and a quartz crystal in terms of its lumped- the original electrical form.
there is a slight dip at center frequency. constant equivalent circuit. These The transducers serve a second func-
The dip is minimized by proper selection lumped-constant values are then used to tion: They reflect the source and load
of RT. Y1 and Y2 are separated in design a modern Chebyshev or Butter- impedances into the mechanical portion
frequency by the amount needed to obtain worth band-pass filter. Wes Hayward, of the circuit, thereby providing a
cw or ssb selectivity. The bandwidth at the W7ZOI, described the procedure in detail termination for the filter.
3-dB points will be approximately 1.5 in " A Unified Approach to the Design of Mechanical filters require external re-
times the crystal- frequency spacing. For Crystal Ladder Filters" in May 1982 QST sonating capacitors which are used across
upper or lower sideband reception Y Iand (pp. 21-27). the transducers. If the filters are not
Y2 would be 1.5 kHz apart, yielding a An illustration of how a mechanical resonated there ‘% ill be an increase in
3-dB bandwidth of approximately 2.25 filter operates is provided in Fig. 38. insertion loss, and a degradation of the
kHz. For cw work acrystal spacing of 0.4 Perhaps the most significant feature of a passband characteristics. Concerning the
kHz would result in a bandwidth of mechanical filter is the high Q of the latter, there sill be various un anted dips
roughly 600 Hz. The skirts of the curve resonant metallic disks it contains. A Q in the nose response ( ripple), which can
are fairly wide with a single half- lattice figure of 10,000 is the nominal value lead to undesirable effects. The exact
filter, which uses crystals in the hf region. obtained with this kind of resonator. If L amount of shunt capacitance will depend
The skirts can be steepened by placing and C constants were employed to acquire on the filter model used. The manu-
two half-lattice filters in cascade, as a bandwidth equivalent to that possible facturer's data sheet specifies the proper
shown in Fig. 37C. RI and RT must be with a mechanical filter, the i -
f would capacitor values.
selected to provide minimum ripple at the have to be below 50 kHz. Collins mechanical filters are available
center of the passband. The same rule for Mechanical filters have excellent fre- with center frequencies from 64 to 500
8-22 Chapter 8
kHz and in a variety of bandwidths.
Insertion loss ranges from 2 dB to as
much as 12 dB, depending on the style of
filter used. Of greatest interest to ama-
teurs are the 455-kHz mechanical filters
specified as F455. They are available in
bandwidths of 375 Hz, 1.2 kHz, 1.9 kHz,
2.5 kHz, 2.9 kHz, 3.8 kHz and 5.8 kHz.
Maximum insertion loss is 10 dB, and the
Fig. 39 — Crystal i
-ffilters can be used at both ends of the i
-fstrip. FL2 greatly reduces
characteristic impedance is 2000 ohms.
wideband i
-fnoise.
Different values of resonating capacitance
are required for the various models,
spreading from 350 to 1100 pF. Although LAST I— F AMP
some mechanical filters are terminated
internally, this series requires external
445 KHz
source and load termination of 2000
ohms. The F455 filters are the least
expensive of the Collins line.

i-
Most modern receivers have selectable
f filters to provide suitable bandwidths
7 C;, PDR
T:OID

for ssb and cw. Most of the commercial

receivers use a 500- or 600- Hz bandwidth
filter for cw and a 2.1- or 2.4-kHz
bandwidth for ssb. The input and output VCC

ends of a filter should be well isolated AGC TO

from one another if the filter characteristics I- F AMPS
DC DC
are to be realized. Leakage across a AGC AMP
AMP. AMP.
filter will negate the otherwise good
performance of the unit. The problem
becomes worse as the filter frequency is
increased. Mechanical switches are not
recommended above 455 kHz for filter
selection because of leakage across the
switch wafers and sections. Diode switch-
ing is preferred by most designers. The
switching diodes for the filter that is out of
the circuit are usually back-biased to TIME- CONSTANT
ensure minimum leakthrough. NETWORK

In the interest of reducing wideband

noise from the i -f amplifier strip it is Fig. 40 — A system for developing receiver agc voltage.
worthwhile to use a second filter which
has exactly the same center frequency as
the first. The second filter is placed at the
end of the i -fstrip, ahead of the product
detector. This is shown in Fig. 39. The
technique was described by W7Z01 in number of stages to which the agc bias is despite the tendency toward a clicky
March and April 1974 QST. The second applied is increased. Control of at least response. If RC active audio filters are
filter, FL2, has somewhat wider skirts two stages is advisable. used to obtain receiver selectivity, they
than the first, FL1. An RC active audio Various schemes from simple to ex- should be contained within the audio-agc
filter after the product detector has a travagant have been conceived to develop loop if possible. _
similar effect, but the results are not quite agc voltage in receivers. Some perform Fig. 40 illustrates the general concept ette.fi'
as spectacular as when two i -ffilters are poorly because the attack time of the cir- an agc circuit. Rf energy is sampled froe,',;,
used. The overall signal-to-noise ratio is cuits is wrong for cw work, resulting in the output of the last i-
fby means of light
greatly enhanced by this method. "clicky" or " pumping" agc. The first coupling. This minimizes loading on the
significant advance toward curing the tuned circuit of the i -famplifier. The i -f
Automatic Gain Control problem was presented by Goodman energy is amplified by the agc amplifier,
Automatic regulation of the gain of the WIDX, " Better AVC for SSB and Code then converted to dc by means of an agc
receiver in inverse proportion to the signal Reception," January 1957 QST. He rectifier. RI and C1 are selected to
strength is an operating convenience in coined the term, " hang" avc, and the provide a suitable decay time constant
reception, since it tends to keep the output technique has been adopted by many (about Isecond for ssb and cw). Q Iand
level of the receiver constant regardless of amateurs who have built their own Q2 function as dc amplifiers to develop
input-signal strength. The average rec- receiving equipment. The objective is to the dc voltage needed for agc control of
tified dc voltage, developed by the make the agc take hold as quickly as the i -f ( and sometimes, rf) amplifier
received signal across a resistance in a possible to avoid the ailments mentioned stages. The developed agc voltage can be
detector circuit, is used to vary the bias on in the foregoing text. used to drive an S meter. A level control
the rf and i -
famplifier stages. Since this For best receiver performance the i -
f can be placed at the input of the agc
voltage is proportional to the average filters should be contained within the agc amplifier to establish the signal input level
amplitude of the signal, the gain is loop, which strongly suggests the use of (receiver front end) which turns on the agc
reduced as the signal strength becomes ri-derived agc. Most commercial receivers system. Most designers prefer to have this
greater. The control will be more com- follow this rule. However, good results happen when the received signal level is
plete and the output more constant as the can be obtained with audio-derived agc, between 0.25 and 1 V. The exact

Receiving Systems 8-23

 parameters are based some hat on sub-
jecti% it) .
An af-derived agc loop is shown in Fig.
41. It is suitable for use with CA3028A i -f
amplifier ICs. Provision is made for
manual i -
fgain control. DI functions as a
gating diode to prevent the manual-
control circuitry from affecting the nor-
mal agc action. This circuit was first used
in areceiver described by DeMaw in June
and July 1976 QST.
An rf-derived agc system is seen in Fig.
42. It operates on a similar principle as
that of Fig. 41, except that an op-amp is
used in place of the discrete bipolar dc
amplifiers of Fig. 41. Current changes are
sampled across the 10-1(1. 1 FET source
resistor by means of the op-amp dif-
ference amplifier. With the values of
resistance given, the output dc swing of
the op-amp is the desired + 2to + 9volts
Fig. 41 — A practical circuit for developing agc voltage for a CA3028A i
-famplifier.
for controlling CA3028A i -f amplifiers.
This system was also used in the DeMaw
receiver.
It certainl .
v is not essential to have age
in a receiver. If the operator is vvilling to
adjust the gain manuall . v, good per-
formance is certain to result. Age is
mainly an operator convenience: It pre-
sents loud signals from blasting out of
the speaker or headphones when the op-
erator tunes the band at a given af-gain
setting.

Beat- Frequency Oscillators

The circuits given for crystal-controlled
oscillators earlier in this chapter are
suitable for use in BFO circuits. A beat
oscillator generates energy which is
supplied to a product detector for
reception of ew and ssb signals. The BFO
frequency is offset by the appropriate
amount with respect to the center
frequency of the i -ffilter. For example, a
BFO used during ew reception is usually
some 700 Hz above or below the i -fcenter
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( ,pF I ;
frequency. During ssb reception the offset
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR .per, is slightly more — approximately 1.5 kHz
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS,
above or beltm the i -fcenter frequency,
k.1000, M.1000 000,
depending upon the need for upper or
Itmer sideband operation. Typically, the
BFO is placed roughly 20 dB down on the
Fig. 42 — An agc system for CA3028A i -famplifiers. An op-amp is used as difference amplifier to slope of the i -
f passband curve for ssb
provide agc voltage while operating an S meter.
reception or transmission.

Table 2

CVV or
Application SSB Tran SSB Rec Digital Data A- M A- M CW FM
Filter type XF-9A XF-9B XF-9NB XF-9C XF-9D XF-9M XF-9E
No of crystals 5 8 e 8 8 4 8
6-dB bandwidth 2.5 kHz 2.4 kHz 0.5 kHz 3 75 kHz 50 kHz 0 5 kHz 12 kHz
Passband ripple < 1dB < 2 dB < 05 dB < 2 dB < 2 dB • 1dB , 2 dB
Insertion loss < 3 dB < 35 dB < 65 dB < 35 dB < 35 dB • 5 dB -- 3 dB
Term. impedance 50011 5001.1 50011 500S1 500f I 50011 120011
Ripple capacitors 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF 30 pF
Shape factor 650 dB 660 dB 6.60 dB 660 dB 660 dB 660 dB 660 dB
1.7 1.8 22 18 1e 44 18
Stop-band atten. > 45 dB > 100 dB > 90 dB > 100 dB > 100 dB - 90 dB -- 90 dB

Courtesy of Spectrum International

8-24 Chapter 8
 A BFO need not be crystal controlled.
METER AMR
It can use aVFO type of circuit, or it can RI

be tuned by means of a Varactor diode +250V

(see chapter 4 for a discussion of

semiconductor theory). Elimination of the
TO A GC LINE
crystals represents a cost savings to the (NEC.VOLT.)
builder, but frequency stability may not
be as good as when crystal control is
employed.
When the BFO is operated at frequen-
cies above 3 MHz it is helpful to use a
buffer stage after the oscillator to mini-
mize the effects of pulling. Furthermore,
if apassive product detector is used in the +15 V

receiver, a substantial amount of BFO

output power will be required — ap-
proximately + 7 dBm. The buffer/ampli-
fier helps to boost the oscillator output
to satisfy the requirement.
+15V

S Meters
Signal-strength meters are useful when
there is a need to make comparative TO A5C
readings. Such might be the case when LINE
10k
another operator asks for a comparison (NEC VOLT)

between two antennas he is testing.

Because S meters are relative-reading
instruments, signal reporting based on the
amount of needle deflection is generally
without meaning. No two receivers render
the same reading for agiven signal, unless
by coincidence. This is because the gain
(B) - 15 V
distribution within an amateur receiver
varies from band to band. Since most S METER AMP
meters are activated from the agc line in a 2N412 5

receiver, what might be S9 on one ham

TO AGC LINE ZERO
band could easily become S6 or 10 dB (NEO VOLT ) 00
10k
over S9 on another band. A receiver th'
T.
0.01p F
rendered accurate readings on each band
SENS
it covered would be extremely esoteric and / 10k
complex.
An attempt was made by at least one
9
receiver manufacturer in the early 1940s
to establish some significant numbers for (C)
S meters. S9 was to be equivalent to 50
14V, and each S unit would have been Fig. 43 — Various methods for using an S meter. At A, 1/1 is a meter amplifier. As the agc
equal to 6dB. The scale readings above S9 voltage increases, the plate current decreases to lower the voltage drop across Rl. An up-scale
meter reading results as the current through the meter increases. At B, the negative-going agc
were given in dB. The system never took voltage is inverted and amplified by an operational amplifier circuit. R1 establishes the dB-per-S.
hold in the manufacturing world, probably unit sensitivity and R2 is the meter-zeroing adjustment. R3 and D1 compress the readings over
for the reasons given earlier in this S9. This circuit Is well suited to an i
-famplifier having a gain control characteristic that is linear
section. in dB/volt, such as one using dual-gate MOSFETs. At C, the negative agc voltage forward biases
the transistor to cause an increase In collector current, thereby deflecting the meter upwards
In addition to the example shown in
with signal increases.
Fig. 42, some typical S-meter circuits are
offered in Fig. 43. The example at C can
be used with rf- or audio-derived agc.
caused by commutator sparking in dc and enough to cause much interference generally
Noise Reduction series-wound ac motors, while the shot has an instantaneous amplitude much
In addition to active-device and circuit type results from separated spark dis- higher than that of the signal being
noise, rriuch of the noise interference charges (ac power leaks, switch and key received. The general principle of devices
experienced in reception of high-frequency clicks, ignition sparks, and the like). intended to reduce such noise is to allow
signals is caused by domestic or industrial The only known approach to reducing the desired signal to pass through the
electrical equipment and by automobile tube, transistor and circuit noise is receiver unaffected, but to make the
ignition systems. The interference is of through the choice of low-noise, front- receiver inoperative for amplitudes greater
two types in its effects. The first is the end, active components and through more than that of the signal. The greater the
"hiss" type, consisting of overlapping overall selectivity. amplitude of the pulse compared with its
pulses similar in nature to the receiver time of duration, the more successful the
noise. It is largely reduced by high Impulse Noise noise reduction.
selectivity in the receiver, especially for Impulse noise, because of the short Another approach is to "silence"
code reception. The second is the " pistol- duration of the pulses compared with the (render inoperative) the receiver during
shot" or " machine-gun" type, consisting time between them, must have high the short duration time of any individual
of separated impulses of high amplitude. amplitude to contain much average pulse. The listener will not hear the " hole"
The hiss type of interference usually is energy. Hence, noise of this type strong because of its short duration, and very

Receiving Systems 8-25

 LAST DEI. ANL
I - F TRANS.

00k TO
AF
AF AMP
TO I- F I
AMR GAIN

1.5 MEG
CI
0.1).JF

47k
T.
330 51 OFF
330

0.jF/T/ /47 r-
T- 7
AGC
LINE
470k
AF SHUNT
Fig. 44 — A simple audio limiter/clipper. R1
(A)
sets the bias on the diodes for the desired
limiting level. TO AGC RECT.,
LAST I- F OR ROD. DET,AND
AMR A- M DET.
01

effective noise reduction is obtained. Such

devices are called " blankers" rather than
"limiters."
In passing through selective receiver
circuits, the time duration of the impulses
is increased, because of the bandwidth of
the circuits. Thus, the more selectivity
ahead of the noise- reducing device, the
more difficult it becomes to secure good AGC

pulse- type noise suppression. B+

RF SHUNT

Audio Limiting (8)

A considerable degree of noise re-

duction in code reception can be ac- Fig. 45 — Examples of rf and audio anl circuits. Positive and negative clipping takes place in
complished by amplitude- limiting ar- both circuits. The circuit at A Is self-adjusting.

rangements applied to the audio- output

circuit of a receiver. Such limiters also
maintain the signal output nearly constant generally used. This circuit is usable only across an rf inductor at B. When asteady
during fading. These output- limiter sys- with high- impedance headphones. cw signal is present the diodes barely
tems are simple, and they are readily The usual practice in communications conduct, but when a noise pulse rides in
adaptable to most receivers without any receivers is to use low-level limiting, Fig. on the incoming signal, it is heavily
modification of the receiver itself. However, 45. The limiting can be carried out at rf or clipped because capacitors C 1 and C2
they cannot prevent noise peaks from over- af points in the receiver, as shown. tend to hold the diode bias constant for
loading previous stages. Limiting at rf does not cause poor audio the duration of the noise pulse. For this
quality as is sometimes experienced when reason the diodes conduct heavily in the
Noise-Limiter Circuits using series or shunt af limiters. The latter presence of noise and maintain a fairly
Pulse- type noise can be eliminated to an limits the normal af signal peaks as well as constant signal output level. Considerable
extent which makes the reception of even the noise pulses, giving an unpleasant clipping of cw signal peaks occurs with
the weakest of signals possible. The noise audio quality to strong signals. this type of limiter, but no apparent
pulses can be clipped, or limited in In a series- limiting circuit, a normally deterioration of the signal quality results.
amplitude, at either an rf or af point in the conducting element ( or elements) is LIat B is tuned to the i -fof the receiver.
receiver circuit. Both methods are used by connected in the circuit in series and An i -ftransformer with a conventional
receiver manufacturers: both are effective. operated in such amanner that it becomes secondary winding could be used in place
A simple audio noise limiter is shown at nonconductive above agiven signal level. of LI, the clipper circuit being connected
Fig. 44. It can be plugged into the In a shunt limiting circuit, a non- to the secondary winding; the plate of the
headphone jack of the receiver and apair conducting element is connected in shunt 6BA6 would connect to the primary
of headphones connected to the output of across the circuit and operated so that it winding in the usual fashion.
the limiter. DI and D2 are wired to clip becomes conductive above agiven signal
I-F Noise Silencer
both the positive and negative peaks of level, thus short-circuiting the signal and
the audio signal, thus removing the high preventing its being transmitted to the The i -fnoise silencer circuit shown in
spikes of pulse noise. The diodes are remainder of the amplifier. The usual Fig. 46 is designed to be used ahead of the
back-biased by 1.5-volt batteries permit- conducting element will be a forward- high-selectivity section of the receiver.
ting RI to serve as a clipping- level biased diode, and the usual noncon- Noise pulses are amplified and rectified,
control. This circuit also limits the ducting element will be a back- biased and the resulting negative-going dc pulses
amount of audio reaching the head- diode. In many applications the value of are used to cut off an amplifier stage dur-
phones. When tuning across the band, bias is set manually by the operator; ing the pulse. A manual " threshold" con-
strong signals will not be ear- shattering usually the clipping level will be set at trol is set by the operator to a level that
and will appear to be the same strength as about Ito 10 volts. only permits rectification of the noise
the weaker ones. SI is open when the The af shunt limiter at A, and the rf pulses that rise above the peak amplitude
circuit is not in use to prevent battery shunt limiter at B operate in the same of the desired signal. The clamp tran-
drain. DI and D2 can be germanium or manner. A pair of self-biased diodes are sistor, Q3, short circuits the positive-going
silicon diodes, but 1N34As or 1N9 I4s are connected across the af line at A, and pulse " overshoot." Running the 40673

8-26 Chapter 8
Fig. 46 — Diagram of a noise blanker. Cl and Li are tuned to the receiver i
-f.

controlled i -f amplifier at zero gate 2

voltage allows the direct application of
agc voltage. See July 1971 QST for addi-
tional details.

Passive CW Audio Filters

Even though a receiver may have
narrow- band i -ffiltering for cw reception
(200 to 600 Hz, typically), the addition of
an audio filter can be of value to the
operator. If a post i -famplifier crystal or
mechanical filter is included in the receiver
design, asubsequent audio filter won't do
much toward enhancing performance. Fig. 47 — Schematic diagram of the W3NON high-performance passive cw filter. All inductors
But, when only one i -ffilter is used (ahead (except L3) are the standard surplus 88 mH toroidal inductors with their two 22 mH windings
of the i -f strip), audio filters of narrow connected in series aiding. L2 and L4 consist of four series-connected 87 mH inductors
(4 x 87 mH = 348 mH). Li, 3 and 5 are center tapped.
bandwidth can greatly improve the
receiver noise figure. This is because the
inherent wide- band noise from the i -f
amplifiers has the potential of degrading
the signal-to-noise ratio of the receiver.
Similarly, many receiver audio amplifiers
will pass high and low frequencies that are
not needed in communications work. A
well-designed passive or active audio filter
will greatly reduce wide- band noise and
will restrict the audio bandwidth of the
receiver — a significant aid to reception
during weak- signal work and when the
QRM level is high.
Fig. 47 contains the circuit of a
10-element, high-performance Chebyshev
band-pass filter. It was designed by Ed
Wetherhold, W3NQN, for use in this edi-
tion of the Handbook. The filter consists
of two stacks of the commonly available
88-mH telephone- type toroidal inductors
and one modified 88-mH inductor which
is externally mounted on the end of one of
the stacks. Table 3 provides component
values and pertinent data for seven dif-
ferent center frequencies between 540 and
940 Hz. The center frequency selected will
depend on the operator's peak- frequency
preference.
Although the inductance of these
surplus toroids is frequently given as 88
Fig. 48 — Pictorial details of how two standard 5- inductor assemblies can be wired to provide the
mH, this is only a nominal value. Those filter in Fig. 47. Inductor L3 is a standard 88 mH surplus inductor that is modified by removing
inductors having their two 22- mil wind- turns to give the L3 inductance specified in Table 3. See Fig. 49 to find how many turns must be
ings on separate halves of the toroidal removed to give tne desired L3 value.

Receiving Systems 8-27

 Table 3
CW Band-pass Filter Designs Using 88-mH Surplus Inductor Assemblies.
Component Values and Design Parameters of 5- Resonator Band-pass Filters'

F-CNTR C1,5 C3 C2,4' L3' R- TERM' BW-3' FL-3 FH-3 FL-30 FH-30'
(Hz) (aF) (MF) (aF) (mH) (OHMS) (Hz) (Hz) (Hz) (Hz) (Hz)
939.3 0.33 0.56 0.0825 51.3 1915 337 786 1123 709 1245
864.0 0.39 0.68 0.0975 49.9 1701 305 725 1030 652 1144
787.1 0.47 0.82 0.1175 49.9 1549 278 660 938 594 1042
750.4 0.52 1.00 0.129 45.0 1327 251 635 886 569 989
721.1 0.56 1.00 0.1400 48.7 1381 252 606 858 545 954
654.3 0.68 1.22 0.1700 48.5 1246 228 550 778 495 866
595.9 0.82 1.50 0.2050 47.6 1112 205 502 707 451 788
539.6 1.00 1.50 0.250 58.1 1367 206 446 652 406 717
539.6 1.00 2.00 0.2500 43.5 927 177 458 635 410 710
Notes:

'All tabulated designs are based on L1 = L5 = 87 mH, and L2 = L4 = 348 ml-l.

'Use the tabulated capacitor and L3 values to obtain the desired passband center frequency, F-CNTR.
'C2,4 is always one quarter of Cl.
'To get inductor L3, remove an equal number of turns from each winding of a standard 88-mH Inductor. See Fig. 49 to find the number of turns to
remove.
'For satisfactory operation, the filter input and output terminals must be terminated within ± 20% of the listed R-TERM value.
'The BW-3 frequency is the 3-dB bandwidth of the filter.
'The FL-3, FH-3, FL-30 and FI-1-30 frequencies correspond to the lower and upper 3and 30-dB attenuation levels of the filter response.

core produce somewhat less than the ex- values between 54 and 40 mH. Earlier capacitors for C3. This makes construc-
pected 88 mH inductance when connected filter designs required a 44-mH inductor tion much more convenient.
in series-aiding fashion. This is the result for L3". This restriction often resulted in The filters constructed by Wetherhold
of less than perfect coupling between the C3 being a non-standard value. The are comprised of two inductor stacks
two windings. The actual inductance 44-mH inductors, while a standard having sheet metal covers. The metal
varies between 85.7 and 87.4 mH depend- surplus value, have become difficult to covers allow the stacks to be soldered
ing on the closeness of coupling. For this obtain, consequently it is now more con- together and the mounting straps and
filter design avalue of 87.0 mH was used, venient to modify an 88-mH inductor. capacitor leads are soldered directly to the
as it closely approximates (within 2%) any With L3 no longer restricted in value, it is covers. The external inductor ( L3) is
inductance value that might be en- possible to use only standard value fastened to the end of the stack with GE
countered. RTV 108 Silicone Rubber Adhesive. An
The required inductance value for L3 is 'Wetherhold, " Modern Design of aCW Filter Using improved method of mounting L3,
obtained by removing turns from astan- 88- and 44-mH Surplus Inductors," QST, Dec., recommended by NOARQ, uses Scotch®
1980.
dard 88-mH inductor. Fig. 49A shows the Mounting Tape, Cat. # 114. A 1- 1/2-inch
'Wetherhold, " High- Performance CW Filter," Ham
number of turns to remove for inductance Radio, April, 1981. piece of the double-sided tape is placed

Fig. 49 - Inductance versus turns removed for

typical 88-mH surplus inductor with windings
in series-aiding connection (A). Series-aiding Fig. 50 - Schematic diagram of the ssb bandpass filter (A). Shown in B Is a pictorial wiring
connection method to obtain 88-mH ( B). diagram of the terminal board on the inductor stack.

8-28 Chapter 8
over the end of the stack and pressed firm-
ly in place. The protective liner is removed
and the inductor is pressed into the sticky
tape, the ends of the tape are pushed into
the sides of the inductor to secure it to the
stack.
The filter is conveniently installed be-
tween the receiver audio output and the
headphones, but attention must be given
to the termination of the filter. If the
receiver output and headset are high im-
pedance (600 to 1000 ohms), fixed-value
resistors can be inserted to provide the ex-
act termination required. If the receiver
and headset are low impedance (4 to 8
ohms), then two 8- to 1000-ohm matching
transformers, such as Radio Shack #273-
1380, will be needed. The insertion loss of
the filter is less than 3dB, and the slight
drop in signal level is easily compensated
for by increasing the audio output level.
Surplus inductors are available at no
charge (except for handling and shipping Fig. 51 — Response curves of the ssb band-pass filter.
expenses) to those who wish to build this
filter. These inductors are being made
available to the amateur fraternity
through the courtesy and cooperation of
the Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone
Company of Maryland. Write to E.E.
Wetherhold, 102 Archwood Ave., Anna-
polis, MD 21401 for additional informa-
tion. Be sure to include a stamped self-
addressed envelope.

A PASSIVE AUDIO FILTER FOR SSB

While audio filters are most often used
during cw reception, the ssb operator can
also benefit from their use. Shown in Figs.
50 and 51 is a passive band-pass filter
designed by Ed Wetherhold, W3NQN, for
'phone operation. This filter appeared in
Dec. 1979 QST.
All of the inductors are the surplus
88-mH toroidal type with their windings Fig. 52 — Circuit example of one pole section of an RC active audio filter which uses discrete
wired either in series or parallel to get the active devices, 01 and 02.
required 88 or 22 mH of inductance. The
0.319-F capacitors were selected from popular than the passive type shown in
several 0.33-µF capacitors which were Figs. 47 and 50. The primary advantages
about 3 percent on the low side. The of active filters are ( 1) unity gain or
0.638-µF value was obtained with asingle greater (passive filters have some insertion
0.68-uF capacitor which was about 6per- loss), and (2) they can be built more com-
cent on the low side. The 1.276-14F values pactly than LC filters can. Another ad-
were obtained by paralleling selected 1-14F vantage of RC active filters is that they
and 0.33-uF capacitors. can be made with variable Q and variable
Pick H0Q, wo = 2rf,
Fig. 51 shows the measured and center or cutoff frequencies. These two
where fc = center freq.
calculated attenuation reponses of the features can be controlled at the panel of
Choose C
filter. The difference between the the receiver by means of potentiometers.
measured and calculated responses at the Most RC active filters are designed for a Then R I =
Howoc
low frequency side of the passband is pro- gain of 1 to 5. A recommended gain
bably caused by the much lower Q of the amount is 2 for most amateur applica- R2 — (2Q2 — Ho)w0C
inductors at these frequencies. tions. The more filter sections placed in
cascade, the better the skirt selectivity. 2Q
The necessary termination resistance of R3 = 7
(.0

this filter is 206 ohms. While this is not a The maximum number of usable RC filter
standard value, it should not be too dif- sections is typically 4. The minimum ac- If Ho = 2$0 = 800 Hz, Q = 5
ficult for most amateurs to accommodate. ceptable number is 2 for cw work, but a and C .= 022 uF
If low-impedance headphones are used, a single section RC active filter is often R I =22.6ka(use 22k)
matching transformer can be used to pro- suitable for ssb reception in simple R2 =9441 ( use 1000)
vide the correct termination. receivers. As the Q and number of filter R3 =90.4kfl ( use 91K, or 100k)
sections increases there is a strong ten-
RC Active Audio Filters dency toward " ringing." This becomes Fig. 53 — Equations for designing an RC
The active type of audio filter is more manifest in the speakei ut arphones as a ac ti vepuffin
filter.

Receiving Systems 8-29

 3 5-W
DRIVER 470 AF OUTPUT

•
--/VV\/—* 0 + 12V
08
2N5880/ -r±100pF
S7003 r T 7 15V

100»F

AF 15 V 1000
PREAMP 2000pF
1:4-/VV\i—e 25V J3

07 2pF +I( o LO- Z

yfipHONES
2N2222A 15V OR
8- OHM
TO 15V 1pF
PROD SPKR
15V

1
DET 1 . 1000 3
(FIG 5) 09
2N5881/57002

470

22k CR11
1N914A

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

+12V
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( jF I;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS Ior OR » F);
C4
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ,
C6
kmI000, M • 1000 000.

POLY • POLYSTYRENE

FL5
RC ACTIVE
750- Hz CW
FILTER

Fig. 54 — Practical circuit for a two- pole cw RC active filter, showing how it can be switched into and out of the audio channel of a receiver.

howling sound which can be most unplea- filter. The lower the resistance value the values as possible. Variations greater than
sant to hear. The same is true of passive higher the fc.A dual potentiometer could 5 percent in resistance and capacitance in
audio filters which have extremely high be used in place of RIand R2 to provide a multipole filter will widen the 3-dB
loaded-Q values. frequency variations. bandwidth and cause dips in the nose of
Op amp ICs are used as the active Design data for RC active filters which the response curve. In other words, f c
devices in most RC active filters. The 741, use ICs is given in Fig. 53. One pole is should be exactly the same for all filter
LM301 and 747 types of ICs are suggested shown. The term Ho is the desired voltage sections in an ideal example.
for that application. However, discrete gain of the filter. Gains between unity ( 1) A practical example of a two-pole RC
devices can be used with equal success if and 2are the most common. active filter which uses adual op-amp IC
the builder so desires. Fig. 52 shows one High-Q, stable capacitors are im- is given in Fig. 54. It is switched in and out
section of an active filter which uses trans- perative to proper filter performance. of the audio amplifier by means of Sl. As
sistors. Q Iserves as a source- follower at Polystyrene capacitors are recommended shown, the filter represents the minimum
the input and Q2 is one section of the for use at C of Figs. 52 and 53. The acceptable design for most cw work. A
filter. Cascaded additional filter sections frequency-determining resistors and three- or four-section filter of this type
would consist of the circuit which is com- capacitors should be as close to the design would be more desirable for cw work
mon to Q2. The values of RI and R2 under adverse band conditions (QRM or
would be changed to modify the f c of the weak signals).

8-30 Chapter 8
LOW-COST SUPER-
HETERODYNE RECEIVER FOR CW
By taking advantage of active stages in
the mixer and product detector it is possi-
ble to limit the total number of stages in a
receiver while maintaining good perfor-
mance. A homemade i -fcrystal filter will
also aid in reducing the cost of the proj-
ect. Elimination of such frills as agc, an
BARBADOS RECEIVER
S meter, rf gain control and an audio
amplifier for driving aspeaker can aid in
making areceiver circuit purely functional TRIM
but less costly.
The foregoing objectives have been met
in this simple receiver. It can serve nicely VOLUME •
as a portable cw receiver because of its
small size and low battery drain — only 12 PHONES

mA at 13 volts dc. Information is pro-

vided for operation on 40, 20 or 15
meters. Fig. 55 — A low-cost cw receiver designed by Doug DeMaw, W1FB. The name on the front panel
was inspired by the unit's intended purpose — vacation operating.
Front-End Circuit
No rf amplifier is required for opera-
tion on 20 or 40 meters ( Fig. 57). The
noise figure is entirely suitable for those
bands. Since the signal is fed directly into
the mixer, Q!, on 20 and 40 meters, the
dynamic range of the receiver is fairly high
(1MD and blocking). The preamplifier of
Fig. 58A is recommended for use on 15
meters, especially for reception of weak
signals. Those wanting additional gain on
20 meters may use the same preamp cir-
cuit, but with suitable changes in the
tuned circuits.
A simple tuned circuit with a toroidal
inductor and trimmer capacitor (T1 /C1) is
adequate for use on 20 and 15 meters.
With Cl set for resonance in the center of
the desired tuning range there will be
ample bandwidth. The 40- meter version
requires a panel-mounted air variable if
coverage from 7.0 to 7.1 MHz is an-
ticipated.

Local Oscillator
A VFO is used as the LO in the
40-meter receiver. This is necessary in
order to cover the specified frequency
range (7.0-7.2 MHz). A VXO is used for
20 and 15 meters. It provides approxi-
mately 30 kHz for frequency coverage. If
more than one segment of the band is
needed, adifferent crystal can be plugged Fig. 56 — Inside view of the low-cost cw receiver. This is the 40-meter version using a VFO.

in at Y4 of Fig. 57. The etched circuit

board (Fig. 59) is designed to accom-
modate either circuit — the VFO or VXO.
Use of the VFO is not recommended at 17
MHz because the circuit would not be holder and must be a fundamental type the circuit at Q4. This needs to be con-
stable enough for the i -
fbandwidth of the rather than a3rd-overtone crystal used at sidered when ordering acrystal. The load
receiver. The VXO, on the other hand, is the fundamental mode. Overtone crystals capacitance for the VXO is about 31 pF,
very stable. However, the frequency will work, but the tuning range will be so a 30-pF load capacitance (standard)
change at Q4 is not linear when using the markedly less than with fundamental AT- can be specified. Surplus crystals in
VXO. As C2 approaches maximum capa- cut crystals. Furthermore, the high end of FT-243 holders are not recommended.
citance, the rate of frequency change per the oscillation range (with the circuit of
I-F Ladder Filter
degree of rotation slows down Fig. 57) will be somewhat lower than the
marked frequency divided by 3. The A homemade lower-sideband ladder
considerably.
The crystal used at Y4 is critical in terms fundamental-cut crystal will, conversely, filter is used at FL I. Yl, Y2 and Y3 are in-
of characteristics if awide tuning range is commence oscillation approximately 15 expensive TV color-burst crystals from
kHz higher than the marked frequency in Radio Shack. The measured Q of these
to be had. It should be in an HC-6/1.1

Receiving Systems 8-31

 FL1
MIXER
(8W• 260 HZ)

3 579 MHZ 3579 5 kHZ

3.579MHz
32 TO T3
YI Y2 Y3
TI
4
50f1 I 101 I 101 / / 0 I I

àf
ANT

PANEL V

TRIMMER
(IF USED)

+12V

17 584 100
TO PROD. DEI.
17615 MHz 03
001

34 — 33
S
17.6 MHz
3V
000t Pk - 06

I(
100
07
33
BFO 0001
RFC 1 05 001 270

100,M 35802

C2

75
35 1=1
MAIN
TUNING
P -7 - 7
C3 32

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF 65 r «

560

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS Ize I;

OTHERS ARE IN P1COFARADS IpF OR zàyr);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
k • I000, 61.1000 000,
S M • SILVER MICA 01- 06

XI - ON RI ROT! VIEW

Fig. 57 — Schematic diagram of the simple superheterodyne receiver. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic
or tantalum. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-watt composition. S.M. indicates silver mica. NPO ceramic or polystyrene capacitors may be
substituted for those with S.M. indicated.
Cl — PC-mount trimmer, except for 40 meters. 3N211. MPF102 or 2N4416 suitable for 04, on bobbin of an Amidon [Micrometals] L57-2
Use panel-mounted air variable for 40 05, and 07. transformer assembly. Use 6turns for the
meters. R1 — 10- ka, audio-taper, composition control link.)
C2 — Miniature 75-pF air variable. Main tuning, RFC1 — Miniature rf choke, 100 H. Value not 14 — Same as 12 and 13, but with the primary
use vernier drive. critical. center tapped.
C3 — Same as Cl for all bands. Ti — Input transformer, toroidal. For 15 U1 — Op amp, TL081.
DI — Silicon diode, 1N914 or equivalent. meters, 1.9 iaH (20 turns no. 26 enam. wire Yl, Y2, Y3, Y5 — Radio Shack TV color-burst
D2, D3 — Radio Shack Schottky diode, or over entire T50-6 core, link = 2turns). For crystal, 3.5795 MHz.
equivalent. 20 meters, 3.2 mH (26 turns no. 26 enam. wire Y4 — Fundamental crystal in HC-6/U-style
FL1 — Ladder filter, 260- Hz bandwidth (see on T50-6 core, link has 2turns). For 40 holder. Same general range for 20 and 15
text). meters, 13 pH ( 51 turns no. 28 enam. wire meters. Select for portion of the bands to
Li — 6-01 toroidal inductor. 36 turns no. 26 on T50-6 core, link 5turns). be tuned. International Crystal Co. type
enam. wire on Amidon T50-6 toroid core. 12, T3 — Miniature transfornier, 4.7:1 turns 434110, 30 pF load capacitance, recom-
AL = 47, powdered iron. ratio, 6.5 j.H. (27 turns no. 28 enam. wire mended ( 10 N. Lee St., Oklahoma City, OK
01-07, incl. — Dual-gate MOSFET, 40673 or 73102).

crystals was 105,000 and the series binations are used to obtain the required best cw results it is necessary to place the
resistance was 38.6 ohms. These para- capacitance. The filter termination for a BFO frequency 700 Hz (off the filter
meters plus the desired 6-dB bandwidth 250- Hz bandwidth is 450 ohms. The center frequency) on the high side of the
determine the values of the end and center primary of T2 and the secondary of T3 are response curve ( 3580.2 kHz in this in-
capacitors of FL1. The correct terminal bridged with 10-k0 resistors to force the stance). A fourth Radio Shack crystal is
impedance for the filter also depends on required 450-ohm filter terminations in used at Y5 to obtain the required BFO in-
these characteristics. Other brands of accordance with the transformer turns jection for the product detector. C3 is
color-burst crystals may have different ratios. used in series with Y5 to increase its fre-
values of Q and resistance. Ladder filters are asymmetrical, with quency to 3580.2 kHz.
Since the end and center capacitors of the steeper skirt on the high- frequency If the values given for FL1 are fol-
FL1 are nonstandard values, parallel corn- side of the response curve. Therefore, for lowed, and if the proper terminations are

8-32 Chapter 8
 tone line is connected to pin 2of U 1for
270 3 579MHz use in transceiver operation. A limiter is
I- F AMP
used at the output of U1 to clip loud
02 14
signal or noise peaks. Schottky diodes are
Gi
used at D2 and D3 to maintain athreshold
02 clipping level of roughly 0.3 volt. Head-
phones of any type are suitable with this
...—.. 270 1 100 001 circuit (8ohms through 2000 ohms).
0.01
01
The operating voltage to Ul is separate
I,, from that which feeds the remainder of
the receiver. This was done to ensure
100
sidetone monitoring when the circuit is
33k 100k used with a transmitter. The supply
voltage to the main part of the receiver
+12V would, in such a situation, be supplied
FROM
T- R CET
through the T-R circuit in the transmitter.

0. 1 0 Performance
100

DE T
/T/ A signal of 0.1 1.¡V is just discernible
with this receiver. A 0.3-µV signal has am-
27k 00
ple strength to be copied clearly if no
AF PREAMP
15k
QRM or QRN is present. Sensitivity of
001 7,/F
16V this kind is acceptable for 20- and
06
/ 40- meter reception. The receiver overall
gain (90 to 100 dB) is such that there is
IAF
0, I6V
ample audio output for any signal in ex-
cess of 1µV. The audio amplifier (U1) will
100k
overload and distort on strong signals
unless RI is adjusted for normal head-
phone volume — as is true of any receiver
that has no agc.
Circuit boards and parts kits for this
receiver are available from Circuit Board
'JI 01
AF AMP 100k 01 Specialists, P.O. Box 969, Pueblo, CO
TOP VIEW
81002. Credit is given to W. Hayward,
W7Z01, for measuring the parameters of
the Radio Shack crystals and developing
the values of FL1 with his computer
RI program.
10
AF 2.2 pF
GAIN A SIMPLE SUPERHET FOR
75-METER SSB
Circuit elaboration is not always essen-
tial to good receiver performance. This is
particularly true when the builder desires
compact equipment for portable opera-
• tion. The simplicity concept is enhanced
further by the low current drain that can
/
be realized when only the bare essentials
are designed into the circuit.
This superheterodyne receiver rep-
resents the most basic approach that will
provide acceptable selectivity, immunity
to front-end overloading and sensitivity.
Five transistors, four diodes and one IC
comprise the semiconductor count in the
design. A supply voltage of 11 to 14 is
suitable. The current drain is on the order
of 50 mA maximum.
provided, there should be no discernible each transformer (T2, T3 and 14). The Fig. 60 shows the schematic diagram of
ripple in the filter response. The skirts will drain of Q2 is tapped down on the this receiver. A fixed-tuned Butterworth
be very sharp, especially on the high- primary of T4 to aid stability. front-end filter permits coverage from
frequency side of the response. Q3, an active product detector, pro- 3.75 to 4.0 MHz without the need for
vides some conversion gain at audio. Its retuning the filter . A high-transcon-
Remainder of the Circuit output is routed to a low-noise audio ductance dual-gate MOSFET, QI, serves
Only one i-
famplifier is used in the cir- preamplifier, Q6. The high side of RI is as the mixer. Conversion gain with this
cuit of Fig. 57. An Amidon Associates bypassed with a 0.1-µF capacitor to device (3N211) is very high, owing to the
L57-2 shielded coil form ( manufactured reduce high- frequency noise. of 30,000 microsiemens. A Collins
by Micrometals Corp.) with a powdered- A Radio Shack TL081 op amp is used Radio CB-type mechanical filter is shown
iron slug and outer cylinder is used for as a headphone amplifier at U1 . A side- as the i -fselectivity element, FL2. This

Receivina Systems 8-33

 part was chosen because of the low cost.
+10d B
However, any of the Collins 455-kHz
C8 RF PRE AMP
C9
mechanical filters designed for ssb band-
width can be used, provided the insertion
loss is low. The only circuit changes
necessary would be modification of the
terminating resistances, the filter
TO
resonating capacitors, and the BFO
01 MIXER
crystals (Y1 and Y2). This model calls for
2700 ohms at each end of the filter, plus
two 360 pF resonating capacitors. The
filter bandwidth is 2.2 kHz at the 3-dB
points. The 60-dB bandwidth is 5.5 kHz.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED ,DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS (
A lower-cost 455-kHz filter alternative is
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS (pF OR yer, offered in the modification diagram of
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
Fig. 61. A J. W. Miller 8814 trans-
k • I000
former/filter is specified. It contains a
C8 C9 75 70 monolithic filter that provides a 4- kHz
20 44 47 47 L-56-6 (2.8 MR) L-43-6 (2.6 01)
S.M. S.M. 18 t, tap 6tfrom gnd 2t
bandwidth at the 3-dB points. The 60-dB
15 A4 33 33 L-56-8 ( 1.7 01-4) L-43-6 ( 1.7 uH) bandwidth is 5.5 kHz.
S.M. S.M. 15 1, tap 4 tfrom gnd 15 t 2t (A) Output from FL2 is routed to a
single-stage i -f amplifier, Q2, another
3N2 I1 FET. The gain of this amplifier,
plus that of the audio-amplifier IC Ul is
controlled manually by means of a dual
OSC control, R I A/R 1B. The bias on gate 2of
40673
100
Q2 is varied at RIA to set the i -fgain
10579-10779 MHz 09
level. In order to obtain a wide range of
control it is necessary to place gate 2at a
L2 05
volt or two minus with respect to gate I.
180
This is achieved by " bootstrapping" the
stage with DI, an LED which conducts at
roughly 1.5 volts.' Therefore, when RIA
has its arm at ground, gate 2 of Q2 is
effectively at — 1.5 volts ( minimum gain).
DI serves purely as a reference diode in
this instance. Alternatively, two 1N914
diodes can be used in series from source to
ground to provide areference of roughly
1.5 volts.
33
AMP ISV
A 3N2Il FET serves as the VFO. Gates
001 Iand 2are connected together to simulate
..--.. 0
a single-gate transistor. Injection for the
75001
33k /- 77 mixer is taken from the gate of Q3 in
rr`rn
r RFC order to realize a3-volt pk-pk level at gate
0001 2of Q I. A pure sine wave is available at
470
011
( 0 ro MI
XER that take-off point. Some oscillator
255179
2V PR - PA) pulling ( slight) will be observed when FL1
is aligned. However, once the front-end
ExCEPT AS iNDICAttED, NAL

10 VALUES OE cAPAC.T.R..CE ARE

filter is tuned the effect will not be
IN MicRo:ARASSIREI ; OTHERS noticed. A VFO buffer/amplifier would
ARE IN
RESISTANCES
RtC:FARADSIRE OR ,. RE);
ARE IN OH1AS;
resolve this condition, but is not necessary
k*
1000 ''-" r.• in practice if circuit simplicity is to be
R.POL YST + RENE keynoted. D2 is used as aswitching diode
to offset the VFO frequency when
changing from upper to lower sideband.
This eliminates the need to readjust the
main-tuning dial of the receiver. This part
of the circuit need not be included if dial
Fig. 58 — At A, schematic diagram of the 15/20-meter optional preamplifier. Capacitors are disc calibration is not essential when changing
ceramic if not numbered. See table for other types. Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2- watt composition. sidebands.
S. M. indicates sliver mica. At B, VFO circuit for use on 40 meters. Coverage will be 7.0 to 7.2 A 3N211 is employed at Q4 (gates tied
MHz. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless otherwise noted. Resistors are 1/4- or
1/2-watt composition.
together) as the product detector. Output
C8, C9 — See Inset table. JFET may be substituted. from the i -famplifier is fed to the source
C10 — Miniature 10-pF air variable, double- 09, 010 — Dual-gate MOSFET or
bearing type recommended for best 2N4416-family JFET.
mechanical stability. RFC2, RFC3 — Miniature rf choke, approxi-
D4 — Silicon diode, type 1N914. mately 27 ml-
i.
D5 — Zener diode. T5 — See table. Transformer assembly is an
L2 — Inductor, 0.9 kiH. Use 10 turns no. 24 Amidon (Micrometals) L58-6 (yellow core).
enam. wire on bobbin of an Amidon L57-8 Use no. 26 enam. wire for the windings.
transformer assembly. Ground shield cans to pc-board ground.
'The LED should be installed so that it illuminates
08 — Dual-gate MOSFET, 40873 or 3N211. when RI is set for maximum receiver gain.

8-34 Chapter 8
 (A)
W- JUMPER H = HOLE TO PANEL MTD
ION ETCHED SIDE) N C = NO CONNECTION VARIABLE 11F USED

'2

o
e io,F
N
C NC

efr. s.
S.M.

0- (0 01)
33 K
MOUNT AT R 270 Si 100 K

r --, 1OHF
1j.,F Y4

R1
HIGH

SIDE-TONE
IN
221,4F

0 — INDICATES
VERT. MOUNT

(B)

Fig. 59 — At A, full-scale etching pattern for the cw receiver pc board. The circuit foil side Is shown. Black areas are unetched copper. The parts
placement guide is shown at B. The component side is shown with an x-ray view of the foil. This guide shows the VXO layout. See Fig. 58 for VFO
component arrangement.

of Q4. BFO energy is supplied to Q4 from arrangement shown in Fig. 60. Addition VFO enclosure. PC boards, negatives and
another 3N211 ( Q5). Y I and Y2 are of a0.5 or 1-watt audio IC would enable parts kits for this receiver are available
selectable to permit upper and lower the builder to employ a speaker rather from Circuit Board Specialists, listed in
sideband reception. Since lower-sideband than phones, but the current drain of the Chapter 17. An adapter pc board is avail-
transmissions are the general rule on 75 receiver would be considerably higher. able from that supplier to permit using the
meters, the builder may elect to use only modification shown in Fig. 61.
Construction Notes
the lsb crystal and eliminate Si and the
VFO offset circuitry. The etched-circuit board is the single-
Adjustment and Use
Audio gain is provided by Ul, a40- dB sided variety (copper on only one side).
op amp. The reLeiver output is adequate Double-sided pc board material is used FL1 is designed to be terminated in a
for weak signals ( 1 V or greater) with the for the front panel, rear panel and the 50- ohm load. The antenna or signal

Receiving Systems 8-35

eiesdeqo 9E-e MIXER I
- F AMP 053+1
5 Hz
02
311211 -1
01 O
(5269939010)
311211 02
453.55 kHz
3.75- 4.0 MHz

FL1 G2

RFCI
7
lOrnH
J1
ANT —.ÉC1

3
(50n) Y300 r « 300

TO
04
SOURCE
I- F
GAIN RIA

50
POLY.
/// J2

14 ICr— \
,11 -
1-12v
I
,

500/..F 04
0.001
VFO ET. 16V

r
-
4.253 TO 4.453 MHz 03
3N211

• I( 180
200 04
_x POLY
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL D G2 e
9.1 V
1000 VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE 2 7
40Orr,W
POLY. IN MICROFARADS (jar); OTHERS 3
S Gl 4
ARE IN PICOFARADS PF OR zà.PF);
loo 3E1D3 C4 01-05
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; (TOP)
10 SIA LSB
(BOTTOM)
k . 1000 . M• 1,000,000.

Irr,H ep , 2200
°
USB
ET

AF AMP

BFO PROD. DET.

AF GAIN
YI RIB PHONES
/ 0.1 100 100 -t- 1500 2,uF • 10k
22.0.)F 16V J3
POLY.• POLYSTYRENE RFC3
452.25 kHz 10n1H I6V 0.1
SM.. SILVER MICA LSD /..f/ ( o
Y2 SIB 390 10,F
04
3N211 16V
05 TO
311211 D
454,85 kHz 02 04
D 15 +12V)
02 /

150 270 47k 1000

/ 0.01 50 22z.,F 22»F
100k 47k
100k 0.1 16V 16V
1 "-/ 150
/- 7- 7 TO TI

Fig. 60 — Schematic diagram of the ssb receiver. Fi xed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless noted otherwise. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic. Fixed-value resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-watt composition.
C1, C2 — Mica compression trimmer. 300 pF 04 — Polarity-guarding diode. Silicon rectifier, L2, L3 — 40 turns no. 24 enam. wire on T68-6
max. Arco 427 or equiv. 50 PRV 1A. toroid core. J. W. Miller 70F102A1 or equiv.
C3 — Miniature 25-pF air variable. Hammar- D5 — Zener diode, 9.1 volts, 400 mW or 1watt. L4 — Slug-tuned inductor, 3.6 to 8.5 range, RFC2 — 1-mH miniature rf choke, J. W. Miller
lund HF- 25 or similar. FL1 — Band-pass filter (see text) J. W. Miller 42A686CB1 or equivalent suit- 70F103A1 or equiv.
C4 — Circuit-board mount subminiature air FL2 — Collins Radio CB-type mechanical filter, able. Substitutes should have 0 of 100 or S1 — Two- pole, two- position phenolic or
variable or glass piston trimmer, 10 pF mix. Rockwell International no. 5269939010, greater at 4 MHz and be mechanically rigid. ceramic wafer switch.
NPO; miniature ceramic trimmer suitable as 453.33 kHz center freq. Q1-105, incl. — Texas Instruments 3N211 FET. Ti — 455- kHz miniature i -
ftransformer (see
second choice. J1 — SO-239. R1 — Dual control, 10-kil per section, linear text). J. W. Miller no. 2067.
D1 — LED, any color or size. Used only as J2 — Single-hole- mount phono jack. taper. Allen Bradley type JD1N200P or simi- U1 — 8-pin dual- in- line 741 op amp.
1.5-V reference diode. J3 — Two-circuit phone jack. lar. Separate controls can be used by pro- Y1, Y2 — International Crystal Co. type GP,
02, D3 — Silicon switching diode, 1N914 or L1 — Two turns no. 24 insulated wire over viding extra hole in front panel. 30-pF load capacitance, HC-6/U style of
equiv. ground end of L2. RFC1, RFC3 — 10-mH miniature rf choke, holder. Lsb 452.25 kHz, and usb 454.85 kHz.
 MIXER 12
455 kHz
MILLER 8E114
QI
r _ _ _ _ _
31 14

4-7 I- F AMP

02

01
100

Y1-456.3 kHz
Y2-453.7 kHz
+12V
Fig. 62 — Top view of the simple superhet
receiver showing the locations of the various
components. The VFO and its enclosure are at
the center of the etched-circuit board adjacent
to the front panel.

Fig. 61 — Circuit modifications for inclusion between the mixer and i -

famplifier of the circuit in
Fig. 60. T2 is a J. W. Miller no. 8814 i
-ffilter transformer (see text).

generator used during adjustment of C set as follows. Tune in aweak signal for
and C3 should pros ide a50- ohm termina- zero beat, with SI in the upper-sideband
tion. Tune in aweak signal near 3875 khi position. Switch S2 to lower sideband and
and adjust CI and C2 for maximum signal adjust C4 for zero beat as heard in the
output in the headphones. There may be headphones. The main- tuning dial should
sonic interaction, so repeat this step two not be moved during this part of the
or three times. This assumes that the VFO alignment.
has been calibrated by means of the slug The reason FL2 does not have acenter
in L4 to provide mixer injection at 4453 frequency of 455 kHz is that it was
kHz when C3 is set for minimum capaci- designed by Collins for use as a lower- Fig. 63 — Outside view of the simple superhet
tance (plates unmeshed). siclehand filter. An upper-sideband filter is receiver. The front and rear panels are made
TI is peaked last for maximum signal used with it in CB radios. That permits the from double-sided circuit board.

output from the receiver, again using a use of asingle BM crystal at 455 kHz for
ueak-signal source. This transformer is either sideband. The passband of this
adjusted for resonance at the center of the filter is symmetrical, just as is true of the this project because the price is roughly
FL2 passband — 453.55 kHz. regular 455- kHz Collins mechanical filters one-third that of the mechanical filters
Offset trimmer C4 of Fig. 60 should be in amateur receivers. FL2 was chosen for used by most amateur builders.

A High- Performance Communications Receiver

The receiver described here is the work receiver is shown in the block diagram, improved dynamic range results from its
of W7ZOI and K5IRK and was presented Fig. 65. On 80-meters the receiver func- omission. The lower noise figure obtained
in Nov. 1981 QST. A progressive system tions as a single conversion super- with the rf stage is required on the bands
was used in the QST version, starting with heterodyne, with reception of the higher above 7MHz, however.
asimple (but very useable) direct conver- bands provided by high-performance Many criteria were used in the design of
sion receiver and concluding with amulti- crystal-controlled converters. Note that this receiving system, but first and
band superheterodyne. This approach is all of the converters use the same mixer foremost were simplicity and ease of
highly recommended for those who may module, switching only the converter duplication. To this end, readily available
lack construction experience. Shown in filter and crystal oscillator modules. As components were used throughout. Alter-
Figs. 64 through 73 is the receiver in its shown, the 40-meter converter does not native components are suggested where
final foul!. The overall layout of the use an rf amplifier — it is unnecessary and appropriate and the circuits are insensitive

Receiving Systems 8-37

 • •

(A) ( B)
Fig. 64 — A 5- band, ssb version of the high-performance communications receiver constructed by K5IRK. In the top view the VFO is located in the
center with the input filter, mixer and i
-fboards to the left. The board at the far right contains the product detector and audio stages. The two boards
to the right of the VFO are active audio filters (A). The bottom view shows the converter and oscillator boards. The BFO is contained in the shielded
box at the left and the mixer board is at the lower center ( B).

7 MIXER MODULE

ST MIXER I- F AMP 80 -M PRESEL EC TOR

80 80

400

100

10 -M FILTER 10 -M FILTER
5-5.5 MHz
RF AMP

80

OSCILLATOR BUFFER

VFO MODULE

CRYSTAL
OSCILLATORS

DETECTOR/AUDIO MODULE

PRODUCT DEY

LSBOes-)3.

Fig. 65 — Block diagram of the W7Z01/K5IRK communications receiver.

8-38 Chapter 8
to transistor type, allowing freedom in tuned circuit comprised of L7 and L8 and resistor. Initially, C15 is set near
substitution. This does not in any way im- their related capacitors. A variable minimum capacitance and the receiver is
ply that the performance has been com- capacitor is used at C15 because the small, tuned to the center of the band. C14 and
promised; indeed, this receiver can equal non-standard values required here are dif- C17 are then adjusted for maximum
the strong-signal performance of many of ficult to obtain; a 1- to 5-pF variable is response. C15 is then increased and C14
the high-priced receivers on the market to- readily available and can be preset to the and C17 are again peaked for maximum
day. value given in Table 5or adjusted during response. The filter bandwidth is
alignment. estimated by observing the response as the
Circuit Description: The Converter, The rf amplifier uses a dual gate receiver is tuned toward the band edges.
Filter and RF Amplifier MOSFET and modified input low-pass This procedure is repeated until the
Preselection for the individual con- filter. The first section is asimple low-pass desired bandwidth is realized. The input
verter sections is provided by the circuit filter while the second section is api net- pi network used with the rf amplifier is ad-
shown in Fig. 66. The optional rf ampli- work that transforms from 50 to 2000 justed by setting C22 for maximum
fier is shown in A and the version without ohms with aQ of 10. This provides anear response at the center of the band.
the amplifier is shown in B. The same cir- optimum driving impedance for the
cuit board layout can be used for both amplifier. The output uses a broadband Mixer Module
versions. transformer to provide a 50-ohm output The two mixer modules used in the
Each filter module uses two types of impedance, ensuring proper termination composite receiver are identical, each be-
filters. The first is a 5-pole low-pass, for the following double-tuned circuit. ing comprised of adoubly balanced diode
necessary to prevent spurious responses The filters may be aligned with asignal ring mixer, U2 of Fig. 67, followed by a
from vhf TV and fm broadcast signals. generator or crystal calibrator. If a 9-MHz i -f amplifier. The i -
f amplifier,
The second filter provides the majority of calibrator is used, the input of the receiver Q9, is one of the more critical stages in the
the front-end selectivity, it is a double- should be terminated with a 50-ohm receiver. It must have a reasonable noise
figure, low IMD, and the input and out-
put impedances must be 50 ohms. A
bipolar transistor with negative feedback
is used to establish the gain and im-
MIXER MODULE pedances and the 6dB pad at the output
preserves the input and output im-
F AMP
MIXER pedances of the stage. The moderately
high bias current used ensures low distor-
tion.
The transistor type used for Q9 is
critical. It should have an Ur of at least 500
MHz. The 2N5109, 2N3866 and 2SC1252
are all suitable.
Amplifier gain, including the loss of the
pad, is about 16 dB. The mixer has aloss
of about 6dB, leaving anet module gain
of 10 dB. The amplifier output intercept is
about + 30 dBm. Careful measurements
have shown that adiplexer is not required
between the mixer and this amplifier.

Crystal Oscillator Module

Shown in Fig. 68 is the circuit used for
all of the crystal oscillators in the receiver.
One or two of the modules are used for
the BFO and one module is used with each
converter. The circuit is a Hartley
oscillator with the crystal in series with the
I
-F MODULE
feedback tap from the coil. A trimmer
capacitor in series with the crystal adjusts
I
-F AMPS
the operating frequency of the oscillat
CRYSTAL FILTER
If a single BFO is used, the 124

< <
9 MHZ
operating bias is applied through the out-
put link as shown in Fig. 68B. When more
than one module is used, as with the con-
verters, operating voltage is applied
through the bandswitch, Fig. 68C. Only
the oscillator in use has power applied to
AUG
it. This circuit will deliver an output
power of about + 10 dBm, which is more
I- F GAIN
than enough to drive the diode mixers.
Adjustment of the oscillators is best done
with the mixer attached. C11 is tuned for
maximum output and proper starting of
the oscillator. The series capacitor is then
adjusted for the correct operating fre-
quency. This capacitor may be eliminated
in those modules used with the converters,

Receiving Systems 8-39

 +12V

47k 100h

C15 C1E1

)4- O OUTPUT

C13 C14 C16 C17

L9 LIO
LB

INPUT
/77 /77

C19

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE

/ / /
ARE IN MICROFARADS(yF); OTHERS ARE IN PiC0FAR ,, DS(PF)i
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS. ALL CAPACITORS ARE DISC
CERAMIC AND RESISTORS ARE 1/4 - WATT, 5% COMPO-
SITION OR METAL FILM TYPES,UNLESS OTHERWISE
SPECIFIED,

L9 LbO

C15 C1E1
INPUT
OOUTPUT

Flg. 66 — Circuit diagram of the converter filter and optional rf amplifier used in the W7Z01/K5IRK receiver. The circuit using the rf amplifier is
shown in A, while the configuration without the amplifier is shown in B.
C12, C13, C16, C18-21 — Silver mica or C15 — Air variable, 1to 5pF. 15 — Ferrite transformer, 20 turns primary,
ceramic, see Table 5for values. L7-10 — No. 22 enamel wire wound on Amidon 4turns secondary, on Amidon FT37-43 core.
C14, C17, C22 — Mica compression trimmer or T50-6 core, see Table 5for number of turns. Z6 — Ferrite bead on lead of 010. Amidon
similar variable, see Table 5for values. 010 — Dual gate MOSFET, 40673, 3N211, type FB43-101.
3SK40 or similar.

the crystal is then connected directly to

ground. +12 V

80-Meter Preselector Filter

100
The 80-meter preselector filter is shown 0.01
AMP.
in Fig. 69. It consists of two cascaded
filters: The first is a 7-pole high-pass
(3-MHz cutoff) composed of the com- • 14

ponents between the two 650-pF

capacitors. This filter suppresses spurious MIXER 60B ATTENUATOR

responses from a-m broadcast signals. 0.01 36

OUTPUT
The second part of the filter, while RF
9MHz TO I- F
basically alow-pass type, was designed for INPUT

a very pronounced peak, resulting in a

001
sharp, band-pass-like response. C6 is a
365-pF broadcast replacement type
capacitor mounted on the front panel. 001

OSCILLATOR

VFO Module INPUT 5.6

+5 TO + 10dBm
The variable frequency oscillator, Fig. e
70, uses a JFET in a Hartley circuit EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE LETTER
ARE IN MICROFARADSW); OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADSIPF)i M ON TOP
followed by adual-gate MOSFET buffer.
6

RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ALL CAPACITORS ARE DISC 4 OF CASE

3
For best temperature stability, type SF CERAMIC AND RESISTORS ARE 1/4 WAT T , 5% COMPO-
SITION OR METAL FILM TYPES,UNLESS OTHERWISE SBL-1 BASE DIAGRAM I 2
OVER PIN 2

material (Amidon -6code) is used for the SPECIFIED. BOTTOM VE I

W

inductor core, as this material has alower

temperature coefficient than the usual
slug-tuned inductor. All of the capacitors
Fig. 67 — Diagram of the mixer module. Two of these modules are used in the completed
in the tuned circuit should be NPO receiver. One is for 80-meter input, with its output at 9 MHz. The second is used with the
ceramics, as they have the lowest converters, its output is at 80 meters.
temperature coefficient of any readily 09 — TO-39 CATV type bipolar transistor, turns, no. 28 enamel on Amidon FT37-43 core
ft .= 1GHz or greater. 2N5109, U2 — Mini Circuit Lab double balanced mixer,
available type. Silver mica and
2SC1252 2SC1365 or 2N3866 suitable. A type SBL-1. Type SRA-1 is also suitable, as
polystyrene types should not be used in small heat sink is used on this transistor. are similar units from other manufacturers.
this circuit. T4 — Broadband ferrite transformer, 10 bifilar

8-40 Chapter 8
 Fig. 68 — Crystal oscillator module used for
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
BFO and converter oscillators.
C10 — Silver mica or ceramic. See Table 6 for
values.
C11 — Mica compression or similar trimmer.
13
See Table 6 for values.
OUTPUT
08 — General purpose NPN, 2N3904, 2N2222A
or similar.
RFC2, RFC3 — 20 turns no. 28 enamel on
Amidon FT37-43 core.
Si — Part of bandswitch or sideband selec-
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
tion switch. See text.
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE IN 13 — No. 22 wire on Amidon core, see Table
MICROFARADS ( PF); OTHERS ARE 6 for number of turns and type of core.
IN PICOFARADS(PF), RESISTANCES
Vi — Series- resonant crystal. See Table 6for
ARE IN OHMS. ALL CAPACITORS
ARE DISC CERAMIC AND RESIST- frequency. For 9- MHz BFO applications, a
ORS ARE 1/4 WATT, 5 % COMPO- KVG type XF-903 can be used for either
SITION OR METAL FILM TYPES, usb or 1st).
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.

(A) The resonator (tuned circuit) should be

lightly loaded; to this end, the coupling
+12 V
capacitor to the gate of the JFET is kept
as small as possible. If the specified 2.7-pF
NPO ceramic cannot be obtained, asmall
air variable of similar value can be
substituted. Following these precautions
will ensure excellent stability. Typical
warm-up drift is under 200 Hz over a
period of about 10 minutes. After warm-
up, drift is no more than 10 or 20 Hz in a
5-minute period.
The buffer stage, Q7, is conventional
FROM
OSCILLATOR
TO MIXER with the exception of the broadband out-
put transformer, T2. The buffer provides
good isolation for the oscillator and an
(a) output power of between + 5 and + 8
dBm.
+12 V

Intermediate Frequency Amplifier

39 The heart of the receiver is its i -
fsec-
tion. This design uses an i -fof 9 MHz,
with selectivity provided by acrystal filter
of the builder's choice. The circuitry
20V
shown (Fig. 71) is designed for afilter re-
quiring 500-ohm input and output ter-
minations.
The input is a pi-network which
FROM
transforms the 50-ohm source impedance
INDIVIDUAL

OSCILLATORS
TO MIXER
(from the mixer module) to the 500 ohms
required by the filter. The filter output is
terminated in a560-ohm resistor.
The majority of the i -
fgain is provided
(c) by two dual-gate MOSFETs, Q11 and
Q12. The bias on these stages is shifted
upward by a pair of silicon diodes. This
extends the gain control range as the gate
2 bias is altered. The last i -fstage is a
HIGH-PASS FILTER PEAKED LOW-PASS FILTER

420 L5 L6
SM
OUTPUT
TO
MIXER Fig. 69 — 80-meter preselector filter. The input
5000 C5
5000 section is a high-pass filter and the output sec-
—glr tion forms a peaked low-pass filter. The
SM
variable capacitor is mounted on the front
panel.
C5 — 560-pF, silver mica.
C6 — 365-pF or larger broadcast replacement
type air variable.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL SALUES OF CAPACITANCE L2, L4 — 21 turn, no 22 enamel wire on
ARE IN MICROFARADSDe), OTHERS ARE IN P:COFARADS(pF',
Amidon type 150-2 core.
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS. ALL CAPACITORS ARE DISC
CERAMIC AND RESISTORS ANE 1/4 - WATT, 5% COMPO-
C6 365 PRESELECT L3 — 20 turns, no. 22 enamel wire on
SITION OR METAL FILM TYPES,UNLESS OTHERWISE Amidon 150-2 core.
SPFCIF IF D
f-9-7 L5, L6 — 30 turns, no. 22 enamel wire on
Amidon T68-2 core.

Receiving Systems 8-41

 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE
ARE IN MICROFARADS(pF); OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADSIPF/i
OSCILLATOR BUFFER
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS. ALL CAPACITORS ARE DISC
330
CERAMIC AND RESISTORS ARE 1/4 - WATT , 5% COMPO -
SITION OR METAL FILM TY PES,UNLESS OTHERWISE
SPECIFIED.
0.01
27
NPO CER
06

24 C3 CI
IN914
LI 1M

/77 /7 - 7 I
OUTPUT
C2 /7-7 TO
MIXER

C4 MAIN TUNING

Fig. 70 - Schematic diagram of the VFO used I nthe W7Z01/K5IRK receiver. This circuit will function well from 2.5 to 10 MHz. The tuning range
using the components listed is 5.0 to 5.5 MHz.
Cl - 100-pF NPO ceramic. T50-6 core. Tap 8turns from ground. Ap- 3SK40 or similar.
C2 - 82-pF NPO ceramic. proximately 4.9-0-I total inductance. T2 - Ferrite transformer, 18 turn primary, 5
C3 - 126-pF NPO ceramic. 06 - General purpose JFET, MPF-102, 2N4416 turn secondary, no. 28 enamel wire on
C4 - Air variable, 365-pF broadcast replace- TIS-88, 2SK19GR or similar. Amidon FT37-43 core.
ment type. 07 - Dual gate MOSFET, 40673, 3N140 3N211, Z1 - Ferrite bead on lead of 07. Amidon
Li - 35 turns no. 28 enamel wire on Amidon FB43-101 or similar.

differential pair of PNP transistors, Q13 Table 5

and Q14. Outputs are available from each Component Data for W7201/K5IRK Receiver Converter Filters
of the collectors. The one from Q14 is Parts for filter without amplifier:
routed through coaxial cable to the pro- F,MHz C19 C20 L9 C12 C13 C14 C15 L7
C21 L10 C18 C16 C17 L8
duct detector.
The other i-foutput drives the detector, 7.1 430 860 17 42 50 180 4.6 25
Dl. When large signals are present, the 10.6 300 600 13 32 50 180 4.1 17
14.2 220 430 12 20 - 180 2.3 17
detected voltage from D1 appears at the 18.2 180 360 10 22 50 180 3.9 10
base of Q16, discharging the timing 21.2 150 300 10 18 - 180 3.0 10
capacitor, C24. The voltage change at C24 24.2 130 270 9 14 - 180 2.1 10
is coupled to the line through adiode, and10 28.5 110 220 8 12 - 180 1.6
reduces the gain of Q11 and Q12. RIO, the Parts for filter with RF amplifier:
"agc set", is adjusted for adc potential of0 F,MHz C19 C20 C21 C22 L9 L1
0.4- to 0.5-volts at the base of Q16. This 10.6 300 680 33 50 13 29
12 25
adjustment is made with the agc on, but50 14.2 220 500 22
18.2 180 390 - 50 10 22
no signals present. When measured with a 21.2 150 330 - 50 10 20
high impedance voltmeter, the agc line 24.2 130 300 - 50 9 19
should show about 6 volts at maximum 28.5 110 250 - 50 8 17
gain. Note: Other filter parts are identical to that without the amplifier. Values listed for capacitors are
Two transistor switches are contained capacitance in pF. Values listed for inductors are the number of turns of wire required.
in the amplifier. Q17 is used to defeat the
agc. It is activated by a positive voltage Table 13
applied to the " agc off" line. The other Component Data for W7201/K5IRK Receiver Crystal Oscillator Module
switch, Q15, is attached directly to the agc Y1 Band C10 C11 T3
line. A positive voltage applied to its input Core type primary turns tap turns secondary turns
shorts the agc line to ground, muting the 3.3 MHz 40 100 pF 90 pF T88-2 65 13 10
receiver. The extra diodes allow muting to g BFO 56 80 150-6 35 7 8
occur quickly while not discharging C24. 10.5 20 56 60 T50-6 30 7 6
The i -freturns rapidly to full gain after it 20/40 22 60 T50-6 30 7 6
17.5 15 33 60 T50-6 23 5 4
muting periods. 24.5 10/15 - 60 T50-6 20 4 4
The agc response is more than adequate 32 10 _ 60 150-6 15 3 3
and overshoot is minimal. Recovery time 6.5 30 100 60 T50-6 35 7 6
is relatively independent of signal level. 14.5 17 33 60 T50-6 23 5 4
The recovery time may be shortened by 20.5 12 - 60 T50-6 20 4 4

8-42 Chapter 8
 +12V

100 47
10
100

001
9MHz
XTAL
LIO
FILTER 22 /7/
22k

INPUT 0 01
(JIFF AMP
C23
001 T6
C25 C26
9MH2
013 014
0 01 / / LII L2 k
/77
0.01 0.01
001 O OUTPUT
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL 1 47
TO PROD.
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE IN DET.
'.7/
MICROFARADS ( iJF); OTHERS ARE
470
IN PICOFARADS(PF), RESISTANCES Z4
ARE IN OHMS. ALL CAPACITORS
ARE DISC CERAMIC AND RESIST- 32 o

ORS ARE 1/4 WATT, 5. COMPO- all

132
SITION OR METAL FILM TYPES,
012
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
001 GI DI AGC GET
IN914
o.ol
100 100

001
L12 100k

001

IN914
RIO
1M lk IAGC SET)
AGC LINE

SWITCH
IN914

(MUTE)

001

p7
iN914

14 DC AMP

016 1k
10k
'VV\,
SWITCH
0,
7 10k
CAGC OFF)

Fig. 71 — Schematic diagram of the 9- MHz i

-famplifier.
C23 — 90-pF mica compression trimmer or 3N211, 3SK40 or similar. turn secondary, no. 28 enamel wire on
similar variable. 013, 014 — Pnp silicon transistor, 2N2907A, Amidon FT37-43 core.
C25 — 470-pF silver mica or ceramic. 2N3906, 2N4403 or similar. Z3 — 9- MHz crystal filter, 500 ohm impedance
C26 — 130-pF silver mica or ceramic. Q15-17 — Npn silicon transistor, 2N2222A, level: For ssb, KVG type XF-9B, Yaesu
L10 — 23 turns, no. 22 enamel wire on 2N3904, 2N4401 or similar. XF-92A or Fox-Tango Corp. eq. For cw, KVG
Amidon 150-6 core. R10 — 1-kfl PC-board mount variable resistor type XF-9M or XF-9NB, Yaesu XF-90C or
L11, L12 — 15 turns, no. 22 enamel wire on linear taper. Fox-Tango Corp. eq.
Amidon FT37-43 core. 16 — Ferrite transformer, 15 turn primary, 3 Z4, Z5 — Ferrite bead on lead of MOSFET,
Q11, 012 — Dual- gate MOSFET, 40673, 3N140, Amidon FB43-101 or similar.

decreasing the value of C24 or the that the detector is properly terminated at output of Q2 and the gain control.
associated 1-megohm resistor. all frequencies from audio to vhf. Q3 functions as a common-emitter
The first audio amplifier is somewhat amplifier while Q4 is an emitter follower.
Detector Audio Module unusual in that it uses the common-base Q4, biased for an emitter current of about
The i- f section of the receiver is fol- configuration, and when biased for an 30 mA, provides sufficient audio output
lowed by the detector and audio emitter current of about 0.5 mA, provides to drive low-impedance (4 to 16 ohms)
amplifiers, shown in Fig. 72. The detector the 50-ohm input impedance necessary to headphones. If high-impedance head-
used here is adoubly balanced diode ring, properly terminate the detector. The sec- phones are to be used, a step-up
aMini-Circuits Labs SBL-1. Mixers from ond audio stage, Q2, is a direct-coupled transformer should be used to increase the
other manufacturers or homemade PNP amplifier. The receiver may be system voltage gain. This is shown in Fig.
equivalents will work as well. The ex- muted by shorting the collector of Q2 to 72B. An auxiliary input to the audio
cellent balance provided by this type of ground. This is done by applying a amplifier is provided for injection of a
mixer helps eliminate problems with the positive voltage to the muting input to side tone signal for cw monitoring.
agc system caused by BFO leakage. saturate Q5. The output of Q2 drives the The optional RC active filter shown in
The detector output is applied to a audio gain control which is mounted on Fig. 73 can be used to improve selectivity
diplexer network formed by RFC1 and the the front panel. If the optional RC active during cw reception, especially when the
relatcd comp.nts. This network ensures filter is used, it is utninected between the i-ffilter is of abandwidth suitable for ssb

Receiving Systems 8-43

 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE
ARE IN MICROFARADS(e); OTHERS ARE IN PICDFARADS(PF):
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS. ALL CAPACITORS ARE DISC
CERAMIC AND RESISTORS ARE I/4- WATT, 5% COMPO-
SITION OR METAL FILM TYPES,UNLESS OTHERWISE
SPECIFIED.

DEI
RFC 1
OSC
INPUT

+54Bm

RF
INPUT

7 7-
7 e
SBL - 1 6
LETTER 1.1 ON
BOTTOM
3 4 TOP OF CASE
VIEW
2 OVER PIN 2

75

10k

HIGH Z

PHONES

EXTERNAL INPUT

(B) (A)

Fig. 72 — Schematic diagram of the product detector and audio amplifier. If high- impedance headphones are to be used, the output circuit shown
In B is recommended.
01, 03 — Low noise npn, 2N3565 or similar. 04 — TO-5 or TO-39 npn, 2N3053 or similar RFC1 — 20 turns no. 28 enamel wire on
02 — General purpose pnp, 2N3906 or similar. with small heat sink. Amidon FT37-43 ferrite toroidal core.
R3 — 10-kil audio taper.

Fig. 73 — Schematic diagram of the optional R-C active audio filter. A 4-pole low-pass filter is shown here. Additional sections may be added for
Improved performance.
C6, C8 — 10% or better tolerance, C7, C9 — 0.0022-e, 10% or better tolerance, U1 — 1458, or similar, dual op-amp.
ceramic or polystyrene. ceramic or polystyrene. U2 — 741, or similar, op-amp.
R4-9 — 33-k() for cw or 15-kg for ssb filter.

operation. As shown (Fig. 73) the filter improved skirt selectivity. well. Small coaxial cable, such as RG-
has asingle pole of high-pass filtering and 174/U, should be used for all signal lines.
four poles of low-pass response. The Construction In the version built by K5IRK (shown in
cutoff frequency is about 1-kHz for cw or Construction details, such as the type of the photographs), the bulk of the
2-kHz for ssb. The filter bandwidth is cabinet and dial drive, are left to the 80-meter part of the receiver is mounted
determined through proper choice of the discretion of the builder. Band switching above the chassis. The VFO is contained
resistor values. Values for both band- is not critical, as all of the switched points in an aluminum box, providing both
widths are given in Fig. 73. The filter may occur at low impedance levels. A multi- shielding and mechanical strength. The
be expanded to many more sections for wafer rotary switch will serve the purpose BFOs are below the chassis in a box

8-44 Chapter 8
constructed of scrap circuit- board
material. The converters are mounted Table 7
below the chassis. Measured and Calculated Receiver Performance Characteristics
Homemade, etched circuit boards were Circuit RF Amp. Bandwidth, Hz NF, dB IPin ,dBm MDS, dBm DR, dB
used in the K5IRK model, while " ugly- Single Cony.* no 500 16 + 18 — 131 99
but-quick" breadboards were utilized by Single Cony. no 2500 16 + 18 — 124 94
W7Z01 in the construction of his Single Cony. yes 500 5 + 2 — 142 se
Single Cony. yes 2500 5 + 2 — 135 92
receiver. 6.' " Ugly boards" are easily built Dual Cony. no 500 18 + 12 — 129 94
with scraps of unetched circuit-board Dual Conv.• no 2500 18 + 12 — 122 89
material serving as aground foil. The cir- Dual Cony. yes 500 6 — 2 — 141 92
cuitry is supported by those components Dual Cony.' yes 2500 6 — 2 — 141 se
that are normally grounded. Additional RF amplifier assumed to have a 3 dB noise figure, a 15 dB gain and a + 22 dBm output intercept.
support is provided by suitable tie points. Circuits marked with ( 6)are measured cases. All measurements done at 14 MHz.

Large-value resistors serve well for this

purpose, especially in rf circuits where the
impedance level is low. All of the circuitry
for the receiver was initially breadboarded 5 dB " weaker" than the single conver- order to be of greater use to amateurs who
using this method. While not as " profes- sions one; this is afairly typical situation. have no formal background in electronics.
sional" in appearance, the performance It should be understood that this observa-
was virtually identical to that of later cir- tion applies only to dual-conversion Performance Objectives
cuit board versions. In the few cases systems with a wide bandwidth first i -f What should an amateur look for in
where a performance difference could be section. Modern systems using a crystal terms of high performance when building
detected, the ugly breadboards were filter at the first i
-fwill display perfor- a receiver? A subjective outlook would
superior, usually a result of improved mance much the same as a single- call for alot of " bells and whistles" with
grounding. conversion receiver, even if they utilize a which to play, but adiscerning operator is
multiplicity of conversions. No gain com- interested in performance under all of the
Performance
pression was measureable in the single- adverse conditions one might encounter in
It should be emphasized that, although conversion model with no rf amplifier the course of operating an amateur sta-
relatively simple, this receiver is not atoy. with an input signal of - 10 dBm. VFO tion. The following are representative of
It features excellent stability, selectivity phase noise was measured to be - 152 the major considerations in receiver per-
consistent with the filter used by the dBc/Hz at aspacing of 10 kHz. formance:
builder, adequate sensitivity and a Operationally, the receiver is pleasing to 1) High dynamic range. This is the
dynamic range that rivals or exceeds that use, offering a clean, crisp sound that is ability of the receiver to perform well in
of many of the commercially available not always found in the commercial the presence of strong signals within and
equivalents. The only major compromise equivalents. Of greatest significance is outside the amateur band of interest.
is the utilization of dual conversion on the that the receiver should be easily Poor dynamic range results in cross-
higher bands. The penalty is small, duplicated at a cost well under that of modulation effects, receiver desensitiza-
because the gain distribution has been similar "appliance." tion and spurious responses from the mix-
carefully planned. er which appear in the tuning range as
System measurements were made on the HIGH-PERFORMANCE RECEIVER additional signals ( mixer IMD).
receiver at various stages of development. DESIGN CONCEPTS 2) Good selectivity. This feature in-
This data is summarized in Table 7. Both The Amateur Radio design technology cludes the receiver front end ( rf amplifier
measured data and calculated results are is changing so rapidly today that it is im- and mixer) along with the i -fand audio
presented to give the prospective builder possible to publish a high-performance selectivity. The objective ( ideal) is to have
some feel for the performance to be ex- receiver circuit which remains timely at the receiver pass only those frequencies to
pected. The table shows the system noise the time the work is committed to print. which it is tuned, while rejecting all
figure, input intercept, minimum detec- As new components and active devices are others. This Utopian goal can not be
table signal and the two-tone dynamic introduced to the market, better designs realized, but it can be approached closely
range. Both cw and ssb bandwidths are become possible. These advances make enough to ensure good performance.
considered in both single- and dual- obsolete many of the circuits found in the 3) Low noise figure. The noise figure
conversion designs, with and without an current amateur literature. Therefore, this should be such that it is somewhat below
rf amplifier. Measurements and calcula- section of chapter 8 is devoted to design the level of the receiver antenna noise
tions generally agree within 1dB. objectives, circuit techniques and some under typical " quiet" band conditions.
Table 7reveals no surprises. The nature practical examples. This will serve as the This means that the noise generated
of the tradeoff between single and dual basis for individual designs which can be within the receiver — notably the early
conversion is well illustrated, as is the ef- carried out by the more experienced stages — should be kept to an absolute
fect of adding an rf amplifier. The system amateur. minimum so that it does not mask
showing the largest dynamic range is the The interest in building homemade (degrade) weak incoming signals.
single-conversion design without an rf receivers of the more complex variety has 4) High order of stability. All of the
amplifier. It should be noted that this data waned in atragic fashion during the past receiver oscillators, crystal-controlled or
pertains only to the modules described. decade. This has been brought on by an LC types, need to be drift free in an ideal
Changes in gain, noise figure or intercept increased interest in operating and circuit. Since this is practically impossible,
of any stage will change the results. The through the availability of sophisticated maximum drift (long term) should not ex-
table should not be used for general com- receivers and transceivers found on the ceed 50 to 100 Hz in agood design. The
parisons. commercial market. For this reason it greater the l- fselectivity, the more impoi-
The dual-conversion systems are about seems prudent to devote this portion of tant the oscillator stability. Self-
the Handbook to design approaches. The oscillations should not be allowed to take
'Circuit board templates are available from ARRL information given here is based on circuit place in any part of areceiver.
for SI.00 and a large s.a.s.e. and performance investigations in the 5) Wide-range agc. The age circuit
'Circuit boards, negatives and many parts for this
recei ,, er be a.xilable from Circuit nruird ARRL laboratory. It is slanted toward the should engage at low signal levels and
Specialists, P.O. Box 969, Pueblo, CO 81002. practical side of design and application in hold the receiver output at a constant

Receiving Systems 8-45

plateau over a wide range of input-signal ripple ( unwanted dips in the nose of the minimum distortion.
levels. For example, the audio output response curve): Most filters require a Tuned audio amplifiers can be used to
should remain constant in amplitude over specified external terminal capacitance to provide steep skirts outside the desired
a range of input signal from less than a resonate the input and output trans- passband. An example of a simple
microvolt to better than 10,000 piV, formers within the filter module. Similar- application of this, using asingle pot-core
depending on the external noise level ly, each filter has a characteristic input inductor with variable Q, was described
which reaches the receiver front end. The and output impedance which must be by K1TX in April 1979 QST. Various
agc attack time should be set so that matched to the source and load. types of passive LC filters can be used to
"pumping" and " clicking" is not noted 9) Detector and audio channel. An obtain cw or ssb selectivity at audio.
when strong signals are received. otherwise excellent receiver can be spoiled RC active audio filters with variable Q
6) Local oscillator. Not only must the by an inferior product detector or audio- and adjustable peak frequency offer an
local oscillator be stable, it needs to have amplifier strip. The detector must be able excellent means for limiting the audio
low noise and good spectral purity at the to handle the highest output signal from bandwidth, minimizing wide- band noise
output. Ideally, the LO noise floor should the i-fstrip without saturating. Although and reducing QRM. Ideally, these filters
be 80 to 100 dB below the peak output active product detectors are sometimes should be contained in the low-level part
voltage. Spurs and harmonics in the out- used, they are the most prone to the fore- of the audio channel rather than at the
put should fall at least 50 dB below peak going malady. The preference of most receiver output. This will prevent
output. LO output energy must be con- designers. is apassive diode detector of the overloading of the filter, which can impair
fined to the mixer by means of ap- singly or doubly balanced variety. This the performance and introduce intolerable
propriate shielding and filtering. type of detector can handle high signal amounts of distortion.
7) I-f amplifiers. An i -famplifier strip levels with large amounts of BFO injec- 10) Structural considerations: There
needs to have sufficient gain to drive the tion. Since the detector is the lowest-level can be considerable latitude in the
detector and provide ample excitation to part of the audio channel, hum and noise mechanical approach one takes when lay-
the audio channel. The design should in- should be minimal at that point in the cir- ing out a high-performance receiver.
clude active devices which can ensure a cuit. Passive detectors do not need Aesthetics have no place in this discus-
collective 80 dB or greater agc swing over operating voltages; hence one primary sion. We will address the matter of struc-
the input- signal range mentioned in item source of hum is avoided. ture versus performance and leave the
5. A low- noise audio preamplifier should beauty of the front panel to the builder.
Wide- band noise is generated within follow the detector in a quality design. It The major points of concern are rigidity
most i -f amplifier chains. An improve- should be able to withstand the maximum of the overall assembly and shielding
ment in receiver " noise bandwidth" can output from the detector at peak receiver against incidental pickup and radiation.
be realized by adopting the W7Z01 filter input signal without operating in a non- The chassis and panels should be strong
"tailending" scheme which calls for use linear manner. The audio gain control can enough to prevent undue stress on the pc
of asecond i -
ffilter immediately after the be used to the best advantage when it is boards during flexing or vibration. In a
last i -f amplifier. The second filter can located after the af preamplifier. If it is like manner the local oscillator should be
have slightly greater bandwidth than the used ahead of the preamplifier, the noise relatively immune to any mechanical
filter used ahead of the first i -
famplifier. figure of the audio channel may be de- stress which is imposed on the receiver.
The tailend filter will reduce the wide- graded at low settings of the gain control. An excellent assembly technique is one
band noise components. This technique is Audio shaping is normally applied to that uses a modular approach for the
discussed in greater detail in Solid State the af channel to provide alow- frequency various key circuit assemblies in the
Design for the Radio Amateur, by The rolloff at some frequency well above 60 or receiver. Each module is contained in its
ARRL. 120 Hz. This greatly reduces the chance of own shield box. All signal leads entering
8) I-f filters. In order for a filter to power- supply ripple appearing in the and leaving the various modules are made
function as such, there must be some in- audio output. Also, there is little need for from RG-174/U or similar coaxial cable.
sertion loss ( IL) if a passive network is low- frequency response below, say, 300 The shield braid is grounded at each end
being used. The IL is typically highest Hz in a communications receiver. Simi- of each cable. Leads which carry dc are
when amechanical filter is used. This fac- larly, the high- frequency response should decoupled where they leave the module
tor must be taken into account when plan- be restricted so that rolloff starts around shield. LC or RC decoupling networks
ning the receiver gain distribution. Most 2000 Hz. A satisfactory tailoring of the are suitable in most instances. Feed-
mechanical filters have an IL of 8 dB or audio passband can often be done by through capacitors can be mounted on the
greater, whereas a well designed crystal- proper selection of the R and C com- box walls of each module to serve as ter-
lattice filter has acharacteristic IL of less ponents in that part of the circuit. minal connections for the dc voltages,
than 5dB. All of the audio stages must operate as while functioning also as parts of the
In some designs the i -f filter is the linearly as possible up to peak signal decoupling networks. Since 5042
limiting factor in achieving high perfor- levels. This will minimize distortion and miniature cable is suggested for intercon-
mance in mixer ¡ MD. This is because of aid weak-signal reception greatly. It is necting leads, the points to which they
the movement of the mechano-electrical prudent, therefore, to use an output stage connect in the circuit should be designed
contacts within the filter, which generate which is capable of delivering greater un- for a like impedance. This form of
1M products which are independent of distorted power output than will ever be modular construction and shielding great-
those in the mixer. Laboratory investiga- needed. Cross- over distortion is to be ly reduces the chances for " birdies" by
tions indicated that mechanical filters avoided also. The effects of this are most keeping rf energy where it belongs. It also
were somewhat worse than crystal filters apparent under weak- signal conditions. prevents unwanted external signals from
in this respect, limiting the receiver IMD The signal has a " fuzzy" sound when this being picked up by low-level parts of the
profile to roughly 95 dB. The crystal type of distortion is present. Some of the circuit. Miniboxes or die-cast aluminum
holders in lattice filters must be able to audio- power ICs have significant cross- boxes are excellent for use in modular
provide positive electrical contact with the over distortion which can not be cor- work. But, homemade enclosures can be
quartz element and the circuit to minimize rected. This is because the biasing is done fashioned inexpensively from pieces of
the generation of IM products. within the IC, and it can't be changed. double-sided pc board. Modular construc-
Careful attention must be given to cor- For this reason it is helpful to use discrete tion permits the amateur to try new cir-
rect filter termination and input/output devices in the audio channel. This enables cuits within the receiver without disrupt-
resonance to ensure minimum passband the designer to bias the amplifiers for ing the remainder of the circuitry.

8-46 Chapter 8
 Il) "Bells and whistles": This discus- higher an rf amplifier may be needed to
sion does not Include such themes as syn- ensure an acceptable receiver noise figure.
thesizers, i -f passband tuning, noise As a general rule the designer should
blankers, computer- programmed func- use no more gain in the rf stage than is
tions and digital frequency readout. These necessary to obtain an acceptable noise
are primarily matters of whim and subjec- figure. The higher the stage gain, the
tivity, however useful they might be. greater the sensitivity. But, more gain
For reasons of practicality the builder than is needed will degrade the receiver
must decide whether he will use analog or dynamic range markedly, by virtue of the
digital readout of the receiver frequency. mixer being fed larger amounts of input
There are two disadvantages attendant to signal than if no rf amplifier was used. So,
analog systems: ( 1) Quality dial even at the very early part of areceiver it is
mechanisms are scarce and highly expen- vital to pay attention to gain distribution.
sive. (2) Readout resolution is usually This fundamental rule applies from stage
poor if more than 200 kHz of any band is to stage throughout the receiver.
covered. The major advantages of analog There should be sufficient selectivity Fig. 74 — Diagram of the Class A large-signal
frequency readout are reduced circuit ahead of the rf amplifier (and in most in- rf amplifier which uses a VMOS power FET.
complexity, lower cost (sometimes) and stances between it and the mixer) to Ti has 9-1/2 turns of no. 30 enam. wire on a
less current drain from the receiver power Stackpole no. 57-9130 ferrite balun core.
restrict passage of signals outside the
supply. Heating is diminished also — a amateur band of interest. This will greatly
definite benefit to stability. reduce the probability of unwanted im-
A frequency counter and a digital ages in the tuning range. Furthermore, it
display, on the other hand, permit will help prevent very strong out-of-band
500- kHz frequency spreads with good commercial signals from entering the parameter is chosen the values for RIand
resolution. A shaft encoder is needed for receiver front end and impairing perfor- R2 can be obtained from
synthesized LO systems to avoid thumb- mance. This form of selectivity is called
wheel frequency selection. But, it is easy "preselection." It can take the form of
to use parts of the synthesizer circuit for LC circuits which are very narrow in RI = '2 •
the frequency counter, thereby making bandwidth, and tracked manually from
the two circuits compatible. In this type of the front panel. Alternatively, fixed-tuned
Rs + RL )1
system, or in one which has a conven- LC filters can be used to provide selective +\/G + 4(1 +e •
tional LO and a counter, a 10:1 vernier circuits. A bandpass type of filter or tuned 11
2
- 72
-1.

drive without detectable backlash is circuit is the choice of most designers

(Eq. 1)
almost mandatory to keep the tuning rate because rejection is offered above and
within practical limits. below the frequency band of interest. R2 I RsRt \ 1 (Eq. 2)
It should be stressed here that counters The choice between small- signal FETs RI J Gm
can create noise and spurious responses if and bipolar transistors in an rf preampli-
they aren't designed and used correctly. fier is more than arbitrary. FETs exhibit
Careful shielding and filtering must be ap- low noise figures at hf and they consume where
plied to prevent the counter from affect- less dc power than bipolars for an G is the desired stage gain for the
ing other parts of the receiver circuit. equivalant output intercept. Generally amplifier, and
The same general considerations apply speaking, FETs are less subject to block- Gm is the forward transconductance
to synthesizers. The design must be car- ing in the presence of strong input signals. value of the transistor expressed in
ried out with care to minimize phase Bipolar transistors, on the other hand, mhos. ( Y21 real)
noise, which can degrade the mixer noise have rather well defined input and output The equations don't yield standard
figure and the ultimate i -fselectivity. impedances and can be used more easily resistance values in most instances. In an
Three QST articles are offered as with negative feedback than is true of amateur application the nearest standard
references on high-performance receivers. FETs. These features make them ideal for value will often suffice. R2 of Fig. 74 con-
They contain information which will be of ensuring a proper and constant filter ter- sists of six 30-0 resistors in parallel to ob-
value to the amateur designer.' mination ( filters must be terminated cor- tain 50. Three are soldered from one
rectly in order to perform in a proper source tab to ground, and the other three
RF Amplifiers
manner). A common-source FET which go from the remaining source tab to
When it is deemed necessary to use an rf operates in the hf spectrum can not meet ground. This helps reduce stray induc-
amplifier ahead of the receiver mixer, the foregoing condition. The use of feed- tance in that part of the circuit. A power
thought must be given to gain, linearity, back ( negative and degenerative) in a gain of approximately 13 dB results with
signal- handling ability and noise figure. bipolar-transistor preamplifier makes the component values shown. Noise figure
The choice between bipolar transistors possible a low noise figure and agood in- is 4 dB at 30 MHz. A 1- dB saturation
and FETs is another consideration. An rf put and output match. power output of 3.7 watts was observed,
amplifier should not be necessary in a Bipolar transistors which are designed indicating the suitability of this type of
properly designed receiver, even if a for CATV and uhf oscillator work, such circuit for high signal- handling applica-
passive mixer is used, provided the input as the 2N5179 ( biased for about 20 mA) tions.
networks are not highly lossy or poorly and the 2N5109 (biased for roughly 50 The VMP4 is a fairly expensive
matched to the source and load. This mA) are excellent for use as rf amplifiers Siliconix transistor. It is likely that one of
rationale applies to frequencies up to ap- ahead of a mixer. the lower- priced pieces, such as the
proximately 14 MHz. At 20 meters and Fig. 74 shows a high performance rf VN66AK, would provide good service at
amplifier which uses a VMOS vhf power hf in the circuit of Fig. 74.
FET. (Oxner, May 1979 QST, p. 23). The
'Wes Hayward, W7Z01, " A Competition-Grade High-Performance Mixers
Receiver," QST, March and April 1974. Doug circuit is designed with feedback and is
DeMaw, WIFB, " His Eminence the Receiver," structured for a source and load im- Doubly balanced diode- ring mixers
QST, June and July 1976. Jay Rusgrove, WIVD
"Human Engineering the Station Receiver," QST,
pedance of 509. The stage gain is deter- (DBMs) of the type discussed early in this
January 1979. mined by the designer's needs. Once this chapter are often used to obtain high

Receiving Systems 8417

 post-mixer amplifier is used. It is followed
by a6-dB pad. The pad provides aconstant
load for the amplifier, Q3, and stabilizes
the filter termination (FL3). FL1 filters the
LO output to ensure a clean injection
voltage to the mixer. The VMOS balanced
mixer exhibits anoise figure of roughly 8
dB at 14 MHz.

I-F Amplifiers
The criteria for i-famplifiers are pretty
well defined in the philosophy section of this
part of the chapter. The choice of active
devices for i-
fstrips usually leads to ICs. The
Motorola MC1590G or MC1350P are com-
monly found in high- performance receivers.
Fig. 75 — Practical circuit for a doubly balanced diode- ring mixer The components are discussed
These and the RCA CA3028A IC offer,
in the text.
good gain and agc range with low noise
figures. So, the choice will depend in part
on availability and whim. Normally, just
two IC stages are used in an i -fstrip.
Dual-gate MOSFETs are used as i -f
dynamic range. Among the advantages permeability. A 0.37-inch (9.4-mm) amplifiers by some amateurs, but at least
are low noise (diode mixers generate very diameter ferrite core (Amidon FT37-43) four stages are needed to approach the gain
little noise) and broadband charac- with a mu of 950 will work nicely. Ten of two ICs designed for the application. ,
teristics. The mixer noise figure is trifilar turns of no. 30 enamel wire can be Furthermore, FETs do not provide the agc
approximately the conversion loss of the used for the windings. Output intercept range of ICs unless the control gates can
diode ring — typically 7 to 8 dB. The for this circuit is typically + 13 dBm with be made to swing slightly negative. The
balanced mixer circuit provides port-to- the LO injection at + 7 dBm. This pro- usual gate no. 2agc range is from — 2volts
port isolation which is not possible with vides an input intercept of 20 dBm (output to + 4 volts for full control.
single-ended or singly balanced mixers. intercept plus the 7dB conversion loss = Fig. 78 contains the circuit of an i -fstrip
This feature can aid the mixer ¡ MD and 20 dBm). Calculations for a high-level which uses two Collins mechanical filters
help to minimize spurious responses diode mixer, assuming a + 17 dBm LO in the "tail-ending" scheme discussed
resulting from the LO energy entering level (recommended), the output intercept earlier. The ssb filter is at the front
other parts of the receiver circuit. will be + 23 dBm. Again, assuming a7-dB end of the strip and the narrower (400 Hz)
The main shortcomings of diode mixers conversion loss the input intercept filter is diode-switched into the circuit
are the high level of LO injection needed becomes quite desirable — + 30 dBm. for low-noise cw reception. For phone-only
(approximately + 7 dBm for most) and This is based on the respective perfor- reception both filters can be of a2.1-kHz
the necessity of proper mixer termination, mances of the commercially available band width, and both would remain in the
especially at the i -foutput port. This type SRA-1 and SRA-1H DBMs. It can be seen circuit at all times. At considerably
of mixer is subject to harmonic mixing — from the foregoing that better mixer per- greater expense one could have cw and ssb
another trait which the designer must deal formance can be realized at the higher filters at the input and output of the i -f
with. LO-injection levels. The actual LO power strip. They would be selected by means of
Some high-level diode-ring mixers are applied will depend upon the ability of the diode switching to permit atail-end filter
available commercially. They require a diodes to handle the current. to be in the circuit for either mode. The
high amount of injection power (+ 17 shortcoming of the system shown in
dBm for acceptable performance). Singly Balanced VMOS Mixer Fig. 78 is that the cw selectivity is placed
Laboratory analysis suggests that high- The circuit of an experimental active after the i -f gain block, leaving the i -f
level mixers misbehave as aresult of diode mixer with high-level capability is shown amplifier stages open to overload from
imbalance at specific current levels. The in Fig. 76. Two VMOS power FETs are strong signals outside the cw filter
effect is one of the IMD not dropping 3 employed in a singly balanced format. passband.
dB when the input tones are lowered 1dB Laboratory measurements of the circuit During ssb operation FL2 is shorted
in level. This phenomenon could be between Ti and 12 (50-0 terminations) at across by means of D1 and D2. Q2 is used
catisd in part by saturation of the broad-

*
14 MHz, with aLO frequency of 5MHz to equalize the overall gain of the receiver
band input and output transformers at and an i -fof 9MHz, yielded amixer con- when the modes are changed. It compen-
ci fic power levels. (A thorough discus- version gain of 6 dB. Output intercept is sates for the 10 dB of insertion loss caused
concerning diode mixers and their +23 dBm and the input intercept checks by FL2. During ssb operation the gain of
avior is presented in the League's out at + 17 dBm. Indications are that Q2 is reduced by virtue of SIC and RI.
book, Solid State Design for the Radio with further experimentation with VMOS Agc amplifier Q1 is used to prevent
Amateur, chapter 6.) Fig. 75 shows a devices, mixer biasing and LO injection loading across T2. The i -fenergy is sam-
practical circuit for aDBM. It includes a power the input intercept could be im- pled at the drain of Q2 so that the agc will
diplexer at the i -fport to establish a51-G proved to at least + 25 dBm in an op- be relatively constant for both cw and ssb
termination for the mixer. This offers an timized case. The circuit of Fig. 76 was operation. Sampling ahead of Q2 would
improvement to the ¡MD level by a few biased for atotal mixer current of 50 mA cause a10-dB differential in the age action
dB over asimilar mixer with no diplexer. with LO power ( + 15 dBm) applied. The between the cw and ssb modes. FL I
The diodes can be HP2800 hot-carrier use of Siliconix VMP-4 transistors should should have an input termination of
types. Carefully matched 1N914s are lead to even better mixer performance. A 2000[2. The characteristic input im-
sometimes used as substitutes. Ti and T2 photograph of the assembled experimen- pedance of U1 provides a suitable ter-
are broadband toroidal transformers tal mixer with its post-mixer amplifier and mination for FL1 — roughly 20000. T2
(baluns). For wideband use in the hf spec- filter is shown in Fig. 77. should have a20:1 impedance step-down
trum the cores should have a high Fig. 76 shows that a broadband linear ratio for going into a diode type of pro-

8-48 Chapter 8
 + 6dB

BAL. MIX. 9MHz

FL 2
VN66AK 12 0.01 + 12dB
01
POST - MI X
T1
14 MHz • • • FB AMP
RF
IN
0.1 390
I50(1)

fc0 k 9.51.111 9 MHz

T3

• PHASING
470
* USE HEAT SINK + 4V

Fe = FERRITE BEAD
1k

FLI

fCO 5.7 MHz

1000

5.6 I, 2
10
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
IV/ CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( pF ) ,
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR .p.pF); 10
2 29
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ,
pH
1000 k • 1000, M•1000 000.
+ 24

+29V

-5dB
- 6dB
1.979H 9 NH,

470
son TO 500- fl.
1 - F AMP

r7-7 +15dBm

50 - 11LO

INPUT
(5.0 - 5.5MHz)

Fig. 76 — Circuit details are for aVMOS power FET singly balanced mixer. L1 and L2 have 13 turns of no. 24 enam. on a150-6 toroid core. L4 con-
tains 21 turns of no. 26 enam. wire on aT50-2 core. Ti and 12 have 12 trifilar turns of no. 26 enam. wire on an FT50-61 torold core. T4 contains 7
primary turns of no. 26 enam. and 21 secondary turns of no. 28 enam. on an FT50-61 toroid core. FL3 is a Spectrum International 8-pole crystal lat-
tice filter. Bandwidth is 500 Hz.

duct detector. The value is not critical.

Universal BFO
Fig. 80 provides a diagram of a BFO
which can be tailored for use at any of the
popular intermediate frequencies. The
constants shown are for use at 455 kHz.
For higher operating frequencies it will be
necessary only to modify the feedback
capacitors of the oscillators (Cl -05, in-
clusive). The higher the operating fre-
quency the lower the capacitance value.
The division ratio established by C4 and
C5 should be maintained at all frequencies
on which this circuit is used. This will pre-
vent the 50-0 input impedance of Q4 from
loading the oscillators and preventing
them from functioning.
This circuit was designed especially for
use with a diode-ring product detector,
which requires asubstantial amount of in-
jection power. A 50-0 pad can be placed
in the output of Tl if lower injection
levels are needed. TI should be terminated
in approximately 500 for the best perfor-
Fig. 77 — Photograph of the experimental VMOS high-level mixer. Circuit boards for this and
mance.
other modules shown photographically In this section of chapter 8ere available from Circuit
YI, Y2 and Y3 provide the proper BFO Board Specialists, Box 969, Pueblo, CO 81002.

Receiving Systems 8-49

 (-10 49)
COLLINS .60 a9 + 50dB
(-1048
F455FD - 25 F AMP I- F AMP
COLLINS
455 kHz
F455FD -04
BWL 2.1 kHz
455 kHz

qIG IN 9WL = 400Hz

510

AGC
17 0ST
,1— - FILTER AMP
.10 elB
AMP

NIPF102

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS 1UF I ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS IPF OR ye);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
k = I000, id • I000 000,

FB FERRITE BEAD

F. T. = FEEDTHROUGH

Fig. 78 — Schematic diagram of a 455-kHz i

-fstrip which uses filter tail-ending. See the text.

frequencies for upper sideband, lower

sideband and cw. JFETs can be substi-
tuted for the 40673s at Q1, Q2 and Q3.
The assembled BFO is seen in Fig. 81.
The shield compartment is made from sec-
tions of double-sided pc board. A feed-
through capacitor serves as aterminal for
the 12-volt line to the BFO and helps to
prevent rf energy from leaving the BFO
module via the 12-volt lead.

Local-Oscillator Structure
The local oscillator system shown in
Fig. 82 is an assembled version of the
practical VFO shown in chapter 6. The
compartment is made from pc-board sec-
tions. A U-shaped press- fit aluminum
cover is used to enclose the top of the box.
This kind of shielding is important for the
prevention of stray radiation from the
VFO into other parts of the receiver cir- Fig. 79 — Photograph of the assembled i
-fstrip from Fig. 78. Double-sided pc- board material is
cuit. The enclosed module tends to pre- used.
vent rapid internal changes in ambient
temperature — an aid to frequency stabili- plane form numerous low-value capaci- capacitors.
ty. Double-sided etched-circuit boards are tors, none of which is stable: The pc-
not recommended for LC oscillators. This board insulating material represents a A High-Performance AGC Circuit
is because the etched foils and the ground poor dielectric material for stable Fig. 83 contains the circuit of an i
-fstrip

8-50 Chapter 8
 Y1
455.7 kHz

CV/
40673 BFO
+12.5 V
D
-0 25 mA

47 k 100 BUFFER AMP

'\)\)\/ 33
C7
56 --- 0.1 0.1
Y2
456.4 kHz RFC 1
4:1
10 rnH
TI

02
•-
40673
USB
C2
BFO C4
1
470 15 680 453 6- 456.4 kHz

1
s
r
CW p77 47 C6 0.1 ( 1OUTPUT
0 V pk-nk)
-
T-0.001
o

OLse
USB
0.1 00 d
C
/ ) /

/ /
V3
453.6 kHz

•
LSD 0.1
100
BFO

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

15
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS ( ,pF ) ; OTHERS
VOLTAGES ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR ,p/F);
01- 03 DC Pk-pk RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k . 1000 Mr1000 000
GATES 0 18
DRAIN 10.6 35
SOURCE 0.42 0

04 DC Pk- pk
BASE 2.2 e
COLL. 11.6 20

BOTTOM VIEWS EMITTER 2.5 2

Fig. 80 — A 3-channel BFO for universal use in receivers. Ti contains 25 bifilar turns of no. 30 enam. wire on an FT50-43 toroid core (950 mu).

Fig. 82 — Photograph of an assembled local oscillator showing how it

Fig. 81 — interior view of the BFO module. Double-sided pc-board Should be packaged for good stability. Circuit details ftra discussed in
sections serve as the box walls. the text and early In chapter 8.

Receiving Systems 8-51

 0+12V
0+12V
I- F I -F Amp • 5000
AMP /01
I( I
,4-7 -
9MHz

1 560

_A
0.4

Ul
1000 1 5000
INPUT MC15905 1
30
300 I 001
_18 2

U2
5
MC1590 510
10k O 01
r4-7
— — -t — — — -
4 2N4416
TO FL 2
AND GET
r-r-7
AGC AMPLIFIER
+12V
AGC AMPLIFIER 01
100 +12V

L23 TO 02
5000
9 MHz

L24 - -

, 412V
CC.W
FROM 01 1N4152 I- F GAIN
1N4152 14 10k
2N3904 2N3904
CW

2N3904 4 714

HP2800
11114 ,
DC AMPLIFIER
LI_ C2
1/.1F
AGC +12V
GAIN SET 6V
12V
CI 7
500 e-r-7
FT06556
+12V 10 50,uF
22k
)/ 15V 5 METER

20k
METER
ZERO

FT0655C

FROM 2N3565 056 1N4152 100K

AUDIO <AMP. 01 1

Cl SLOW
-1 GROUND
0.1 TO
R1
?FAST MUTE
50k
ACC LEVEL
ADJ

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARAOS 1.1,F; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARA DS pF OR .i4.F
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k . 1000 M• I000 000

Fig. 83 — Circuit details of the W7Z01 i

-famplifier and high-performance agc system. This circuit provides full-hang agc characteristics.

and agc chain which offers excellent per- able at S2. RI at U3 should be set for + 5 noise enter the receiver. The effect is
formance. This circuit was designed by volts at pin 6of U3 with the agc off. With similar to that of a noise blanker. A de-
W7ZOI for use in his Competition Grade Q5 and Q6 as part of the circuit, the tailed description of this type of agc cir-
CW Receiver. The complete receiver cir- receiver is practically silent after astrong cuit can be found in chapter 5 of Solid
cuit is found in Solid State Design for the signal disappears from the passband. But, State Design for the Radio Amateur, by
Radio Amateur, chapter 9. after atiming period associated with net- the ARRL.
This agc circuit is suitable for use with work CI- R2, the receiver will return to A less complex agc circuit for use with
the i- fstrip of Fig. 78. It employs a full full gain in roughly 50 milliseconds. This RCA CA3028A i -famplifiers is provided
"hang" action. The agc is defeated by is very advantageous when loud pulses of in Fig. 42 of this chapter. It does not in-
means of SI. The time constant is select- corporate the hang feature used in Fig. 83.

8-52 Chapter 8
Receiver Accessories

A number of receiver accessories have the communications range. While the

become popular either through necessity dimensions of the speaker enclosure ap-
or through the operating convenience that pear to be tailored to fit neatly on the elec-
they provide. Notable among these items tronic chassis, that's only coincidence.
are noise blankers, audio filters, preampli- The size and shape were chosen to imitate
fiers, frequency converters and inter- a human skull, the reasoning being that
ference filters. Although only relatively such a configuration would allow the
few amateurs choose to build their own most faithful reproduction of speech.
receivers from the ground up, many more While the 4- inch- diameter speaker used
are inclined to try their hand at a some- here works well, a smaller unit might
what less complex station accessory — better approximate a mouth.
especially if it is something that is needed
for successful station operation. A Design Information
broadcast- band filter is a good example. Operational-amplifier active filtering in
The circuit and construction information various high-pass, low-pass, band-pass
for such a filter appear later in this sec- and notch combinations is used in all
tion. modes. All active filter designs begin with
the assumption that the source impedance
A DELUXE AUDIO FILTER FOR
is zero. This is a euphemistic assumption
PHONE AND CW
that is satisfied in this design by the typical
This project grew out of some ex- 4- or 8-ft output of a communications Fig. 84 — Deluxe audio filter with self-
periments in applying modern technology receiver. All input and output ports are contained loudspeaker, built in the ARRL lab
to old ideas. The result was the RFI-filtered to prevent electronic upsets by Greg Bonaguide, WA1VUG. The 4-inch
thoroughly convenient accessory pictured from the transmitting antenna field. The speaker is mounted in an enclosure having out-
side dimensions of 5-1/2 x 6-1/2 x 8-3/4
in Fig. 84. A self-contained power supply schematic diagram is drawn in Fig. 85. inches ( H x W x D). The chassis measures 2
and an acoustically matched loudspeaker A simple high-pass/low-pass cascade is X 5 x 7 inches.
contribute to the unit's completeness — effective in the VOICE Imode. SI A routes
the single connection to the receiver audio the output of U1A, in a 350- Hz, 3-pole
output reduces station clutter by elimi- Butterworth high-pass filter ( used in all
nating batteries or extra power and audio modes) to the output section, which con-
patch cables. sists of U3D in a 2500- Hz, 3- pole Butter- depth is about 10 dB at the — 3-dB points
It is often asserted that there is no point worth low-pass filter followed by another of the filter. Stagger-tuning the notch
in having ahigh-fidelity audio system in a 2500- Hz low-pass filter ( U4) having a filters to the frequencies shown on the
communications receiver because of the Chebyshev characteristic with 0.1-dB diagram results in an attenuation of at
restricted frequency range and generally passband ripple. A discrete comple- least 40 dB from 970 to 1070 Hz and at
poor signal-to-noise ratio of the " pro- mentary- symmetry output amplifier ( Q1 least 10 dB from 850 to 12,500 Hz. RI, R3
gram source." Unfortunately, many and Q2) producing at least one watt of un- and R5 set the notch frequencies and R2,
designers interpret this statement as distorted power is included within the R4 and R6 balance the input and output
license to ignore the audio section of an final filter feedback loop. These two filter signals for deep nulls. When reception
otherwise good receiver. The audio ampli- stages are also used in all modes. Fig. 86A conditions are poor, the VOICE 2 mode
fier needn't have a wide frequency sketches the frequency response that can significantly increases the signal-to-noise
response, but the response should be be expected in the VOICE iposition. This ratio, adding presence and clarity to most
smooth in the 400- to 2500- Hz range. position is recommended for casual listen- voices.
Similarly, the distortion should be low ing in all modes. It cuts out much The notch filters are also used in the cw
(one percent or less) from barely percep- adjacent-channel " monkey chatter" in mode. In combination with U2D in a
tibly signals up to the rated power output. ssb and allows noncritical cw tuning while 700- Hz, 3-pole Butterworth low-pass
If the audio electronics of commercial reducing background hiss. An auxiliary filter, the notch filters radically steepen
transceivers are poor, the loudspeakers ANTI VOX output is provided for ssb sta- the high-frequency skirt and provide ex-
are even worse. They are often fraught tions using separate transmitters and tremely good rejection of signals that are
with multiple dips and resonances, not to receivers. about 400 Hz outside the passband. How-
mention cone distortion. These charac- Typical European- language male speech ever, the shape of the cw passband,
teristics reduce voice recognition at best, has little energy or information in the sketched in Fig. 86C, is determined chiefly
and at worst make radio conditions seem 700- to 1400- Hz octave. That portion of by acascade of three stagger-tuned band-
worse than they really are. the receiver output spectrum is attenuated pass filters, U3A, B and C. These are of
The deluxe audio filter presents a very when SI is placed in the VOICE 2position. the unity-gain, multiple- feedback type.
light load to the receiver output, possibly The spectral gap, shown in part B of Fig. R7, R8 and R9 are for setting the peak
reducing the distortion from that source. 86, is synthesized by three cascaded notch responses to the frequencies given on the
In addition, all stages in the filter operate filters, made up of U1B through U2C. diagram. This is an example of the
with unity gain ( 100- percent negative Each notch is created by following a "modern technology applied to old
feedback) and therefore produce extreme- band-pass filter with a summing ideas" referred to in the opening para-
ly low harmonic distortion. The output amplifier. The unity-gain, multiple- graph. Stagger tuning is one type of
stage can drive the speaker to room- filling feedback band-pass filters used in this distributed selectivity, in which the tuned
volume, yet it has no discernible crossover design have aphase shift of 180 degrees at circuits are isolated from each other by
distortion on faint signals. A built-in the peak frequency. When the input and means of amplifiers, with no interaction
speaker is more than just a means for output signals are summed, they cancel, between the circuits. This technique was
reducing cabling — this one has a baffle resulting in an " infinitely deep" (another used in receiver i -fchains before the ad-
optimized for smooth, crisp response over euphemism) rejection notch. The notch vent of inexpensive crystal, iatiii. and

Receiving Systems 8-53

 NOTCH FILTER NO.1 : 980Hz
350 Hz HP

3- POLE BUTTERWORTH

AUDIO
INPUT
FB

0001

+12 V

TIP31
U3 TL084

10919
01

0 022
IN914

20
00
OFF 03 6
10k 10k 10
SIA 10k 10k tOk

20
8200 160

r
8200 970 1000 270
pF T6p2
F0
pF pF

TT T -
T
pr pF 119914
T O1
Pr / /
4 02

/ ) / 10914
/— )-7
IP32

U4 TLOBt

-12 V

2500 Hz
1 WATT AUDIO
3- POLE BUTTERWORTH CHEBYSHEV
2500 Hz LPF LPF OUTPUT STAGE
01 dB RIPP_E

Fig. 85 — Circuit diagram of the deluxe audio filter, designed by W1RN. Bypass capacitors can be disc ceramic. See text for discussion of other
capacitors.
DS1 — 5-V, 20-mA LED. 40 W, 40 V ( RS 276-2025). Ti — Power transformer, 117-V primary, 18-V
J1, J2 — RCA phono jack. R1, R3, R5, R7, R8, R9 — 2-kft potentiometer ct, 500-mA secondary.
J3 — 1/4- in, closed circuit phone jack. (see text). U1- U3, incl. — Quad FET op amp, TL084C
01 — Npn silicon audio output transistor, R2, R4, R6 — 10-k0 potentiometer ( see text). (RS 276-1714).
40 W, 40 V ( RS 276-2017). Si — Rotary switch, 3- pole, 4- position, non- U4 — FET op amp, TL081 ( RS 276-1716).
02 — Pnp silicon audio output transistor, shorting. U5 — Bridge rectifier, 4 A, 100 V ( RS 276-1171).

8-54 Chapter 8
 NOTCH FILTER NO 2 : 1025 HZ
'Pt .P NOTCH FILTER NO 3 1050 HZ

12 V

39k 560
39k 560

91 9Ik

94
96

83 110k
75k

01 —

82k
82k
'VV\e

/1/

3 - POLE BUTTERWORTH
700 Hz LPF

8200 e

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN M1CROFARADS Ipr I;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS IDF OR .p.er,
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
k I000, M.1 000 000. 14
100k 100k 100k

16001 _L1600 390 68

TT T-
pF

220,e
3
PF PF TpF
/ )

,J,
I6V
o
SIB FB
+ 1H
PHONES
-12V

J3
32 TL084
OFF

8A
Fe

.12 ANTI- VOX OUT

0 001

mechanical filters. Those coupled-reso- ever, in this audio filter application the commercial cw filters. The more common
nator devices are examples of lumped dynamic range has already been estab- designs have sharp-nosed responses with
selectivity. They are usually used ahead of lished by the receiver, and the noninter- relatively poor skirts. These responses re-
broadband or untuned amplifiers. In are- acting filter stages are easier to design and quire critical receiver tuning and are often
ceiver, the newer approach is superior adjust. The flat top and steep skirt char- subject to annoying ringing. By contrast,
because it places the selectivity closer to acteristics of Fig. 86C are not realized in the response achieved in this design more
the antenna for best dynamic range. How- most simple homemade or even expensive nearly resembles that of a high-quality

Receiving Systems 8-55

 BPF BPF
CF 382 Hz CF 625 Hz
BW• 50 Hz EIW • 50 Hz

561.

BPF
CF 500 Hz
BW•100 Hz

EXCEPT AS INDICATED ; DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS ( e); OTHERS
ARE IN PICUFARADS IpF OR .p.),F);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k•1000. M.1000 000

SWITCH POSITIONS:

I - VOICE 1

2 - VOICE 2

3 - CV/

2e.
FR

117 VAC

500mA
2200- +
'
6 v+T T1
"

Fig. 85 ( continued)

crystal filter. The passband is 200- to losing the desired signal. Good-quality components should be used
250-Hz wide with so little ringing that 50- for the frequency-determining capacitors.
to 60-wpm code can be copied clearly. This Building the Filter
Polystyrene units were used in the model
type of filter is more convenient than the Printed-circuit board information is shown, but Mylar is also suitable, and silver
sharp-nosed variety because the receiver given in Fig. 88. Fig. 87 shows the packag- mica is ideal for the lower capacitance
tuning is much less critical — interference ing arrangement of a kit version of this values. Parallel combinations are used to
can be moved out of the passband without project, sold by Circuit Board Specialists. closely approximate the calculated values.

8-56 Chapter 8
 RELATIVE AMPLITUDE , d8

-20

500 000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

FREQUENCY .HZ Fig. 87 — Deluxe audio filter built from a kit

(A ) sold by Circuit Board Specialists, P.O. Box
969, Pueblo, CO 81002, tel. 303-542-5083.
AMPLITUDE , d8

Don't install the circuit board until it has

been tested and adjusted.
The speaker baffle is made from
5/8-inch particle board. Fit the pieces
RELATIVE

together neatly to avoid air gaps, and seal

the seams with glue. Drawing the pieces
together with countersunk wood screws is
an expedient alternative to clamping the
joints while the glue sets. All inside surfaces
should be covered with acoustic insulation.
Mount the loudspeaker flange on the out-
side of the front panel and seal the joint
1I II 1 Il 1 1 1 1 with silicone compound. Tighten the
500 600 700 800 900 MOO 600 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
FREQUENCY .HZ
mounting screws evenly so as not to warp
the frame and cause distortion. Route the
(6)
speaker leads through a hole common to
O the enclosure floor and the chassis and seal
the hole.
The kit version does not have an ac-
coustically designed speaker baffle. Exter-
nal high-quality speakers can be plugged
-10
into the phone jack to realize the full poten-
RE ... t.TNE AMPLITUDL,db

tial of the filter.

Testing and Adjustment

A calibrated low-distortion signal
-20
generator and an audio voltmeter are re-
quired for alignment. The stages should be
tested one at atime, starting at either end.
When testing a filter stage that is driven
-30 from another op amp, disconnect the in-
put resistor from the op-amp output ter-
minal and inject the signal into the open
end of the input resistor. To assess the per-
formance of an active filter, a zero-
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
FREQUENCY ,Hz impedance driving source is required. The
(C) generator impedance can be made to ap-
proach zero by adding a voltage- follower
stage to its output.
The responses of the Butterworth filters
Fig. 86 — Amplitude vs. frequency characteristics of the deluxe audio filter. At A, the normal
VOICE 1mode. Details of the notched response of the VOICE 2Mode are shown at B. C shows the
should be down 3 dB at the cutoff fre-
CYv passband. quencies indicated on the diagram. .A

Receiving Systems 8-57

 S1A (COM.)

8200 390
8200 1000 0.01
10 k
0.01 ({
) 0 01
68 ÍR-31 MO k
0 .-.. --el 001
470 G1(2 kjs 2 kG__ 43 k

FI1
— S14
10 k 0.022 le k 270 13 k
0 0 01 4...,
/
1
160 --E) 39 3.6 INPU
1_01(
— 4
37133
..5 82(3—
k (45)
6°LC175
. k X

(.k (t) I 39 k
620 1°k 0015 o 0.0193.01
0 R8 110 h
0 k
o
- 330
e•-•, 01-5...k L k 110 k c—) X
51'4 k eL3 k
C:713 I 75 k Q
CD. 0 01 0. I
01 4110 4 0.01 0.01 1.1 k —068 k
0 ér G IL' 82?< —

[I]
1. 3
) k O. FI50 1 R2
'? 0 (i) 33 k
IN914 (3-- e rk
--cm- —0 --0

n
P6
11 0.019 1 k —082 k
20 o 20 1N914 Ik
1N914
X ECB
( 01 ) o
RI
1N914
TIP31
S1A ( 3) 01 (1,2,1
SlA

(B)

Fig. 88 — At A, the full-scale etching pattern for the deluxe audio filter pc board. The circuit foil side is shown. Black represents unetched copper.
The parts- placement guide is given in B. The component side is shown with an X-ray view of the circuit foil. X indicates a through- the- board con-
nection to the power bus, which is wired on the component side. The following points are connected to + 12 V: U1 pin 4, U2 pin 4, U3 pin 4, U4
pin 7. These points are connected to — 12 V: U1 pin 11, U2 pin 11, U3 pin 11, U4 pin 4, Q2 collector.

single peak should be noted for each A BC- BAND ENERGY- REJECTION tion is desired only below or above the
band-pass filter. The Chebyshev filter FILTER broadcast band, then a less complex low
should be flat within 0.1 dB up to 2500 or high-pass filter will suffice. Because a
Hz, where it should begin to roll off at 18 Inadequate front-end selectivity, or majority of ham receivers are used for
dB per octave. After each notch filter has bipolar-transistor rf amplifier and mixer reception above 1600 kHz, a high-pass
been adjusted for the proper center fre- stages that perform poorly, can result in filter will generally be preferable to the
quency and maximum depth, reconnect unwanted cross-talk and overloading band- reject filter. For the same number of
the cascade and tune the generator from from adjacent commercial or amateur sta- components, the high-pass filter perfor-
500 to 1700 Hz and verify that the tions. A simple cure for this problem is to mance is superior to that of the band-
response of Fig. 86B can be achieved. install between the antenna and receiver a reject type.
Align the cw section the same way. After filter that will sufficiently attenuate the Since the power level of broadcast sta-
satisfactory performance is obtained, the out-of-band signals but pass those signals tions can be quite high, the stop- band at-
potentiometers can be replaced with fixed of interest with little or no attenuation. If tenuation of the high-pass filter should
resistors. Two standard-value compo- the receiver is designed for reception of also be high, preferably in excess of 60 dB.
nents can usually be combined in series or frequencies below and above the broad- The cutoff frequency should be selected
parallel to match the potentiometer cast band, a 550- to 1600 kHz band- stop so less than 1dB of attenuation occurs
setting adequately. filter will be required. However, if recep- above 1800 kHz, the start of the

8-58 Chapter 8
 Fig. 90 — The filter is built on pert board in a
2 x 2 x 5- inch Minibox. The filter can be
made smaller if desired, and phono connectors
can be used in place of the BNC fittings
shown here,

ALL CAPACt ioRS 2.5%. 160 V MALLORY IYPE SxM

Cl- 1800 nrr C5 -- 1300 re
C2 — . 015 ur C6 - 4300 oF
C3 — 1200 pF
C4 — 3000 pF
C7 — 2200 pF
frequency error of about 2percent is small
L2 — 3.66 µH, 261 No. 22 on 150-2 core enough to ignore. The As value was
L4 — 4.91 pH, 30T No. 24 on 150-2 core
L6 — 4.82 pH. 291 No. 20 on 150-2 core selected to be 58.3 dB, and examination of
the reponse curve shows the measured
filter response to be in good agreement.
The measured values of cutoff frequency
(at the attenuation level of 0.0988 dB) and
the measured value of fA, (the frequency
where A, is first reached) are also in good
agreement with the calculated values. The
measured pass- band loss was less than 0.8
Fig. 89 — Filter-response curve, insertion loss, layout and schematic diagram. Terminal im-
pedance is 50 ohms for this 1.7-MHz, high-pass filter. dB from 1.8 to 10 MHz. Between 10 and
100 MHz, the insertion loss of the filter
gradually increased to 2 dB. The
measured input impedance versus fre-
160- meter band. Receivers are generally response curve, the component values quency was in good agreement with the
designed to present a50-ohm load to the used, the toroidal-inductor winding speci- calculated input impedance between 1.7
antenna, and the filter should also be fications are all shown in Fig. 96. The amd 4.2 MHz. (The frequency range
designed. for the same impedance level. standard-value capacitors used are listed above 4.2 MHz was not tested.) Over the
The rate of attenuation rise, VSWR, pass- under the filter schematic diagram. Note range tested, the input impedance of the
band ripple, and number of filter com- that all standard values are within 2.8 per- filter remained within the 37 to 67.7 ohms
ponents are all interrelated and- many cent of the design values. Since the maxi- input-impedance window (equivalent to a
design choices are possible. In the high- mum deviation between the actual capaci- maximum VSWR of 1.353).
pass design to be discussed, the maximum tance used and the design value will be only Construction of the filter is relatively
VSWR of the filter Wri selected to be 5.3 percent, there should be little or no dif- simple, as shown in Fig. 90, and no dif-
1.353. To obtain adequate stop-band at- ficulty in obtaining the desired response. ficulty should be experienced if the
tenuation and a reasonable rate of at- If the attenuation peaks ( f2, f4 and f6) at Mallory SXM polystyrene capacitors are
tenuation rise, afilter of 10 elements was 0.677, 1.293 and 1.111 MHz are not ob- used. These capacitors have a standard
considered necessary. Finally, to simplify tained, aslight squeezing or separating of tolerance of 2.5 percent and are available
construction, only those designs permit- the toroidal-inductor winding should be through all Mallory distributors. The
ting the use of standard-value capacitors all that is required to tune the series- Micro-metals iron powder T50-2 toroidal
were considered. resonant circuits. Note that series circuit cores are available through either Amidon
C6- L6 should resonate at f6 = 1.111 or Palomar Engineers. This material
Building the Filter
MHz, but from the response curve it ac- originally appeared in a QST article by
The filter layout, schematic diagram and tually resonated at about 1.130 MHz. This Wetherhold, W3NQN, in February 1978.

Receiving Systems 8-59

Chapter 9

VHF and UHF

Receiving Techniques

A dequate receiving capability is es-

sential in vhf and uhf communications,
though simple to build and economical to
use, is inherently lacking in selectivity.
come increasingly critical with respect
to signal-to-noise ratio as the operat-
whether the station is a transceiver or a With this general information in mind, ing frequency rises.
combination of separate transmitting and this section will cover vhf and uhf receiver
receiving units, and regardless of the "front end," stage by stage. Noise Temperature, Noise Factor and
modulation system used. Transceivers and Noise Figure
fm receivers are treated separately in this RF AMPLIFIERS
Noise, in the context of this discussion,
Handbook, but their performance involves Signal-to- Noise Ratio ( S/N): The limit- is produced by the movement of electrons
basic principles that apply to all receivers ing factor in the reception of signals is in any substance ( such as resistors, tran-
for frequencies above 30 MHz. Important noise. Noise can be classified into two sistors and FETs) that has atemperature
attributes are good signal-to-noise ratio broad forms, random and nonrandom. above absolute zero ( — 273° C or 0 K).
(low noise figure), adequate gain, sta- Nonrandom noise such as interfering Electrons move in arandom fashion col-
bility, and freedom from overloading and signals are reduced or eliminated through liding with relatively immobile ions that
other spurious responses. techniques aimed at directly filtering or make up the bulk of the material. The
Except where atransceiver is used, the otherwise suppressing detection of the final effect is that, in most substances
vhf station often has an hf-band com- unwanted signals. This is only possible there is no net current in any particular
munications receiver for lower bands, because the nonrandom noises are dis- direction on a long-term average, but
with acrystal-controlled converter for the crete in nature and are relatively pre- rather a series of random pulses. These
vhf band in question ahead of it. The dictable. pulses produce what is called thermal
receiver serves as a tunable i -f system, Random noise is generated by sources agitation noise, thermal noise or Johnson
complete with detector, noise limiter, both internal and external to the receiver. noise.
BFO and audio amplifier. Unless one The external noise problem varies con- As the currents caused by electron
enjoys work with communications re- siderably with frequency of reception. movement increase with temperature, so
ceivers, there may be little point in build- Below about 25 MHz, man-made, atmos- does the noise power. Also, as the pulses
ing this part of the station. Thus our con- pheric, and galactic noise picked up by the
are random, they spread out over abroad
cern here will be mainly with converter de- antenna is usually far greater than the frequency spectrum. As it turns out, if we
sign and construction. noise generated within the receiver. In a examine the power contained in a given
Choice of a suitable communications majority of cases, noise output from a
passband, the value of that power is in-
receiver for use with converters should not receiver tuned to the hf range drops
dependent of the center frequency of the
be made lightly, however. Several degrees dramatically when the antenna is discon-
passband. This is expressed as
of selectivity are desirable: 500 Hz or less nected from the receiver. When this is
for cw, 2to 3kHz for ssb, 4to 8kHz for observed, it clearly demonstrates that p = kTB
a-m phone and 12 to 36 kHz for fm phone reception is limited by external noise. where p is the thermal noise power, k is
are useful. The special requirements of fm Since the ionosphere is less active at 50 Boltzmann's constant ( 1.374 x 10 -23
phone are discussed in chapter 13. Good MHz, atmospheric noise is of less concern joule per K), T is absolute temperature in
mechanical design and frequency stability than at hf. Even in a quiet location, K and B is the bandwidth in hertz. Notice
are important. Image rejection should be however, external noise usually overrides that the power is directly proportional to
high in the range tuned for the converter receiver noise in a well-designed system. temperature, and at 0K the noise power is
output. This may rule out 28 MHz with Above 100 MHz, external noise other zero.
receivers of the single-conversion type than man-made is rarely a problem in Active devices normally exhibit noise
having 455- kHz i -fsystems. weak-signal work. The noise charac- temperatures different from their ambient
Broadband receiving gear of the sur- teristics of a receiving system become temperatures. The thermal noise pro-
plus variety is a poor investment at any important as they are the primary limita- duced by asemiconductor device will limit
price, unless one is interested only in local tion in weak- signal work. Unfortunately, its ability to respond to input signals
work. The superregenerative receiver, circuit design and component choice be- below the level of the internally generated
9-1 Chapter 9
noise. Noise temperature, noise factor Brief analysis of this equation shows that
and noise figure are all measures of this the first stage of a receiving system is the
device noise. The results are expressed in most important with regard to noise figure.
terms of temperature, ratios and decibels, If the gain of this and succeeding stages is
respectively. greater than unity, the denominator of
Consider a 50-ohm termination con- each successive term becomes greater. The
nected to the input of a device with the numerical value of terms beyond the
termination cooled to absolute zero. second or third approaches zero and can
There would be no noise produced by this NF (dB)_ (4( be ignored.
source, and the noise output from the It might seem that the more gain an rf
0.1 - 6.75
device would be that of the internally 0.2 13.67
amplifier has, the better the signal-
0.3 20.74
•UPII

generated noise. If the termination were 0.4 27.98 to-noise ratio and therefore the better the
now heated to a temperature that would
0.5 35.39 reception. This is not necessarily true. The
0.6 42.96
raise the output noise of the device by 3 0.7 50.72 primary function of an rf amplifier is to
0.8 58.66
dB ( thermal agitation noise equal to the 0.9 66.78 establish the noise figure of the system.
internally generated noise of the device)
1.0 75.09 One good rf stage is usually adequate
1.1 83.59
and the temperature of the termination 1.2 92.29 unless the mixer is apassive type with loss
1.3 101.20
measured, the effective input noise 14 110.31
instead of gain. Two rf stages are the usual
temperature ( TE)of the device would be
1.5 119.64 maximum requirement.
1.6 129.18
this value. The noise temperature 1.7 138.94 Once the system noise figure is es-
18 148.93
specification is independent of bandwidth 1.9 159.16 tablished, any further gain necessary to
and is directly proportional to noise
2.0 169.62 bring asignal to audible levels may be ob-
power. For example, if we were to halve tained from intermediate- frequency stages
the noise temperature we would double or in the audio channel. Use of the
the signal-to-noise ratio. minimum gain necessary to set the overall
In order to convert anoise temperature receiver noise figure is desirable in order
Fig. 1 - Relationship between noise figure
to avoid overloading and spurious signals
measurement to noise figure an in- and noise temperature.
termediate calculation is required - noise in subsequent stages.
Further examination of the equation
factor ( f). Noise factor is by definition the
temperature, the equation can be re- points out the desirability of mounting the
ratio of the total output noise power to
the input noise power when the termina- arranged as follows: first stage of the receiver system at the
antenna. The transmission line from the
tion is at the standard temperature of 290
290 [ antilog(NF/10) - 1 [ IC antenna to the receiver can be considered
K ( 17° C). The noise power caused only TE =
as astage in the receiving system. The first
by the input noise of the termination is
where noise figure is expressed in dB. A stage of a receiving system makes the
simply the noise power of the source
major contribution of noise figure to the
multiplied by the gain of the device. graph illustrating the relationship between
system, so it is highly desirable that the
Mathematically noise figure and noise temperature is given
first stage be a low- noise amplifier with
in Fig. 1.
gain. A transmission line is a " lossy"
Npower input = GkBT o Noise factor can also be represented in
amplifier, and if placed as the first stage of
terms of signal-to-noise ratios as
a receiving system, automatically limits
where G is the gain of the device and To is
= S/N at input the system noise figure to that of the
290 K. The total noise caused by the input f
S/N at output transmission line, at best. If the first rf
noise of the termination and the internally
amplifier is placed before the lossy
generated noise is simply the sum of the
and noise figure can be found from transmission line stage, at the antenna, the
two noise sources multiplied by the gain
amplifier gain will tend to mask the noise
of the device, or added by the transmission line.
NF = 10 log io f

S/N at input Stability

Npower total = GkB(T o + TE)
= 10 log 10
S/N at output Excessive gain or undesired feedback
where TE is the effective input noise may cause amplifier instability. Oscilla-
temperature and To is 290 K. The noise A vhf receiving system consists of an tion may occur in unstable amplifiers
factor ( f) is calculated as interconnection of individual stages, some under certain conditions. Damage to the
f = Npower total noisier than others. Each stage's noise active device from overdissipation is only
contribution to the reduction of signal- the most obvious effect of oscillation.
N power input Deterioration of noise figure, spurious
to-noise ratio can be expressed as anoise
figure. How much the noise figure of a signals generated by the oscillation, and
GkBT o + GkBT E TE particular stage affects system noise figure reradiation of the oscillation through the
= 1 + -
GkBT 0 To depends on the gain of the stages between antenna, causing interference to other ser-
that stage and the antenna. That is, if a vices ( i.e., RFI), can also occur from
stage's gain is sufficiently large, its noise amplifier instability.
figure will tend to override or " mask" the Neutralization or other forms of feed-
where TE is the effective input noise
noise contribution of the stage following back may be required in rf amplifiers to
temperature and To is 290 K. Noise figure
it. Mathematically, the noise factor of a reach stability. Amplifier neutralization is
can then be calculated as follows: achieved by feeding energy from the
receiving system can be expressed as
amplifier output circuit back to the input
TE
f2 1 f3-1 fn - in such an amount and phase as to cancel
NF = 10 log iof = 10 log o) ( 1 + F =f 1
out the effects of device internal ca-
To ) G1 G IG 2 G r, G 2G 1
pacitance and other unwanted input-output
where coupling. Care in termination of both the
where noise figure is expressed in decibels.
Should the noise figure of the device be fo = noise factor of the nth stage input and output can produce stable
known and it is desired to find the noise Go = gain of the nth stage results from an otherwise unstable ampli -

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-2

 fier. Attention to proper grounding and
proper isolation of the input from the
output by means of shielding also can
yield stable operating conditions.

Overloading and Spurious Signals

Normally, the rf amplifier is not a
significant contributor to overloading
problems in vhf receiving systems. The rf
amplifiers in the first or second stage of a
receiving system operate in alinear service
and if properly designed require a
substantial signal input to cause deviation
from linearity. Overloading usually oc-
curs in the naturally nonlinear mixer
stages. Images and other responses to out-
of-band signals can be reduced or
eliminated by proper filtering at the
amplifier input.
In general, unwanted spurious signals
and overloading increase as the signal
levels rise at the input to the offending
stage. Consequently, minimum gain prior
to the stage minimizes overloading. Since
noise figure may suffer at reduced gain, a
compromise between optimum noise figure
and minimum overloading must often
be made. Especially in areas of high
amateur activity, sacrificing noise figure
somewhat may result in increased weak-
signal reception effectiveness if the
lower noise- figure system is easily
overloaded.

Typical Circuits
Common circuits for rf amplifiers are
illustrated in Figs. 2through 5. Examples
of amplifier construction are given later in
this chapter. The termination impedances
of both the input and output of these ex-
amples are low (50 ohms), lending them
well to preamplifier service. Preamplifiers
are useful for improving the noise figure
of existing equipment.
The choice of active device has a pro-
found effect on the weak-signal perfor-
Fig. 2 — Typical grounded-source rf amplifiers. The dual-gate MOSFET, A, is useful below 500
mance of an rf amplifier. Although tubes
MHz. The junction FET, B, and neutralized MOSFET, C, work well on all vhf bands. Except where
can be used on the vhf and uhf bands, given, component values depend on frequency.
their use is seldom seen, as solid-state
devices provide far better performance at
lower cost. Bipolar transistors can provide
excellent noise figures up through 4GHz noise figure. also be employed in the input circuit to
if chosen and used properly. The JFET is At 432 MHz and above, inexpensive further reduce the losses.
usable through the 432-MHz band, FETs cannot provide the low noise figure It should be pointed out that the
although the most commonly available attainable from bipolars. The wavelength terminating impedance of transistors for
ones drop off in performance quickly at these higher frequencies also allows the optimum noise figure is usually not the
beyond that frequency. Dual-gate convenient use of tuned lines rather than same as that for optimum power transfer
MOSFETs also are usable through 432 conventional coils, easing the possible (gain). This complicates the designing and
MHz. The GaAs FET, though somewhat design difficulties of the lower terminating tuning procedures somewhat, but careful
costlyerovides superior noise figures past impedances of bipolars. measurements and adjustment can com-
the 1296 MHz band. The input network of an rf amplifier pensate for these shortcomings. The
Most rf amplifiers for use below the should be as low in loss as possible, if a dual-gate MOSFET has different internal
432- MHz band use FETs rather than low noise figure is desired. Since any loss geometry, so optimum noise match is
bipolars. Unless bipolar transistors are before the first stage is effectively added to virtually identical to optimum gain match.
run at relatively high standing currents the noise figure, it is well to keep these This means that adjusting a dual-gate
they are prone to overloading from strong losses to a minimum. High-selectivity MOSFET amplifier for maximum gain
signals. Additionally, their lower termi- circuits often have significant losses and usually provides best noise figure.
nating impedances can present some- should be avoided at the front end. L Some examples of common-source
what awkward design considerations to networks usually provide the least loss amplifiers are shown in Fig. 2. Many pro-
the builder. The FET minimizes these while assuring proper impedance match- perly designed dual-gate MOSFET
problems while presenting acceptable ing. High-quality components should amplifiers do not require neutralization to

9-3 Chapter 9
 Fig. 5shows typical bipolar amplifiers
for the uhf range. Fig. 5A illustrates a
common-emitter amplifier, analogous to
the common-source FET amplifier. The
common-base amplifier of Fig. 5B can
similarly be compared to acommon-gate
FET amplifier.
Front-End Protection
The first amplifier of a receiver is
susceptible to damage or complete burnout
through application of excessive voltage
to its input element by way of the
antenna. This can be the result of
lightning discharges (not necessarily in the
immediate vicinity), rf leakage from the
station transmitter through a faulty
send-receive relay or switch, or rf power
from a nearby transmitter and antenna
system. Bipolar transistors often used in
low-noise uhf amplifiers are particularly
sensitive to this trouble. The degradation
may be gradual, going unnoticed until the
receiving sensitivity has become very
poor.
No equipment is likely to survive a
direct hit from lightning, but casual
damage can be prevented by connecting
Fig. 3 — Grounded-gate FET preamplifier tends to have lower gain and broader frequency diodes back-to-back across the input
response than other amplifiers described. circuit. Either germanium or silicon vhf
diodes can be used. Both have thresholds
of conduction well above any normal
signal level, about 0.2 volt for germanium
and 0.6 volt for silicon. The diodes used
should have fast switching times. Com-
puter diodes such as the 1N914 and
hot-carrier types are suitable. A check on
weak-signal reception should be made
before and after connection of the diodes.

RF Selectivity
Ever-increasing occupancy of the radio
spectrum brings with it a parade of
receiver overload and spurious responses.
Overloading problems can be minimized
by the use of high dynamic range receiving
techniques, but spurious responses such as
the receive image must be filtered out
before mixing occurs'. Conventional tuned
circuits cannot provide the selectivity
necessary to eliminate the plethora of
signals found in most ham neighborhoods.
Other filtering techniques must be used.
Fig. 4 — Cascode amplifier circuit combines grounded-source and grounded-gate stages, for high Although some amateurs use quarter-
gain and low noise figure. Though JFETs are shown, the cascode principle is useful with wavelength coaxial cavities on 50, 144 and
MOSFETs as well. 220 MHz, the helical resonators shown in
Fig. 6are usually a better choice as they
are smaller and easier to build. In the
frequency range from 30 to 100 MHz,
where it's difficult to build high-Q
achieve stability and best noise figure. An common-gate amplifier, shown in Fig. 3. inductors, and because coaxial cavitità are
example of this approach is shown in Fig. The feedback reduces the stage gain and very large, ,ethe helical resonator is an
2A. Neutralization may be required; Fig. lowers the input impedance, increasing excellent choice. At 50 MHz, for example,
2C shows capacitive neutralization ap- the bandwidth of the stage. An additional a capacitance-tuned, quarter-wavelength
plied to dual-gate MOSFET amplifier. benefit of common-gate amplifiers is coaxial cavity with an unloaded Q of 3000
Common-source JFET amplifiers usually reduced susceptibility to overload as com- would be about 4 inches ( 100 mm) in
require neutralization to attain satisfac- pared to common-source amplifiers. diameter and nearly 5feet ( 1.5 m)long. On
tory operation. Inductive neutralization The cascode circuit of Fig. 4combines the other hand, a helical resonator with
as shown in Fig. 2B is commonly used. the common-source and the common-gate the same unloaded Q is about 8.5 inches
Using the gate as the common stage ele- amplifiers, securing some of the advan- (216 mm) in diameter and 11.3 inches ( 287
ment introduces negative feedback and tages of each. Increased gain over asingle mm) long. Even at 432 MHz, where
eliminates the need for neutralization in a stage is its greatest asset. coaxial cavities are common, the use of e

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-4

 Fig. 6 — Round and square helical resonators,
showing principal dimensions. Diameter, D (for
side, S) is determined by the desired unloaded
Q. Other dimensions are expressed in terms of
D (or S) as described in the text.

determine helix length, b = 0.825D or ( b

= 0.99S). For shield length, B = 1.325D
and H = 1.60S.
Calculation of these dimensions is
simplified by the design chart of Fig. 8.
Note that these ratios result in ahelix with
a length 1.5 times its diameter, the
condition for maximum Q. The shield is
about 60 percent longer than the helix —
although it can be made longer — to
completely contain the electric field at the
Fig. 5 — Examples of uhf amplifiers using bipolar transistors. top of the helix and the magnetic field at
the bottom.
It should be mentioned that the winding
helical resonator will result in substantial losses and imperfections in practical pitch, P, is used primarily to determine the
size reductions. The following design materials, yields values of unloaded Q required conductor size. During actual
information on helical resonators origi- which are easily attained in practice. construction the length of the coil is
nally appeared in aJune 1976 QST article Silver plating of the shield and coil will adjusted to that given by the equations
by W1HR. increase the unloaded Q by about three for helix length. Conductor size ranges
The helical resonator has often been percent over that predicted by the equa- from 0.4P to 0.6P for both round and
described simply as acoil surrounded by a tion. At vhf and uhf, however, it is more square resonators and is plotted graphical-
shield, but it is actually a shielded, practical to increase slightly the shield size ly in Fig. 9.
resonant section of helically wound (i.e., increase the selected Q. by about Obviously, an area exists ( in terms of
transmission line with relatively high three percent before making the calcula- frequency and unloaded Q) where the
characteristic impedance and low axial tion). The fringing capacitance at the open- designer must make a choice between a
propagation velocity. The electrical length circuited end of the helix is about 0.15D conventional cavity (or lumped LC cir-
is about 94 percent of an axial quarter pF ( i.e., approximately 0.3 pF for ashield cuit) and ahelical resonator. At the higher
wavelength, or 84.6 electrical degrees. One two inches, or 51 mm, in diameter). frequencies, where cavities might be con-
lead of the helical winding is connected Once the required shield size has been sidered, the choice is affected by shape
directly to the shield and the other end is determined, the total number of turns, N, factor; a coaxial resonator is long and
open circuited as shown in Fig. 6. winding pitch, P, and characteristic relatively small in diameter, while the
Although the shield may be any shape, impedance, Z., for round and square length of ahelical resonator is not much
only round and square shields will be con- helical resonators with air dielectric greater than its diameter. A second
sidered in this section. between the helix and shield, are given by consideration is that point where the
winding pitch, P, is less than the radius of
N = 1908 1590 ,.., — f° D2
Design -
N =
— r f the helix ( otherwise the structure tends to
f
oD f
oS 2312 °
The unloaded Q of ahelical resonator is be nonhelical). This condition occurs
determined primarily by the size of the when the helix has fewer than three turns
500 p =
shi. For around resonator with acop- Z= . 99e0 Z = 82 , fS2 ("upper limit" on the design nomograph
foD ° f0S 1606 of Fig. 7).
peçoll on alow-loss form, mounted in a
copper shield, the unloaded Q is given by In these equations dimensions D and Sare
in inches, and f0 is in MHz. The design Construction
Qu = SOD V"- rc
nomograph for round helical resonators To obtain as high an unloaded Q as
in Fig. 7, which can be used with slide- rule possible, the shield should not have any
accuracy, is based on these formulas. seams parallel to the axis of the helix. This
where D = inside diameter of the shield in Although there are many variables to is usually not a problem with round
inches ( x 2.54 . mm) and f o = fre- consider when designing helical resona- resonators because large-diameter copper
quency in MHz. tors, certain ratios of shield size and tubing is used for the shield, but square
If the shield can is square, assume D to length, and coil diameter and length, will resonators require at least one seam and
be 1.2 times the width of one side. This provide optimum results. For helix di- usually more. However, the effect on
formula, which includes the effects of ameter, d = 0.55D, or d = 0.66S. To unloaded Q is minimal if the seam is silver

9-5 Chapter 9
 SHI ELD
IN SI
DE FR EOUE NCY, MH, NUM BER
DIAME TER OF TURN S IMPEDANCE
Ou 0 N Z.
250 5000
—— . 607E5 à,
1 ex t
0 °
.000
— toco taco
01 025
— 5003 ,0, 8000
300 03
7000
0.5 a.
2000
6000
02 05 500
00
— too 06 t000
90
7 030 SHI ELD
03
e I
NSI DE 8
0000
803
'r 300
0 • 10
DIAMETER
0
600 LOWER
05 500 .770.63 Cm LimIT 2*° 3000
— GOO e
06 5 400
25 TURNS 50
3 500
20 503 04
SPACIN
P
G
— 700 08
02
totcs to,. 40 2000
— WO 30 200
03
r
04 0 0. 0
.50
0 30
05 .500
002 05
— .603 0 50 .
00 20 0 03 25
60
80
70 50 005
I0 •0 2 1000
60 ' 20
20 50 900
50 30
40 .00
30 I, 800
40
— . 503 50 ',-, 02 50
700
50 03
60
05 600
2
ao 20
20
lO 20
30 500
— 2030 30 9
IS 40
30
20 50 20 50
000
5 .0 30
..-- ".1 11 30 40 .00
40 .00
20 SO
50 300
60
0 200 SO
SO 00 250

40 .00 00

50
60 .50 reT'— SO

80 200 .
---.- 5000
100 260
- 5500 00

Fig. 7 — Design nomograph for round helical resonators. After selecting unloaded 0,, required shield diameter is indicated by index line from 0,
scale to frequency scale (dashed index line shown here indicates a shield of about 3.8 inches (97 mm) for an unloaded Q of 500 at 7 MHz). Number
of turns, N, winding pitch, P, and characteristic impedance, Zo ,are determined by index line from the frequency scale through previously determined
shield diameter on right-hand side of the chart (index line indicates P = 0.047 inch, 1 mm, N = 70 turns, and Zn = 3600 ohms).

soldered carefully from one end to the Most helical resonators are tuned by selectivity of the circuit. However, to keep
other. means of a brass tuning screw or high dissipation loss to 0.5 dB or less (as is the
Best results are obtained when little or quality air- variable capacitor across the case for low- noise vhf receivers), the
no dielectric is used inside the shield. This open end of the helix. Piston capacitors unloaded Q must be at least 18 times the
is usually no problem at vhf and uhf also work well, but the Q of the tuning loaded Q. Although this may be difficult
because the conductors are large enough capacitor should ideally be several times to achieve in practice, it points up the
that a supporting coil form is not the unloaded Q of the resonator. Varactor necessity of considering both selectivity
required. The lower end of the helix diodes have sometimes been used where and insertion loss before choosing the
should be soldered to the inside of the remote tuning is required, but varactors unloaded Q of any resonant tuned circuit.
shield at apoint directly opposite from the can generate unwanted harmonics and
bottom of the coil. other spurious signals if they are excited Coupling
Although the external field is mini- by strong, nearby signals. Signals may be coupled into and out of
mized by the use of top and bottom When ahelical resonator is to be tuned helical resonators with inductive loops at
covers, the top and bottom of the shield by a variable capacitor, the shield size is the bottom of the helix, capacitive probes
may be left open with negligible effect on based on the chosen unloaded Q at the at the top of the helix, direct taps on the
frequency or unloaded Q. If covers are operating frequency. Then the number of coil, or any combination of these. Al-
provided, however, they should make turns, N and the winding pitch, P, are though the correct tap point can be cal-
good electrical contact with the shield. In based on resonance at 15f 0.Tune the culated easily, coupling by loops and
those resonators where the helix is resonator to the desired operating fre- probes must be determined experimentally.
connected to the bottom cover, that cover quency, f.0 When only one resonator is used, the
must be soldered solidly to the shield to input and output coupling is often
minimize losses. Insertion Loss provided by probes. For maximum isola-
The insertion loss ( dissipation loss), IL, tion the probes are positioned on opposite
Tuning in dB, of all tuned resonant circuits is sides of the resonator.
A helical resonator designed from the given by When coupling loops are used, the
nomograph of Fig. 7, if carefully built, plane of the loop should be perpendicular
will resonate very close to the design fre- to the axis of the helix and separated a
quency. Resonance can be adjusted over a IL = 20 log (1 — Q 1 d/Qu ) dB small distance from the bottom of the coil.
small ange by slightly compressing or ex- For resonators with only afew turns, the
panding the helix. If the helix is made where Q d = loaded () plane of the loop can be tilted slightly so it
slightly longer than that called for in Fig. Qu = unloaded Q. is parallel with the slope of the adjacent
8, the resonator can be tuned by pruning conductor. Helical resonators with in-
the open end of the coil. However, neither This is plotted in Fig. 10. For the most ductive coupling (loops) will exhibit more
practical cases (Qd > 5) this can be attenuation to signals above the resonant
of these methods is recommended for
wide frequency t.xcursionG because any closely approximated by IL 9.0 (
Qd/Q u) frequency ( as compared to attenuation
major deviation in helix length will dB. The selection of aloaded Q for a tuned below resonance) whereas resonators with
degrate the unloaded Q of the resonator. circuit is dictated primarily by the required capacitive coupling ( probes) exhibit more

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-6

 nection into and out of the filter is one of
the greatest offenders with regard to filter
leakage. Proper dc lead bypassing through-
out the receiving system is good practice,
especially at vhf and above. Ferrite beads
placed over the dc leads may help to
reduce leakage even further.
Proper termination of a filter is a
necessity if minimum loss is desired from
the filter. Most vhf rf amplifiers optimized
for noise figure do not have a 50-ohm
terminating input impedance. As aresult,
any filter attached to the input of an rf
amplifier optimized for noise figure will
not be properly terminated, and the Fig. 9 — Helix conductor size vs. winding
pitch, P. A winding pitch of 0.047 inch ( 1 mm),
filter's loss may rise substantially. As this for example, dictates a conductor diameter be-
loss is directly added to the rf amplifier's tween 0.019 and 0.028 inch (number 22 or 24
noise figure, prudent consideration should AWG).
be made of filter choice and placement in
the receiver.

MIXERS
Conversion of the received energy to a
Fig. 8 — Helical-resonator design chart. After lower frequency, so that it can be
the shield diameter has been determined, helix
diameter, d, helix length, b, and shield length,
amplified more efficiently than would be
B, can be determined with this graph. Index possible at the signal frequency, is abasic
line indicates that a shield diameter of 3.8 principle of the superheterodyne receiver.
inches (97 mm) requires helix mean diameter The stage in which this is done may be
of 2.1 inches (53 mm), helix length of 3.1 in-
ches (79 mm), and shield length of 5 inches
called a " converter," or " frequency
(127 mm). converter," but we will use the more
common term, mixer, to avoid confusion
with converter, as applied to a complete
vhf receiving accessory. Mixers perform
similar functions in both transmitting and
Fig. 10 — Insertion loss of all tuned resonant
attenuation below the passband as shown receiving circuits, and mixer theory and circuits is determined by the ratio of loaded to
for a typical 432- MHz resonator in practice are treated in considerable detail unloaded Q as shown here.
Fig. II. This characteristic may be acon- elsewhere in this Handbook.
sideration when choosing a coupling A receiver for 50 MHz or higher usually
method. The passband can be made more has at least two such stages: one in the vhf
symmetrical by using a combination of or uhf converter, and usually two or more
coupling methods ( inductive input and in the communications receiver that
capacitive output, for example). follows it. We are concerned here with the
If more than one helical resonator is first mixer.
required to obtain a desired bandpass The ideal mixer would convert any
characteristic, adjacent resonators may be signal input to it to another chosen
coupled through apertures in the shield frequency with no distortion, and would
wall between the two resonators. Un- have anoise figure of 0dB. Unfortunately
fortunately, the size and location of the amixer such as that only exists in adream
aperture must be found empirically, so world. The mixer that has a 0 dB noise
this method of coupling is not very figure ( or equivalent loss) has yet to be
pract;cal unless you're building a large conceived. This means that the proper use
Fig. 11 — Response curve for a single-
number of identical units. of rf amplification and perhaps post-
resonator 432- MHz filter showing the effects of
Since the loaded Q of a resonator is mixer amplification is necessary for capacitive and inductive input/output coupling.
determined by the external loading, this maximum receiver performance with re- Response curve can be made symmetrical on
must be considered when selecting a tap gard to sensitivity. Improving sensitivity is each side of resonance by combining the two
methods ( inductive input and capacitive output
(or position of aloop or probe). The ratio the less difficult of the mixer failings to
or vice versa).
of this »external loading, R b, to the mend.
char ' impedance, Z0,for aquarter- Because the mixer operates in a
wa i.iesonator is calculated from nonlinear mode, reduction of distortion amplifier before the mixer will increase
becomes amajor design problem. As the the input levels to the mixer, lowering the
mixer input level is increased, a point is point where the input level to the receiving
1
reached where the output no longer system will cause compression. It be-
Qd Qu increases linearly with input. A phe- hooves the builder not to use more gain
nomenon known as compression occurs. than is necessary to establish system noise
Even when fillets are properly designed When the compression point is reached, figure prior to the mixer.
and built, they may be rendered totally the sensitivity of the mixer is reduced for If more than one signal is present in the
ineffective if not installed properly. Leak- every signal in the passband. This is passband going into the mixer, they may
age around afilter can be quite high at vhf manifested as desensing. Different types mix with each other to produce spurious
and uhf where wavelengths are short. of mixers characteristically reach their responses known as intermodulation dis-
Proper attention to shielding and good compression points at different input tortion ( IMD) products. As the input
grounding is mandatory for minimum levels, so proper mixer choice can levels further increase, higher- order IMD
leakage. Poor coaxial cable shield con- minimize this type of distortion. Any products may appear, seemingly filling the

9-7 Chapter 9
 The signal and the heterodyning fre-
quency are fed into the mixer and the
mixer output includes both the sum and
difference frequencies of the two. In the
case of the circuit shown in Fig. 12A the
difference frequency is retained, so the
1296- MHz input signal is converted down
to 28 MHz. The sum frequency is filtered
out by the 28- MHz tuned circuits.
A quality diode ( such as the hot-carrier
type) has a fairly low noise figure up
through the microwave region. Since most
active mixers fall off in performance
above 500 MHz, the diode mixer is the
one most commonly found in amateur
microwave service. Unfortunately, all
diode mixers have conversion loss. The
loss must be added to the noise figure of
the stage following the mixer to determine
the system noise figure. A low- noise stage
following the mixer is necessary for good
weak-signal reception. The noise figure of
most communications receivers is far
higher than what is needed for alow noise
figure system, if no rf amplification is
used.
Bipolar transistors are not good square-
law type devices, and thus are not favored
for single-ended applications. Their major
use is in switching- type mixers of the
balanced variety.
Field-effect transistors have good square-
law response and are very popular vhf
mixers. The dual-gate MOSFET is proba-
bly the most common mixer found in
vhf amateur equipment. The MOSFET
can provide considerable conversion gain,
while at the same time maintaining a
reasonable noise figure. MOSFET over-
load characteristics are suitable for the
vast majority of applications. Local-
oscillator energy can be applied at one of
the MOSFET gates, effectively isolating
the local oscillator from the other signals.
The gate impedance is high, so relatively
little injection is needed for maximum
conversion gain. A typical example is
shown in Fig. 12B.
JFETs are close to the MOSFET in
Fig. 12 — Examples of single-ended mixers. The diode mixer, A, is usable through the microwave mixer performance but are more dirficult
region. FET mixers, B and C, offer conversion gain and low noise figure. to apply in practical hardware. As with
the MOSFET, input impedance to aJFET
mixer is high, and substantial conversion
gain is available. JFET bias for mixer
passband. Proper mixer operating con- these frequencies. For receiving ap- service is critical and must be adjusted for
ditions will alleviate IMD problems, and plications, amateurs typically want to best results. The output impedance of a
also reduce gain-compression problems. detect only one of the mixing products, JFET is lower than adual-gate MOSFET;
A third type of distortion is cross usually the first order mixing product. typically around 10 kil-Although other
modulation. This is most readily observed Filtering must be applied to separate the possibilities exist, local-oscillator injection
on a- m signals. When the carrier is on, desired signal from the rest. Post-mixer should be made at the JFET source for
cross modulation is evidenced by modula- filtering is not adequate, as input images best results. The source is a low-
tion characteristics of another signal can be mixed to the same intermediate impedance point, so considerably more
being superimposed on the received car- frequency as the desired signal. Input local-oscillator power is required than if a
rier. Techniques to improve IMD charac- filtering discriminates against these images dual-gate MOSFET were used as mixer.
teristics also improve cross modulation and prevents unwanted out-of- band sig- Noise figures as low as 4dB are possible
performance. nals from possibly overloading the mixer. with circuits like that shown in Fig. 12C.
A problem inherent to all mixing The injection level of the local oscillator
systems is image generation. Whenever affects mixer performance. Raising LO
two signals are mixed, components are Single-ended Mixers level increases conversion gain in an FET
produced at the sum and difference of the Most mixers are single- ended. The mixer. The local- oscillator signal should
two signal frequencies, and at multiples of simplest type of mixer is the diode mixer. be as large as possible without pushing the

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-8

FET into its pinchoff region. The gate
junction of the FET should never conduct
in mixer applications. Increased IMD
products result from either of the afore-
mentioned conditions and should be
carefully avoided. The local- oscillator
energy should be as pure as possible.
Distorted injection energy not only in-
creases IMD production but also in-
creases stage noise figure.
Proper termination of the output of an
FET mixer optimizes overload per-
formance. If the impedance seen at the
drain of an FET mixer is too high at any of
the mixer product frequencies, large
voltage excursions can occur on the FET
drain. If thevoltage excursion on the drain
is large enough, output distortion will be
evident. Often these high-voltage ex-
cursions occur at frequencies outside the
desired passband, causing distortion from
signals not even detectable by the receiver.
A resistor within the output matching
network is often used to limit the
broadband impedance to a suitably low
level.

Balanced Mixers
Use of more than one device in either a
singly or doubly balanced mixer offers
many advantages over a single-ended
mixer. The balance prevents energy in-
jected into amixer port from appearing at
another port. The implications of this are
significant when minimum mixer distor-
tion is sought. The port-to- port isolation
inhibits any signals other than the mixing
products from reaching any other stages
further along in the system where they
might be mixed, causing undesirable
signals. The usually large local-oscillator
signal is kept away from the rf amplifier
stages where it might cause gain compres-
sion because of its magnitude. Any ampli-
tude-modulated noise found on the local
oscillator signal is suppressed from the
mixer output, where it might be later
detected. In asingly balanced mixer only
one port, usually the local-oscillator in-
put, is isolated from the other two. A
doubly balanced mixer isolates all three
ports from each other.
The most common balanced mixer uses
diodes. The disadvantages presented ear-
lier with respect to single-ended diode
mixers appi,y here also. A singly balanced
shown in Fig. 13A.
ar‘e-
-- 'r diode>. are normally used for

2, giéy can handle high

'e a, low noise figure, and are
£6Lue up through several

The doubt' _,balanced mixer is more

common Commercial modules,
very '.. 2asdinibry priced, are often used
instead of homemade circuits. Large-scale
manufacturing Call usually offer electrical
balance not .:. tsily attained with the
Fig. 13 — Balanced mixers for vhf and uhf. The singly balanced mixer, A, provides isolation of the
homemade units. Isolation of 35 to 40 dB local oscillator from the output. The double balanced diode mixer, B, has all ports isolated from
is typical at vhf, with only 6 to 7 dB of each other, and is broadband throughout vhf. A special dual JFET is used in C to give high
conversion loss. High local-oscillator dynamic range with low noise figure.

9-9 Chapter 9
injection is needed to reach optimum
performance with these mixers. Proper
broadband termination of all the mixer
ports is necessary to prevent unwanted
signals from being reflected into the mixer
"rat race," only to emerge at another
port. The i -fport (shown in Fig. 13B) is
the most critical with respect to termina-
tion and should be terminated at 50 + j0
ohms. Transmission line transformers
provide the necessary phase shift, as half
the bridge is fed 180 degrees out of phase
with respect to the other half. These can
be wound on ferrite toroid forms to effect
abroadband response. Careful winding of
the transformers improves balance in the
circuit, which in turn improves port-to-
port isolation.
Active devices can be used very
effectively in balanced mixers. Both FETs
and bipolars can be used successfully.
Active balanced mixers offer all the
benefits of balanced diode mixers plus the
added advantage of conversion gain
rather than loss. Less rf amplification is
needed to establish low system noise
figure because of this conversion gain
than would be needed with adiode mixer.
Low gain prior to the mixer keeps mixer
input levels low, maximizing mixer over-
load resistance. High dissipation active
devices can be used, yielding better mixer
performance than is available from diode
balanced mixers. Fig. 13C shows a dual
FET which has been specially designed for
mixer applications. RI allows for elec-
trical balance adjustment in the circuit. A
sharp null in local oscillator output at the Fig. 14 — Typical crystal oscillator for vhf use, A. The diode frequency doubler, B, provides good
mixer output can be observed when RIis rejection of the fundamental signal.
set to the optimum point, showing
electrical balance has been achieved.

Injection Stages creating spurious outputs at the mixer frequency. The collector tank network is
Oscillator and multiplier stages sup- output. A clean local oscillator will parallel tuned and can be wound on a
plying heterodyning energy to the mixer prevent these unwanted outputs. The toroid core to reduce radiation. The
should be as stable and free of unwanted oscillator chain output can be heavily output is link coupled from the tank,
frequencies as possible. Proper appli- filtered to cut down the harmonic content minimizing harmonic coupling. This oscil-
cation of crystal control gives stability of the oscillator, but good planning and lator would be followed by a buffer to
pursuant to needs. Two major influencing design will minimize the unwanted energy, bring the signal up to that level needed
factors control oscillator stability: tem- making the filtering job less demanding. and to purify the oscillator signal further.
perature and operating voltage. As the A high- frequency crystal in the oscillator A similar oscillator could be used in a
temperature of acomponent changes, its minimizes the number of times the 220- MHz converter. Since crystals are not
internal geometry changes somewhat as fundamental oscillator frequency has to available at 192 MHz, the frequency
the constituent materials expand or be multiplied to reach the converter required for conversion to 28- MHz
contract. When the geometry changes, the injection frequency. Proper use of doublers converter output, the most logical ap-
internal capacitance often changes, af- rather than tripiers can eliminate any proach is to use a96- MHz oscillator and
fecting the resonant frequency of the odd oscillator frequency multiples, so a double its output. Fig. I4B shoi/es adiode
tuned circuits controlling oscillator fre- low-pass filter at the output only has to frequency doubler suitableor' the ap
quency. Use of quality components which filter the fourth harmonic and beyond. A plication. The phase-shiftingtaransformer
have good temperature characteristics band-pass filter would be needed at the can be made from atrifitar sndigon
helps in this regard. Minimum power output of atripler to eliminate the second ferrite core. Hot-carrier.diochis á1Iw th,
should be extracted from the oscillator as harmonic and the higher ones. Finally, use of a doubler like t* upIhriMgh at
excessive heat dissipation within either the good shielding and power- line filtering least 500 MHz. There is aloss of abáut.8
crystal or the transistor will cause internal should be used throughout to prevent any dB through the doublet, t),nplification
capacitance changes in those units, moving stray radiation from reaching the mixer or is needed to raise the 3 Lee rihn signal to
the resonant frequency. Voltage to the causing RFI problems elsewhere. the appropriate level. •••
Fundamental
transistor should be regulated for best Fig. 14A shows a typical circuit useful energy is down by as much as 40 dB from
stability. Simple Zener diode regulation is for providing the 116- MHz injection the second harmonic with a balanced
sufficient or athree- terminal regulator IC energy necessary to convert a 144- MHz diode doubler such as this. All of the odd
can be used. signal down to 28 MHz. R, dampens the harmonics are well down in amplitude
Any unwanted injection frequencies ystal action somewhat, assuring that the also, all without tuned circuits. A low-
will mix with signals present in the mixer, proper overtone is the actual oscillation pass filter can be used to eliminate the

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-10

 metal standoff post and ano. 4screw and needed for maximum usable sensitivity.
nut. Input and output connectors are not This preamplifier uses a 2N5245 or
critical; phono -type jacks may be used in 2N5486 JFET to achieve a noise figure as
the interest of low cost. low as 1.3 dB. The JFET operates
Adjustment is so easy that it almost grounded- source with inductive neutrali-
needs no description. After connecting the zation. The preamplifier was first de-
amplifier to a receiver, simply tune the scribed by WB6NMT in March 1972 QST.
input ( Cl) and the output (C4) for The preamplifier is built on double-clad
maximum indication on a weak signal. circuit board, mounted on spacers inside
One possible area of concern might be an [ MB T- F770 aluminum box, 2-3/4 X
that the toroids used in the 10- and 2-1/8 X 1-5/8 ( 70 X 54 X 42 mm)
6- meter versions are not always uniform inches in size. A shield of circuit board
in permeability, as purchased from various stock divides the amplifier as indicated
suppliers. However, it is an easy matter by the broken line in the circuit dia-
Fig. 15 — Two versions of the preamplifier. to add capacitance or remove a turn gram. SMA or N- type fittings are
The one in the box is for 2-meter use. Toroids
are used in the six-meter version (right) and in
as required to make the circuits resonate recommended for the input and output
the ten-meter preamplifier (not shown). Input is at the correct frequency. connectors. E. F. Johnson manufactures an
at the right on both units. The extra rf choke inexpensive line of SMA connectors which
and feedthrough capacitor on the right end of LOW- NOISE 220-MHZ JFET are highly desirable for low- noise connec-
the Minibox are for decoupling a crystal- PREAMPLIFIER
tions at vhf and uhf. Top grade glass trim-
current metering circuit that is part of a
2304- MHz mixer. At 220 MHz cosmic noise is low enough mers or miniature air variables should be
that a receiver noise figure of 1.4 dB is used for Cl. C2 and C4 for best results.

undesired harmonics from the output.

Ql
28 50 OR
MOSFET PREAMPLIFIERS FOR (A) 144 MHz C5
10, 6 AND 2 METERS 33

If an hf or vhf receiver lacks gain,

or has a poor noise figure, an external
preamplifier can improve its ability to INPUT
detect weak signals. This preamplifier uses
an RCA 40673 dual-gate MOSFET.
Designs for using this device as amixer or

TO
001
as a preamplifier abound and many of C6

them are excellent. RFC1

e /
When it comes to simplicity, small size,
good performance, low cost, and flexi-
bility, a design by Gerald C. Jenkins,
W4CAH, certainly qualifies.
The preamplifier really shines in pep-
BOTTOM
ping up the performance of some of the VIEW OF 01

older 10- meter receivers that many have G2 G1

(B) TO G1 1

pressed into service. A 6- meter version is

OF Oi l
also very useful for any of the modes of Cl
communication available on that band. INPUT EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
In Fig. 16 the voltage dropping resistor, VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
R4 and the Zener diode, DI, may be of IN MICROFARADS ( JJF1; OTHERS

the value necessary to obtain 9to 12 V dc ARE IN PICOFARA DS ( pF OR 1,, J,F);

.

RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;

for operation of the unit. By increasing
TO 1‘ . 1000, M.1 000 000
the resistance and dissipation rating of R4 METER
CIRCUIT
and DI, the preamplifier may be operated
from the 150- to 200-V supply found in
many tube- type receivers. Fig. 16 — Schematic diagram for the preamplifier. Part designations not listed below are for pc
The layout of the board is so simple board placement purposes. Alternative input circuit for use with microwave diode mixer is shown
that it is hardly worth the effort of making at B.
Cl, C4 — See Table 1. Li, L2 — See Table 1.
a negative for the photo-etch process. A
C2, C3, C5, C6, C7, C9 — Disc ceramic. R4 — 3 turns no. 28 enam. on ferrite bead. A
Kepro resist- marking pen was used with C8 — 0.001 feedthrough capacitor. 220-ohm, 1/2-watt resistor may be sub-
success on several boards. Another ap- J1, J2 — Coaxial connectors. Phono -type, BNC stituted.
proach — and one that is highly or SO-239 acceptable. RFC2 — 33 m1-1, iron-core inductor. Millen
recommended — is to cover the copper J300-33 or J. W. Miller 70F335A1.

with masking tape, transfer the pattern

with carbon paper, then cut away the tape Table 1

to expose the part to be etched. On small, 28 MHz 50 MHz 144 MHz

simple boards the masking-tape method is Li 17 turns no. 28 enam. on 12 turns no. 26 enam. on 5 turns no. 20 tinned
hard to beat. Amidon T-50-6 core. Tap at Amidon T-37-10 core. Tap at 1/2- inch ID x 1/2- inch
The pc board may be mounted in 6 turns from ground end. 5 turns from ground end. long. Tap at 2 turns from
ground end.
almost any small enclosure. Construction
L2 Same as Li, without tap. Same as Li, without tap. 4 turns no. 20 tinned like
is not tricky or difficult. It should take
Li, without tap.
only a few minutes to complete the unit
Cl, C4 15 to 60-pF ceramic trimmer. 1.8- to 16.7-pF air variable. 1.5- to 11.6-pF air variable.
after the board is prepared. The board is Erie 538-002F. E. F. Johnson 189-506-005. E. F. Johnson 189-504-005.
fastened in the enclosure by means of one

9-11 Chapter 9
 drain, at 12 to 15 volts dc. Touch the
TO + V SUPPLY
THROUGH C8
neutralizing coil, L2. If there is any
R4 TAP Li change in current, the stage is oscillating.
Keeping contact with L2 (to prevent
R1 INPUT
oscillation), readjust RIfor 5mA. Using a
C2 — L1 strong 220- MHz test signal, adjust C4 for
—01 — R2 II
c.
6 RFC 1-C 7-
maximum signal indication. Set C1 to
G1 minimum capacitance, and peak C2.
VI G2
—C1— Increase C Islowly until signal no longer
— our I
L2
C4 rises, then back off one turn and readjust
CS -C3-
C2 and C4 for maximum signal.
-R3- Now reverse the preamplifier, con-
necting JI to the receiver input, and (A)
MOUNTING HOLE
feeding the signal to J2. With the dc still
applied, tune L2 to minimum signal
Fig. 17 — Full-scale layout and parts place- feed- through. If L2 has an ungrounded
ment guide for the pc board. Foil side shown. brass slug, the amplifier attenuation
should be about 50 dB. Drain current
should remain at 5 mA.
Connect the amplifier normally, and
The dc voltage for the preamplifier repeat the process outlined above, until
is fed through one arm of a coaxial the tuning of C4 remains nearly constant.
T fitting at the receiver input. This Finally, adjust Cl for best signal-to-noise
assumes use of some sort of blocking ratio ( lowest noise figure) and readjust
capacitor in the receiver input, to prevent C2. This should yield anoise figure of 1.5 (B)
grounding the dc through acoupling loop to 2 dB, and gain of 12 to 18 dB,
or tap on a grounded tuned circuit. The depending on the transistor used. Often Fig. 19 — At A, 432- MHz GaAs FET preampli-
fier built by K2UYH. The transistor is mounted
rf choke in the preamplifier circuit, the lower-gain condition will also give the
at the central shield by soldering the source
RFC I, and the one used at the receiver best noise figure. lead directly to the copper foil. The drain lead
input ( to isolate the dc from the rf) are not of the transistor passes through a hole in the
critical. Any reasonably good vhf choke LOW- NOISE GaAs FET shield. At B, a 1296- MHz GaAs FET
PREAMPLIFIERS FOR 432 AND preamplifier built by WA2ZZF. In this model,
should do. If you're still willing to take the
the transistor is connected to striplines etched
losses involved in the line, and you want 1296 MHZ
on glass-epoxy board. SMA-type coaxial con-
to use the preamp at the receiver input, Gallium-arsenide field-effect transistors nectors are shown although type N or BNC
leave RFCI out of the circuit, and connect (GaAs FETs) have recently come into use connectors may be used.
the dc as shown in Fig. 18. as low- noise microwave amplifiers. Ama-
teur experimentation has shown that they These devices are rather expensive, par-
Adjustment
can provide excellent performance on the ticularly the ones characterized as C- band
First set RI for about 5 mA current uhf and lower microwave amateur bands. and X-band (4-12 GHz) microwave
low- noise amplifiers. However, other
GaAs FETs, characterized as power
amplifiers for low and medium-power ( up
to 1/4 watt) microwave applications will
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL provide almost the same noise figure at
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS ( j,F I ; OTHERS
uhf and are being made available to
ARE IN PICOFARA DS pF OR .m,PF); amateurs. The power devices also have
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
wide dynamic range, providing less inter-
•I000. M•1000000
modulation distortion and lower sus-
ceptibility to burnout. The receiver pre-
amplifiers to be described are relatively
simple to construct and have sufficient
tuning range for almost any GaAs FET
available. They were first described by
K2UYH and WA2ZZF in June 1978
QST.

Construction
These preamps for 412 Mil/ ( Fig. ljeet)
and 1296 MHz ( Fig. i913) use ptvier
GaAs FETs made by Microwave Semi-
conductor Corp.; however, devices made
by NEC ( Nippon Electric Co.) perform at
Fig. 18 — Circuit and parts information for the WB6NMT 220-MHz preamplifier.
Cl — 0.8 or 1to 10 pF glass trimmer, 1turn from top, subject to adjustment for least as well, and many similar devices ‘sill
Johanson 2950 of JFD VAM or MVM series, lowest nf. Air-wound coils also usable, but also certainly work. Construction details
C2 — Like Cl, or Corning Direct Traverse toroids preferred, are shown in the phot,-, 1 dplis and sche-
CGW. 0.8 to 10 pF. L2 — 9turns no. 28 enam. on 1/4- in. (6.3 mm) matic diagrams. The 432- MHz preamp is
C3 — 390-pF silver mica, slug-tuned form ( Miller 4500, brass slug). Do
C4 — Like Cl, C2 or less-expensive type with not ground the slug.
built in a2-1/4 X 1-1/2 X I- inch ( 57 X 38
1to 10-pF range. L3 — Like Li, but no tap. X 25- mm) box made of double-sided
C5 — Experiment with values 1to 5pF, for Q1 — 2N5245, 2N5486, MPF-107, TIS-88. printed-circuit board. A cover plate is
maximum gain in system as it will be used. R1 — 200- or 250-ohm control. recommended but does not significantly
J1, J2 — SMA or N-type connector. RFC1 — Vhf rf choke, 0.8 to 3ei. Use only
affect tuning. The GaAs FET source is
L1 — 4turns no 22 enam. or Micrometals when prearnp is antenna mounted (see text).
T-37-0 toroidal core (Amidon Associates). Tap soldered to the central shield board with

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-12

the drain lead projecting through ahole.
Several other versions have been con-
structed; in one of these, the wire inductors
are replaced by straps placed parallel to
the bottom plate, and spaced approxi-
mately 1/8 inch ( 3mm) above it; atypical
strap dimension would be 3 inches ( 76.2
mm) long by 1/2 inch ( 13 mm) wide. The
I296- MHz preamp is constructed in a
2-3/4 X 2-1/8 X I- 5/8- inch ( 70 X 54 X
41- mm) Minibox ( BUD CU- 3000A or
equivalent). The GaAs FET is bolted
between two pieces of 1/16-inch ( I.6-mm)
printed-circuit board, using 0-80 screws
(available at many hobby shops). The lead
height is just right to sit on top of the
50-ohm lines printed on these boards. The
ground connection for the tuning capaci-
tors is provided by mounting screws
Fig. 20 — Schematic diagram of the 432- MHz preamplifier.
and by copper foil soldered around one Cl — 0.03- to 3.5-pF piston trimmer volts usable).
edge of each board. The ground plane (Johanson or JFD). Li — 1turn no. 18 wire (see photo) or strip
sides of the board are smoothly tinned to C2, C3 — 0.8- to 10-pF piston trimmer line (see text).
reduce copper- to- aluminum corrosion. (Johanson or JFD). L2 — no 18 wire, 0.9 in. (23 mm) long.
D1, D2 — Zener diode, 5.6 volts (4.7 to 6.2 01 — GaAs FET (see text).

Handling Precautions
The MSC GaAs FETs have static
resistant gold gates, and are only sus-
ceptible to damage from overvoltage or
excess heating. Some other types, par-
ticularly those of Japanese manufacture,
have aluminum gates which are very
sensitive to static burnout, and should be
handled in the same manner as un-
protected MOS devices. In any case, work
quickly when soldering the devices and
use agrounded or cordless soldering iron.
After assembly, the Zener diodes shown
should protect the device in normal
operation. Of course, it should be realized
that these devices are physically small and
require reasonably careful handling.

Adjustment and Performance

Fig. 21 — Schematic diagram of the 1296- MHz preamplifier.
Normal operating voltages are VDs =1.5 Cl, C2, C4 — 0.8- to 10-pF piston trimmer RFC2 — 5 turns no. 32 wire, 1/16- in ( 1.6-mm)
to 3V, VG s = — 0.5 to — 2V; gate current is (Johanson or JFD). Note: Cl may be re- ID, spaced two wire diameters.
placed by a fixed low- inductance capacitor W1 — 50-ohm microstripline, 0.105 in. (2.7 mm)
negligible and may be supplied from a
of 10-pF or more. wide by 0.9 in (23 mm) long on 1/16- in. ( 1.6-
battery. Peak the tuning capacitors on a C3 — 0.3- to 3.5-pF piston trimmer (Johanson mm) thick double-sided G-10 printed-circuit
strong signal, then trim them and adjust or JFD). board.
the drain and gate voltages with the aid of D1, D2 — Zener diode, 5.6 V (4.7 to 6.2 V W2 — 50-ohm microstripline, 0.105 in. (2.7 mm)
a noise-figure meter or weak-signal source. usable). wide by 1.1- in (28-mm) long on 1/16- in. ( 1.6-
mm) thick double-sided G-10 printed-circuit
Minimum noise figure occurs near the al — GaAs FET (see text).
RFC1 — 3 turns, 1/16- in ( 1.6-mm) ID, in lead board.
tuning for maximum gain. Output tuning of resistor, spaced wire diameter.
should have little effect, but the noise
figure is sensitive to the input tuning and
gate voltage; varying the drain voltage
should give a broad peaking of S/N. value of these stabilizing resistors is at years, provided the amateur builder with
Drain current is controlled by gate your own risk! many new choices of hardware to use in
voltage. After peaking up the preamp, Typical noise figures to be expected the building of receivers, converters, or
drain current will probably be between 20 with these preamps are on the order of 1 preamplifiers. The broadband doubly
and 100 mA. dB at 432 MHz and 3dB or less at 1296 balanced mixer package is afine example
It should be emphasized that these MHz. The devices are capable of even of this type of progress, and as amateurs
devices have extremely high gain at uhf better performance than this; significant gain an understanding of the capabilities
and will readily oscillate unless adequate improvements are obtainable at 1296 of this device, they are incorporating this
precautions are taken. Stability is ob- MHz with attention to good uhf con- type of mixer in many pieces of equip-
tained by the use of the resistor connected struction techniques and low-loss cir- ment, especially receiving mixers. The
directly from the drain to ground, at the cuitry. However, the circuits shown are combined mixer/amplifier described here
expense of some gain reduction. The easily reproduced and still provide excel- was presented originally in March 1975
values shown should provide adequate lent performance. QST by K IAGB.
stability if good bypassing is used; gain
DOUBLY BALANCED MIXERS Mixer Comparisons
will be around 20 dB at 432 MHz and 15
dB at 1296 MHz. Any increase in the Advances in technology have, in recent Is a DBM really better than other

9-13 Chapter 9
Table 2

Manufacturer Re/corn Anzac MCL MCL MCL MCL

Model M6F MD- 108 SRA-1 SRA-1H RAY- 1 MA- 1
Frequency Range ( MHz)
LO 2-500 5-500 5-500 5-500 5-500 1-2500
rf 2-500 5-500 51-500 5-500 5-500 1-2500
i-f DC-500 DC-500 DC- 500 DC-500 DC- 500 1-1000
Conversion loss 9 dB max. 7.5 dB max. 6.5 dB typ 6.5 dB typ 7.5 dB typ. 8.0 dB typ.
Mid-range •
Isolation, LO -
RF 34-40 dB min. 40 dB min. 45 dB typ 45 dB typ 40 dB typ. 40 dB typ.
Mid- range LO i -
f 25-35 dB min. 35 dB min. 40 dB typ. 40 dB typ 40 dB typ. 40 dB typ.
Total input power 50 mW 400 mW 500 mW 500 mW 1W 50 mW
LO power requirement: + 7 dBm ( 5 mW) + 7 dBm (5 mW) + 7 dBm (5 mW) + 17 dBm (50 mW) + 23 dBm ( 200 mW) + 10 dBm ( 10 mW)
Signal 2-dB
compression level Not spec. Not spec. + 1dBm + 10 dBm + 15 dBm + 7 dBm
Impedance, all ports 50 ohms 50 ohms 50 ohms 50 ohms 50 ohms 50 ohms
Relcom, Division of Watkins-Johnson, 3333 Hillview Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94304.
All specifications apply only at stated LO power level. Anzac Electronics, 39 Green Street, Waltham, MA 02154.
MCL — Mini-Circuits Laboratory, 2625 East 14th St.. Brooklyn, NY 11235.

the r- fand i -f " ports." As mixers, most

devices have noise ligures in excess of
those published for them as rf amplifiers
and will not provide sufficient sensitivity
for weak-signal work. To minimize noise,
mixer-device current is generally main-
tained at a low level. This can reduce
dynamic range, increasing overload po-
tential, as defined in the terminology
appendix. Gain contributions of rf ampli-
fiers ( used to establish alow system noise
0.125 TYP
GATE
figure) further complicate the overload
j (3.1rnrn) problem. LO- noise leakage to the rf and
0.023 i-f ports adversely affects system per-
Fig. 23 — The i -
fport of a doubly balanced
(0.58 mm) - - J,
formance. Mixer dynamic range can be mixer is matched at (LO — frf and reactive at
0.420 limited by conversion of this noise to i -f, (LO ± (rt. In this configuration conversion
(10.13(n(A) placing a lower limit on mixer system loss, rf compression and desensitization levels
. 0.265 —H can vary ± 3dB while harmonic modulation and
sensitivity. Generally 20 dB of mixer
14
(6.7mm)
third-order IMD products can vary ± 20 dB.
midband interport isolation is required,
and most passive DBMs can offer greater
than 40 dB.
A commercially manufactured doubly to generate, filter, and measure. If we ac-
balanced diode mixer offers performance cept the fact that more LO power is
predictability, circuit simplicity and flexi- necessary for the DBM than is used in
bility. Closely matched Schottky- barrier conventional single-device active mixing
hot-carrier diodes, commonly used in circuits, we leave only two real obstacles
most inexpensive mixers of this type, to be overcome in the DBM, those of con-
provide outstanding strong-signal mixer version loss and i -foutput interfacing.
performance ( up to about 0dBm at the rf To minimize conversion loss in aDBM,
input port) and add little (0.5 dB or so) to the diodes are driven by the LO beyond
the mixer noise figure. Essentially, diode their square- law region, producing an
conversion loss from rf to i -
f, listed in output spectrum which in general includes
Table 2represents most of the mixer con- the terms':
Fig. 22 — Dimensional information for the tribution to system noise figure. Midband I) Fundament1,1 frequencies/L0 and frf
GaAs FET packages supplied by MSC. At A, isolation between the LO port and the rf
case style 98, top view, and at B, top view of 2) All of their harmonics
case style 97. Drain and source leads are and i -fports of aDBM is typically > 35 dB 3) The desired i -
foutput, JLO ± frf
spaced 0.065 in. ( 1.65 mm) above the bottom of — far greater than that achievable with 4) All higher order products of '
40 ±
the case. MSC designation for these case conventional single device active- mixing mfrf, where n and ni are integers.
styles is Flipac. schemes. This isolation is particularly ad- The DBM, by virtue of its symmetry
vantageous in dealing with low-level local- and internal transformer balance, 'sup-
types? What does it offer, and what are its oscillator harmonic and noise content. Of presses a large number of the harmonic
disadvantages? To answer these questions, course, selection of LO devices with low modulation products. In the system
a look at more conventional " active" audio noise figures, and proper rf filtering described here, fLO is on the low side of
(voltages applied) mixing techniques and in the LO putput, will reduce problems frf, therefore, numerically, the desired i-f
some of their problems is in order. The from this source. output is frf — fLO. Nonetheless, the term
reader is referred to an article in QST ' Often- listed disadvantages of a diode fLO + frf appears at the i -
f-output port
dealing with mixers. Briefly reiterated, DBM are (a) conversion loss, ( b) LO equal in amplitude to the desired i -f
common single-device active mixers with power requirements, and (c) i -f- interface signal, and this unused energy must be
gain at vhf and uhf are beset with problems. The first two points are closely effectively terminated to obtain no more
problems of noise, desensitization and interrelated. Conversion loss necessitates than the specified mixer-conversion loss.
small local-oscillator ( LO) isolation from some low-noise i -f dinplification to
'DeMaw and McCoy; Learning to Work With Semi-
establish auseful weak- signal system noise
conductors, — Part IV, QST, July 1974. figure. Additional LO power is fairly easy 'See appendix.

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-14

 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( .pF I;
OTHERS ARE IN P1COFARADS 1pF OR ye);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS,
.11
RF INPUT MIXER
k I000, M.I000 000.

14 28 MHz
82 AMR.

7H BEADS 14
4 MHz 3N140 OR

40673 10
OR 28

43 01
OR

F D
.13I- F
02 05 OUTPUT
16 0
001
FT
0
001
FT
6
0
01 001
300
/
-7-7

INPUT
J2
LO 1000

•15 V
27 20
50k
GAIN

Fig. 24 — A schematic diagram for the doubly-balanced mixer and i

-fpost amplifier. The i
-fcan be either 14 or 28 MHz. Parts values are given in
Table 3.

This is not the image frequency, JLO — Also greatly affected are third-order directly at the mixer i -fterminal. This
which will be discussed later. inter- modulation- product ratio and the approach is easiest for the amateur to
In any mixer design, all rf port signal suppression of spurious signals, both of implement and duplicate, so a form of it
components must be bypassed effectively which may vary ± 10 dB or more. It is was tried — with success. In our circuit,
for best conversion efficiency ( minimum ironic that the i -fport is the most sensitive C1serves adual purpose. Its reactance at
loss). Energy not " converted" by mixing to a reactive termination, as this is a frf + JLO is small enough to provide a
action will reduce conversion gain in receiving system point where sharp- low- impedance " short-circuit" condition
active systems, and increase conversion skirted filters are often desired. to this term for proper mixer operation.
loss in passive systems such as the diode Briefly, here is what happens with a Additionally, it is part of the input
DBM. Rf bypassing also prevents spur- reactive i -f port termination. Fig. 23 reactance of the mixer i -f-amplifier inter-
ious resonances and other undesired shows a DBM with " high side" LO face. Fortunately the network impedance-
phenomena from affecting mixer per- injection and an i -ftermination matched transformation ratio is large enough, and
formance. In this system, rf bypassing at at /LO — frf but reactive tofLO + frf. The in the proper direction, to permit afairly
the i -
f-output port will be provided by the latter term re-enters the mixer, again large amount of capacitance ( low react-
input capacitance of the i -finterface. The combines with the LO and produces terms ance) at the mixer i -f-output port. The
DBM is not apanacea for mixing ills, and that exit at the rf port, namely 2/L0 + frf, capacitor, in its dual role, must be of good
its effectiveness can be reduced drastically a dc term, and ¡LO + frf — JLO ( the quality at vhf/uhf ( specifically frf + JLO),
if all ports are not properly terminated. original rf-port input frequency). This with short leads, to be effective. The mixer
condition affects conversion loss, as condition (frf + .fLO)/frf — /L0) >. 10 is
DBM Port Terminations mentioned earlier, in addition to rf-port met at 432 and 220 MHz with a
Most DBM-performance inconsisten- VSWR, depending on the phase of the 404/192-MHz LO ( 28- MHz i -f) and on
cies occur because system source and load reflected signal. The term 2fLO + frf also 144 MHz with a 130-MHz LO ( 144-MHz
impedances presented to the mixer are not affects the harmonic spectrum resulting in i-f). At 50 MHz, with a 36 MHz LO, we
matched at all frequencies encountered in spurious responses. are slightly shy of the requirement, but no
normal operation. The terminations ( at- One solution to the i -f- interface prob- problems were encountered in an operat-
tenuator pads) used in conjunction with lem is the use of a broadband 50-ohm ing unit. The pi-type interface circuit
test equipment by manufacturers to resistive termination, like a pad, to assures a decreasing impedance as i -f
measure published performance char- minimize reflections. In deference to operation departs from midband, thereby
acteristics are indeed " broadband" match- increased post-conversion system noise lessening IMD problems.
ed. Reactive mixer terminations can cause figure, it seemed impractical to place such
The LO Port
system problems, and multiple reactive atermination at the mixer i -
foutput port.
terminations can usually compound these While a complimentary filter or diplexer The primary effect of a reactive LO
problems to the point where performance (high-pass/low-pass filters appropriately source is an increase in harmonic modula-
is very difficult to predict. Let's see how terminated) can be used to terminate both tion and third-order IMD products. If
we can deal with reactive terminations. frf + ./LO and frf — fL0 3,a simpler the drive level is adequate, no effect is
method can be used if frf + ./L0 is less noted on conversion loss, rf compression
The I-F Port than IGHz and frf + (fLO)/(frf — JLO) and desensitization levels. A reactive LO
The i - f port is very sensitive to 10. Place ashort-circuit termination to frf source can be mitigated by simply
mismatch conditions. Reflections from + ¡LO, like asimple lumped capacitance, padding the LO port with a3- or 6-dB pad
r/i-f amplifier interface (the pi and increasing the LO drive a like
'Presentation and calculation format of these terms is
in Fig. 24) can cause the based on " low-side" LO injection. See the appen-
amount. If excess LO power is not
nversion loss to vary as much as 6dB. dix for explanation. available, matching the LO source to the

9-15 Chapter 9
mixer will improve performance. This the modular-construction approach per-
Table 3
method is acceptable for single-frequency mits good signal isolation and enables the
LO applications, when appropriate test DBM l- F Amplifier Parts List mixer-amplifier/i-f system to be used at a
equipment is available to evaluate match- variety of rf and LO-input frequencies, as
ing results. For simplicity, a 3-db pad 14 MHz i-1 output 28 MHz i-1 output mentioned earlier.
was incorporated at the LO-input port as C1 470 pF JFD 471J 300 pF JFD 301J
Most commonly available, inexpensive
or equal. or equal.
an interface in both versions of the mixer. C2 390 pF SM DBMs are not constructed to take ad-
not used
Thus the LO port is presented with a C3 180 pF SM 51 pF SM vantage of LO powers much above + 10
reasonably broadband termination, and is C4 39 pF SM 18 pF SM dBm ( 10 mW). To do so requires
relatively insensitive to applied frequency, C5 56 pF SM 27 pF SM additional circuitry which could degrade
C6 300 pF SM 150 pF SM
as long as it is below about 500 MHz. This other mixer characteristics, specifically
implies that frequencies other than ama- L1 9turns no. 18 enam., 9turns no. 24 enam., conversion loss and interport isolation.
teur assignments may be covered — and close wound on a3/8- close wound on a 1/4- The advantage of higher LO power is
such is indeed the case when appropriate inch ( 9.5 mm) diameter inch (6.3 mm)diameter
primarily one of improved strong-signal-
red-slug coil form. green-slug coil form.
LO frequencies and rf amplifiers are used. handling performance. At least one
Remotely located LOs, when adjusted for L2 18 turns no. 26 enam., 12 turns no. 26 enam., manufacturer advertises a moderately
a 50-ohm load, can be connected to the close wound on a3/8- close wound on a1/4-
inch diameter red-slug
priced "high-level" receiving DBM that
inch diameter green-
mixer without severe SWR and reflective- coil form. slug coil form. can use up to + 23 dBm ( 200 mW) LO
loss problems in the transmission line. power, and still retain the excellent con-
Tap down 7turns from No tap used.
Broadband mixers exhibit different version loss and isolation characteristics,
top for 3N140 drain
characteristics at different frequencies, connection. See text. shown in Table 2. The usefulness of mix-
owing to circuit resonances and changes in ers with LO power requirements above the
L3 Same as L2 but no tap. Same as L2, spaced 1
diode impedances resulting from LO commonly available + 7 dBm (5 mW)
spaced 11/8- inch inch ( 25 mm) center-to-
power-level changes. Input impedances of (29 mm) center-to- center with L2. level in amateur receiving applications
the various ports are load dependent, even center with L2. may be abit moot, as succeeding stages in
though they are isolated from each other R1, 300 ohm 1/4 W, carbon.
most amateur receivers will likely over-
430 ohm, 1/4 W,
physically, and by at least 35 dB electrical- R3 carbon. load before the DBM. Excessive over-
ly. At higher frequencies, this effect is R2 16 ohm, 1/4 W, carbon. 11 ohm, 1/4 W, carbon. design is not necessary.
more noticeable, since isolation tends to In general, mixer selection is based on
cerrite beads can be replaced by a 10-ohm, the lowest practical LO level requirement
drop as frequency increases. For this
1/4 Wcarbon resistor at one end of the choke,
reason, it is important to maintain the LO that will meet the application, as it is more
if desired.
power at its appropriate level, once other economical and results in the least LO
SM = Silver Mica.
ports are matched. leakage within the system. As afirst-order
approximation, LO power should be 10
The RF Port dB greater than the highest anticipated
input-signal level at the rf port. Mixers
A reactive rf source is not too image-response potential in the 84 to
with LO requirements of + 7 dBm are
detrimental to system performance. This 88- MHz range. TV channel 6 wideband-
quite adequate for amateur receiving
is good, since the output impedance of fm audio will indeed appear at the
applications.
most amateur preamplifiers is seldom 50 i-f-output port near 28 MHz unless
ohms resistive. A 3-dB pad is used at the rf appropriate rf-input filtering is used to
port in the 50- and 144- MHz mixer to 14 eliminate it. While octave-bandwidth Application Design Guidelines
MHz, and a 2-dB pad is used in the vhf/uhf " imageless mixer" techniques can While the material just presented only
220/432- MHz to 28 MHz, although they improve system noise performance by scratches the surface in terms of DBM
add directly to mixer noise figure. Rf about 3 dB ( image noise reduction), and theory and utilization in amateur vhf/uhf
inputs between about 80 and 200 MHz are image signal rejection by 20 dB — and receiving systems, some practical solutions
practical in the 14- MHz i-f-output model, much greater with the use of a simple to the non-ideal mixer-port-termination
while the 28- MHz-output unit is most gating scheme — such a system is a bit problem have been offered. To achieve
useful from 175 to 500 MHz. Mixer esoteric for our application. Double or best performance from most commercially
contribution to system noise figure will be multiple-conversion techniques can be manufactured broadband DBM in ama-
almost completely overcome by a low- used to advantage, but they further teur receiver service, the following guide-
noise rf amplifier with sufficient gain and complicate an otherwise simple system. lines are suggested:
adequate image rejection. Image noise and signal rejection will 1) Choose i -fand LO frequencies which
depend on the effectiveness of the filtering
will provide maximum freedom from
Image Response provided in the rf-amplifier chain. interference problems. Don't "guessti-
Any broadband mixing scheme will mate"; go through the numbers!
have apotential image-response problem. Mixer Selection 2) Provide aproper i -
f-output termina-
In most amateur vhf/uhf receiver systems The mixer used in this system is a tion ( most critical).
(as in these units) single-conversion Relcom M6F, with specifications given in 3) Increase the LO-input power to
techniques are employed, with the LO Table 2. Suitable substitute units are also rf-input power ratio to a value that.will
placed below the desired rf channel for presented. The M6F is designed for provide the required suppression of any
non-inverting down-conversion to i -
f. printed-circuit applications (as are the in-band interfering products. The speci-
Conversion is related to both i -
fand LO recommended substitutes), and the lead fied LO power (+ 7 dBm) will generally
frequencies and, because of the broad- pins are rather short. While mixers are accomplish this.
band nature of the DBM, input signals at available with connectors attached, they 4) Provide as good an LC) match as
the rf image frequency ( numerically /L0 are more expensive. The simple package is possible.
—Ji - fin our case) will legitimately appear suggested as, aside from less expense, 5) Include adequate pre- mixer rf-image
inverted at the i -f-output port, unless improved interface between mixer and i -f filtering at the rf port.
proper filtering is used to reduce them at amplifier is possible because of the short When the mixer ports are terminated
the mixer rf-input port. For example, a leads. The combining of mixer and i -f properly. performance usual') ir excess of
144- MHz converter with a 28-MHz i -f amplifier in one converter package was published specifications will he achieve
output ( 116- MHz LO) will have rf done for that reason. Along these lines, — and this is more than adequate for

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-15

most amateur vhf/uhf receiver mixing Sabin' and Hayward' would still be func- ucts. When FI and F2 are separated by 1
applications. tioning well. MHz, the third-order products will lie 1
A high-performance, small-signal, MHz above and below the desired
THE COMBINED DBM/I-F vhf/uhf receiving amplifier optimized for outputs. Intermodulation is generally
AMPLIFIER ¡MD reduction and useful noise figure is specified under anticipated operating
A low- noise i -famplifier ( 2dB or less) only as good as any succeeding receiving- conditions since performance varies over
following the DBM helps ensure an system stage, in terms of overload. The the broad mixer- frequency ranges. Inter-
acceptable system noise figure when the DBM/i-f-amplifier combination pre- modulation products may be specified at
mixer is preceeded by a low- noise rf sented significantly reduces common first- levels required ( i.e., 50 dB below the
amplifier. A pi- network matching system mixer overload problems, leaving the sta- desired outputs for two 0-dBm input
used between the mixer i -
f-output port tion receiver as the potentially weak link signals) or by the intercept point.
and gate 1of the 3N140 transforms the in the system. When properly understood The intercept point is afictitious point
nominal 50-ohm mixer-output impedance and employed, the broadband DBM determined by the fact that an increase of
to a 1500-ohm gate-input impedance ( at followed by a selective low-noise i -f level of two input tones by 10 dB will
28 MHz) specifically for best noise amplifier can be a useful tool for the cause the desired output to increase by 10
performance. The network forms anarrow- amateur vhf/uhf receiver experimenter. dB, but the third-order output will
band mixer/i-f-output circuit which serves increase by 30 dB. If the mixer exhibited
two other important functions: It helps APPENDIX no compression, there would be apoint at
achieve the necessary isolation between which the level of the desired output
Mixer Terminology
rf-and i-fsignal components, and serves as would be equal to that of the third- order
frf — rf input frequency
a 3-pole filter, resulting in a monotonic product. This is called the third-order in-
JLO — local- oscillator input frequency
decrease in match impedances as the tercept point.
fi -
f — i
-foutput frequency
operating i -
fdeparts from mid- band. This
action aids in suppression of harmonic- By convention, mixing signals and their Noise Figure
distortion products. products are referred to the LO frequency Noise figure is a relative measurement
The combined DBM/i-f amplifier is for calculations. In the mixer system
based on excess noise power available
shown schematically in Fig. 24 and presented, frf is always above JLO, so we from a termination (input resistor) at a
will refer our signals to frf, with the
pictorially in the photographs. In the particular temperature (290 K). When
14- MHz model, the 3N 140 drain is tapped exception of Fig. 23 which uses the JLO
measuring the NF of a doubly balanced
reference.
down on its associated inductance to mixer with an automatic system, such as
provide a lower impedance for better Overload the HP-342A, a correction may be
strong-signal-handling ability. The 3N140 A generic term covering most undesired necessary to make the meter reading con-
produces about 19 dB gain across a operating phenomena associated with sistent - with the accepted definition of
700- kHz passband, flat within 1 dB device non-linearity. receiver noise figure.
between 13.8 and 14.5 MHz. A 2- MHz In abroadband DBM, the actual noise
Harmonic Modulation Products
passband is used for the 28- MHz model, bandwidth consists of two i -
fpassbands,
and the device drain is connected directly Output responses caused by harmonics
one on each side of the local-oscillator
to the high-impedance end of its as- of _fLO and frf and their mixing products. frequency (JLO + fi - fand JLO — fi - f). This
sociated inductance. Both amplifiers were RF Compression Level double sideband ( dsb) i -f response in-
tuned independently of their respective cludes the rf channel and its image. In
The absolute single-signal rf input-
mixers, and checked for noise figure as general, only the rf channel is desired for
power level that causes conversion loss to
well as gain. With each i - f amplifier further amplification. The image con-
increase by 1dB.
pretuned and connected to its mixer, tributes nothing but receiver and back-
signals were applied to the LO and RF Desensitization Level
ground noise.
rf-input ports. The pi-network inductance The rf input power of an interfering When making an automatic noise-
in the i -finterface was adjusted carefully signal that causes the small- signal con-
figure measurement using a wideband
to see if performance had been altered. No version loss to increase by 1 dB, i.e.,
noise source, the excess noise is applied
change was noted. I- fgain is controlled by reducing aweak received signal by 1dB.
through both sidebands in a broadband
the externally accessable potentiometer.
Intermodulation Products DBM. Thus the instrument meter in-
Passband tuning adjustments in the drain
Distortion products caused by multiple dicates NF as based on both sidebands.
circuit are best made with a sweep
This means that the noise in the rf and
generator, but single-signal tuning tech- rf signals and their harmonics mixing with
each other and the LO, producing new image sidebands is combined in the mixer
niques will be adequate. While there
output frequencies. i-f-output port to give a double con-
should be no difficulty with the non-
tribution ( 3 dB greater than under ssb
gate-protected 3N140, a 40673 may be • Mixer Intermodulation Intercept Point
conditions). For equal rf-sideband re-
substituted directly if desired.
Because mixers are nonlinear devices, sponses, which is areasonable assumption,
all signals applied will generate others. and in the absence of preselectors, filters,
DBM/I-F Amplifier IMD Evaluation When two signals ( or tones), F1and F2, or other image rejection elements, the
Classical laboratory ¡ MD measure- are applied simultaneously to the rf-input automatic NF meter readings are 3 dB
ments were made on the DBM/i-f port, additional signals are generated and lower than the actual NF for DBM
amplifier using two — 10 dBm signals, appear in the output as JLO ± (nF 1 + measurements.
closely spaced in the 144-MHz range. The mF2). These signals are most troublesome The noise figure for receivers ( and most
LO power used was + 7dBm. Conversion when n ± m is alow odd number, as the DBM) is generally specified with only one
loss was 5 dB and the calculated third- resulting product will lie close to the de- sideband for the useful signal. As men-
order output intercept point was + 15 sired output. For n — I( or 2) and m — 2 tioned in the text, most DBM diodes add
dBm. In operation, as simulated by these (or 1), the result is three (3), and is called the no more than 0.5 dB ( in the form of NF)
test conditions, equivalent output signal two-tone/third-order intermodulation prod- to conversion loss, which is generally
levels at J3 would be strong enough to measured under single- signal rf-input
severely overload most amateur receivers. (ssb) conditons. Assuming DBM con-
'Sabin, " The Solid- State Receiver," QST, July 1970.
Perhaps the early Collins 75A series, 'Hayward, " A Competition-Grade CW Receiver,"
version efficiency (or loss) to be within
R390A and those systems described by QST, March and April 1974. specifications, there is an excellent proba-

9- 17 Chapter 9
bility that the ssb NF is also satisfactory.
Noise figure calculations in the text
were made using a graphical solution of
the well known noise-figure formula:

f —I
fT = + 2
gt
converted to dB.

Improved Wide Band I-F Responses

The following information was de-
veloped in achieving broad-band per-
formance in the mixer-to-amplifier cir-
cuitry. In cases where only asmall portion
Fig. 25 — Suggested changes in the mixer-to 3N140 pi- network interface circuit, producing lower
of aband is of interest the original circuit
Q. and better performance.
values are adequate. For those who need
to receive over aconsiderable portion of a
band, say one to two MHz, achange of
some component will provide improved
performance over a broad range while Tests on the 3N201 dual-gate MOSFET gate1, and the bias-circuit modification
maintaining an acceptable noise figure. have shown device noise performance to shown in Fig. 25 may be tried, if desired.
The term "nominal 50-ohm impedance" be excellent for source impedances in the
CONVERTERS FOR 50, 144 AND
applied to diode DBM ports is truly a 1000- to 2000-ohm region. For optimum
220 M HZ
misnomer, as their reflective impedance is noise and good cross-modulation per-
rarely 50 ohms + j0 and a VSWR of 1is formance, the nominal 50-ohm mixer i -f The converters here were originally
output impedance is stepped up to about designed by the Rochester VHF Group
almost never achieved. Mixer perform-
1500 ohms for i -famplifier gate 1, using and appeared in August 1973 QST. The
ance specified by the manufacturer is
the familiar low-pass pi network. This is a design was the basis for aclub project so
measured in a50-ohm broadband system,
mismatched condition for gate 1, as the the same board is used for all three
and it is up to the designer to provide an
equivalent termination to ensure that the device input impedance for best gain in converters, with only slight modifications
unit will meet specifications. Appropriate the hf region is on the order of 10 kn. Net- for each band. Design features include
matching techniques at the rf and LO ports work loaded-Q values in the article are a 1) Low noise figure.
will reduce conversion loss and LO-power 2) State-of-the-art freedom from cross
bit higher than necessary, and adesign for
modulation.
requirements. Complex filter synthesis can lower QL is preferred. Suggested modified
improve the i -foutput match. However, if 3) Sufficient gain to override the
component values are listed in Fig. 25.
one does not have the necessary equip- front-end-noise of most receivers.
High-frequency attenuation is reduced
ment to evaluate his efforts, they may be 4) Double-tuned bandpass interstage
somewhat, but satisfactory noise and
wasted. Simple, effective, easily reproduced and output circuits to achieve a flat
bandwidth performance is more
reduced circuitry was desired as long as easily obtained. Coil-form size is the response over a 2- MHz portion of either
the trade-offs were acceptable, and measure- same, so no layout changes are required band.
ments indicate this to be the case. for the modification. Components in the 5) Filtering of the local oscillator chain
The most critical circuit in the com- interface must be of high Q and few in in the 144- and 220- MHz models to
bined unit is the interface between mixer number to limit their noise contribution reduce spurious responses.
and i -famplifier. It must be low-pass in through losses. The 28-MHz values 6) Small size and low power con-
nature to satisfy vhf signal component provide satisfactory interface network sumption.
bypassing requirements at the mixer i -f performance over a2- MHz bandwidth. A 7) Freedom from accidental mistuning
port. Fot best mixer IMD characteristics higher QL in the 28- MHz interface can be during the life of the converter.
and low conversion loss, it must present to useful if one narrows the output network Other points considered were such things
the i -
fport anominal 50-ohm impedance and covers only a few hundred kilohertz as freedom from the necessity of
at the desired frequency, and this im- bandwidth, as is commonly done in neutralization and the use of moderately
pedance value must not be allowed to 432- MHz weak-signal work. priced transistors.
increase as i -f operation departs from Device biasing and gain control methods
Circuit Design
midband. The impedance at the i -f were chosen for simplicity and adequate
amplifier end of the interface network performance. Some sort of gain adjustment Schematic diagrams for the three ver-
must be in the optimum region for is desirable for drain-circuit overload pro- sions are shown in Figs. 26, 27 and 28.
minimum cross-modulation and low noise. tection. It is also ahandy way to "set" the The configuration of the rf and mixer por-
A dual-gate device offers two important receiver S meter. A good method for gain tions of the circuit are virtually identical
advantages over most bipolars. Very adjustment is reduction of the gate-2 bias for all three with the values of the
little, if any, power gain is sacrificed in voltage from its initial optimum-gain bias frequency-determining components being
achieving best noise figure, and both point (greater than +4 V dc), producing a scaled appropriately. The major dif-
parameters (gain and NF) are relatively remote-cutoff characteristic (a gradual re- ference between the converters is achange
independent of source resistance in the duction in drain current with decreasing gate in the local oscillator chain. A minor
optimum region. As aresult, the designer bias). The initial gain-reduction rate is higher change in the method of interstage cou-
has agreat deal of flexibility in choosing a with aslight forward bias on gate 1, than for pling was necessary to prevent stray- .
source impedance. In general, a 3:1 Vg is = 0. Input and output circuit capacitance effects from making the align-
change in source resistance results in only detuning resulting from gain reduction ment critical on the 50-MHz converter.
a l-dB change in NF. With minimum (Miller effect) is inconsequential as the All inductors in the 50-MHz model and
cross-modulation as a prime system gate- 1and drain susceptances change very the 28-MHz output circuit are wound on
consideration, this 3:1 change (reduction) little over a wide range of Vg 2s and Amidon toroid cores. The tuned circuits
in source resistance, implies a 3:1 im- I D at both choices of i -f. Best inter- are aligned by spreading or compressing
provement in cross-modulation and total modulation figure for the 3N201 was the turns around the toroid core. After
harmonic distortion. obtained with a small forward bias on alignment the coils are glued in place with

VHF and UHF RecelvIna Techniques 9-18

 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN M1CROFARADS 1jF1; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARA DS pF OR yyF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k • 1000,M» i000000

Fig. 26 — Schematic diagram of the 50- MHz converter. All resistors are 1/4-watt composition. C2, C8, C10 and C15 are 0.001 j.4F disc ceramic. C4 is
0.01-e disc ceramic. All other capacitors are dipped mica.
L1- L6, incl. — All no. 28 enam. wire wound on L3, 12 turns; L4, 18 turns; L5, 18 turns tap - tapped at 6turns from hot end.
Amidon T-25-6 cores as follows: L1, 14 turns ped at 4turns from cold end; L6, 26 turns Vi — 22- MHz crystal. International Crystal
tapped at 4turns and 6turns; L2, 13 turns; Mfg. Co. type EX.

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS hIFI ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARA DS 19F OR yyF
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k . 1000, M•1000000

Fig. 27 — Schematic diagram of the 144- MHz converter. All resistors are 1/4-watt composition. C8, C10, C15 and C18 are 0.001-e disc ceramic. All
other capacitors are dipped mica units.
L1, L2, L3, L7, LB — All no. 20 enam. wire from hot end. cold end.
formed by using the threads of a 1/4-20 bolt L4 — 18 turns no. 28 enam. wound on Amidon L6 — 16 turns no. 28 enam. wound on Amidon
as aguide. L1, 5turns tapped at 1-3/4 turns T-25-6 core. T-25-10 core.
and 3/4 turn from cold end; L2, 5turns; L3, L5 — 18 turns like L4, tapped at 4turns from Vi — 38.666- MHz crystal. International Crystal
4turns; L7 and L8, 5turns tapped at 2turns Mfg. Co. type EX.

9-19 Chapter 9
 220 MI*

MIXER
01 220 MHz 28 MHz
C2 2N5486
,NPUT • p 00
o
— Cl

L3
= C3 L2

43

OSC 03

192 MHz
2N5486
AMP EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
04
192 MHz IN MICROFARADS Ize 1 ; OTHERS
2N5486
ARE IN PICOFARA DS IpF OR ye);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
•I000, M• 1000000
Le
48.0 MHz

R10
330

1
-- 12 V

Fig. 28 — Schematic diagram of the 220-MHz converter. All resistors are 1/4-watt composition. C8, C10, C15 and C18 are 0.001-e disc ceramic. All
other capacitors are dipped mica units.
L1, L2, L3, L7, L8 — All no. 20 enam. wire cold end, and L8, 4 turns tapped at 2-1/2 cold end.
formed by using the threads of a 1/4-20 bolt turns from hot end. L6 — 18 turns no. 28 enam. wound on Amidon
as a guide. L1, 4 turns tapped at 1-1/2 turns L4 — 18 turns no. 28 enam. wound on Amidon T-25-10 core.
and 3/4 turn from cold end; L2, 4 turns; L3, T-25-6 core. Vi — 48.000 MHz crystal. International Crystal
2 turns; L7, 3 turns tapped at 1-1/2 turns from L5 — 18 turns like L4, tapped at 4 turns from Mfg. Co. type EX.

Silastic compound ( sold as bathtub

caulk).
The rf amplifier, Q I , is used in a
grounded-gate configuration. The input
circuit is tapped to provide a proper
match between the antenna and source of
the FET while maintaining a reasonable
Q. The 50-M Hz interstage coupling
network consists of C3, C5, L2 and L3.
Band-pass coupling is controlled by the
capacitive T network of C3 and C5 in
ratio with C6. A 40673 dual-gate MOS-
FET is used in the mixer circuit ( Q2).
Gate Ireceives the signal, while gate 2has
the local- oscillator injection voltage ap-
plied to it through C7. A slight amount of
positive bias is applied to gate 2 through Fig. 29 — Scale-size layout for the pc board. The same pattern is used for each band. Foil side
R2. A top-coupled configuration, using shown here.
toroid inductors, serves as the 28- MHz
output circuit of both converters.
The oscillator circuit in the 50- MHz controlled by the positions of L2 and L3. isolation amplifier running at very low
model is straighforward, relying on the Since they are mounted at right angles, the current level ( as controlled by R9) to
drain- to-gate capacitance of the FET for coupling is very light. By changing the provide attenuation of the adjacent
feedback. A tap at four turns from the hot angle between these two coils, the harmonics. This stage is not needed for
end of the toroid winding provides the passband may be optimized. amplification of the oscillator signal but
injection to the mixer through capacitor In the 144- and 220- MHz converter oscil- without the additional filtering, severe
C7. In the 144- and 220- MHz converter lator stages. Q3 is changed to an oscil- "birdies" may result from nearby fm or
the rf stage is identical to the 50- MHz lator/tripler by replacing the source bias TV stations. In all three versions, a
version except for the tuning networks. resistor with L6. Replace bypass capa- number of printed-circuit pads will be left
LI, L2, and L3 are air wound, self- citor, C13, with a suitable value to over when construction is completed.
supporting, and are formed initially by resonate L6 near the crystal frequency. These are the result of providing both
winding wire around the threads of a Source-to-gate capacitance provides the bands on a common pc layout. For
1/4-20 bolt. The turns of LIare spread to feedback in this case. The drain tank is example, the isolation amplifier following
permit adding taps prior to mounting on modified to provide output at the third the oscillator is not used on 50 MHz.
the board. The degree of interstage harmonic, thus eliminating the need for a Therefore, this stage is bypassed by a
coupling in the two-metci model is separate tripler stage Q4 is used as an jumper wire from L6 to C7. Five

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-20

 obtained when utilizing filtering at the i -f
output of a vhf converter. This circuit,
developed by W 1FB, complies with the
foregoing design and performance ob-
jectives. It is intended for use on ssb, cw
and a-m, notably below 146 MHz. The
dynamic range of this converter is
excellent, owing in part to the use of a
doubly balanced diode-ring mixer that is
followed by a diplexer. The diplexer
assures that the mixer is terminated in its
characteristic impedance — 50 ohms.
An overall gain of 15 dB was measured
for the composite converter. All spurious
energy at the LO-chain output is — 72 dB
or greater below the desired output ( 116
MHz). A two-pole Butterworth filter is
used at the i -foutput of the converter.
This 28- MHz filter prevents unwanted
energy from the converter from reaching
the tunable i -fmain receiver — afurther
aid to the elimination of birdies. The
converter has a 3-dB bandwidth of 200
kHz. This is established by the highly
selective four-resonator input filter which
is similar to a helical resonator. The
converter can be adjusted for any 200-kHz
segment of the 2- meter band. The
example given here was designed pri-
marily for use from 144.0 to 144.2 MHz.
In this case the tunable i -fis 28.0 to 28.2
Fig. 30 — Parts- placement guide for the 50- MHz converter, A, and the 144- and 220- MHz con-
MHz.
verters, B. View is from the foil side of the board. Dashed lines show the location of shields that
are soldered to short pieces of wire which project through holes in the pc board. The shields may
RF Amplifiers and Filter
be fabricated from sheet brass or copper, or scraps of copper-clad board material.
Fig. 31 shows the front-end section of
the converter. Cl was not needed in the
prototype model, but can be included in
additional holes are located in the ground FET as an oscillator usually is satisfac- the interest of obtaining the lowest
area along the centerline of the board and tory. possible noise figure. The tap point to
between rf and mixer stages. Component Small ceramic trimmers can be used in which C1is connected is approximately 50
lead clippings are soldered into these holes place of the fixed-value mica capacitors in ohms without CI in the circuit. L1and C2
to provide a mounting for the shield the tuned circuits of these converters. The comprise the input resonator, FL I. Q1
partitions, which are soldered to the wires midrange of the trimmer should be operates in the common-gate mode. The
where they extend through the board. Fig. approximately the value of the mica source is tapped on LI to provide an
30 shows the parts layout for the three capacitors replaced. This procedure may impedance match. A Siliconix E300 JFET
converters. Notice that one lead of C3 simplify the tuning process of the con- is used at Q1 and Q2 in the interest of low
must reach past the ground hole and verters where a sweep generator setup is noise and high dynamic range. It is rated
connect to the foil. R3 is not used on the not available. A little careful tweaking by the manufacturer as having a typical
50- MHz converter. should give a reasonably flat response. noise figure of 1.3 dB at 100 MHz. The
If trimmers are used, the rf input circuit dynamic range is specified as 100 dB or
Alignment and Test should be tuned to the center of the greater. Power gain is listed as 17 to
Perhaps the most difficult task in the desired response, 50.5 MHz as an 20 dB in the common-gate mode. In
project was the test and tune-up of the example. This circuit tunes broadly and is this circuit the gain is set at approximately
finished converter. A single test setup not too critical. The rf interstage circuits 10 dB per stage by means of the tap points
using asweep generator, diode probe, and should be stagger tuned, one at 50.0 MHz on the resonators and the value of
oscilloscope is a necessity to assure the and the other at 51.0 MHz. As an example, source-bias resistance. The 10-ohm re-
flat response over the tuning range. the output i -
fcircuits can be tuned in a sistors used in the drain leads of each
Commercial attenuators can be used to manner similar to the interstage circuits. transistor reduce the gain slightly. They
calibrate each converter by the sub- are included for suppression of parasitic
A HIGH-PERFORMANCE 2•METER
stitution method. oscillations.
CONVERTER
Tuning of the air-wound rf circuit for FL2 consists of two aperture-coupled
144 and 220 MHz is accomplished by Top performance is a requisite for vhf resonators. The aperture is set for an
spreading or compressing the turns of the receivers during contests and when the insertion loss of roughly 5dB in order to
coils. After alignment, the windings are operator is engaged in weak-signal work. obtain the desired 200-kHz overall front-
secured by a bead of Silastic compound The criteria are low noise, frequency end selectivity. FL3 is the fourth re-
along the coil to hold the turns in place. stability and freedom from unwanted sonator. Output is taken at 50 ohms by
The transistors used in the rf stage are spurious responses in the overall receiver. means of a 560-pF coupling capacitor.
also subject to some variation in noise The latter can be assured by using an LO This circuit is unconditionally stable. The
figure. When this occurs, an rf FET chain which has proper spectral purity, gate lead must be made as short as
should be carefully traded with an and by using narrow-band filtering at the possible to ensure stability. It is returned
oscillator FET, since performance of the receiver front end. Additional benefits are to ground on the inner conductor of the

9-21 Chapter 9
 Fig. 32 — Close-up view of the interior of the rf
front-end amplifier and band-pass filters.
Spring-brass tabs are soldered to the divider
walls to assure good electrical contact with
the aluminum side plate (see text). A third
0.001 -
MF feedthrough capacitor was added to
the lower edge of the third compartment from
the left after this photograph was taken. It
serves as atie point for the 100-ohm decou-
piing resistors (see Fig. 31).

Fig. 31 — Schematic diagram of the converter front end. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic. prevent 116- and 144-M Hz energy from
Feedthrough types are used where indicated. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition.
reaching Q3. This network is designed to
Cl — 50-pF ceramic trimmer (see text). inches ( 16 x 32 mm) long. 01, 02 sources
C2-05, incl. — 5-pF capacitor. Subminiature air tapped 1/2 turn above ground. Input and out-
match 50 ohms to 2200 ohms.
variable of glass piston trimmer of high-Q put taps are 1/4 turn from ground. Drain Q3 is another E300 FET, chosen for the
type. E.F. Johnson 160-102 suitable. Johnson taps are 1/2 turn from high end of coils. low- noise characteristic. An unbypassed
193-4-1 ( 13 pF max.) used in this model. 01, 02 — Siliconix E300 JFET. 2N4416 suit- 10-ohm resistor is used in the source to
L1- L4, incl. — 4turns no. 16 bare or silver- able at slight reduction in performance.
plated copper wire, 5/8-inch ID x 1-1/4
cause degeneration in the interest of
stability. A two-pole Butterworth band-
pass filter is used at the output of Q3. It
pc- board double-clad module wall. Three gain of roughly 8 dB. LO injection is
has a 3-dB bandwidth of 500 kHz and is
0.00144' feedthrough capacitors and two supplied to U 1 at 116 MHz. The LO tuned for a center frequency of 28.250
100-ohm resistors serve as the 12- volt power is + 7dBM ( approximately 0.5 volt
MHz. The filter input characteristic is
decoupling elements. Q 1 and Q2 are rms across 50 ohms).
12,000 ohms. The 10-pF output coupling
mounted on the outside wall of the L5, the 51-ohm resistor and two 39-pF
capacitor provides a 50-ohm terminal
rf-amplifier module. capacitors form the diplexer in com-
impedance for looking into a 50- ohm
bination with the L network ( L6/C6). L5
Mixer and Post-Mixer Amplifier tunable i -freceiver. The circuit of Fig. 33
and the 39-pF capacitors comprise a
is contained in a module fashioned from
Ul and Q3 of Fig. 33 are contained in high-pass network with a loaded Q of
single- sided pc board. The copper sur-
the second module. U 1 is a four-diode 1 ( XL and Xc = 50). The cutoff frequen-
faces are inside the box.
doubly balanced mixer assembly. It has a cy of the network is three times the i-f ( 84
conversion loss of approximately 8 dB. MHz). The 51-ohm resistor serves as a
This requires the inclusion of apost- mixer termination for the mixer. L6 and C6, by Local-Oscillator Section
i-famplifier, Q3. The latter is set for a virtue of the low-pass characteristic, help A simple overtone oscillator is used at

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS (.0); OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS IpF OR »,pF1.
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k . 1000, M. I000000

Fig. 33 — Schematic diagram of the passive mixer, diplexer and post-mixer amplifier. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic except those shown
as feedthrough types. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition.
C6-C8, incl. — 35-pF ceramic or Mylar trimmer. L5 — 5turns no. 24 enam. wire on T-50-6 03 — Sillconix E300 JFET or 2N4416.
Solder 47. and 33 pF silver mica capacitors toroid core (0.09 mil). U1 — Diode-quad doubly balanced mixer. MCL
across pe foils for C7 arid CO, re3poctively. L6 — 21 turns no. 24 enam. wire on T.50-6 SRA-1 or SOU, or Cimarron CM-1suitable.
toroid core ( 1.8 0-1).

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-22

 12 V Fig. 34 — Schematic diagram of the local-oscillator
0001 chain. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic except
,T those shown as feedthrough types. Resistors are
1/2-watt composition.
C9, C10 — Miniature 60-pF ceramic or Mylar trimmer.
C11 — 25-pF miniature ceramic or Mylar trimmer.
AMP C12, C13 — 13-pF miniature trimmer or glass-piston
OSC.
type, high Q. E. F. Johnson 193-4-1 used in this
58 MH,
58 M14: 255179 model.
o01 DI — Zener diode, 9.1 V. 400 mW or 1watt.
02, 03 — High speed silicon switching diode or hot
carrier diode. 1N914 used here.
L9 — 7turns no. 16 bare wire, 1/4-inch ID x 1/2
58 MHz inch long (6.3 x 12.7 mm). Tap diodes 1-3/4 turns
o from ground.
TI • L10, L11 — 7 turns no. 16 bare wire. 1/4- inch ID
05 X 3/4 inch long (6.3 x 19 mm). Tap 1turn above
255179 ground. Center-to-center spacing is 3/4 inch ( 19 mm).
04-06, incl. — 2N5179 transistor.
Ti — 8 turns no. 24 enam. wire on T-50-6 toroid
4700 core (0.25 j.iF1). Secondary has 3turns over primary
winding, no. 24 enam.
72,14 — 6 bit/lar turns no. 30 enam. wire on Amidon
-160 FT-23-43 toroid core.
13 — 7trifilar turns no. 30 enam. wire on FT-23-43
01
toroid core.

7- 7

180

91V
I 400 r/IVI

DI

.12 V

U001
FL5
FT 116 MHz
AMP
C12 C13
DOUBLER
7

116 MHz 3300 • 14

15914 0 01
13 25
L9

TO
560
U1
MIXER

1( 56 °
255179

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS 1.1e ;

OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS IPF OR Le);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ,
k • I000, M•1000 000.

the beginning of the LO chain ( Fig. 34). The output from Q5 is used to drive a
C9 can be adjusted to shift the oscillator two-diode balanced doubler, D2 and D3.
frequency by a small amount. Greater A trifilar-wound broadband toroidal trans-
range for netting the crystal can be former (T3) couples the energy to the
obtained by inserting a small amount of doubler. L9 and C11 comprise a 116- MHz
inductive reactance between C6 and Yl. resonator which serves as an impedance
A tuned toroidal transformer, TI, is transformer between the diodes and Q6.
adjusted for resonance at approximately This resonator also suppresses energy at
58 MHz. CIO is set for reliable starting of other than 116 MHz. The diodes and the
the oscillator ( consistent with high out- base of Q6 are tapped close to ground on
put) when the operating voltage is turned L9 to effect an impedance match. The
on. Zener-diode regulation ( D1) is used to stage gain from L9 to the output of FL5
aid oscillator stability. was measured as 16 dB. The gain is
Output from Q4 is routed to afed-back, needed to ensure a + 7-dBm injection level
Fig. 35 — Spectral output of the 116- MHz LO
broadband, Class A amplifier, Q5. The at Ul, the mixer. chain showing all spurious responses at — 72
feedback provides a50- ohm input charac- Another broadband step-down trans- dB or greater. The carrier has been suppressed
teristic and contributes to excellent stability former, T4, is used to effect an impedance by means of a 116- MHz trap to prevent front-
end overload of the analyzer. In effect, it is at
of the 58- MHz amplifier. Negative feed- match. It transforms the collector im- full scale. The vertical line at the far left is a
back and emitter degeneration are used at pedance of Q6 to the 50- ohm input im- zero-reference response from within the
Q5 and Q6 for this purpose. T2 is abroad- pedance of band-pass filter FL5. The lat- analyzer. Vertical scale is 10 dB/div. and the
band 4:1 toroidal transformer. It trans- ter greatly suppresses the 58- MHz energy horizontal scale is 50 MHz/div.

forms the collector impedance of Q5 to 50 passing through Q6. It also rejects the
ohms. Output is taken at this point and harmonics of the 116- MHz LO chain. Fig. be seen that all spurious responses are 72
fed to a separate module which contains 35 shows the spectral output of the LO dB or greater below the desired 116- MHz
T3 through FL5. chain as viewed on an HP analyzer. It can energy level. Imagine that the carrier

9-23 Chapter 9
amplitude is full scale when comparing the inches ( 155 x 50 mm), length and width. to achieve this result. It was not used in
levels of the spurs. The 116- MHz carrier The box height is 1-1/2 inches ( 38 mm). the ARRL model because accurate noise-
has been suppressed by means of atrap to This container and the one for the figure measuring equipment was not
prevent front-end overloading of the low-level stages of the LO chain do not available. However, without the input
analyzer. This has no effect on the ac- have copper on the outside. Therefore it is capacitor, a 0.11.4V signal into the con-
curacy of the spur-level readings. The full- necessary to provide agrounding contact verter provided a loud cw response in the
scale line at the far left in Fig. 35 is the for the press- fit U-shaped aluminum tunable i -
freceiver, roughly equivalent to
zero- reference blip from the analyzer. It covers. Shim- brass or flashing- copper an RST of 559. The test receiver was a
should be ignored. strips are located opposite one another on Kenwood TS- 820 with a 500- Hz i -ffilter.
Q4, Q5 and the related circuitry are the upper lips of the side walls. The strips A similar front end was built earlier, using
contained in a module made from single- are approximately 1-1/2 inches long ( 38 2N4416 FETs. When used with a2- meter
sided pc board. The copper foil is on the mm) and 3/4 inch ( 19 mm) wide. They are fm receiver it provided 20 dB of quieting
inside of the box. D2, D3, Q6 and related soldered to the inner walls of the box, then with a0.18 b4V input signal.
components are in a separate container. bent over the edges and down the outside
Double-sided pc board is used. of the box walls. This provides aground Power Supply
contact for the box covers. A well- filtered 12-volt regulated dc sup-
Construction Data Single- sided glass- epoxy p,.- board ma- ply is recommended for use with this con-
Modular construction is used in this terial is used for all of the etched circuits. verter. The maximum current required is
design so that various portions of the A ground- bus copper strip is retained less than 100 mA. A supply using athree-
circuit can be isolated from one another in around the entire perimeter of each board. terminal regulator IC would be ideal.
an effective manner. Another benefit to This permits the builder to solder the
this style of construction is that the boards into the shield boxes. INTERDIGITAL CONVERTER FOR
builder can experiment with other circuits The low-level section of the LO chain is 1296 OR 2304 MHZ
housed in abox which is 5-1/4 inches ( 135 In a world where rf spectrum pollution
(substitutes) and install them without
mm) long, 2-1/4 inches ( 58 mm) wide and is becoming more serious, even into the
disrupting the complete converter. Most
2inches ( 51 mm) high. The last half of the
of the circuit boards are much larger than microwave region, it is almost as im-
LO circuit is contained in an enclosure portant to keep unwanted signals out of a
necessary. This was done with a view
which is 4-1/8 inches ( 105 mm) long, receiver as it is to prevent radiation of
toward possible revisions to the circuits of
1-1/2 inches ( 38 mm) wide and 1-1/4 spurious energy. An interdigital filter was
the first model. Those who are skilled at
inches ( 32 mm) high. The end com- described some years ago, featuring low
layout work may want to compress the
circuits somewhat. partment houses the band-pass filter. It is insertion loss, simplicity of construction,
Small Teflon press-fit feedthrough bush- 1-1/2 x 1-1/2 inches (38 x 38 mm) and reasonable rejection to out- of- band
ings are used as input and output square. The depth of the compartment is 1 signals. It could be used in either
terminals for the various modules. They inch (25 mm). The lower surface of the transmitters or receivers.
were purchased at a flea market, so the filter compartment is part of the main pc This twice- useful principle has now
original source is not known. Any board, the end of which has not been been put to work again — as a mixer.
low- loss miniature bushing should be stripped of copper. Again, the ease of construction and
suitable as asubstitute. Alternatively, the The inner and outer copper surfaces of adaptation leads many to wonder that it
RG-174 miniature coaxial cables can be the modules which use double-clad pc had not been thought of before. It was
routed directly into and out of the board sides should be connected together first described by W2CQH in January
modules for connection to the circuits. to assure electrical contact. This can be I974 QST.
For attachment to the + 12-volt supply, done by running short lengths of bare wire
through the box walls at four points per A Filter and Mixer
each module has 0.001- eiF feedthrough
capacitors. These components are mount- wall, then soldering the wires in place on A layout of the microwave portions of
ed on the box walls. Small Teflon each surface ( inner and outer). Al- both converters is shown in Fig. 36. The
feedthrough bushings are used at Q1 and ternatively, angle stock can be made of structure consists of five interdigitated
Q2 to permit circuit connections for the flashing copper and soldered across each round rods, made of 3/8- inch ( 9.5 mm)
FET leads inside the module. The FETs corner of the box. The U-shaped lids will OD brass or copper tubing. They are
are installed on the outer wall of the complete the electrical contacts when soldered to two sidewalls and centrally
front-end module. installed. located between two ground- planes made
All of the modules are affixed to the of I/16- inch ( 1.6 mm) sheet brass or
Alignment
main chassis 7x 11 x2 inches ( 180 x copper-clad epoxy fiberglass. One ground
280 x 50 mm) by means of no. 6 spade Choose a 200- kHz segment of the plane is made larger than the microwave
bolts. The latter are bolted to the side 2- meter band that suits your purposes. assembly and thus provides aconvenient
walls of the modules. The rf amplifier Place a 2-meter signal at the midpoint of mounting plate for the remainder of the
assembly uses the chassis surface as part that tuning range ( 144.1 MHz for cover- converter components.
of the box shield. An aluminum plate is age from 144.0 to 144.2 MHz). Connect The sidewalls are bent from 0.032-inch
attached to the side wall of the module by the converter to a receiver tuned and thick sheet brass or they can be made from
means of spade bolts. This type of con- peaked at 28.1 MHz. Apply power to the 1/4 X 3/4- inch ( 6 X 19 mm) brass rod.
struction was used to ease assembly of the converter and locate the 2- meter signal in One edge of each sidewall is soldered to the
front end filter and amplifiers. Spring- the receiver tuning range. It should fall larger ground plane. The other edge is
brass fingers are soldered to the compart- close to 28.1 MHz. Observe the receiver S fastened to the smaller ground plane by
ment dividers to assure solid contact to meter and adjust all of the converter 4-40 machine or self-tapping screws, each
the aluminum side plate. The aperture size tuned circuits for maximum meter read- located over the centerline of a rod. The
between L2 and L3 of FL2 is 1 x 5/8 inch ing. This procedure should be repeated sidewall edges should be sanded flat,
(25 x 16 mm). Each resonator compart- two or three times, using the weakest before the ground plane is attached, to
ment measures 1-1/4 x 1-1/4 x 2inches 2- meter signal that will provide needle assure continuous electrical contact Note
(32 x 32 x 50 mm). The coils are deflection on the S meter. that no end walls are required sinCct. here
centeied in the compartment. This circuit should provide a noise are no electric fields in these regions.,
Dimensions for the mixer/post-mixer figure of less than 4 dB with careful ad- Electrically, rods A, B, and C comprise
amplifier assembly are 5-3/4 X 1-7/8 justment. Cl of Fig. 31 may be required a one- stage, high- loaded-Q ( QL = 100),
VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-24
 4.8" Table 4
(121.9mm)
SOLDER WALL Converter Specifications

-+-
(20.3mm)
.e"
' TO BOTTOM
GROUNDPLANE
\

1296 MHz 2304 MHz

Noise figure 55dB 65 dB
10 - 32 NUT .25" ( 6.32min I
Conversion gain 20 dB 14 dB
,SOLDERED
.4( TO WALL 3-dB bandwidth 2 MHz 7 MHz
Image rejection 18 dB 30 dB
t
IC
.
IE 1-f output 28 MHz 144 MHz
1

METAL PLATE
(C2)

TEFLON
interdigital filter 6 which is tuned to the
OR MYLAR incoming signal frequency near 1296 or
INSULATOR
2304 MHz. The ungrounded end of rod A
is connected to a BNC coaxial connector
D1 D2
Cl filter input. Rod B is the high-Q resonator
r and is tuned by a 10-32 machine screw.
.25" ( 6.32Mm)
CI I. Rod C provides the filter output-coupling
section to the mixer diode, DI.
PLASTIC
(19mm) The original mixer diode was aHewlett-
SHOULDER
WASHER Packard 5082-2577 Schottkey-barrier type
SOFT COPPER TUBING which is no longer available. The
4- 40 SCREW
SOLDERED TO WALL
AND NUT
5082-2817 and MA-4853 ( Microwave
Associates) are recommended substitutes.
ENCLOSURE DIMENSIONS The cheaper 5082-2853 can be used in-
FREO. X y Z stead, but this substitution will increase
the 2304- MHz mixer noise figure by ap-
1296 NH ' tL 040.'
..) 12rn) (e7: Cr:/
(520.1
7

' 1.25 "

proximately 3dB.
.375 2304 MHz 9375 1.00"
(31.7men)
123.6..1 (25.4.1.1
s•-,- ,' (9.25mm)
One pigtail lead of the mixer diode is
tack- soldered to a copper disc on the
ungrounded end of rod C. Care should be
taken to keep the pigtail lead as short as
o possible. If rod C is machined from solid
J4 INPUT brass stock, then it is feasible to clamp
one of the mixer- diode leads to the rod
end with asmall setscrew. This alternative
Fig. 36 — Dimensions and layout for the filter and mixer portions of the interdigital converters.
The signal input is to the left rod, labeled " A." Local-oscillator injection is through the diode to method facilitates diode substitution and
rod " E." D1 is the mixer diode, connected to the center rod in the assembly. was used in the mixer models shown in the
photographs.
Fig. 36 also shows that the other end of
DI is connceted to a homemade 30- p1-
bypass capacitor, Cl, which consists of a
1/2- inch- square copper or brass plate
clamped to the sidewall with a 4-40
machine screw. The dielectric material is a
small sheet of 0.004- inch ( 0.1 mm) thick
Teflon or mylar. A 4-40 screw passes
through an oversize hole and is insulated
from the other side of the wall by asmall
plastic shoulder washer.
In the first converter models con-
tructed by the author and shown in the
photographs, C Iwas a30-pF button mica
unit soldered to the flange of a 3/8- inch
diameter threaded panel bearing (H. H.
Smith No, 119). The bearing was then
screwed into a threaded hole in the
sidcwall. This provision made it con-
venient to measure the insertion loss and
bandwidth of the interdigital filters since
the capacitor assembly could be removed
and replaced with a BNC connector.
Rods C, D, and E comprise another
high loaded-Q ( Q L = 100) interdigital
Fig. 37 — The converter for 1296 MHz. This unit was built by R.E. Fisher, W2CQH. While the mixer
assembly (top center) in this model has solid brass walls, it can be made from lighter material, as filter tuned to the local oscillator ( LO)
explained in the text and shown in Fig. 36. The i -
famplifier is near the center, just above the
mixer-current-monitoring jack, J1. A BNC connector at the lower left is for 28- MHz output. The
local oscillator and multiplier circuits are to the lower right. Note that L6 is very close to the
chassis, just above the crystal. The variable capacitor near the crystal is an optional trimmer to "Fisher, " Interdigital Bandpass Filters for Amateur
adjust the oscillator to the correct frequency. VHF/UHF Applications," QST, March 1968.

9-25 Chapter 9
 1'1

24V
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL - 0.
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
9_0_521
IN MICROFARADS ( yd.) ; OTHERS FT
ARE IN PICOFARA DS ( pF OR ye); 10001
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; --- C5 0 001
15V
k . 1000, M• I000 000 680 180 51
1W
500 ( SEE TEXT)
R1
/- 7-7

ASSEMBLY •15k
82f- "7
(SEE F10.46) L4
317 MHz
DOUBLER OSCILLATOR
C3
D2 C2 10 2N3866
03 158.5 MHz
414 0 0 2N918
02
C4
10
47k
12:1

''I 4700 En 52 833

D1 CI L1 100 T MHz
3N140 OR 40673
28 MHz ( )

›-
RFC 1 - -20
l
»,','.
r T 7C6

4700

ce) 0001
J1
1296•MHz
INPUT J4
MIXER O. 001
/-1-7
CURRENT

0 001
00
28 -MHz
OUTPUT
J2

Fig. 38 — Schematic diagram of the 1296- MHz converter with oscillator and multplier sections included Dimensions for the filter and mixer
assembly are given in Fig. 36.
Cl, C2 — 30-pF homemade capacitor. See text D1 — Hewlett Packard 5082-2817 or 5082-2835. L3 — 10 turns like Li (0.5 pH).
and Fig. 36. 02 — Hewlett Packard 5082-2811 or 5082-2835. L4, L5 — 6 turns like L1 (0.2 pH).
C3, C4 — 0.8- to 10-pF glass trimmer, Johan- J1 — Closed-circuit jack. L6 — Copper strip, 1/2-inch wide x 2-1/2 in-
son 2945 or equiv. J2 — Coaxial connector, type BNC acceptable. ches ( 12.7 x 63.5 mm) long. See text and
C5 — 0.001 - HF button mica. Li, L2 — 18 turns no. 24 enam. on 1/4-inch photographs.
C6 — 2- to 20-pF air variable, E.F. Johnson (6.3-mm) OD slug-tuned form ( 1.5 pH RFC1 — 33 pH, J.W. Miller 74F33SA1 or equiv.
189-507-004 or equiv. nominal).

frequency. This filter passes only the (178 X 229 mm) sheet of brass or that a remote i -f amplifier was not
fourth harmonic ( 1268 or 2160 MHz) copper- clad epoxy- fiberglass board. As employed, as is the case with many
from the multiplier diode, D2. The two mentioned earlier, this mounting plate contemporary uhf converters.
filters have a common output-coupling also serves as one ground plane for the Q2 functions in an oscillator- tripler cir-
section ( rod C) and their loaded Qs are microwave mixer. When completed, the cuit which delivers about 10 milliwatts
high enough to prevent much unwanted mounting plate is fastened to an inverted of 158.5- MHz drive to the base of Q3. The
coupling of signal power from the antenna aluminum chassis which provides a emitter coil, L3, serves mainly as achoke
to the multiplier diode and LO power shielded housing. to prevent the crystal from oscillating at
back out to the antenna. its fundamental frequency. Coils L4 and
The multiplier diode is connected to the Oscillator and Multipliers L5, which are identical, should be spaced
driver circuitry through C2, a 30-pF The nonmicrowave portion of the closely such that their windings almost
bypass capacitor identical to C 1. D2 is a converter is rather conventional. Q1, a touch.
Hewlett-Packard 5082-2811 although the dual-gate MOSFET, was chosen as the Q3 doubles the frequency to 317 MHz,
5082-2835 works nearly as well. Fifty 28- MHz i -famplifier since it can provide providing about 50 milliwatts drive to the
milliwatts drive at one- quarter of the LO 25 dB of gain with a 1.5 dB noise figure. multipli'er diode. It is important that the
frequency is sufficient to produce 2mA of The mixer diode is coupled to the first emitter' lead of Q3 be kept extremely
mixer diode current, which represents gate of Q1 by a pi- network matching short: I/4- inch ( 6.3 mm) is probably too
about I milliwatt of the local- oscillator section. It is most important that the long. L6, the strip- line inductor in the col-
injection. A Schottky- barrier was chosen proper impedance match be achieve lector circuit of Q3, consists of a 1/2 x
over the more familiar varactor diode for between the mixer and i -famplifier if a 2- 1/2- inch ( 12.7 x 63.5-mm) piece of
the multiplier because it is cheaper, more low noise figure is to be obtained. In this flashing copper spaced 1/8- inch (3-mm)
stable, and requires no idler circuit. case, the approximately 30-ohm output above the ground plane. The cold end of
Fig. 38 shows the schematic diagram of impedance of the mixer must be stepped L6 is bypassed to ground by C5, a
the 1296 to 28 MHz converter. All up to about 1500 if Q Iis to yield its rated 0.001-u+ button mica cpparitor.
components are mounted on a7X 9- inch noise figure of 1.5 dB. It is for this reason The multiplier circuits are tuned to
 J2 540 -MHz EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
INPUT ( 50mW) CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( .pF ;
ASSEMBLY OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR ,p,OF);
SEE FIG 46
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
_1.5 4-40 GROUND SCREW
k • I000, M.I 000 000.
C5
D2 - 15V 4 r,- METAL SPACER

4,40 1 0
02
30

RFC2
Ozazaztaimalm 3N104
82 OR
01 40673
.001
D1
Li 144 MHz 144- MHz

Cl
(2 0
, OUTPUT
30 144 MHz

C3
C RFC1 7 L2
25yH

0001
A
2304- MHz
INPUT J4

,J
0001

, MIXER
CURRENT

Fig. 39 — Schematic diagram of the 2304- MHz yersion of the converter, with the i
-famplifier. The oscillator and multiplier circuits are constructed
separately.
Cl, C23 — 30-pF homemade capacitor (see D2 — Hewlett Packard 5082-2811 or 5082-2835. Slug-tuned form (0.25 HH).
text). J1 — Closed-circuit jack. L3 — Copper strip 1/2 x 2-11/16 inches
C3, C4, C5 — 0.8- to 10-pF glass trimmer, J2, J3, J4 — Coaxial connector, type BNC. See text and photographs.
Johanson 2945 or equiv. Li — 5 turns no. 20 enam. 1/4- inch ID x 1/2. RFC1 — Ohmite Z-144 or equiv.
D1 — Hewlett Packard 5082-2817 or 5082-2835. inch long. RFC2 — Ohmite Z-460 or equiv.
L2 — 6 turns no. 24 enam. on 1/4- inch OD

24V

.15 VC <1
0- 0.001
(TO FIG.491 FT I /47
_C4
0 001
,--71-7 ( SEE TEXT)
0001
470 470 RI RFC1
12 V
180 MHz
500

L4
540 MHz
L2 L3

y11_
540 MHz
90.000r- i
MHz TRIPLER C3 50 mW
10k
2N3866 • •
J1

03 02
90 MHz
10

r'°
Li

*1 8V
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

270 0.001 CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( ,pF 1 ;

T,
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR ye);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k • I000, M• I000 000,

Fig. 40 — Schematic diagram of the oscillator and multiplier for the 2304 MHz converter. As explained in the text, a fixed-value resistor may be
substituted for R1 after the value that provides proper performance has been found.
Cl, C2, C3 — 0.8- to 10-pF glass trimmer, Li — 10 turns no. 24 enam. on I/4-in. OD slug- L4 — Copper strip 1/2 x 1-1/2 in.
Johanson 2945 or equiv. tuned form. Space 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) from chassis.
C4 — 0.001 -HF button mica. L2, L3 — 3 turns like Ll. RFC1 — 10 turns no. 24 enam. 1/8- in. ID, close
J1 — Coaxial connector, type BNC or equiv. wound.

resonance in the usual manner by holding circuit is found by touching a VTVM until about — 1.5 volts of bias is obtained.
a wavemeter near each inductor being probe ( a resistor must be in the probe) to The 317- to I268- M Hz multiplier cavity is
tuned. Resonance in the Q3 collector C2 and adjusting the Johanson capacitors then resonated by adjusting the 10-32

9-27 Chapter 9
Fig. 41 — Circuit diagram of the 1296- MHz preamplifier.
Cl, C6 — Microwave capacitor, ceramic chip frequency range (type BNC acceptable).
or leadless disc, 100 pF or greater. Li, L2 — Copper strips; see Fig. 43.
C2-05 — Piston trimmer capacitor, 0.8-10 pF. RFC — 8 turns no. 28 enam. wire, closewound.
J1, J2 — Coaxial connector suitable for 0.1-in, dia air core.

Fig. 43 — (A) Dimensional drawing of the in-

ductors. (B) Detail of tapered end of inductor.
(C) Method for installing a leadless disc
capacitor at Cl or C6.

The multiplier chain, Fig. 40, has a

separate oscillator for improved drive to
the 2N3866 output stage. Otherwise the
circuitry is similar to the 1296-MHz
version.

COST-EFFECTIVE PREAMP
Fig. 42 — Assembly drawings for the 1296-MHz preamplifier. Improved access for easier construc- FOR 1296 MHZ
tion can be had by increasing the width to 2 in. The other dimensions are more critical. Obtaining alow noise figure in amateur
The enclosure is copper and the pieces are soldered together. Do not install the transistor until
the other components have been soldered.
microwave receiving systems is no longer
the expensive proposition it once was. The
preamplifier shown in Figs. 41, 42 and 43
machine screw until maximum mixer diagrams of the 2304- MHz converter and is taken from a catalog of designs pub-
current is measured at J1. When resonance multiplier. The mixer and i -fpreamplifier lished by Geoffrey Krauss, WA2GFP, in
is found, RI should be adjusted so was built on aseparate chassis since, at the June 1982 QST. Featuring asimple circuit
that about 2 mA of mixer current is time of their construction, a multiplier using acommonly available transistor, the
obtained. As an alternative to mounting a chain from another project was available. unit boasts a noise figure of less than 2.5
potentiometer in the converter, once a An i -fof 144 MHz was chosen, although dB with a 10-dB power gain.
value of resistance has been found that 50 MHz would work as well. An i -foutput Construction information is given in
provides correct performance it can be of 28 MHz, or lower, should not be used Figs. 42 and 43, with additional instruc-
measured and the nearest standard fixed- since this would result in undesirable in- tions in the captions. All controls should
value resistor substituted. Some means of teraction between the mixer and multiplier be adjusted for minimum noise figure
adjusting the collector voltage on the interdigital filters. (maximum signal-to-noise ratio with a
multiplier stage must be provided initially The 2304- MHz mixer and i -famplifier weak signal). Start with all capacitors at
to allow for the nonuniformity of transis- section, shown in Fig. 39, is very similar to minimum capacitance, adjusting the out-
tors. its 1296-MHz counterpart. Q1, the dual- put network first. Repeat the adjustments
gate MOSFET, operates at I44- MHz and several times because they interact. R2 sets
A 2304-MHz Version thus has a noise figure about 1- dB higher the collector cui rent. Minimum noise
Fig. 39 and 40 show the schematic than that obtainable at 28 MHz. figure will occur in the 3 to 7 mA range.

VHF and UHF Receiving Techniques 9-28

 Chapter 10

Mobile, Portable and

Emergency Equipment

A major justification for the existence

of Amateur Radio in the USA is to pro-
220 and 440 MHz. It is expected that this
reliable service mode will soon include
decrease power?" Thus, going from 800
watts to 500 watts is an act of QRP. Con-
vide a pool of experienced operators in widespread occupancy of the 1215- MHz versely, QRO means " increase power."
time of national or community need. band and higher. Power levels as low as a few milliwatts
When the call for emergency communica- Mobile hf-band operation still appeals are often suitable for emergency work
tions is voiced by cities, towns, counties, to numerous amateurs because it elimi- when the cw mode is employed in the hf
states or the federal government, mobile nates the constrictions imposed by vhf bands. Similarly, ssb and fm transmis-
and portable radio equipment is pressed and uhf repeaters, their operators and sions on vhf and uhf at the mW level are
into service where needed. Aside from the their normal coverage contours. When effective over line-of- sight paths. The ad-
occasional need for disaster and emergen- operating mobile on ssb or cw with hf vantage of this type of QRP equipment is
cy communications provided by ama- transceivers, worldwide contacts are long-term operation from batteries.
teurs, a great deal of pleasure and possible for those who enjoy that style of Numerous examples of equipment design-
challenge can reward the amateur when communication. ed for QRP work are provided in the
operating portable or mobile under nor- High- power mobile operation has be- League's book, Solid State Design for the
mal conditions. In this regard, most come entirely practical from the automo- Radio Amateur.
mobile operation is carried out today by tive 13.6-volt dc battery system. This
means of narrow- band fm and repeaters. results from the use of transistorized Electrical-Noise Elimination
The major repeater frequencies are 146, equipment. With only two transistors, a One of the most significant deterrents
linear power amplifier can deliver 150 to effective signal reception during mobile
watts or more of rf output. For the most or portable operation is electrical im-
part, dynamotors, vibrator packs and dc- pulse noise from the automotive ignition
to-dc converters are things of the past, system. The problem also arises during the
making mobile and portable operation
much less expensive and much more effi-
cient.

QRP Operation
Low- power operation has taken a
significant jump forward in recent years
and the ardent core of the movement
almost qualifies as a cult. The basic con-
cept is to do things the " hard way,"
proving that power levels of less than 10
watts are entirely effective when
reasonably good antennas arc used. QRP
is arelative terni. To the station running I
watt, 10 watts is QRO ( high power). It is
the equivalent of a 100-watt station using
a kilowatt amplifier for a 10-dB gain. For
operating awards and contests, the ARRL
definition of QRP is 10 watts input (or 5
Fig. 1 — This may represent the ultimate in
portable vhf operation. The aggregate antenna watts measured output). The expression
gain represented by this setup could be very "QRPp" has been adopted by some low- Fig. 2 — Field Day is many things to many
effective in time of emergency. This installa- power enthusiasts to mean " very low people, but everyone who participates does so
tion was built and operated by N6NB/K6YNB, away from commercial power. These gents,
power." It is not recognized by ARRL.
who with a similar system, set a single- members of the Murgas ARC of Wilkes-Barre,
operator national record during avhf contest,
It should be said that QRP in its proper
Pennsylvania, hoisted a 15-meter beam atop a
earning more than 60,000 points. The antenna use as an International Q Code symbol truck for their 1981 effort. (
photo by Mike
shown is effective also for EME work. means " Decrease power" or " Shall I Benish, K3SAE)

10-1 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment

use of gasoline-powered portable ac candidates for beads. Install them liberal- Plug Co., Box 910, Toledo, OH 43661.
generators. This form of interference can ly, then load test the engine for adequate Some automotive parts distributors also
completely mask a weak signal, thus spark energy. stock this publication.
rendering the station ineffective. Most The plane sheet metal surfaces and
electrical noise can be eliminated by tak- cylindrical members such as exhaust pipes Charging-System Noise
ing logical steps toward suppressing it. often exhibit resonance in one of the Noise from the vehicular battery-
The first step is to clean up the noise amateur bands. Such resonances en- charging circuit can interfere with both
source itself, then utilize the receiver's courage reradiation of spark impulse transmission and reception of radio
built-in noise- reducing circuit as a last energy. Bonding these structural members signals. The charging system of amodern
measure to knock down any noise pulses with heavy braid can reduce the level of automobile consists of abelt-driven three-
from passing cars, or from other man- spark noise inside the vehicle and out. phase alternator and asolid-state voltage
made sources. Other types of noise to be described later regulator. Solid-state regulators are a
can also be helped by bonding. Here are great improvement over the elec-
Spark-plug Noise the main arcas to bond. 1) Engine to tromechanical vibrating contact units of
Most vehicles manufactured prior to frame; 2) air cleaner to engine block; 3) earlier times. Interference from the charg-
1975 were equipped with simple Kettering exhaust lines to frame; 4) battery ground ing system can affect a receiver in two
inductive-discharge ignition systems. A terminal to frame; 5) hood to fire wall; 6) ways: Rf radiation can be picked up by
Widely of noise-suppression methods were steering column to frame; 7) bumpers to the antenna, and noise can be conducted
devised for these systems, including frame; and 8) trunk lid to frame. directly into the circuits via the power
resistor spark plugs, clip-on suppressors, In the United States, automobile cable. " Alternator whine" is a common
resistive high-voltage cable and even com- manufacturers voluntarily comply with an form of conducted interference. It has the
plete shielding. Resistive high-voltage RFI standard devised by the Society of greatest effect on vhf fm communica-
cable and resistor plugs provide the Automotive Engineers, SAE J55I, most tions, because synthesized carrier
greatest noise reduction for the least ex- recently revised in Max 1980. Basically, generators and local oscillators arc easily
pense and effort. While almost all vehicles the standard requires that the strength of frequency modulated by power supply
produced after 1960 had resistance cable the field radiated by arandom vehicle be voltage fluctuations. The alternator ripple
as standard equipment, such cable no greater than 14 dB above 1microvolt is most noticeable when transmitting,
develops microscopic cracks in the insula- per meter per kilohertz from 20 to 80 because the machine is more heavily load-
tion and segmentation of the conductor MHz, sloping up to 25 dB in the 400- to ed in that condition. If the ripple
after afew years of service. These defects 1000- MHz range. The receiving antenna is amplitude is great enough, alternator
can defeat the suppression ability of the located 33 feet (10 m) from the vehicle and whine will be imparted to all incoming
cable before the engine performance is oriented for measurements in both the signals by the LO.
degrades noticeably. Two years is a vertical and horizontal planes. SAE J551 Conducted noise can be minimized by
reasonable replacement interval for spark- has been adopted as law in Canada. connecting the radio power leads directly
plug cable. Older editions of this Hand- Automotive RFI standards are also under to the battery, as this is the point in the
book described complete shielding active development in Europe. The group electrical system having the lowest im-
methods for inductive-discharge ignitions. studying the situation there is CISPR pedance. If the regulator is adjustable, set
Late-model automobiles employ (Comitc International Special des Pertur- the voltage no higher than is necessary to
sophisticated high-energy electronic igni- bations Radioelectrique). The SAE is ensure complete battery charging. Radio
tion systems in an attempt to reduce ex- cooperating with CISPR to promote inter- equipment manufacturers combat voltage
haust pollution and increase fuel mileage. national standardization. FCC docket variations by internally regulating critical
With increased sophistication comes 20654 is a Notice of Inquiry concerning circuits wherever possible.
greater sensitivity to modification — solu- the automotive RFI issue. The manufac- Both conducted and radiated noise can
tions to RFI caused by older Kettering turers and users of radios in the land be suppressed by filtering the alternator
systems cannot be uniformly applied to mobile service (just above the 2-meter leads. Coaxial capacitors (about 0.5 i./F)
the modern electronic ignitions. band), represented by the Electronics In- arc suitable, but don't connect acapacitor
Such fixes may be ineffective at best, dustries Association, responded to the to the field. The field lead can be shielded
and at worst may impair the engine per- NOI by stating that even vehicles comply- or loaded with ferrite beads if necessary.
formance. One should thoroughly under- ing with J551 can seriously degrade A parallel-tuned' LC trap in this lead may
stand an ignition system before at- mobile vhf communications. SAE J551 be effective against radiated noise. Such a
tempting to modify it. One of the signifi- was never intended to protect vehicular trap in the ()Input lead must be made of
cant features of capacitive discharge receivers — only fixed receivers located no. 10 wire or larger, as some alternators
systems, for example, is extremely rapid near roadways. conduct up to 100 amperes. The alter-
voltage rise, which combats misfire caused On the whole, modern automobiles arc nator slip rings should be kept clean to
by fouled spark plugs. Rapid voltage rise cleaner from an RFI standpoint than prevent excess arcing. An increase in
depends on a low RC time constant those of 20 years ago. The interference "hash" 'noise may indicate that the
presented to the output transformer. For problem, however, at least at vhf and uhf, brushes need to be replaced.
this reason, high-voltage suppression persists because present-day receivers are
Instrument Noise
cable designed for capacitive-discharge about 10 dB more sensitive than their
systems is wound with monel wire. It ex- predecessors. Some automotive instruments are
hibits a distributed resistance of only Useful tips for solving ignition noise capable of creating noise. Among these
about 600 ohms per foot, as contrasted problems can be found in Giving Two- gauges and senders are the heat- and fuel-
with 10 kilohms per foot for carbon- way Radio Its Voice, published by the level indicators. Ordinarily, the addition
center cable used with inductive-discharge Champion Spark Plug Company. This of a0.5 coaxial capacitor at the sender
systems. Increasing the RC product by well-prepared publication covers noise- element will cure the problem.
shielding or installing improper spark- suppression fundamentals, preliminary Other noise-generating accessories are
plug cable could seriously compromise the procedures, methods for pinpointing in- turn signals, window-opener motors,
capacitive-discharge circuit operation. terference, and techniques for solving heating-fan motors and electric
Ferrite beads represent apossible means noise problems in automotive and marine windshield-wiper motors. The installation
for RFI reduction in newer vehicles. Both environments. A copy of this booklet can uf a 0.25- ir capacitor will usually
t
primary and secondary ignition leads are be obtained for $ 1from Champion Spark eliminate their interference noise.

Chapter 10 10-2.
 Faraday shield between LI and 12 ensures
that the coupling is purely magnetic. The
coupling between L2 and 13 is purely elec-
trostatic. Adjusting the coil coupling
causes the noise to null. The block
diagram of Fig. 3B illustrates a more
modern broadband approach to noise
cancellation. A short wire near the igni-
tion coil couples impulse energy into the
active impedance transformer, which is
simply an FET source follower stage. The
amplitude and phase of the noise are con-
trolled by the attenuator and delay line,
respectively. The signal combiner can be a
hybrid ferrite transformer at hf or a
transmission line multicoupler at vhf.

BATTERY POWER
(The following material was assembled
by Dave Geiser, WA2ANU.) The
availability of solid-state equipment
makes practical the use of battery power
under portable or emergency conditions.
Hand-held transceivers and instruments
are obvious applications, but even fairly
powerful transceivers ( 100 W or so out-
put) may be practical users of battery
power. Solid-state kilowatt mobile
Fig. 3 — Automotive noise-cancelling systems. At A, the circuit used in the BC-342 hf receiver. At amplifiers exist, but these are intended for
B, asuggested broadband noise-cancelling scheme. operating from an auxiliary battery that is
constantly charged. The lower-power
equipment can be powered from either of
two types of batteries, the " primary" bat-
Corona-Discharge Noise The Soviet " woodpecker" over-the- tery intended for one-time use, and the
Some mobile antennas are prone to cor- horizon radar has inspired some serious storage (or " secondary") battery that
ona build-up and discharge. Whip anten- development work on noise blankers that may be recharged many times.
nas which come to a sharp point will don't degrade receiver dynamic range. A battery is a group of chemical cells,
sometimes create this kind of noise. This Receivers for vhf fm service are generally usually series connected to give some
is why most mobile whips have steel or designed for optimum noise figure at the desired multiple of the cell voltage. Each
plastic balls at their tips. But, regardless expense of resistance to overload. Recent assortment of chemicals used in the cell
of the structure of the mobile antenna, advances in rf amplifier design have pro- gives a particular nominal voltage, and
corona buildup will frequently occur dur- ven that low noise figure and high this must be taken into account to make
ing or just before asevere electrical storm. dynamic range are not mutually exclusive. up aparticular battery voltage.
The symptoms are a high-pitched A high-performance noise blanker is
useless if the front end of the receiver Primary Batteries
"screaming" noise in the mobile receiver,
which comes in cycles of one or two overloads on the noise pulses. A helical The most common primary cell is the
minutes duration, then changes pitch and resonator at the receiver input affords carbon-zinc flashlight type, in which
dies down as it discharges through the some protection against noise overload chemical oxidation converts the zinc into
front end of the receiver. The condition because it restricts the total noise energy salts and electricity. When there is no cur-
will repeat itself as soon as the antenna delivered to the front end. rent flow, the oxidation stops until the
system charges up again. There is no cure Some fm receivers suffer from impulse next time current is required. Some
for this condition, but it is described here noise because of inadequate a-m rejec- chemical action does continue, so even-
to show that it is not of origin within the tion. The cure for this ailment is to ensure tually stored batteries will degrade or dry
electrical system of the automobile. hard limiting in the i -fstages and to use a out to the point where the battery will no
detector that is inherently insensitive to longer supply the desired current. If this
amplitude variations. has happened without battery use, the
Electronic Noise Reduction
Particularly troublesome vehicular im- time taken for the degradation is called
When all electrical noise generated pulse noise can sometimes be cancelled at shelf life.
within a vehicle has been eliminated, the the receiver input. The technique involves The carbon-zinc battery has anominal
mobile operator can be annoyed by RFI sampling the noise voltage from aseparate voltage of 1.5 volts, as does its " heavy
from passing vehicles. Some measures can "noise antenna" and adjusting its phase duty" or " industrial" brother. These lat-
be taken in the receiver to reduce or reject and amplitude to cancel the noise ter types are capable ( for agiven size) of
impulse noise. (Noise limiters and noise delivered by the "signal antenna." For producing more milliampere hours and
blankers are discussed in the hf receiving this sytstem to be effective, the signal less voltage drop than acarbon-zinc bat-
chapter.) The placement of a noise antenna must be positioned to provide the tery of the same size, and also have longer
blanker in the receiver is important. The best possible signal-to-noise ratio, and the shelf life. Alkaline primary batteries have
blanking circuit must be placed ahead of noise antenna located close to the noise even better characteristics and will retain
the sharp selectivity, otherwise the i -
f source and effectively shielded from the more capacity at low temperatures.
filter will stretch the noise pulses, and they desired signal. Fig. 3A shows the noise Nominal voltage is 1.5 volts.
cannot be blanked without destroying a cancellation circuit used in some models Lithium primary batteries have a
major portion of the received intelligence. of the BC-342, a WW II receiver. The nominal voltage of about 3volts per cell

10-3 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment

and by far the best capacity, discharge, size of small and medium automotive bat- any type of battery.
shelf-life and temperature characteristics. teries. These batteries may furnish be- A practical limit of discharge occurs
Their disadvantages are high cost and the tween 1000 and 1200 watt-hours per when the load will no longer operate
fact that they cannot be readily replaced charge at room temperature, and when satisfactorily on the lower output voltage
by other types in an emergency. properly cared for may be expected to last near the " discharged" point. Much gear
Silver oxide ( 1.5 V) and mercury ( 1.4 V) more than 200 cycles. They often have intended for " mobile" use may be de-
batteries are very good where nearly con- lifting handles, screw terminals as well as signed for an average of 13.6 V and apeak
stant voltage is desired at low currents for the conventional truncated-cone of perhaps of 15 V, and not operate well
long periods. Their main use ( in sub- automotive terminals, and may be fitted below 12 V. For full use of battery charge
miniature versions) is in hearing aids, with accessories such as plastic carrying the gear should operate well (if not at full
though they may be found in other quan- cases, with or without built-in chargers. power) on as little as 10.5 V with a
tity uses such as household smoke alarms. Lead-acid batteries are also available nominal 12 to 13.6-V rating.
with jelled electrolyte. These types may be Somewhat the same condition may be
Rechargeable or Storage Batteries mounted in any position if sealed, but seen in the replacement of carbon-zinc
Many of the chemical reactions in some are position-sensitive if vented. cells by nickel-cadmium storage cells.
primary batteries are theoretically revers- Lead-acid batteries with liquid elec- Eight of the former will give 12 V, while
ible if current is passed through the bat- trolyte usually fall into one of three classes ten of the same-size nickel-cadmium units
tery in the reverse direction. For instance, — conventional with filling holes and are required. If a 10-cell battery-holder is
zinc may be plated back onto the negative vents, permitting the addition of distilled used, the equipment should be designed
electrode of a zinc-carbon battery. water lost from evaporation or during for 15 V in case the carbon-zinc units are
Recharging of primary batteries should high-rate charge or discharge, " mainten- plugged in.
not be done for two reasons: It may be ance-free" from which gas may escape Deep-cycle and nickel-cadmium storage
dangerous because of heat generated but water cannot be added, and sealed. batteries should be run to the end of their
within sealed cells, and where there may Generally, the deep-cycle batteries have useful charge before recharging, and then
be some success, both the charge and life filling holes and vents. charged fully. Both types will tolerate a
are limited. In the zinc-carbon example, light continual charge (trickle) and the
Battery Capacity sealed nickel-cadmium types tolerate a
the zinc may not replate in the locations
that had been oxidized. Pinholes in the The common rating of battery capacity near- full charging rate continuously.
case result, with consequent fluid leakage is ampere hours, a product of current
drain and time. The symbol "C" is com- Discharge Planning
that will damage the using equipment.
One type of alkaline battery is monly used; C/10, for example, would be Transceivers usually drain a battery at
rechargeable, and is so marked. If the the current available for 10 hours con- two or three rates: one for receiving, one
recommended charging rate is not marked tinuously. The value of C changes with perhaps for transmit standby, and one for
on such abattery, the manufacturer's 'ad- the discharge rate and might be 110 at 2 key-down or average voice transmit. Con-
vice should be asked. In anumber of cases amperes but only 80 at 20 amperes. Fig. 4 sidering just the first and last of these
the manufacturer markets chargers and gives capacity-to-discharge rate for two (assuming the transmit standby equal to
recommends that only those should be standard-size lead-acid batteries. Capacity receive), average 2-way cw communica-
may vary from 35 mA hours for some of tion would require the low rate 3/4 of the
used.
The most-common small-storage bat- the small hearing-aid batteries to over 100 time and the high rate 1/4 of the time. The
tery is the nickel-cadmium type, with a ampere hours for a size 27 deep-cycle ratio may vary somewhat with voice. The
nominal voltage of 1.2 V per cell. Careful- storage battery. user may calculate the percentage of bat-
ly used, these are capable of 500 or more The primary cells, being sealed, usually tery charge used in an hour by the com-
benefit from intermittent (rather than bination (sum) of rates. If, for example,
charge and discharge cycles, compared to
continuous) use. The resting period allows 20% of the battery capacity is used, the
50 or so for alkaline types. The nickel-
cadmium battery must not be fully completion of chemical reactions needed battery will provide 5 hours of com-
discharged for best life. Where there is to dispose of by-products of the dis- munications per charge. In most actual
more than one cell in the battery, the charge.
most-discharged cell may suffer polarity All batteries will fall in output voltage
reversal. All storage batteries have as discharge proceeds. " Discharged" con-
discharge limits, and nickel-cadmium dition for a12-V lead-acid battery, for in-
types should not be discharged more than stance, should not be less than 10.5 volts.
1.2 V below nominal battery voltage. (It is also good to keep arunning record
The most widely used storage battery is of hydrometer readings, but the conven-
the lead-acid type. In automotive service tional readings of 1.265 charged and 1.100
the battery is usually expected to discharged apply only to along, low-rate
discharge partially at avery high rate, and discharge. Heavy loads may discharge the
then to be recharged promptly while the battery with little reduction in the hydro-
alternator is also carrying the electrical meter reading.)
load. If the conventional auto battery is Batteries that become cold have less of
allowed to discharge fully from its their charge available, and some attempt
nominal 2 V per cell to 1.75 V per cell, to keep a battery warm before use is
only about 50 cycles of charge and worthwhile. The battery may lose 70% or
discharge may be expected, with reduced more of its capacity at cold extremes but
storage capacity. recover with warmth.
The most attractive battery for extend- All batteries have some tendency to
ed high-power electronic application is the freeze, but those with full charges are less
so-called "deep-cycle" battery (intended susceptible. A fully-charged lead-acid bat-
for such use as powering electrical fishing tery is safe to -30° F (-26° C) or colder.
motors and the accessories in recreational Storage batteries may be warmed Fig. 4 — Output capacity as afunction of
vehicles). The size 24 and 27 batteries fur- somewhat by charging. Blowtorches or discharge rate for two sizes of lead-acid
nish anominal 12 volts and are about the other flame should never be used to heat batteries.

Chapter 10 10-4
 than this must be offered the battery for
full-charge. If, for instance, the charge
rate is 0.1 C (the " 10-hour" rate), 12 or
more hours may be needed for the charge.
Four common classes of charge rate are
standby (or trickle), slow (or overnight),
quick (or " rapid") and fast. The standby
charge may be on the order of 30 to 100
niA for a C of 100 Ah, with the slow
charge 10 A for the same C, the quick
charge 30 A and the fast charge 100 A.
Note that one battery is not designed for
all of these charge rates. Deep cycle lead-
acid and sealed nickel-cadmium cells are
best charged at a slow rate, while
automotive and some nickel-cadmium
types may safely be given quick charges.
(This depends on the amount of heat
generated within each cell, and cell vent-
ing to prevent pressure build-up.) Some
batteries have built-in temperature sens-
ing, used to stop or reduce charging
before the heat rise becomes a danger.
Quick and fast charges do not usually
allow gas recombination, so some of the
battery water will escape in the form of
Fig. 5 — A simple constant-current battery charger made from common components. gas. If the water level falls below acertain
point, acid hydrometer readings are no
longer reliable. If the water level falls to
plate level, permanent battery damage
Gas escaping from storage batteries
may result.
may be explosive. Keep flame away.
Overcharging in moderation causes lit-
Dry-charged storage batteries should be
tle loss of battery life, and some nickel-
given electrolyte and allowed to soak for
cadmium batteries may be left on con-
at least half an hour. They then should be
tinual charge in storage. A timer on
charged at perhaps a 15 A rate for 15
chargers of lead-acid batteries prevents ex-
minutes or so. The capacity of the battery
cessive overcharge if set to make up for
will build up slightly for the first few
your recorded discharge plus perhaps
cycles of charge and discharge, and then
20%. Some chargers will switch over
have fairly constant capacity for many
automatically to an acceptable standby
cycles. Slow capacity decrease may then
charge.
be noticed.
No battery should be subjected to un- CHARGING NICKEL-CADMIUM
necessary heat, vibration or physical BATTERIES
shock. The battery should be kept clean. Nickel cadmium (NiCad) batteries have
Frequent inspection for leaks is a good become standard for portable equipment,
idea. Leaking or spraying electrolyte particularly in hand-held vhf fm
should be cleaned from the battery and transceivers. Some NiCad cells fail or
surroundings. The electrolyte is chemical- develop memories, which render them
ly active and electrically conductive, and useless. Such problems can be avoided by
may ruin electrical equipment. Acid may discharging the cells completely before
be neutralized with sodium bicarbonate recharging and by using a constant-
(baking soda), and alkalies may be current charger. Amateur products
neutralized with a weak acid such as equipped with NiCad packs are usually
vinegar. Both neutralizers will dissolve in supplied with constant-vollage chargers.
Fig. 6 — Interior view cf the charger. The heat
water, and themselves be quickly washed Fig. 5 shows asimple constant-current
sink for U2 is mounted on the rear panel. off. Do not let any of the neutralizer enter charger made by Peter O'Dell, KB1N,
the battery. from stock Radio Shack components.
Keep arecord of the battery usage, and Point-to-point wiring eliminates the need
include the last output voltage and ( for for an etched circuit board, and only sim-
lead-acid storage batteries) the ple hand tools are required for construc-
hydrometer reading. This allows predic- tion. The inside of the unit is exposed in
traffic and DX-chasing situations the time tion of useful charge remaining, and the Fig. 6. The charger provides aconstant 50
spent listening should be much greater recharging or procuring of extra batteries, mA ( 10% rate for 500-mAh packs) for up
than that spent transmitting. thus minimizing failure of battery power to 10 NiCad cells in series.
during an excursion or emergency. The charger circuit is diagrammed in
Caring for Storage Batteries
Fig. 7. DS2, DS3 and the quiescent cur-
In addition to the precautions given Charging Storage Batteries
rent of U2 determine the charging rate.
above, the following are recommended. The rated full charge of a storage bat- For a higher rate, connect additional
(Your manufacturer's advice will prob- tery, C, is expressed in ampere-hours. LEDs and series resistors across pins 2and
ably be more applicable.) Since no battery is perfect, more charge 3of U2. U2, acommon 5-volt regulator,
10-5 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment
functions as a current source in this con-
figuration. In addition to their current- 2,43790
MJ2955 *
regulating function, DS2 and DS3 serve as
O FIELD
visual indicators that the battery pack is
NC
being charged. DS I lights when line COB 4 NC
DI 1135402

voltage is applied. If the charger is to be iNDICATORO •

/7- 7

used with batteries having four cells or ARMATURE° A NO

fewer, TIshould be a 12-volt unit. Pro- 02
STATOR
vide an adequate heat sink for U2. Observe 23CI096

proper charging polarity when connecting

abattery pack — reversed connections will
destroy the cells.

A SOLID-STATE REGULATOR
FOR ALTERNATOR- BATTERY
it HEAT SINK
TOP VIEW

SYSTEMS
TOP VIEW
Until very recently, automotive voltage Ul

regulators have been electromechanical

o
devices. In some systems they can be BCE
BOTTOM

reliable for many years, while in other VIEW

BOTTOM
systems they cause noise and fail frequent- 32 32
VIEW

ly. Serious mobile operators should con- 1;2

sider replacing their electromechanical

regulator with an electronic one. Advan- Fig. 8 — An electronic automotive voltage regulator for mobile and portable use, designed by
tages of an electronic unit include greatly W1RN.
reduced hash and whine, tight load regula- Cl — 25-µF, 25-V aluminum electrolytic or 10 W ( RS 276-2052 or similar).
1-eiF, 25-V tantalum. R1 — 1-kil linear taper potentiometer (see
tion independent of shaft speed,
D1 — Silicon diode, 3 A, 25 PIV. text).
temperature stability and precise adjust- K1 — 3-A, 117 V-ac spdt contacts, 5 V-dc, U1 — NFET operational amplifier ( RS 276-1745
ment. Most modern radio equipment is 70-0 coil ( RS 275-246 or similar). or similar).
powered from 13.8 V dc, so a battery- Q1 — Pnp silicon power transistor, 10 A, 40 V, U2 — 5-V, 1-A voltage regulator ( RS 276-1770
100 W ( RS 276-2043 or similar). or similar).
alternator system makes more sense for
Q2 — Npn silicon power transistor, 1 A, 40 V,
portable operation than does a 117 V- ac
generator and an accessory ac power
supply.
The circuit shown in Fig. 8 is designed
for alternators that are controlled in the Dl absorbs negative-going transients nected to the ignition switch (through a
positive (ungrounded) field lead. Alternator generated by the field inductance that current- limiting resistor if necessary) and
field current (up to 3amperes) is regulated might otherwise damage Q 1 . In an the " indicator" terminal would not be
by Q1, which is driven by Q2 and U 1. The automobile having a discharge indicator connected.
"armature" terminal is also connected to light the field is excited through the light Limited space does not permit printing
the battery, so that when K1 is energized, when the ignition switch is turned on. As aphotograph, but the circuit can be built
the field becomes part of afeedback loop. soon as the engine starts and the alternator into a stock voltage regulator enclosure,
U2 is areference generator. When the alter- stator (common connection of the 3-phase which can serve as the heat sink for Q1.
nator has sufficient speed, the loop main- windings) develops about 5volts, K1 closes The remaining components can be
tains the armature/battery voltage at alevel and full alternator/battery voltage is mounted on apc board or tie points. Vibra-
that causes no potential between the dif- available to drive the field. A system using tion and shock can be severe in automotive
ferential inputs of Ul. RI sets the output an ammeter rather than an indicator light service, so clear silicone rubber compound
voltage at which equilibrium is established. would have the " stator" terminal con- is recommended as acushion for the com-

Ul
SI

BAT TERY

Fig. 7 — Schematic diagram of constant current charger. Part numbers in parentheses are Radio Shack.
DS1-DS3, Inclusive — LED (276-1622). Ti — Power transformer, 117-V primary, 24-V U2 — Fixed-voltage regulator, 5 V, 1A, type
S1 — Spst toggle switch (275-012). secondary (273-1480). See text. 7805 or equiv. (276-1770).
U1 — Bridge rectifier, b A, 50 P1V (
276 1180).

Chapter 10 10-6
 panels. NiCad batteries are satisfactory
Table 1
also. Fig. 9shows asolar array in aframe.
Some Solar Battery Manufacturers and
The cells are wired in series.
Distributors Fig. 10 shows a solar-electric system
Solar Power Corporation suitable for low- or high- power operation.
c/o Lindberg Company
Ifthe current drain is less than the capaci-
4163 Montgomery, NE
Albuquerque, NM 87109
ty of the solar bank ( 1.5 A in this case),
Tel 505-881-1006 the load can be powered from the solar
Solarex Corporation cells through the regulator circuit. For
1335 Piccard Dr. heavier loads, the current is taken from
Rockville, MD 20850
the storage batteries, which are charged
Tel. 301-948-0202
by the solar array. The circuit of Fig. 10
Applied Solar Energy
15251 E. Don Julian Rd.
was designed by John Akiyama, W6PQZ,
City of Industry, CA 91746 and was described by John Halliday,
Tel. 213-968-6581 W5PIZ in August 1980 QST. In the same Fig. 9 — Solar-electric arrays are excellent for
Solec International issue, Doug Blakeslee, NIRM, described short-or long-term field and emergency use to
12533 Chadron Ave. power amateur stations. A 14-volt, 1.5-A solar
an electronic switch to automatically
Hawthorne. CA 90250 panel and two automobile batteries in parallel
Tel. 213-325-6215
disconnect storage batteries from a solar can provide many after-dark hours of operation

Encon, Inc. system when full charge ( 13.5 V) is with typical 100-watt hf-band transceivers of
the solid-state variety.
27584 Schoolcraft reached. The circuit is shown in Fig. 11.
Livonia, MI 48150 Ul, D4 and D5 establish a6.2-V reference
Tel. 313-261-4130
for comparator U2. A voltage divider
Kootenai Solar Products
composed of RI, R3 and R7 scales the
P.O. Box 215
Kootenai, ID 83840 battery voltage down to the reference
Tel. 208-263-4290 value, while R4 provides hysteresis to pre- output for many applications. A 2- kW
vent oscillation. When the battery poten- alternator is quite heavy but is capable of
tial exceeds the comparator threshold, U2 supplying power for just about any large
goes high, turning off Q1 and Q2. The power tool. It is roughly the equivalent of
LED, D6, indicates that the battery is be- having asingle I5-A outlet in an ordinary
ing charged. electric service. Of course, it will handle
ponents and leads. RI can be apc-mount moderate- power amateur equipment with
trimmer or achassis-mount potentiometer PORTABLE AC POWER SOURCES
ease.
with the bushing and shaft protruding There are two popular sources of ac
through the regulator cover. Adjustment is power for use afield. The first is what is Maintenance Checklist
greatly facilitated by the latter arrange- referred to as a dc-to-ac converter, or Although more complicated
ment, but the knob should be anchored to more commonly, an inverter. maintenance chores should be performed
the cover to prevent voltage changes caused The ac output voltage is asquare wave. by qualified service personnel, many sim-
by vibration or accidental contact. Therefore, some types of equipment can ple measures which will prolong the life of
not be operated satisfactorily from the in- the alternator can be done at home or
SOLAR- ELECTRIC POWER
verter. Certain types of motors are among afield. Perhaps the best plan is to log the
Although solar-electric arrays are quite those items which require asine-wave out- dates of when the unit was used and the
expensive when purchased new, surplus put. Fig. 12 shows apicture of one style of operating time in hours. Also included in
individual cells and groups of cells (ar- commercial inverter. Heat sinks are used the log would be dates of maintenance
rays) can be bought inexpensively on oc- to cool the switching transistors. The unit and type of service performed. Oil
casion. Photons from the sun strike the shown is available from Heath Company changes, when gasoline was purchased for
p-n junctions of the cells to generate 0.5 in kit form. It delivers 117 volts of ac at emergency purposes, and similar data
volt per cell (see chapter 4). The current 175 watts continuous power rating. The would fall under this category.
rating of an individual cell is dépendent primary voltage is 6 or 12 de. Important points that are common to
upon the diameter of the cell. Typical pro- When sine-wave output is required all types of generators are indicated for a
duction units deliver 100 mA, 600 mA, 1 from a portable ac power supply, typical one in Fig. 14 ( Consult the
A or 1.5 A. Cells with higher current gasoline-engine alternators are used. They manufacturer's manual for additional in-
ratings are manufactured, but are quite arc available with ratings of several structions that might apply to aparticular
costly. Table 1 lists some solar battery kilowatts, or as little as 500 watts. One of model.) The following checklist relates to
suppliers. the larger units is shown in Fig. 13 where the numbers on the drawing.
A solar-electric panel generally contains WB9QPI has just completed a 1) Use the proper grade of fuel. Check
36 cells wired in series. This provides ap-
. maintenance run for the WOOHU/0 Field the owner's manual to determine whether
proximately 18 volts dc ( no-load condi- Day group. oil must be mixed with the gasoline. While
tions) at peak sunlight. The current Alternators powered by internal- two-cycle models require an oil-gas mix-
capability of the panel is determined by combustion engines have been used for ture, most generators have a four-cycle
the diameter of the cells. Greater amounts years to supply 117/235 ac independently engine that burns ordinary gasoline with
of current output can be had by parallel- of the commercial mains. Such combina- no extra additives. Gasoline for emergen-
ing like panels. That is two 1.5-A panels tions range from tiny units powered by cy purposes should be stored only in small
can be operated in parallel to deliver 3 two-cycle or four-cycle gasoline engines in amounts and rotated on a regular basis.
amperes of current, and so on. the low-wattage class to giant multi- Older stock can be burned in a car (that
The usual operating system has the ar- cylinder diesels capable of supplying uses the same grade of gas as the
ray output routed through aregulator to a megawatts of power. Perhaps the most generator) since storing gasoline for any
storage battery. The regulator prevents practical power range for most purposes length of time is inadvisable. The more
overcharging of the battery. The station would be in the neighborhood of 2 kW. volatile components evaporate, leaving
equipment takes its power from the bat- Larger units tend to become too heavy for excess amounts of avarnish-like substance
tery. Most automotive 12-volt batteries one person to lift and handle easily while that will clog carburetor passages. Also,
are suitable for use with solar-electric smaller generators lack sufficient power be sure gasoline containers are of an ap-
10-7 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment
 •
02
Rl
• T - IS
0.27

0+
14 V DC
5000AF 0 - REGULATED)
- 35V
54
LIZ
200»F 9 VOLT
35 V 1,0/ TEST
BT2 •
* HEAT SINK

BIS
0-25

Fig. 12 — Photograph of a commercial dc-to-ac

S2 - I -1 inverter that operates from 6 to 12 volts dc and
12 V
+0
delivers 117 volts ac (square wave) at 175
BT4 BT5 watts.
025 S3 î V
OL
- TEST

proved typed with aclean interior, free of

rust or other foreign matter. Similar con-
siderations apply to the gas tank on the
Fig. 10 — Schematic diagram of solar power supply. Note that battery charging circuit does not engine itself.
employ a regulator or switch to shut off charging current once the storage battery reaches full The majority of difficulties with small
charge state. Because the output of the solar panels is, at most, 1-1/2 ampere and the storage engines are related to fuel problems in
batteries are full-size automobile batteries, the danger of damage from overcharging is not great.
some way. Dirty fuel or water in the
Anyone contemplating higher current solar batteries or smaller storage batteries should give
serious consideration to a regulator and/or an automatic cutoff switch for the charging circuit. gasoline is one source, with carburetor
(See Fig. 11) trouble because of the use of old gas being
BT1, BT2, BT3 — 20-V, 1/2- ampere solar panels equiv.
another common cause. Except for minor
by Spectrolab. 02 — Npn silicon 115 W transistor, power
switching, 2N3055, Radio Shack 276-2041 or
adjustments recommended in the instruc-
BT4, BT5 — 12-V, lead- acid automobile
batteries. equiv. tion manual, it is seldom necessary to
D1 — Motorola MR 752/7414 or any diode with R1 — 0.27 9,1 watt. touch the carburetor controls. Avoid the
at least 2-ampere capacity and with at R2 — 220 fl, 1watt, carbon composition. temptation to make such adjustments in
least 50 Ply. R3 — 2.2 k-ft, 1watt, carbon composition.
Si, S2, S3 — Spst, momentary contact switch. the case of faulty operation. Follow the
01 — Npn silicon 90-W transistor, power
switching, TIP31, Radio Shack 276-2020 or S2 — Dpdt knife switch. recommendations in this guide so that

R4 DI IN4001
REFERENCE Wv
470k 02 IN 4001
RI
U2 01
7805 R5 2N2907
10k 6
UI
REG. R2
IN OUT 4700

GNP 10
COMPARATOR o
12V TO (:)
▪. 06 FROM SOLAR
BTi Cl PANEL
RIGS R7
0- 1000 04 o
10k
35V 014001 VOLTAGE ADJUST R6
c2
470
0.33
35 v T os R3
SWITCH 02
1N4001 4700

HEP S7000
CASE IS
COLLECTOR

BOTTOM \
FRONT TOP VIEW VIEW

I C D
C D E
7805 C D
4C D5

741 2N2907 2N3055

IN j OUT
ONO

Fig. 11 — Schematic diagram of the electronic switch. Resistances are in ohms; k = 1000; capacitance values are in microfarads (e).
BT1 — Automotive storage battery, lead-acid rent rating sufficient to pass full output of 9 in. 2 (5800 mm 2)or more.
the solar panel. R7 — 10 ka, 1/2 watt, carbon control,
type
D6 — Light emitting diode, any type. linear taper, pc mount.
Cl — 1000 oF, 35-V eleetrnlytic.
02 — Low- frequency power transistor; 2N3055. U1 — 3 terminal, 5-volt regulator.
O2 — 0.33-pF, 35-V.
HEP S7000, or equivalent. Use heat sink of U2 — Op amp, any of me 741 family usable.
D3 — Silicon diode, PIV of 50 or more, cur-

Chapter 10 10-8
 Some manufacturers recommend a high-
detergent oil that comes in various service
grades such as MS, SD, and similar types.
Examine the top or side of the cans in
which the oil is sold and see if the letters
correspond to those recommended by the
engine manufacturer.
3) The carburetor mixes gasoline ‘,.% ith
air, which is then burned in the engine.
Before entering the carburetor, the air
must be filtered so that it is free of dust
and other foreign matter that might other-
wise be drawn into cylinder(s). Particles
that do get by the air filter are picked up
by the oil. That should be changed more
often if the alternator is operated in a
dusty location. Also, it is important to
clean the air filter frequently. It contains a
foam-like substance which can be cleaned
in kerosene and then soaked in fresh
Fig. 14 — The numbers indicate the primary
Fig. 13 — Large gasoline generators of the kW
motor oil. Squeeze excess oil from the
maintenance points of a large power generator
and higher class are excellent for powering filter before replacing. Also, consult the (see text for details).
several amateur stations from a complex field instruction manual for further recommen-
site. Maintenance, as discussed in the text, is dations.
a vital matter to ensure reliable operation.
Here, WB9QPI has just finished a maintenance 4) Once the gas/air mixture enters the
check of the group's Field Day power plant. cylinder, it is compressed by the piston in- Two very important safety precautions
to avery small volume and ignited by the should be observed with regard to the ex-
spark plug. During the rapid burning that haust system. Never operate an alternator
then occurs, the expansion caused by the in closed surroundings such as abuilding.
more complicated maintenance pro- resulting heat forces the piston down and Dangerous gases are emitted from the ex-
cedures (such as carburetor overhaul) are delivers the mechanical power to the alter- haust which are highly toxic. Secondly,
not required. nator. never refuel an engine while it is running
2) Another important factor often As might be expected, proper operation or if the exhaust system is still very hot.
neglected in maintenance of alternator of the ignition system is an important fac- Unfortunately, this last precaution is
engines is oil. While lubrication is one job tor in engine performance. Power for the disregarded by many, which is extremely
oil has to perform, there are other con- spark is supplied by a device called a foolish. (Experienced service station
siderations as well. The engine oil in the magneto that is normally installed on the operators will refuse to refuel an
crankcase also collects a large amount of front of the engine. The magneto seldom automobile with the motor running,
solid combustion products, bits of metal requires servicing and such work should which is often prohibited by law.) Don't
worn away by the moving parts, and any only be done by those qualified to do so. become an unnecessary statistic.
dust or other foreign matter that enters (This is one reason why the magneto is 6) Most alternators are air-cooled as op-
the carburetor intake. For instance, it is often located under aflywheel that is dif- posed to the water-cooled radiator system
especially important to observe the ficult to remove by the inexperienced.) of the automobile. A fan on the front of
manufacturer's recommendations con- On the other hand, faulty spark plugs the engine forces air over the cylinder and
cerning the length of time the engine may are the usual cause of ignition problems. an unobstructed entrance for this air flow
be operated before an oil change is re- Special equipment is required to test a is necessary. Avoid operating the alter-
quired during the break-in period. If you spark plug properly, but an easier solution nator in areas where obstruction to this
ever have the opportunity to examine the is to have anew one handy. In fact, keep flow might result (such as in tall grass).
oil from a new engine, you will note a two spare plugs on hand. Spark plug life Alternators should be operated such that
metallic sheen to it. This is from the ex- can be notoriously short on occasion. a sufficient amount of air circulation is
cessive amount of metal that is worn However, repeated plug failure is also ab- present for cooling, caburetion and ex-
away. After the break-in period, much normal and other causes such as a poor haust.
less metal is abraded and the oil doesn't gas/air mixture might be the culprit.
have to be replaced as often. Replace the spark plug with a type Storage
The oil level should be checked fre- similar to the one that came with the alter- Proper maintenance of an alternator
quently during engine operation. Each nator or asubstitute recommended by the when it is not being used is just as impor-
time fuel has to be added the oil should be manufacturer. Some models have resistor- tant as during the time it is in operation.
checked also. When storing an alternator, type plugs which are desirable for The usual procedure is to run the engine
it is also wise to drain the oil and replace it ignition-noise suppression. Resistor plugs dry of gasoline, drain the crankcase and
with fresh stock. This is because one of are usually indicated by an R prefix. For fill it with fresh oil, and remove the spark
the combustion products is sulfur which instance the resistor version of a plug. Then pour afew tablespoons of oil
forms sulfuric acid with water dispersed in Champion CJ-8would be an RC-J8. into the cylinder and turn the engine over
the oil. The acid then attacks the special 5) Little maintenance is required in a few times with the starter and replace
metal in the bearing surfaces causing pit- regard to the exhaust system. In some the plug. But never crank the engine with
ting and premature replacement. forested areas, a spark-arrester type of the plug removed and the ignition or start
Also note the grade and weight of oil muffler is required, so be sure that your switch in the on or run position. The
recommended by the manufacturer. unit is so equipped before contemplating resulting no-load high voltage might cause
Unlike their larger counterparts in the operation in such a location. " Quiet damage to the magneto. It is also agood
automobile, most small engines do not hours" may also be imposed in some idea to ground the spark-plug wire to the
have oil filters, which is another reason places during the nighttime hours if engine frame with aclip lead in case the
why required changes are more frequent. generator exhaust noise is too loud. switch is accidentally activated.

10-9 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment

 Moisture is the greatest enemy of an formance between the two methods. A
iron product - such as a generator, in base-loading coil requires fewer turns of
storage. The coating of oil helps retard wire than one for center loading, and this
rust formation here which might actually is an electrical advantage because of
weld the two surfaces when the engine is reduced coil losses. A base-loaded anten-
restarted, resulting in premature wear. na is more stable during wind loading and
Consequently it is important to store the sway. If a homemade antenna system is
alternator in an area of low humidity. contemplated, either system will provide
Although the maintenance procedures good results, but the base-loaded antenna
outlined may seem like achore, the long- may be preferred for its mechanical ad-
term benefits include low repair costs and vantages.
like-new performance. Engines for alter-
nator combinations must be able to han- Loading Coils
dle avariety of loads while maintaining a There are many commercially built
constant speed in order to keep the output antenna systems available for mobile
frequency constant. A mechanical gover- operation, and some manufacturers sell
nor performs this latter function by the coils as separate units. Air-wound
metering the fuel supplied to the engine coils of large wire diameter are excellent
under different load conditions. for use as loading inductors. Large
However, the system cannot function pro- Miniductor coils can be installed on a
perly with an engine in poor mechanical solid phenolic rod and used as loading •
condition because of lack of proper coils. Miniductors, because of their turns
maintenance. Fig. 15 - A simple accessory that provides spacing, are easy to adjust when
overload protection for generators that do not resonating the mobile antenna, and pro-
Grounds have such provisions built in. vide excellent Q. Phenolic-impregnated
Newer generators are supplied with a paper or fabric tubing of large diameter is
three-wire outlet and the ground connec- antennas are favored by some, it is better suitable for making homemade loading
tion should go to the plug as shown in Fig. to place the antenna mount on the rear coils. It should be coated with liquid
15. On older types, the ground would deck of the vehicle, near the rear window. fiberglass, inside and out, to make it
have to be connected separately to the This locates the antenna high and in the weatherproof. Brass insert plugs can be
generator frame and then to the common clear, assuring less detuning of the system installed in each end, their centers drilled
terminal in the junction box. A pipe or when the antenna moves to and from the and tapped for astandard 3/8 X 24 (9.5
rod can then be driven into the ground car body. Never use abase-loaded anten- mm x 24) thread to accommodate the
and a wire connection made to either a na on a bumper mount. Many operators mobile antenna sections. After the coil
clamp supplied with the rod or by means avoid cutting holes in the car body for winding is pruned to resonance it should
of a C-clamp for larger sizes of pipe. fear of devaluation when selling the be coated with a high-quality, low-loss
From an ignition-noise-suppression stand- automobile. Such holes are easily filled, compound to hold the turns securely in
point, the ground is desirable along with and few car dealers lower the trade-in place, and to protect the coil from the
safety considerations when power tools price because of the holes. weather. Liquid polystyrene is excellent
are being used. The choice of base or center loading a for this. Hobby stores commonly stock
The ground connection goes to the mobile antenna has been a matter of this material for use as a protective film
green wire in commercially made three- controversy for many years. In theory, the for wall plaques and other artwork.
wire conduit. Conduit purchased from an center-loaded whip presents a slightly Details for making a home-built loading
electrical store comes with a color-coded higher base impedance than does the base- coil are given in Fig. 16.
insulation and the colored wires should be loaded antenna. However, with proper
Impedance Matching
connected as shown in Fig. 15. Consult impedance-matching techniques employed
the owner's manual for the generator for there is no discernible difference in per- Fig. 17 illustrates the shunt-feed
further details on power hookup that
might apply to your particular model.

Table 2
HF MOBILE ANTENNAS
Approximate Values for 8.foot Mobile Whip
The antenna is perhaps the most impor-
tant item in the successful operation of a Base Loading
mobile installation. Mobile antennas, Loading RC(Q50) RC(Q300) RR Feed R• Matching
whether designed for single or multiband ((kHz) Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms L(pH)
use, should be securely mounted to the 1800 345 77 13 0.1 23 3
automobile, as far from the engine com- 3800 77 37 6.1 0.35 16 1.2
20 18 3 135 15 0.6
partment as possible ( for reducing noise 7200
14,200 4.5 7.7 1.3 5.7 12 0.28
pickup), and should be carefully matched 3.4 0.5 14.8 16 0.28
21,250 1.25
to the coaxial feed line connecting them to 29,000 - 36 0.23
the transmitter and receiver. All antenna
connections should be tight and weather- Center Loading
proof. Mobile loading coils should be pro- 1800 700 158 23 0.2 34 3.7
150 72 12 0.8 22 1.4
tected from dirt, rain and snow if they are 3800
7200 40 36 6 3 19 0.7
to maintain their Q and resonant frequen- 2.5 11 19 0.35
14,200 8.6 15
cy. The greater the Q of the loading coil, 21,250 2.5 6.6 1.1 27 29 0.29
the better the efficiency, but the narrower RC = Loading-coil resistance; RR = Radiation resistance.
will be the bandwidth of the antenna *A.ssiimina loading coil Q 300, and including estimated ground- loss resistance.
system. Suggested coil dimensions for the required loading inductance are shown in a following table.
Though bumper-mounted mobile
Chapter 10 10-10
 Table 3
Suggested Loading- Coil Dimensions

Req'd No. Wire Dia. Length

L(H) Turns Size I
n. I
n.
700 190 22 3 10
345 135 18 3 10
150 100 16 2-1/2 10
77 75 14 2-1/2 10
77 29 12 5 4-1/4
40 28 16 2-1/2 2
40 34 12 2-1/2 4-1/4
20 17 16 2-1/2 1-1/4
20 22 12 2-1/2 2-3/4
8.6 16 14 2 2
8.6 15 12 2-1/2 3
4.5 10 14 2 1-1/4
4.5 12 12 2-1/2 4
2.5 8 12 2 2
2.5 8 6 2-3/8 4-1/2
1.25 6 12 1-3/4 2
1.25 6 6 2-3/8 4-1/2
To obtain dimensions in millimeters, multiply
inches by 25.4.

method of obtaining amatch between the

antenna and the coaxial feed line. For
operation on 75 meters with a center-
Fig. 17 — A mobile antenna using shunt- feed
loaded whip, L2 will have approximately
matching. Overall antenna resonance is deter-
18 turns of no. 14 wire, spaced one wire mined by the combination of L1and L2. Anten-
thickness between turns, and wound on a na resonance is set by pruning the turns of L1,
1-inch ( 25- mm) diameter form. Initially, Fig. 16 — Details for making a home-built or adjusting the top section of the whip, while
mobile loading coil. A breakdown view of the observing the field-strength meter or SWR in-
the tap will be approximately 5 turns
assembly is given at A. Brass end plugs are dicator. Then, adjust the tap on L2 for lowest
above the ground end of 12. Coil L2 can snug-fit into the ends of the phenolic tubing, SWR.
be inside the car body, at the base of the and each is held in place by four 6-32 brass
antenna, or it can be located at the base of screws. Center holes in the plugs are drilled
and tapped for 3/8-24 thread. The tubing can be The chart of Fig. 19 shows the
the whip, outside the car body. The latter
any diameter from one to four inches ( 25 to 100
method is preferred. Since L2 helps deter- mm). The larger diameters are recommended.
capacitive reactance of Cm and the induc-
mine the resonance of the overall antenna, Illustration B shows the completed coil. tive reactance of Lm necessary to match
LI should be tuned to resonance in the Resonance can be obtained by installing the various antenna impedances to 50-ohm
coil, applying transmitter power, then pruning
desired part of the band with 12 in the cir- coaxial cable. The chart assumes the
the turns until the lowest SWR is obtained.
cuit. The adjustable top section of the Pruning the coil for maximum field-strength- antenna element has been resonated.
whip can be telescoped until a maximum meter indication will also serve as a resonance In practice, Lm need not be a separate
reading is noted on the field-strength indication. inductor. Its effect can be duplicated by
meter. The tap is then adjusted on 12 for adding an equivalent amount of induc-
the lowest reflected-power reading on the tance to the loading coil, regardless of
SWR bridge. Repeat these two ad- = UR& ( Ro — R A )] whether the loading coil is at the base or at
Lm ' X 10 3 µH
justments until no further increase in field 2nf ( kHz) the center of the antenna.
strength can be obtained; this point where
should coincide with the lowest SWR. The Adjustment
RA = the antenna feed- point
number of turns needed for L2 will have impedance In adjusting this system, at least part of
to be determined experimentally for Ro = the characteristic impedance Cm should be variable, the balance being
40-and 20- meter operation. There will be of the transmission line. made up of combinations of fixed mica
proportionately fewer turns required. As an example, if the radiation capacitors in parallel as needed. A small,
resistance is 20 ohms and the line is one-turn loop should be connected be-
Matching with an L Network
50-ohm coaxial cable, then at 4000 kHz, tween Cm and the chassis of the car, and
Any resonant mobile antenna that has a

[
the loading coil should then be adjusted
feed- point impedance less than the Cm = V20 ( 50 — 20)
for resonance at the desired frequency as
(6.28) (4000) ( 20) ( 50) x 10 9
characteristic impedance of the transmis- indicated by a dip meter coupled to the
sion line can be matched to the line by V76-
0 loop at the base. Then the transmission
104
means of asimple L network, as shown in line should be connected, and a check
[( 6.28) ( 4) ( 2) ( 5)] ".
Fig. 18. The network is composed of Cm made with an SWR indicator connected at
and Lm .The required values of Cm and 24.5 the transmitter end of the line.
X iø = 975 pF
Lm may be determined from the follow- 251.2 With the line disconnected from the
ing; antenna again, Cm should be readjusted
[V20 ( 50 — 20) ] and the antenna returned to resonance by
1\I = x 10 3
[VIZ & (Ro — RA ) (6.28) ( 4000) readjustment of the loading coil. The line
CM = X should be connected again, and another
2nf ( kHz) RAROpF IC
V770 24.5 check made with the SWR bridge. If the
and 25.12 = 25.12µH = 0.97
SWR is less than it was on the first trial,

10-11 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment

 the adjustment and slight compensation
made at the loading coil to maintain
resonance.

Top-Loading Capacitance CAPACITY

NO 10 OR LARGER HAT
Because the coil resistance varies with WIRE

the inductance of the loading coil, the

resistance can be reduced, beneficially, by
reducing the number of turns on the coil.
This can be done by adding capacitance to
that portion of the mobile antenna that is
above the loading coil ( Fig. 20). To
achieve resonance, the inductance of the
LOADING COIL
coil is reduced proportionally. " Capacity
hats," as they are often called, can consist
of asingle stiff wire, two wires or more, or
adisc made up from several wires like the SPRING MOUNT
spokes of awheel. A solid metal disc can
also be used. The larger the capacity hat,
in terms of volume, the greater the
capacitance. The greater the capacitance,
Fig. 20 — A capacitance " hat" can be used to
the smaller the amount of inductance improve the performance of base- or center-
needed in the loading coil for agiven reso- loaded whips. A solid metal disc can be used
nant frequency. in place of the skeleton disc shown here.

There are two schools of thought con-

cerning the attributes of center-loading the signal than is the case with the
and base-loading. It has not been 5/8-wavelength type of antenna. The flut-
established that one system is superior to ter that takes place when vertical polariza-
the other, especially in the lower part of tion is used is caused by vertical conduc-
the hf spectrum. For this reason both the tive objects being between the mobile
base and center-loading schemes are antenna ( near field) and the station being
popular. Capacity-hat loading is ap- worked (or the repeater). As the vehicle
Fig. 18 — A whip antenna may also be
plicable to either system. Since more in- moves past these objects there is a
matched to coax line by means of an L net- ductance is required for center-loaded momentary blockage or partial blockage
work. The inductive reactance of the L network whips to make them resonant at a given of the signal path.
can be combined in the loading coil, as in- frequency, capacity hats should be par-
dicated at the right.
ticularly useful in improving their efficien-
2- METER 5/8- WAVELENGTH
cy.
VERTICAL
Perhaps the most popular vertical
VHF QUARTER- WAVELENGTH antenna for fm mobile and fixed-station
VERTICAL use is the 5/8-wavelength vertical. As
Ideally, the vhf vertical antenna should compared to a 1/4-wavelength vertical, it
be installed over a perfectly flat plane has some gain over adipole. Additionally,
reflector to assure uniform omnidirec- the so-called " picket- fencing" type of
tional radiation. This suggests that the flutter which results when the vehicle is in
center of the automobile roof is the best motion is greatly reduced when a
place to mount it. Alternatively, the flat 5/8-wavelength radiator is employed, as
portion of the auto rear-trunk deck can be discpssed earlier.
used, but will result in a directional pat- This style of antenna is suitable for
tern because of car-body obstruction. Fig. mobile or fixed-station use because it is
21 illustrates at A and B how a Millen small, omnidirectional and can be used
high-voltage connector can be used as a with radials or asolid-plane ground ( such
roof mount for a 144- MHz whip. The as is afforded by the car body). If radials
Fig. 19 — Curves showing inductive and
hole in the roof can be made over the are used, they need be only 1/4
capacitive reactances required to match a
50-ohm coax line to a variety of antenna dome light, thus providing accessibility wavelength or slightly longer. A 5percent
resistances. through the upholstery. RG-59/U and increase in length over 1/4 wavelength is
matching section L, Fig. 21C, can be suggested for the radial wires or rods.
routed between the car roof and the ceil-
Construction
Cm should be readjusted in the same ing upholstery and brought into the trunk
direction until the point of minimum compartment, or down to the dashboard The antenna shown here is made from
SWR is found. Then the coupling between of the car. Some operators install an SO- low-cost materials. Fig. 22A and B shows
the line and the transmitter can be ad- 239-type coax connector on the roof for the base coil and aluminum mounting
justed for proper loading. It will be mounting the whip. The method is similar plate. The coil form is apiece of low-loss
noticed from Fig. 19 that the inductive to that of Fig. 21. solid rod, such as Plexiglas or phenolic.
reactance varies only slightly over the It has been established that quarter- The dimensions for this and other parts of
range of antenna resistances likely to be wavelength vertical antennas for mobile the antenna are given in Fig. 23. A length
encountered in mobile work. Therefore, work through repeaters are not as effec- of brazing rod is used as the whip section.
most of the necessary adjustment is in the tive as 5/8-wavelength verticals are. The The whip should be 47 inches ( 1.2 m)
capacitor. The one-turn loop at the base 1/4-wavelength types cause considerably long However, brazing rod comes in
should be removed at the conclusion of more " picket fencing" ( rapid flutter) of standard 36-inch (0.9-m) lengths, so it is

Chapter 10 10-12
Fig. 21 — At A and B, an illustration of how a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna can be
mounted on a car roof. The whip section should be soldered into the cap portion of the Millen
connector, then screwed to the base socket. This handy arrangement permits removing the anten-
na when desired. Epoxy cement should be used at the two mounting screws to prevent moisture
from entering the car. Diagrams C and D are discussed in the text.

necessary to solder an 11-inch ( 279-mm) 2-meter transmitter and experiment with

extension to the top of the whip. A piece the coil-tap placement. If the whip section
(A)
of no. 10 copper wire will suffice. Alter- is 47 inches long, an SWR of 1:1 can be
natively, a stainless-steel rod can be pur- obtained when the tap is at the right
chased to make a 47-inch whip. Shops location. As an alternative to the forego-
that sell CB antennas should have such ing method of adjustment, place the tap at
rods for replacement purposes on base- four turns from the top of LI, make the
loaded antennas. The limitation one can whip 50 inches long and trim the whip
expect with brazing rod is the relative length until an SWR of 1:1 is secured.
fragility of the material, especially when Keep the antenna free of conductive ob-
the threads are cut for screwing the rod in- jects or human bodies during tune-up, as
to the base-coil form. Excessive stress can conductive objects will detune the antenna
cause the rod to break where it enters the and spoil the match. This antenna was
coil form. The problem is complicated described more completely in June 1979
somewhat in this design by the fact that a QST, page 15.
spring is not used at the antenna mounting
point. Innovators can find all manner of A 5/8-WAVELENGTH
solutions to the problems just outlined by 220- MHz MOBILE ANTENNA
changing the physical design and using This antenna, Figs. 24 and 25, was
different materials when constructing the developed to fill the gap between a
overall antenna. The main purpose of this homemade 1/4-wavelength mobile anten-
description is to provide dimensions and na and acommercially made 5/8-wavelength
tune-up data. model. There have been other antennas
The aluminum mounting bracket must made using modified CB models. This still (B)
be shaped to fit the car with which it will presents the problem of cost in acquiring
Fig. 22 — (A) A photograph of the
be used. The bracket can be used to effect the original antenna. The major cost in 5/8-wavelength vertical base section. The
a " no-holes" mount with respect to the this setup is the whip portion. This can be matching coil is affixed to an aluminum
exterior portion of the car body. The in- any tempered rod that will spring easily. bracket which screws onto the inner lip of the
ner lip of the vehicle trunk (or hood for car trunk. (
B) The completed assembly. The

front mounting) can be the point where Construction coil has been wrapped with vinyl electrical
tape to prevent dirt and moisture from
the bracket attaches by means of no. 6or The base insulator portion is con- degrading performance.
no. 8 sheet-metal screws. The remainder structed of I/2-inch ( 13-mm) Plexiglas
of the bracket is bent so that when the rod. A few minutes work on a lathe was
trunk lid or car hood is raised and sufficient to shape and drill the rod. The sulator. When the coil is transferred to the
lowered, there is no contact between the bottom 1/2-inch ( I3-mm) of the rod is Plexiglas rod it will keep its shape and will
bracket and the moving part. Details of turned down to a diameter of 3/8 inch not readily move. After the tap point has
the mounting unit are seen in Fig. 23 at B. (9.5-mm). This portion will now fit into a been determined, a longitudinal hole is
A 14-gauge metal thickness (or greater) is PL-259 uhf connector. A hole, 1/8-inch drilled into the center of the rod. A no. 22
recommended for best rigidity. (3-mm) diameter, is drilled through the wire can then be inserted through the
There are 10-1/2 turns of no. 10 or no. center of the rod. This hole will contain center of the insulator into the connector.
12 copper wire wound on the 3/4-inch the wires that make the connections be- This method is also used to attach the
(19-mm) diameter coil form. The tap on tween the center conductor of the connec- whip to the top of the coil. After the whip
LI is placed approximately four turns tor and the coil tap. The connection be- has been fully assembled a coating of
below the whip end. A secure solder joint tween the whip and the top of the coil is epoxy cement is applied. It seals the entire
is imperative. also run through this opening. A stud is assembly and provides some additional
force-fitted into the top of the Plexiglas strength. During a full winter's use there
Tune-up rod. This allows the whip to be detached was not any sign of cracking or
After the antenna has been affixed to from the insulator portion. mechanical failure. The adjustment pro-
the vehicle, insert an SWR indicator in the The coil should be initially wound on a cedure is the same as for the 2-meter
50-fl transmission line. Turn on the form slightly smaller than the base in- antenna just described.

10-13 Mobile, Portable and Emergency Equipment

 are too lossy. A practical solution to the
coax problem is to use folded dipoles
made from lightweight TV twin lead. The
NO. 10 WIRE
characteristic impedance of this type of
dipole is near 300 ohms, but it can be
SOLDER
transformed to a 50- ohm source or load
by means of asimple matching stub.
36"
Fig. 26 illustrates the construction
method and important dimensions for the
1/13" BRAZING ROD
twin- lead dipole. A silver- mica capacitor
CINCHES 25. 4 . rnn, is shown for the reactive element, but an
6- 32 THREAD, open-end stub of twin lead can serve as
1" LONG
Fig. 24 — Photograph of the 220- MHz
well, provided it is dressed at right angles 5/8-wavelength mobile antenna. The bottom
6 - 32 NUT
NO.6 SOLDER LUG to the transmission line for some distance. end of the coil is soldered to the coaxial
The stub method has the advantage of connector.
NO. 6 - TO SOLDER LUG
LOCK WASHER easy adjustment of the system resonant
frequency.
6- 32 THREAD,
1" DEEP PLEXIGLAS FORM
To preserve the balance of the feeder, a
3/4" 3-1/2" 1:1 balun must be used at the end of the
NO.10 OR 12
WIRE 10-1/2 TURNS
feed line. In most applications the balance
GROUND COIL END
COIL TAP TO F.T.
BUSHING
is not important, and the twin lead can be
connected directly to a coaxial output
10-32 THREAD, TO COAX CABLE
1" DEEP jack, one lead to the center contact, and
CORK OR RUBBER
32 n 3/4" SCREW
one lead to the shell. To preserve its low
GASKET
(COAT WITH EPDXY GLUE loss, the twin- lead must be kept dry and
AT ASSEMBLY TIME
NOAO LOCK WASHER free from bunching or coiling. Because of
ON BOTTOM OF BRACKET
its higher impedance, a folded dipole ex-
(A) hibits a wider bandwidth than a single-
conductor type. The antennas described
here are not as broad as astandard folded
dipole because the impedance transforma-
tion mechanism is frequency selective.
SMALL FEEDTHROUGH However, the bandwidth should be ade-
BUSHING
quate. An antenna cut for 14.175 MHz,
ALUM. STOCK
for example, will present a VSWR of less Fig. 25 — Diagram of the 220- MHz mobile
than 2:1 over the entire 20- meter band. antenna.
NO.6 SOLDER NO. 6 HOLES
LUG ( GND.)
BOLT TO INNER LIP
(B) OF TRUNK

WHIP A
0.86 A
SO'n
LINE
TO RIG
SHORTING SHORTING
STRAP STRAP

300 - OHM
ANY LENGTH

TWIN LEAD
(C)

Fig. 23 — Structural details for the 2- meter

antenna are provided at A. The mounting
bracket is shown at B and the equivalent cir-
cuit is given at C. Cs - SILVER - MICA

CAPACITOR ACROSS

FEED LINE OR STUB

SIMPLE ANTENNAS FOR HF

PORTABLE OPERATION

The typical portable hf antenna is a

random- length wire flung over a tree and
end- fed through a Transmatch. QRP eorl.
Transmatches can be made quite com-
Frequency Length A Length B Cs Stub Length
pact, but each additional piece of equip-
3.75 MHz 124-9-1/2" 13'-3-1/2" 289 pF 38'-2-1/2"
ment necessary makes portable operation
7.15 MHz 65'-5-1/2" 611-1/2" 152 pF 20'-1/2"
less attractive. The station can be 10.125 MHz 46' 2-1/2" 4-11" 107 pF 14'-1-1/2"
simplified by using resonant impedance- 14.175 MHz 33' 3'-6" 76 pF 10'-1"
matched antennas for the bands of in- 21.225 MHz 22'-1/2" 2'-4" 51 pF 6'-9"
28.5 MHz 16'-5" l'-9" 38 pF 5'-1/2"
terest. Perhaps the simplest antenna of
meters = ft x 0.305
this type is the half-wave dipole, center- mm = in. X 25.4
fed with 50- or 75-ohni coax. Unfor-
tunately, RG-58, RG-59 or RG-8 cable is
quite heavy and bulky for backpacking, Fig. 26 — A twin- lead folded dipole makes an excellent portable antenna that is easily matched
and the miniature cables such as RG-174 to 50-ohm stations.

Chapter 10 10-14
Chapter 11

Code Transmission

R adiotelegraphy is a popular medium

of amateur communications because it is
To illustrate the key-click problem we
used asquare- wave model. In real life, the
problem is a function of power supply
load regulation (see chapter 5). Note that
highly effective and relatively un- situation may be worse because the keying in aclass C amplifier the change in power
complicated. The process by which a envelope often has a sharp spike on the output related to plate or collector voltage
radio signal is interrupted to generate a leading edge and decays exponentially regulation is proportional to the square of
coded message of dits and dahs is called throughout the duration of the pulse. This the voltage change ( see chapter 6). The
on-off keying or make- break keying. On- type of wave is even richer in harmonics power supply for a solid-state transmitter
off keying may also be used in than a square wave. The severity of the may be regulated easily and inexpensively
Radioteletype transmission, although this
method is seldom used today. In the early
years of Amateur Radio, keying a
transmitter consisted of inserting a
telegraph key in any convenient power
o
lead — even the ac input! Such a f'111
f
haphazard approach today is an invitation
to trouble, from the standpoints of signal
quality and safety. Our cw subbands may
1.11.•••••••

shrink in the future. Successful operation

under crowded conditions and adherence 1

to FCC regulations concerning stability I II

and purity of emissions requires clean 4 .itàilllellà1181

itilfi

signals. In this chapter we define good

keying, analyze keying defects and show
how radiotelegraphy can be implemented (6)

with, modern technology.

01-off keying is a form of amplitude
modulation and, as such, generates
sidet ands whose spacing from the carrier
is proportional to the keying speed. A
keying speed of 12 wpm corresponds to an
information rate of 5 Hz, which
theoretically requires 10 Hz of bandwidth.
An untreated keying waveform, however,
approaches square- wave modulation,
consisting of the keying frequency plus all
of the odd harmonics. These harmonics
(C) (D)
create sidebands extending many kilohertz
either side of the carrier. They are called Fig. 1 — These photos show cw signals as observed on an oscilloscope. At A is a dot generated
key clicks. Limiting the rise and decay at a 46-baud rate with no intentional shaping, while at B the shaping circuits have been adjusted
times of the keying waveform to not less for approximately 5- ms rise and decay times. Vertical lines are from a 1-kHz signal applied to the
Z or intensity axis for timing. Shown at C is a shaped signal with the intensity modulation of the
than 5 ms restricts the bandwidth of the pattern removed. For each of these photos, sampled rf from the transmitter was fed directly to the
transmitted signal to 100 Hz, theoretically deflection plates of the oscilloscope.
allowing keying speeds up to 120 wpm. In A received signal having essentially no shaping is shown at D. The spike at the leading edge is
practice, the keying at this speed would typical of poor power- supply regulation, as is also the immediately following dip and rise in
amplitude. The clicks were quite pronounced. This pattern is typical of many observed signals,
sound too " soft," but a 5 ms time con-
although not by any means a worst case. The signal was taken from the receiver's i -famplifier
stant is adequate for speeds up to 40 to 50 (before detection) using a hand-operated sweep circuit to reduce the sweep time to the order of
wpm. one second. ( Photos from October and November 1966 QST.)

11-1 Chapter 11
 by electronic means, but such a scheme
applied to a high-power tube type of
transmitter is costly and dissipates con-
siderable power. Fortunately, the plate
voltage waveform can be corrected with a
passive circuit (see Dome, May 1977
QS7). Note also that the power source
must be nearly pure dc to ensure that the
transmitter output signal is not broadened
by hum modulation.
Once the power supply voltage has been
brought under control, it is asimple mat-
ter to shape the keying envelope with an
RC network. The figures in this section il-
lustrate the application of time-constant
circuits to various keying methods.
When a circuit carrying current is
opened or closed mechanically, aspark is
Fig. 2 — Cathode keying. Envelope shaping is accomplished by means of the RC network. 01 generated. This spark causes the circuit to
must be able to withstand the plate voltage of the keyed stage. Some suitable types are: DTS-423, radiate energy throughout the elec-
2N6457 (400V), SDT 13305 (500V), DTS-801 (800V), MJ 12010 (950V), 2SC1308K, ECG 238 ( 1500V).
These are high-energy devices and are capable of switching any value of plate current the tube is
tromagnetic spectrum. When a transmit-
likely to draw. For plate voltages below about 350, the 2N3439 is adequate (and much less ter is keyed manually or through arelay,
expensive). the spark at the contacts can cause local
BCI, but this spark has no effect on the rf
output signal. A simple filter (0.01-td
capacitor in series with 10 ohms) across
the key or relay contacts will usually
reduce the local clicks to atolerable level.
Solid-state switching methods significant-
ly reduce the current and voltage that
must be switched mechanically, thereby
reducing local clicks and enhancing
operator safety. Modern transistorized
transmitters incorporate this type of key-
ing. With proper device selection, solid-
state keying may be implemented in older
tube types of designs as well.
Amplifier tubes may be keyed in the
cathode (filament transformer center-tap
for directly heated types), grid-bias supply
or screen. Transistors should be keyed in
one leg of the collector supply. The low
impedance of rf power transistor circuits
usually requires the emitter to be ground-
Fig. 3 — Blocked-grid keying. The rise time of the keying pulse is determined by Cl and its ed as directly as possible; therefore, no
associated network. The decay time is governed by the R1C2 product. Ag is the existing grid leak. solid-state analog of cathode keying ex-
Typical values for R1 and C2 are 220 kft and 0.022 1.F. Some transistors suitable for 01 are: ists. Similarly, blocked-grid keying has no
2N5415 (200V), MM4003 (250V), MJE350 (300V), 2N5416, RCS882 (350V), 2N6213 (375V), 2N6214 transistor equivalent, because a reverse
(425V).
bias sufficient to cut the stage off in the
presence of heavy excitation would cause
breakdown of the base-emitter junction.
Mechanical contacts frequently bounce
several times before stabilizing in the
closed state. The beginnings of keying
pulses formed by bouncing contacts are
poorly defined. This defect can degrade
the readability of a code signal under
adverse conditions. Relays and
semiautomatic keys are especially prone to
this malady. The circuit of Fig. 9will help
clean up the pulses generated by
mechanical contacts.
A satisfactory code signal can be
amplified by means of alinear amplifier
without affecting the keying characteris-
tics. If, however, the signal is amplified by
one or more nonlinear stages (e.g., aclass
C multiplier or amplifier), the signal
envelope will be modified, possibly in-
Fig. 4 — If a suitable high-voltage pnp transistor cannot be obtained, an npn unit can be used
with an 'optical isolator. The rise time of the keying envelope is controlled by the " integrating" troducing significant key clicks. It is possi-
capacitor connected to the base of the phototransistor. ble to compensate for this effect by using

Cede Transmission 11-2

longer- than normal rise and decay times in
the exciter and letting the amplifier
modify the signal to an acceptable one.
Any clicks generated by a linear amplifier
are likely to be the result of low- frequency
parasitic oscillations.
A change in frequency at the beginning
of a keying pulse is called a chirp. If the
oscillator isn't keyed, chirp is the result of
changing dc operating potentials or
changing rf load conditions on the
oscillator. The voltage to the oscillator
can be regulated easily, as most transmit-
ters use fairly low power oscillators. If the
oscillator frequency is pulled by the
loading effect of subsequent keyed stages,
better load isolation is indicated. Chapter
6gives a thorough treatment of buffering
techniques.
If break-in operation is desired ( see
below), it may be necessary to key the
transmitter's oscillator. Oscillators may Fig. 5 — Circuit to interface digital logic with positive or negative key lines. 01 and 02 must be
be keyed by the same methods used for able to withstand the expected negative and positive keying voltages and currents.
amplifiers, but greater care is required to
obtain good results. In general, the goals
of clickless and chirpless oscillator keying
are mutually exclusive. This is because a
key-click filter will cause the operating
voltage to be applied slowly, thereby
creating a chirp. Crystal oscillators may
be keyed satisfactorily if active crystals are
used. A keyed oscillator may exhibit a
continuous frequency change during a
keying pulse. This defect is called ayoop.
It is caused by rf heating in the tank cir-
cuit or crystal. Yoop is usually an indica-
tion of a faulty component or excessive
oscillator power.
Break-in operation with a VFO-
controlled transmitter usually dictates
some form of differential keying. In this
system, the oscillator is turned on as
quickly as possible and the amplifier is
keyed after the oscillator has stabilized.
When the key is released, the oscillator
operates until the amplifier output has Fig. 6 — Keying circuit for solid-state Class C amplifiers in the 100- watt class, such as those sold
decayed to zero. Shaping of the keying for vhf fm service. C11 must be able to pass the amplifier collector current without dropping too
envelope is accomplished in the amplifier much voltage. Types 2N6246, SK3173 and RS2043 are good for currents up to 15 amperes.

keying circuit. In the past, break-in opera-

tion was implemented with VR tubes and
relays. The complexity of such systems
frightened many hams away from this
convenient mode. With modern circuitry,
break-in can be simple, quiet and safe.
One method of break-in keying is shown
in Fig. 10.
A few notes concerning oscillator key-
ing are in order. Do not attempt to key an
oscillator unless it is stable while running
free, at the same time the other stages are
keyed. If the oscillator frequency is
multiplied, chirps and yoops will be
multiplied also. The transmitter signal
should be checked at the highest operating
frequency. It may be found that the signal
quality is satisfactory on 160 meters but
leaves something to be desired on 10.
Modern transmitters and transceivers pro-
vide multiband operation by the
heterodyne method ( see chapter 6) and Fig. 7 — Keying a dual-gate MOSFET oscillator. The 741 op-amp is used as a comparator. With
should be stable on all bands. the input resistors shown, the circuit can be triggered by any + 5-volt logic device.

11-3 Chapter 11
 If the transmitter oscillators run con-
tinuously, they may be audible as a
backwave between keying pulses. A
strong backwave may indicate the need
for neutralizing one or more transmitter
stages. In general, if the backwave con-
forms to the -40 dB spurious signal rule, it
won't be objectionable.
The figures in this section illustrate
methods by which various solid-state and
thermionic devices may be keyed. In these
circuits, the armature of the hand key is at
ground potential and the voltages across
the key are imperceptible. The current
through the key is generally less than one
milliampere. A neon bulb with a proper
series resistor across the key will alert the
operator to junction breakdown of the
high-voltage transistors. As long as safety
is given due consideration, the key-at-
ground convention need not be followed,
but this standardization is useful for
equipment interconnections. Digital con-
Fig 8 — Keying a doubly balanced modulator in a cw-ssb transmitter.
trol is shown in all of the examples. This
feature simplifies the simultaneous keying
of transmitter stages, T-R switches, side-
tone oscillators and muting systems. The
ICs used to perform the control functions
are very plentiful and inexpensive. These
systems use alogic HIGH to indicate akey-
down condition.
Break-In
Break-in (QSK) is a system of
radiotelegraph transmission in which the
station receiver is sensitive to other signals
between the transmitted keying pulses.
This capability is very important to traffic
handlers, but can be used to great advan-
tage in ragchewing as well. Break-in gives
cw communication the dimension of more
natural conversation.
Fig. 9 — Debouncing circuit for hand keys and relay contacts. The minimum dot length is deter- Most commercially manufactured
mined by the FliCt product.
transceivers feature a "semi break-in"
mode in which the first key closure ac-
tuates the VOX relay. The VOX controls
are usually adjusted to hold the relay
()AMPLIFIER closed between letters. With proper VOX
•-15 adjustment, it is possible for the other
o
operator to break your transmission be-
tween words, but this system is a poor
10 substitute for true break-in.
-0 SIDE TONE
MONITOR
Separate Antennas
The simplest way to implement break-
10
in is to use aseparate antenna for receiv-
O OSC IL LAI OR ing. If the transmitter power is low (below
50 watts or so) and the isolation between
transmitting and receiving antennas is
good, this method can be satisfactory.
511(
O RECE I
VE , Best isolation is obtained by mounting the
1N914
m •
antennas as far apart as possible and at
— 001 right angles. Smooth break-in involves
protecting the receiver from permanent
damage by the transmitter power and
U1 CD 4001 assuring that the receiver will " recover"
U2 CD 4011
fast enough to be sensitive between keying
pulses. If the receiver recovers fast enough
but the transmitter clicks are bothersome
Fig. 10 — Differential (sequential) keying system for fast break-in with oscillator-multiplier (they may be caused by receiver overload
bansmItters. and so exist only in the receiver) their et-

Code Transmission 11-4

fect on the operator can be minimized
through the use of an output limiter. The
separate antenna method is most useful
on the 160-, 80- and 40-meter bands,
where the directional effects of the anten-
nas aren't pronounced.

Switching aCommon Antenna

When powers above about 50 watts are
used, where two antennas are not REC

available, or when it is desired to use the IN 914

same antenna for transmitting and receiv-

ing (a " must" when directional antennas
are used), special treatment is required for
quiet break-in operation on the transmit-

I -,--i YrY '•---*----¡? ,ANT

ter frequency. TRANSMITTER OUTPUT CIRCUIT *GATE PROTECTED

Vacuum relays or reed switches may be

t - - ,
used to switch the antenna between the •••••

transmitter and receiver in step with the / - -

keying. This method is satisfactory for
power levels up to the legal limit, but the
relays are expensive and the system timing
is critical.
Perhaps the most modern and elegant Fig. 11 — A T- R switch can be connected to the input side of the transmitter pi network. For
powers up to about 100 W, Cl can be a5-10 pF, 1000-V mica unit. For high-power operation a
approach is the use of PIN diodes to
smaller "gimmick" capacitor made from a short length of coaxial cable should be used.
switch the antenna. These devices are
available in power ratings up to about 100
watts, but are quite expensive at present.
There are no keying-speed constraints
when PIN diodes are used, and if the pro-
per devices are selected, the spectral purity
of the output signal won't be affected.
The important electrical parameter in this
regard is carrier lifetime.
An easy and economical way to imple-
ment break-in with asingle antenna is to
use an electronic T-R switch. With such a
device the antenna is connected to the
transmitter at all times. In the most com-
mon type of electronic T- R switch, atube
is used to couple the antenna to the
receiver. When the transmitter is keyed,
the rf output causes the tube to draw grid
current through a high-resistance grid
leak. The high negative bias thus
developed cuts off the plate current,
limiting the signal delivered to the
receiver.
Unfortunately, when the grid circuit is Fig. 12 — An external T- R switch. The primary of Ti is 50 turns of no. 30 enameled wire on an
FT37-43 toroid core. The secondary is 15 turns of no. 30 wound over the primary.
driven into rectification, harmonics are
generated. A commercially manufactured
low-pass filter after the T- R switch can
help to eliminate TVI caused by the har-
monics, but the lower-order harmonics prevents any grid current flow at power received signal. It is commonly stated that
may cause interference to other com- levels up to 800 watts. This power figure electronic T- R switches are usable only
munications. Another common shortcom- assumes a 50-ohm system with a unity with transmitters having Class C output
ing of T-R switches is that the transmitter VSWR. The circuit can withstand peak rf stages because the " diode noise"
output circuit may "suck out" the re- voltages up to 300. The power capability generated by the resting current of alinear
ceived signal. In a transmitter having a must be derated if the impedance at the amplifier will mask weak signals. Actual-
high-impedance tuned output tank circuit, point of connection is higher than 50 ly, the class-of-service designation is not
both of these problems can be cir- ohms. Although the signal path has a related to key-up conditions, so there is no
cumvented by connecting the T-R switch diode, it is effectively " linearized" by the reason that a linear amplifier can't be
to the input side of the tank circuit. With high-value series resistor, and should not biased off during key-up periods.
this configuration, the grid rectification significantly degrade the spectral purity of
Reduction of Receiver Gain
harmonics are suppressed and the received the transmitter output.
External T-R switches should be well During Transmission
signal peaked by means of the tuned cir-
cuit. Fig. 11 shows aMOSFET T- R switch shielded and the power leads carefully For absolutely smooth break-in opera-
that works on this principle. filtered. In general, the coaxial cable to tion with no clicks or thumps, means must
A T-R switch for use external to any the transmitter should be as short as possi- be provided for momentarily reducing the
transmitter is shown in Fig. 12. The tube is ble, but some experimenting may be gain through the receiver. A muting
grid-block keyed, and the fixed-value bias necessary to eliminate " suckout" of the function completely disables the receiver

11-5 Chapter 11
 Fig. 15 — A 555 universal timer used as a
sidetone generator. Pin 4 is taken to ground to
interrupt the tone. The frequency of oscillation
is about 500 Hz with the constants shown.

Fig. 13 — A diode attenuator for receiver gain reduction during keying. The logic threshold is
If the audio output isn't muted, the
determined by R2 (+ Vcc). For + 15-volt CMOS logic, R1 = R2 = 1M. For + 5-volt receiver can be used to monitor one's key-
R1 + R2
TTL operation, R1 = 130 la R2 = 15k. ing, provided both stations are on the
same frequency. Some DX operators
transmit and listen on separate frequen-
cies. When using your receiver as a
monitor, you should be careful about
drawing any conclusions concerning the
quality of your signal. The signal reaching
the receiver must be free of any line
voltage effects induced by the transmitter.
To be certain of your signal quality you
should listen to your station from a
distance. Trading stations with a nearby
amateur is a good way to make signal
checks.

Keying Speeds
In radiotelegraphy the basic code ele-
ment is the dot, or unit pulse. The time
duration of a dot and a space together is
that of two unit pulses. A dash is three
unit pulses long. The space between letters
is three unit pulses; the space between
words or groups is seven unit pulses. A
Fig. 14 — Gain- reduction circuit for receivers using a fixed- bias dual-gate MOSFET in the first
stage. As much as 40 dB of attenuation is possible with this method. The logic threshold is
speed of one baud is one pulse per second.
calculated as in Fig. 13. Assuming that a speed key is adjusted
to give the proper dot, space and dash
values mentioned above, the code speed
can be found from
audio during key-down periods. Assum- monitor one's sending. A 555 timer con-
Speed (wpm) = dots/min
ing the transmitter signal at the receiver is nected as an astable multivibrator is com- 25
held below the damage level, muting the monly used for this purpose. This device
audio output can be an effective means of delivers rectangular output pulses, and the 2.4 x dots/sec.
achieving smooth break-in, provided no resulting signal often sounds quite For example, a properly adjusted elec-
age is used. Agc systems suitable for cw raucous. A variation of the standard 555 tronic key gives astring of dots which are
operation are characterized by long circuit appears in Fig. IS. The diodes counted as 10 dots per second. Speed =
"hang" times. Unless the transmitter 2.4 x 10 = 24 wpm.
maintain the symmetry of the waveform
signal in the receiver is at alevel similar to independently of the pitch and the RC Many modern electronic keyers use a
that of the other station, the agc system filter removes many of the objectional clock or pulse-generator circuit which
will seriously desense the receiver, render- harmonics. A keying monitor can be feeds a flip-flop dot generator. For these
ing the break-in system useless. A diode keyers the code speed may be determined
powered by the rf output of the transmit-
attenuator suitable for use with T- R ter. Such a circuit is shown in Fig. 16. directly from the clock frequency
switches or separate antennas is shown in Keying monitors often have built-in
Speed (wpm) = 1.2 x clock frequency ( Hz)
Fig. 13. If the receiver uses a dual-gate loudspeakers, but it is less expensive and
MOSFET with no agc in the first stage, more convenient to inject the monitor For a quick and simple means of deter-
the method of Fig. 14 may be used. signal into the audio output stage of the mining the code speed, send a continous
receiver. With this system one always string of dashes and count the number of
Monitoring
hears his sidetone from the same source dashes which occur in a five-second
If the receiver output is muted, an (speaker or headphones) as the other sta- period. This number, to a close approxi-
audio sidetone oscillator must be used to tion's signal. mation, is the code speed in words per

Code Transmission 11-6

minute. A method for checking the speed Speed ( wpm) = ( zeros/min) x 0.44. generation. A single- or dual- lever paddle
of a Morse keyboard is to send a con- may be used. If operated with adual-lever
A Single IC Keyer paddle, the 8044 is capable of iambic
tinuous string of zeros, with proper in-
terletter spacing. Most keyboards will Fig. 17 shows acircuit for an electronic operation (an alternating series of dots
automatically insert the correct space if keyer built around asingle 8044 CMOS in- and dashes is produced when both con-
the key is released and reactivated before the tegrated circuit. Features designed into tacts are closed). A dot memory is includ-
end of the character. If zeros are sent for this IC include contact debouncing, rf im- ed to prevent loss of dots caused by the
one minute, the speed is approximately munity and self- completing character operator leading the keyer. The circuit
shown incorporates a weight control to
alter the dot- space ratio. This feature
allows partial compensation for delays
and slow rise times in the transmitter.
The 8044 has a built-in sidetone
generator with adjustable pitch. At the
keyer output, ahigh logic level represents
the key-down state. This output can
source enough current to turn on most
npn transistors. With the timing com-
ponents shown, the speed range is about
8-50 wpm. The quiescent current drain of
this keyer is on the order of 50
microamperes, so no on-off switch is re-
quired. This keyer is ideal for mounting
inside a transceiver for station compact-
ness. The M- suffix version of the 8044 has
an 18-pin package and contains circuitry
for driving an analog speed readout. The
price class is $ 15 for the 8044 and $20 for
the 8044M. These devices are marketed by
Curtis Electro Devices, Inc., Box 4090,
Mountain View, CA 94040.

An Inexpensive Buffered Morse Keyboard

Until recently, the price of commercial-
ly manufactured keyboards and the cost
Fig. 16 — An rf-powered keying monitor suitable for power outputs from about 20 to 100 W. This
of many home- built units have made the
circuit should be installed inside the transmitter or a shielded enclosure to minimize RFI.
keyboard keyer an expensive station com-
ponent. But, with the explosive growth of
home computers, large supplies of surplus
05 CAPACITANCES ARE
• IN M1CROFARADS (HF),
keyboards and digital- logic material have
1.22 56k
been made available at reasonable prices.
The Morse keyboard described in earlier
RESISTANCES ARE Handbooks was acost-effective keyer that
, IN OHMS;

A KEYER 4 06 k . 1000,
M = 1,000,000
worked well but lacked some of the deluxe
features found on commercial units. This
revised version is an extension of the

„L:4
/-7-7 § 00k
1
(181 WEIGHT previous design, with a 32- character buf-
Dl
(171 15
fer memory added. An investment of
100k 14
1K about $50 ( 1980 prices) can secure the
CURTIS C) KEYED
8044 OUTPUT parts for an alert shopper. Al Helfrick,
r : \AIC
\).e
1--r7-7:3
(M) K2BLA, did the electrical design work.
5 0.005 The pc- board development, mechanical
-L design and construction were performed
11
al 6 500k in the ARRL laboratory.
56K PITCH
03 7 10

/
-7 - 7
I • _L Os IDE Circuit Description
D4 9 015 TONE
kr t'LAÏ=t-
- 0- 100
A 64- kHz scan oscillator drives abinary
(9)
(8044M)
(101 47k counter. The Q outputs of the counter are
pA
91k 50C,,k used to program the multiplexers. Each
combination of scanning lines is selected
) 1
060e F
•
1
in sequence until a key- switch closure is
— 0.22 SPEED
detected. When the feedback loop is
A 47k
MTR 52V
0 1W
closed the scan oscillator is inhibited. At
ADJ
r-7-7
DASH DOT 10k this point the binary number represented
by the counter- output states is loaded into
PADDLE
the first-in/first-out ( FIFO) registers. This
11(111 i parallel data ripples down the first set of
BY 1
5TO 9V FIFOs directly into the second set. If all
four FIFOs are full they inhibit further
Fig 17 — Circuit diagram for the keyer. D1- D6, incl., 1N270 or equiv. All potentiometers are linear data entry. The parallel data from the
taper and resistors are 1/2- or 1/4-watt. The speed meter must have a moving coil type of move-
ment. Pin numbers in parentheses are for the 8044M IC.
FIFOs is then converted to serial form by

11.7 Chapter 11
the two shift registers.
The seven-bit (six data plus one carry
out) data format has 128 possible com-
binations. By connecting the keyswitches
to the proper scanning lines (given in
Table 1), the combinations corresponding
to the valid Morse characters are selected.
In the keyer, binary ZERO represents dot,
and binary ONE represents dash. An extra
zero is added as an " end bit," and the
characters are sent from right to left. All
of the characters must be represented by
seven-bit binary numbers where all of the
unused bits to the left of the end bit are
ONES. The serial bit stream is read from
right to left. The seven-bit code for
hyphen (dandididididah, or - -) is
0100001. To convert this code to the prop-
er keyswitch connections, divide the
stream into two segments, separating the
four right-hand bits from the three left-
hand bits. The decimal value of the right
hand segment is the number of the " A"
Fig. 18 — Optional sidetone generator and buffer status indicator.
scanning line, and the decimal value of the
U21 — CD4001B quad 2- input NOR gate. U22 — 88C30 dual differential line driver.
left-hand segment is the number of the
"B" scanning line. Thus, to implement a
hyphen, the keyswitch would be con-
nected between B2 and Al. Operating the Keyboard
An optional circuit " examines" the Table 1 Sending Morse code with this keyer is
contents of the FIFOs and displays the KeyswItch Connections very much like typing. Character spacing
buffer status on three LEDs. The com- is automatic (provided one types in step
plete circuit is given in Figs. 18, 21 and 22. with or ahead of the output), and word
This circuit description is necessarily Connect spaces are made with the space bar. With
Character From To
brief. Helfrick's original QST article the buffer the operator may type up to 32
(January 1978) contains amore comprehen- A B7 Alo characters ahead of the output. The unit
sive treatment of the keyboard circuitry. B B6 Al has a " dump" switch, so if the operator
C B8 A5
D B7 Al
must abort a transmission, pushing the
Hardware Assembly button will instantly terminate the code
E B7 Al2
The keyer circuits are assembled on two F B6 A4 output.
6 X 4- 1/2-inch ( 152 x 114-mm) double- G B7 A3
H 86 AO
sided pc boards. One board holds the key- I 67 A8
switch encoder and buffer, while the other J B6 A14
holds the shift registers and output K B7 A5
decoding circuitry. Figs. 23 through 26 L 66 A2
M B7 Al 1
contain the etching patterns and N B7 A9
component-placement guides for these O B7 A7
boards. The two boards are designed to be P B6 A6
stacked one over the other. A small third Q 66 Al 1
R 67 A2
circuit board holds the optional sidetone
S B7 AO
oscillator and buffer indicator. This is a T 67 Al3
single-sided board and its etching pattern U B7 A4
and parts layout appear in Fig. 27 and 28. ✓ B6 A8
W B7 A6
The buffer indicator draws 100 times the
X Bel A9
current of the main circuit; therefore a Y as A13
Fig. 19 — Interior view of the keyboard. Heavy
separate power switch should be used to Z B6 A3
bus wire is used for the pc- board intercon-
disable the indicator. All of the ICs are 1 85 A14
2 85 Al2 nections. A more recent layout Oh the same
CMOS units. The oscillator circuits using 3 B5 A8
cabinet) places the boards side- by-side for
gates require B-series devices, but any 4 B5 AO
easier access.

series can be used elsewhere. The 5 B4 AO

keyboard will work on any dc voltage 6 B4 Al
7 64 A3
from 5 to 15; a regulated supply isn't 8 B4 A7
necessary. Penlight cells will work fine, 9 84 A15
but if the optional circuitry is included, C 0 85 A15
or D cells should be used. B2 A8
AR B4 Al 0
Figs. 19 and 20 reveal some of the con- KN 84 A13
struction details. An Apollo cabinet AS B4 A2
houses the assembly, but a homemade BT 85 Al
enclosure will work as well. The dimen- AA B8 A10
Comma 83 A3
sions and mounting arrangements will be Period 82 A10
dictated by the keyboard the builder ob- Question Mark BO Al2 Fig. 20 — The completed Morse keyboard
tains. measures 14-1/2 x 8-1/4 x 3-1/4 Inches.

Code Transmission 11-8

 +VO

4 6
KEYBOARD SCAN OSC. INHIBIT
U4
SCANNING
LINES Coo 4528

0.002 v+0 270h R„, DUAL ONE SHOT

01 VSS TR,TRR
14
01 e II 12 o
IN OUT o
13 CON
BØ I/0

BI < 14 O

B2 < 15 4
Ul 06 10
U5
12
B3 1/0 4051 4024
BINARY u6B
1 OEPAUX
COUNTER 2 4528
94 RS
ONE SHOT Vo
5 IO H V„ +TR
B5

• 2
C,R, 12)

86 O 14

<1 4 CL
97 O 10k
VO -• O.

46 100

v + 0

- 0.1

/
14

13
AO < 1/0
3
14
At < I/O
o
A2 < ,0 U2 4 U7 02
II
02 ue 2
40105 40105
A3 < 1/0 4051 13
FIFO 12 o, FIFO
DEMUX 6 01
INC REGISTER
REGISTER
A4 < /0 4
I
N/Oui
3
•
A5 < 5 CON
VEN
7 9
2
A6 < 15 2 16
0.1 I 0 V+
V„ ciRt Vo,
4
A7 < o t. 01

/
V S, ANT VSS S 'i SO

16 e 7,

v+
0,

,T, 9 15
R3i RST SOS,
AB < /0
DO

A9 < O

A10 < U3 U9 510 2

•
II
2 40105 02 40105
12 4051
All <I .0 DE P.2 UX FIFO
2 5
FIFO 3
IN /Oui 3 Ql
REGISTER D' REGISTER
CON
Al2 < 1/0 13
INN 40 DO

A13 < 0 9 3

AI4 < o 16 15 2 16
V+0 SO 0V+

A15 xl o 0.1
0J CiRL Vs, CTRI. V,

B
/
V+

01

/7/

3c SI
A
ov+ 10k
2 U6A
TR

EXTERNAL 4528
POWER
POWER
100 ONE SHOT

/77

Fig. 21 — Keyswitch encoder and buffer circuits for the K2BLA keyer.
U1, U2, U3 — CD4051B decoder/multiplexer. U5 — CD4024B binary counter
U4, U8 — MC14528, MC14538 or CD4098 dual monostable multivibrator. U7, U8, U9, U10 — CD40105 FIFO register.

11.9 Chapter 11
 33k

0 001
SCAN
OSC
9 U166
4001 2
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS 1pF I;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS 1DF OR Per.
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k • 1000, M• 1000 000.

216C
.e)

v+0
213 CL K
01
4013
"D" F/F
c
RST SET Vss SET 02 RST CLK

4 6 7 8 9 10 11

V+ KEYING OUT

o U17E1 2N2222

01 I.
10k

/T7 OPTIONAL
III SIDETONE

16 2 KEYING

TIC
V DD

2176
211 4001
4035
SHIFT
REGISTERS 0,

15
02
14 +V
03

13
04
P/S CLK 2160 12 218A

6
10k

5
7
6
BST SET
vss

215A
4027

+0 F/F

7 2
6

P/S CL U20.
136 -
‘ ...
1 0v7
12 io PIN
IN CLK
6
03 0 2 3
312 U20 14

)
12 4035 14 5 14501 •
SHIFT 03

16 REGISTERS 13 II IS
13 15
o V DD 0 4
SET RST o

7 U1413 U15 8
V SS T/C J DI 4027 4027
4 9 F/F F/F

V+

4 7 8 CLK SET RST J

+0
DC VSS
10 13 12 9 10 11

6 U1613 0.1
1114A DOT/DASH / 0V+
4027
F/F CL

250k

13 SPEED
47
5
SPACE BAR
U199 1.1196
10h 4011
<D 11
11 STOP 14
TO A8 U170 13 01
V

TO B7 1N914 )I

Fig. 22 — Decoder and output circuits for the keyboard. The open-collector output is suitable for transmitters having positive key lines up to 40 V.
Arrangements for other key lines are given earlier in the chapter.
Ull, U12 — CD4035B parallel shift register
U13 — CD4013B dual D flip-flop U19 — CD4011B quad 2- input NAND gate
U14, U15 — CD40278 dual JK flip-flop U16, U17, U10 — CD4001B quad 2- Input NOFigate U20 — MC14501 ft- input NANII/AND gate

Code Transmission 11-10

 o o

, j Z
4 el
/e £
44 (9
1 :° •
;$

Lî

Cao:eMlgre o 1e
°>
al
I o

o
Fig 23 — Bottom- side etching pattern for the encoder/buffer circuit board. Black represents unetched copper,

7,

XXI X
X
X

CIRCUIT ROARD SPECIALISTS PO BOX 969 PUEBLO, COLORADO 81002

Fig. 24 — Component-side etching pattern and component- placement guide for the encoder/buffer board. X = feedthrough connection. J = wire jumper.

11-11 Chapter 11
Fig. 25 — Bottom- side etching pattern for the decoder/output board.

Fig. 26 — Component-side etching pattern and component-placement guide for the decoder!output board X = feedthrough connection. J = wire jumper.

Code Transmission 11-12

 abandoned there should be no chance for
TVI. No high-priced vacuum relays are
used. No amplifiers are placed ahead of
the receiver that could affect receiver per-
< formance. In short, the system described
here provides excellent performance and
v el
suffers none of the ills of earlier systems.
c»02 - 21 The Circuit

o-o 0'0
0 1 A schematic diagram of the circuit is
shown in Fig. 30. The diagram is divided
into two sections, as is the actual circuitry.
r- That portion of the circuit to the left of
the dotted line is intended to be mounted
SIDETONE - BUFFER IND at the operating position for easy access.
Circuitry to the right of the line can be
mounted remotely, perhaps behind the
station equipment.
Fig. 27 — Etching pattern for the buffer indicator/sidetone generator board, shown from the foil The transmitter is connected to the
side.
antenna through a quarter-wavelength,
lumped-constant circuit. SI selects the ap-
propriate circuit for the frequency in use.
Quarter-wave circuits are required to pre-
vent " suckout" of the received signal.
"Suckout" occurs with tube-type trans-
mitters when the high-impedance end of
the transmitter pi network becomes
unloaded; during receive periods, for ex-
ample. As the pi network is one type of
impedance-inverting network, the high
resistance presented by the non-
operational tube causes the low-
impedance end of the network to ap-
proach 0 ohms. The quarter-wavelength
lumped-constant sections provided in the
T- R system serve to step the nearly zero
impedance level of the transmitter output
up to an almost infinitely high impedance
that will not reduce the received signal
level. As shown in the schematic diagram,
Fig. 28 — Component- placement guide for the buffer indicator/sidetone generator board, with an the antenna is connected directly to J3
x-ray view of the foil. which feeds the PIN diode switch section
of the T- R circuit.
The components located between J4
A PIN Diode T-R Switch amplifier was biased off under key-up and J5 comprise the switch that protects
The T-R switch system described here is conditions. No background hash was the receiver from the transmitted signal. A
usable with almost any tube-final 100-W noticable. "T" configuration is used, with DI and
(output) power level transmitter/receiver The PIN diode T- R system is not D2 connected in series and D3 in shunt.
or transceiver/receiver combination. This plagued by problems commonly asso- Combination switches provide superior
system is designed for flexible operation ciated with some other systems. First, attenuation performance to either the
and interconnection to various pieces of "suckout" ( receiver desensing) has been series or shunt elements alone. Approxi-
commercial or home-made equipment. eliminated, as has the problem of critical mately 50 dB of isolation from the anten-
For the simplest setup, no modifications interconnecting line lengths. Also, since na to the receiver connection is provided
to the transmitter or receiver are the saturated diode technique has been throughout the rf range. These results
necessary. All that's required is to plug
the station equipment into the system.
The only limitation associated v‘:th this
simple setup is the recovery speed of the
receiver. If the receiver agc time constant
is fairly fast, it should be possible to hear
signals between characters at keying
speeds of up to 25 wpm. If the receiver agc
is turned off, or set for very fast recovery,
signals can be heard between characters at
speeds of up to 50 wpm. If you prefer, the
receiver can be muted during characters
and two output, the + mute and —
mute, are provided for this purpose.
Several transmitter were tried with this
system and it was possible to use them Fig. 29 — Exterior view of the PIN Diode T- R Switch. The box at the right is mounted at the
without modification, so long as the final operating position. The box at the left can be mounted remotely.

11-13 Chapter 11
 +12V + 12V

RI R2
180 180
C15 CI6

0.IpF 0.1 p F,4_7

RFC RFC 21
JI ANTENNA J3
J4 CI4 01 C17 J5
02

RECEIVER

r.3 ,„F

00V
RFC 3
LI

C18

820 CI 820 C2 , T 7 0.1pF

C19
0.1pF RFC 4
L2 300 V
9-ITTYLI

C20
ir 03
0.1pF
BO 470;.T 7C 470 T/
TRANS- s,4 S.M.
MITTER 03 2N2222A R7
40 Li
R6
J2
180
SIA SIB
20 +12V ik12 V

220 C5 220 C6
89
15 " 5.1./ , 5
10 k 2N2222A
L4
R5
RFC 5
J6

TTY1
10k
150 C7 150 C8
pF C2I
S.Mj7 S.M.
-REVER /al
L5 J7 R3

\ 10k RFC 6 je
O
110 C9 110 CIO C22 2N2222A
/-7-7 RIO
KEY
S M. S.A1; 1 7 , T0; 01pF
+KEYER
C23
10k
I 'a t"F

TO C11
027 814 R11 07
2N5401

TO Cl2
028
RFC 7
J9
TO CI3
C29 -KEY

C24
0.1»F
T/
C32
RFC 8 J10

1pF 08 2N2222A
1I 0 + MUTE
812
35V
C 30 C 31
0.0IpF -r. 0.0Ie 10k C25
/
- 7-7
IkV 1kV
I al PF

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

TO C27
010 4 c,t VALUES OF CAPACITANCE
IN MICROFARADS1.01; OTHERS
ARE

1000
,--1-7 • POWER 0 0 F.T.
ARE IN PICOFARADS-( pF OR .p.xF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
813 09
2N5401
S2 0.„,0 r-77 Cl2
k • 1000.M•1000 000 1.5k
O 0 1000
TO C28
ON FT.
'--7 CI3 RFC 9
O 0 1000 TO 029 05

/T7
--
F. T. a.r MUTE

C26
,__Ty 0.1pF

Fig. 30 — Schematic diagram of the T-R switch system. All resistors are 1/4-watt composition types. All capacitors are miniature ceramic, 50-volt
types unless polarization is indicated. Polarized types are aluminum electrolytic or tantalum. Component designations listed in the schematic, but
not called out in the parts list, are for text or layout reference only.
Cl, C2 — Mica, 820 pF, 500 V. T-80-6 core.
C3, C4 — Mica, 470 pF, 500 V. choice). RFC1, RFC2 — Toroid choke, 20 turns no. 26
C5, C6 — Mica, 220 pF, 500 V. J6, J7 — Phone, 1/4 inch or builder's choice. enam. wire on a FT-37-75 core.
C7, C8 — Mica, 150 pF, 500 V. J8-J11, incl. — Ph ono or builder's choice. RFC3-RFC9, incl. — Toroid choke, 26 turns
C9, C10 — Mica, 110 pF, 500 V. L1 — Toroid, 20 tu ms no. 18 enam. wire on a no. 30 enam. wire on an FT-23-75 core.
C32 — Electrolytic, 1000 mF, 35 V. T-80-2 core. Si — Rotary wafer, 2sections, 5positions,
C33 — Tantalum, 1mF, 35 V. L2 — Toroid, 15 tu ms no. 18 enam. wire on a ceramic.
D1- D3, incl. — PIN diode, Unitrode 1N5767 or T-80-2 core. S2 — Toggle, spst.
equiv. L3 — Toroid, 11 tu ms no. 18 enam. wire on a Ti — Miniature power, primary 117 V, sec-
D4- D9, incl. — Power, 100 PRV, 1A. T-80-6 core. ondary 12 V at 300 mA. Radio Shack 273-
D10 — Light-emitting diode. L4 — Toroid, 9tur ns no. 18 enam. wire on a 1385 or equiv.
F1 — Fuse, 1/2 A. T.80-6 core. U1 — Three- terminal regulator, 12-V output.
J1-J5, incl. nr connector, female (builder'a Toroid, Otul na no. 18 elualll. wile ou) a Radio Shack RS- 7812 () Iequiv.

Code Transmission 11-14

 •

Fig. 31 — Interior view of the control head. The

quarter-wave sections are mounted to the
single-sided pc board.

should be reproducible if the same type of Fig. 32 — Inside view of the remotely mounted portion of the system. Short lengths of wire are
PIN diodes are used and the board layout used to attach the connectors to the appropriate circuit board foils. All power supply components
shown is followed closely. are mounted on the circuit board.

The station keyer (or straight key, bug

or keyboard) is connected to either J6 or
J7 depending on the output keying poten-
tial. QI and Q2 provide a suitable signal system is constructed in two enclosures. removed from around circuit- hole loca-
for driving Q3 through Q9. Q3 controls The circuitry intended for mounting at the tions for components that are not con-
D3 and turns the diode on during trans- operating position is built into a Bud nected to ground. This can be accom-
mission and off during receive. Q4 and Q5 Minibox that measures 3 x 4 X 5inches plished in the etching process with the aid
control D1 and D2, biasing the diodes on (76 X 102 x 127 mm). The part number of the top-side etching pattern. Alter-
for receive and off for transmit. At first of this box is CU-3005A. This enclosure natively, the copper can be removed from
glance it might appear that some houses the circuit- board mounted quarter- around holes with a large drill. Do not
simplification of the switching diode and wave-length sections, rotary switch, remove copper from around holes where
control circuitry might be possible. Since on/off power switch, LED indicator, component leads are grounded. Many of
it was desired to power the system from a coaxial connectors and feedthrough the component ground connections are
12-V dc source ( for portable operation), capacitors. The circuit board etching and not made on the pattern ( bottom) side of
and high negative voltages could not be parts- placement patterns are shown in the board. These components must he
used to reverse bias the diodes during Figs. 33 and 34. An interior view of this soldered on the top side to complete the
transmit, an unusual arrangement was unit is shown in Fig. 31. The rotary-switch gound connection.
devised. Hence, the more complicated cir- wafers are positioned to line up closely Garden-variety components are used,
cuit. J8 and J9 are provided for keying the with the appropriate circuit board connec- with the exception of the PIN diodes. The
transmitter; one of the two outputs should tion points. An extra ceramic spacer is in- diodes are Unitrode I N5767 types, which
be suitable for almost any transmitter. J10 serted in each of the switch section sup- can be obtained from many supply
and J11 are for muting the station receiver port rods to provide the needed separa- houses. All of the rf chokes are hand
during transmission. Again, dual- polarity tion. Short lengths of no. 18 tinned wire wound on small ferrite cores. Since encap-
outputs are provided. Choose the one ap- are used for the connections from the sulated chokes are relatively expensive and
plicable to the equipment in use. board to the switch contacts. RG-58A/U cores are not, the time spent winding the
The power supply is depicted at the bot- cable is used to make the connection from chokes can result in reduced cost.
tom center of the schematic diagram. the antenna coaxial connector to the front
wafer. The cable braid is soldered to Circuit Checkout
Power to the system is routed through an
on/off switch that is mounted at the con- ground lugs at each end. Interconnection of the two modules re-
trol head. An LED indicator is included as The second enclosure used for the T- R quires four lengths of hookup wire, each
a reminder that power is switched on. switch system is constructed from sheet long enough to reach between the two
Connection from the control head to the aluminum and measures 2-1/8 X 4-1/8 units when installed in their operating
remote unit is made via feedthrough X 7 inches ( 54 x 105 x 178 mm). An positions. The wires are twisted, cable-
capacitors at each box. These capacitors ideal commercial enclosure would be the tied or laced together. Wires of different
ensure that each cabinet remains rf-tight. Bud CU-247 die-cast aluminum box. colors will help distinguish the connec-
The power supply is of the usual variety in These boxes are extremely rugged and rf tions and prevent possible surprises the
all respects. A step-down transformer, tight. The power supply, PIN- diode first time power is applied! Connections
full-wave rectifier, filter and three- switch and control circuitry are mounted are as follows: C11 to C27, C12 to C28
terminal regulator provide the necessary on a circuit board. Circuit board etching and CI3 to C29. The fourth wire, ground,
voltage. A fuse is included in one leg of and parts-layout information are shown in connects the two boxes. A coaxial cable is
the ac line. Figs. 33 and 34. Double-sided circuit- used to connect J3 and J4.
board material was used, with the top side Connection to the station equipment is
Construction of the board left substantially unetched to asimple matter. The keyer is plugged into
As mentioned earlier, the T- R switch act as a ground plane. Copper must be either J6 or J7. If the keyer provides a

11-15 Chapter 11
 - MUTE (J11,

+ MUTE (J1,01
co

+ KEYER (J7)
— 5

CC
Ui

RECEIVE LINE
RCVR ( J5) (J4)

WANT

JOLT REGULATOR

01 pF ,300V

1000e
H.\ 35V
ELECTROLYTIC

TO AC
PLUG TO FEEDTHROUGH
CAPACITORS
C27-C29

5 — 1
—

820pF
4704
SM
SM

TO SlEi TO SlEs TO S113 TO SIB

Fig. 33 — Parts-layout patterns of the two printed-circuit boards. Each board is shown from the component side with an X-ray view of the foil.

positive voltage when keyed, use J7. If the the signals to become inaudible. The exact signal should become almost completely
keyer provides aground, use J6. Connect amount of attenuation can be measured buried in the receiver noise when the
the antenna to J1 and the station receiver using a calibrated signal generator or keyer is activated. Connect the transmit-
to J5. Do not connect the transmitter at a step attenuator and received signals. ter output to J2 and install a cable be-
this time. A check of the system operation Attenuation should be on the order of tween the transmitter key jack and J8 or
can now be made. If all is in order at this 50 dB. If no measurement equipment is J9. If muting of the receiver is desired,
point, signals should be heard in the available, a received signal and the re- make the appropriate connection at J10
receiver. Actuating the keyer should cause ceiver S- meter may be used. A strong or ill.

Code Transmission 11-16

 o o? ? Tt e rt°I, °79

%el...Aka)) 1°
es rice‘ts3cr\
°
eit
"ce Nc
e —1—' —3"c)° 1 eleP°
IF 0 , 0,
e

0 0 0
• 0 • 00 0 • °
ci o
o
• •

O
O
00
00 O 0 0 0
o 00
00 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 o
o0 0o
0 00
o 0 0 0 o 420 oo
00 0 0 0 00 0 o 0 00 0 0 0 0
O 0 0 o o O o
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0

o o o o 0 00 0 0 o 0000
o
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •

Fig. 34 — Etching patterns for the two printed- circuit boards. The smaller board is single- sided while the large one is double- sided. Patterns are pro-
vided for both sides of the board. Patterns are to scale. Black areas represent unetched copper.

11-17 Chapter 11
Chapter 12

Single-Sideband Transmission

O n the high-frequency amateur

bands, single-sideband is the most widely
All of the intelligence is contained in the
sidebands, but two-thirds of the rf power
cent a-m signals. Perhaps the most impor-
tant advantage of eliminating the carrier is
used radiotelephony mode. Since ssb is a is in the carrier. The carrier serves only to that the overall efficiency of the transmit-
sophisticated (or simplified, depending on demodulate the signal in the receiver. If ter is increased. The power consumed by
one's point of view) form of amplitude this carrier is suppressed in the transmitter the carrier can be put to better use in the
modulation, it is worthwhile to take a and reinserted in the proper phase in the sidebands. The power in the carrier is con-
brief look at some a-m fundamentals. receiver, several significant communica- tinuous and an a-m transmitter requires a
Modulation is a mixing process. When rf tions advantages accrue. If the reinserted heavy-duty power supply. A dsb ( double
and af signals are combined in astandard carrier is strong compared to the incoming sideband) transmitter having the same
a-m transmitter (such as one used for double-sideband signal, exalted carrier power output as an a-m transmitter can
commercial broadcasting) four output sig- reception is achieved in which distortion use a much lighter power supply because
nals are generated: the original rf signal, caused by frequency-selective fading is the duty cycle of voice operation is low.
called the carrier, the original af signal, greatly reduced. A refinement of this
and two sidebands, whose frequencies are technique, called synchronous detection Balanced Modulators
the sum and difference of the original rf uses a phase-locked loop to enhance the The carrier can be suppressed or nearly
and af signals, and whose amplitudes are rejection of interference. Also, the lack of eliminated by using abalanced modulator
proportional to that of the original af a transmitted carrier eliminates the or an extremely sharp filter. In ssb trans-
signal. The sum component is called the heterodyne interference common to adja- mitters it is common practice to use both
upper sideband. It is erect, in that in-
creasing the frequency of the modulating
audio signal causes a corresponding in-
crease in the frequency of the rf output
SPECTRUM ANALYZER
signal. The difference component is called MODEL SB-I2
the lower sideband, and is inverted, mean-
ari
ing an increase in the modulating frequen-
•
mmksumma
cy results in adecrease in the output fre- linailellilin1111111111111111111113

quency. The amplitude and frequency of

mumilumi
the carrier are unchanged by the modula-

mumuinm.
tion process, and the original af signal is (A)

rejected by the rf output network. The rf

envelope as viewed on an oscilloscope has
the shape of the modulating waveform.
Fig. 1B shows the envelope of an rf
signal that is modulated 20 percent by an
af sine wave. The envelope varies in am-
plitude because it is the vector sum of the
carrier and the sidebands. A spectrum 1
11•1411114C SPECTRUM ANALYZER
MODEL SB-I2
analyzer or selective receiver will show the
carrier to be constant. The spectral photo-
graph also shows that the bandwidth of an
a irà1 maimmuil11111
iaaiiiiriiui
a-m signal is twice the highest frequency
(B)
MEN1111111111111
component of the modulating wave.
An amplitude-modulated signal cannot
be frequency multiplied without special
processing because the phase/frequency
relationship of the components of the
modulating waveform would be severely
umpompamaugunow, unamminimi
distorted. For this reason, once an a-m
signal has been generated at a fixed fre-
quency, it can be moved in frequency only Fig 1 — Flectronic disolays of a-m signals in the frequency and time domains. (A) Unmodulated
by heterodyning. carrier or single-tone ssb signal. ( 8) Full-carrier a-m signal with single-tone sinusoidal modulation.

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-1

 Table 1 Table 2
A•PA Emission Types Emission Types Possible with
an SSB or ISB Transmitter
Type of transmission Supplementary characteristics Symbol

With no modulation AO Symbol Audio Input

Telegraphy without the use of a modulating audio AO Single steady tone

frequency (by on-off keying). Al Al On-off keying of a single tone.
A3 Speech.
Telegraphy by the on-off keying of an amplitude
A3A Speech.
modulating audio frequency or audio frequencies
or by the on-off keying of the modulated emission A3B Speech (two channels).
(special case: an unkeyed emission amplitude A3J Speech.
modulated). A2 A9B SSTV and speech, RTTY and speech •
F1 Two alternating constant-
Telephony Double sideband A3 amplitude tones (RTTY).
Single sideband, reduced carrier A3A
F5 Frequency-varying, constant-
Single sideband, suppressed carrier A3J
amplitude tone (SSTV).
Two independent sidebands A3B
Facsimile (with modulation of main carrier either
directly or by a frequency modulated subcarrier). A4
Facsimile Single sideband, reduced carrier A4A in push-pull. D1 is a Zener diode and is
Television Vestigial sideband A5C used to stabilize the dc voltage. Controls
Multichannel voice-frequency telegraphy Single sideband, reduced carrier A7A RI and R2 are adjusted for best carrier
Cases not covered by the above, e.g., a suppression.
combination of telephony and telegraphy. Two independent sidebands A9B
The circuit at E offers superior carrier
(See Table 2.) suppression and uses a7360 beam-deflec-
tion tube as a balanced modulator. This
tube is capable of providing as much as 60
dB of carrier suppression. When used
devices. The basic principle of any balanc- of forward-to-reverse resistance of each. with mechanical or crystal-lattice filters
ed modulator is to introduce the carrier in This ratio is an important criterion in the the total carrier suppression can be as
such away that it does not appear in the selection of diodes. Also, the individual great as 80 dB. Most well-designed bal-
output, but so that the sidebands will. The diodes used should have closely matched anced modulators can provide between 30
type of balanced-modulator circuit chosen forward and reverse resistances; an ohm- and 50 dB of carrier suppression; hence
by the builder will depend upon the con- meter can be used to select matched pairs the 7360 circuit is highly desirable for op-
structional considerations, cost, and the or quads. timum results. The primary of trans-
active devices to be employed. One of the simplest diode balanced former T1 should be bifilar wound for
In any balanced-modulator circuit there modulators in use is that of Fig. 2A. Its best results.
will be no output with no audio signal. use is usually limited to low-cost portable Vacuum-tube balanced modulators can
When audio is applied, the balance is equipment in which ahigh degree of car- be operated at high power levels and the
upset, and one branch will conduct more rier suppression is not vital. A ring bal- double-sideband output can be used
than the other. Since any modulation pro- anced modulator, shown in Fig. 2B, of- directly into the antenna. Past issues of
cess is the same as " mixing" in receivers, fers good carrier suppression at low cost. QST have given construction details on
sum and difference frequencies (side- Diodes D1 through D4 should be well such transmitters (see, for example, Rush,
bands) will be generated. The modulator matched and can be 1N270s or similar. CI "180-Watt D.S.B. Transmitter," QST,
is not balanced for the sidebands, and is adjusted for best rf phase balance as July 1966).
they will appear in the output. evidenced by maximum carrier null. RI is
In the rectifier-type balanced modu- also obtainable. It may be necessary to ad- IC Balanced Modulators
lators shown in Fig. 2, at A and B, the just each control several times to secure Integrated circuits ( ICs) are presently
diode rectifiers are connected in such a optimum suppression. available for use in balanced-modulator
manner that, if they have equal forward Varactor diodes are part of the unusual and mixer circuits. A diode array such as
resistances, no rf can pass from the carrier circuit shown in Fig. 2C. This arrangement the RCA CA3039 is ideally suited for use
source to the output circuit via either of allows single-ended input of near-equal in circuits such as that of Fig. 4A. Since all
the two possible paths. The net effect is levels of audio and carrier oscillator. Ex- diodes are formed on a common silicon
that no rf energy appears in the output. cellent carrier suppression, 50 dB or more, chip, their characteristics are extremely
When audio is applied, it unbalances the and a simple method of unbalancing the well matched. This fact makes the IC ideal
circuit by biasing the diode (or diodes) in modulator for cw operation are features in a circuit where good balance is re-
one path, depending upon the instan- of this design. DI and D2 should be rated quired. The hot-carrier diode also has
taneous polarity of the audio, and hence at 20 pF for abias of — 4V. R1can be ad- closely matched characteristics and ex-
some rf will appear in the output. The rf justed to cancel any mismatch in the diode cellent temperature stability. Using broad-
in the output will appear as a double- characteristics, so it isn't necessary that band toroidal-wound transformers, it is
sideband suppressed-carrier signal. the varactors be well matched. T1 is possible to construct a circuit similar to
In any diode modulator, the rf voltage wound on a small-diameter toroid core. that of Fig. 5which will have 40 dB of car-
should be at least six to eight times the The tap on the primary winding of this rier suppression without the need for
peak audio voltage for minimum distor- transformer is at the center of the wind- balance controls. T1 and T2 consist of
tion. The usual operation involves afrac- ing. trifilar windings, 12 turns of no. 32 enam.
tion of avolt of audio and several volts of A bipolar-transistor balanced modu- wire wound on a 1/2-inch ( 13-mm) toroid
rf. Desirable diode characteristics for lator is shown in 2D. This circuit is similar core. Another device with good inherent
balanced modulator and mixer service in- to one used by Galaxy Electronics and balance is the special IC made for modu-
clude: low noise, low forward resistance, uses closely matched transistors at Q Iand lator/mixer service, such as the Motorola
high reverse resistance, good temperature Q2. A phase splitter (inverter), Q3, is used MC1496G or Signetics S5596. A sample
stability, and fast switching time (for to feed audio to the balanced modulator circuit using the MC1496 can be seen in
high-frequency operation). Fig. 3lists the in push-pull. The carrier is supplied to the Fig. 4B. RI is adjusted for best carrier
different classes of diodes, giving the ratio circuit in parallel and the output is taken balance. The amount of energy delivered
12.2 Chapter 12
 FROM
CARRIER
OSCILLATOR
AUDIO AMP

+12V

BAL MOD

455 kHz
F TRANSFORMER
MILLER 2042

-7-
5.
pF ,
15V
/ / 2N5457
AUDIO
INPUT
0.01'1 TO FIRST
TO
I MIXER
SIDEBAR()
FILTER
FROM
SPEECH
AMR

(A) (RI

BAL MOD.
O
21112925
•

8201

+9.
BAL MOD

555 MHz

15k
5 5 MHz
CARRIER
INPUT

§1000
r 555o °MHz
FILTER

BAL
R1 0 001
2200
PHASE SPLITTER _L 0001

) /
)00

5k +12V
ÀIÉ
, D1
0 01 113 1000 9.1V
100 P -77
(02v)
100
(C)
50»F
25V
0 01 +12V
10k AUDIO INPUT

(D)

BAL
MOD

)1—
9M Hz uSB cm, 9MT HI
•
3 9
1- 30 70 9 MHz
15914
SM AMP OR
• F ILTER
___ 75
SM
/ 7 --/

(81F IL A RI
RFC
2 5rnH 0+200V

10011

H- 200V 0—e\/\/\/- 2700

33k

AUDIO
INPUT 0—)1 • 47k

(5v) 0.25, 7T7.0002 2700

/ /
1211
(E)

Fig. 2 — Typical circuits of balanced modulators. Representative pgrts values are given and should serve as a basis for designing one's own
equipment.

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-3

 Ratio
Diode Type M = 1,000,000
Point-contact germanium ( 1N98) 500
Small-junction germanium ( 1N270) 0.1 M
Low-conductance silicon ( 1N457) 48 M
High-conductance silicon ( 1N645) 480 M
Hot-carrier ( HPA-2800) 2000 M

Fig. 3 — Table showing the forward-to-reverse

resistance ratio for the different classes of
solid-state diodes.

from the carrier generator affects the level

of carrier suppression; 100 mV of injec-
tion is about optimum, producing up to
55 dB of carrier suppression. Additional
information on balanced modulators and
other ssb-generator circuits is given in the
texts referenced at the end of this chapter.

SINGLE-SIDEBAND EMISSION Fig. 4 — Additional balanced- modulator circuits in which integrated circuits are used.

A further improvement in communica-

tions effectiveness can be obtained by
transmitting only one of the sidebands.
BALANCED MODULATOR
When the proper receiver bandwidth is
(4 [ Al HPA-5082-5826
used, asingle-sideband signal will show an 055
FROM
effective gain of up to 9 dB over an a-m CARRIER
OUTPUT

signal of the same peak power. Because GENERATOR

the redundant information is eliminated,

the required bandwidth of an ssb signal is
half that of acomparable a-m or dsb emis-
sion. Unlike dsb, the phase of the local
carrier generated in the receiver is unim- AUDIO
portant. INPU -
C) 01

Generating the SSB Signal: Filter Method

If the dsb signal from the balanced
modulator is applied to abandpass filter, Fig. 5 — Balanced- modulator design using hot-carrier diodes

one of the sidebands can be greatly at-

tenuated. Because afilter cannot have in-
finitely steep skirts, to obtain adequate
suppression of the unwanted sideband the Table 3
response of the filter must begin to roll off Guidelines for Amateur SSB Signal Quality
within about 300 Hz of the phantom car- Parameter Suggested Standard
rier. This effect limits the ability to
Carrier suppression At least 40-dB below PEP.
transmit bass frequencies, but as will be
Opposite-sideband suppression At least 40-dB below PEP.
shown in the section on speech processing, Hum and noise At least 40-dB below PEP.
these frequencies have little communica- Third-order intermodulation distortion At least 30-dB below PEP.
tions value. The filter rolloff can be used Higher-order intermodulation distortion. At least 35-dB below PEP.
Long-term frequency stability At most 100-Hz drift per hour.
to obtain an additional 20 dB of carrier
Short-term frequency stability At most 10-Hz pk-pk deviation in
suppression. The bandwidth of an ssb fil- a 2-kHz bandwidth.
ter is selected for the specific application.
For voice communications, typical values
are 1800 to 4000 Hz. image rejection. This consideration re- tions. High quality components and
Fig. 6 illustrates two variations of the quires the heterodyne-oscillator frequency careful adjustment are required for good
filter method of ssb generation. The to be above the fixed ssb frequency on results with this type of filter. An alternate
heterodyne oscillator is represented as a some bands and below it on others. To possibility is a " synthesized" filter com-
simple VFO, but may be apremixing sys- reduce circuit complexity, early amateur prised of high-performance operational
tem or synthesizer. The scheme at Bis per- filter types of ssb transmitters did not in- amplifiers used as gyrators or "active in-
haps less expensive than that of A, but the clude a sideband selection switch. The ductors." A further drawback of ssb
heterodyne oscillator frequency must be result was that the output was lsb on 160, generation in this frequency range is that
shifted when changing sidebands if the 75 and 40 meters, and usb on the higher multiple conversion is necessary to reach
dial calibration is to be maintained. The bands. This convention persists despite the desired output frequency with ade-
ultimate sense (erect or inverted) of the the flexibility of most modern amateur ssb quate suppression of spurious mixing pro-
final output signal is influenced as much equipment. ducts.
by the relationship of the heterodyne- Mechanical filters are an excellent
oscillator frequency to the fixed ssb fre- Filter Types
choice for ssb generation in the 400- to
quency as by the filter or carrier frequency For carrier frequencies in the 50- to 500-kHz region. These filters are de-
selection. The heterodyne-oscillator fre- 100-kHz region, a satisfactory filter can scribed in some detail in the receiving
quency must be chosen to allow the best be made up of lumped-constant LC sec- chapter. For wide dynamic range receiving
12-4 Chapter 12
 applicatons, the more modern types using
piezoelectric transducers are preferred for
BALANCED
lowest intermodulation distortion. In
MODULATOR MIXER
USB USB transmitters, where the signal levels can be
closely predicted, the types using
magnetostrictive transducers are entirely
LâtI
FILTER suitable.
Quartz crystal filters are commonly
used in systems in which the ssb signal is
CARRIER HETERODYNE generated in the high- frequency range.
OSC. OSC. Some successful amateur designs have
also employed crystals at 455 kHz.
Generally, four or more crystal elements
(Al are required to obtain adequate selectivity
for ssb transmission. Crystal- filter design
is a sophisticated subject, and the more
BALANCED
esoteric aspects are beyond the scope of
MODULATOR MIXER
this Handbook. The discussion of
piezoelectric crystal theory in the Elec-
trical Laws and Circuits chapter is suffi-
cient background material for the general
understanding of the concepts outlined in
this section.
CARRIER HETERODYNE
A fundamental crystal filter section is
OSC. OSO.
the half- lattice, shown in Fig. 7. The pass-
band of this type of filter is slightly wider
than the frequency spacing between the
crystals. The antiresonant ( parallel
resonant) frequency or pole of the low-
frequency crystal must be equal to the
series- resonant frequency or zero of the
high- frequency crystal. Such a filter is
Fig. 6 — The filter method of ssb generation. Two sideband selection schemes are commonly
useful for casual receiving purposes, but
used.
the ultimate stopband attenuation is poor,
and numerous spurious responses will
SERIES PARALLEL exist just outside the passband. Cascading
o FREQUENC , two of these sections back-to-back, as in
CRYSTAL A
Fig. 8, will greatly suppress these parasitic
CRYSTAL B FREQUENT.:
t resonances and steepen the skirts without
-1- materially affecting the passband. An im-

o
portant factor in the design of this type of
filter is the coefficient of coupling be-
tween the two halves of the transformer.
The coupling must approach unity for
proper operation. A twisted- pair or bifilar
FREQUENCY winding on a high- permeability ferrite
core most nearly approximates this ideal.
Fig. 7 — The half- lattice crystal filter. Crystals A and B should be chosen so that the parallel- Some crystal filters have tuned input and
resonant frequency of one is the same as the series-resonant frequency of the other. Very tight output transformers. The flatness of the
coupling between the two halves of the secondary of Ti, is required for optimum results. The
passband is heavily dependent on the ter-
theoretical attenuation-vs.-frequency curve of a half- lattice filter shows a flat passband between
the lower series- resonant frequency and higher parallel-resonant frequency of the pair of crystals. minating resistances. Lattice filters exhibit
fairly symmetrical response curves and
can be used for lsb or usb selection by
B' means of placing the carrier frequency on
the upper or lower skirt.
An asymmetrical filter is shown in Fig.
9. Good unwanted sideband suppression
can be obtained with only two crystals
using this approach. The crystals are
ground for the same frequency. The
Ll
4
R2 A.A' potential bandwidth here is only half that
RI
• BB'
obtained with a half-lattice design. The
maximum bandwidth of almost any
crystal filter can be increased by using
plated crystals intended for overtone
operation.
The home construction of crystal filters
can be very time-consuming, if not expen-
sive. The reason for this is that one must
Fig. 8 — Half- lattice filters cascaded in a back-to-back arrangement. The theoretical curve of such
experiment with a large number of crystals
a filter has increased skirt selectivity and fewer spurious responses, as compared with a simple
half lattice, but the same passband as the simple circuit. to produce a filter with satisfautoly pei-

Sinale-Sideband Transmission 12-5

 II Y2 Y3

• o
oui.
• YI Y2 y3 Y4
INPUT 1 151 151 e

TT T
CI C2 C3

8.2/U
39ri
z 56,_
T 39 8.2
o ,

7 pF pF pF, Z pF,_
1 7
yi, Y2,Y3- 9681 2 ItHI
pF

1Ydi 10
Y6
041
Ya Y4 Y5
1 :e_:;;;KI_o

o idl

_150pF
(i)‘

INPUT RI
220.n. 7IpF T 120pF TISOPF 1 .150pF 1 120 pF OUTPUT

o • o
CRYSTAL A AND A' FREQUENCY VI TO Y6 - 9681 2 kHz

10
co
20

3 30
OUTPUT ( dB)

40

50

60

70

80
9673 74 75 76 77 78 79 9680 81
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY ( kHz)

Fig. 9 - An asymmetrical filter and theoretical Fig. 10 - Some ladder filters based on CB crystals, with the response that can be expected from
attenuation curve. the 6- pole unit.

formance. Crystal grinding and etching very little effect on the 3-dB bandwidth.
can be a fascinating and highly educa- Ladder filters having six or more elements Table 4
tional activity, but most home builders are suitable for ssb transmitting and CB Frequencies
would prefer to spend their time on other receiving service. In general, the band-
Frequency Frequency
aspects of equipment design. High- quality width is inversely proportional to the Channel (MHz) Channel (MHz)
filters are available from several manufac- values of the shunt capacitors and directly 1 26.965 21 27.215
turers in the $ 50 to $ 100 price class. Most proportional to the terminal impedances. 2 26.975 22 27.225
amateurs who build their own ssb equip- Table 4 lists the frequencies of the CB 3 26.985 23 27.255
ment adopt a " systems engineering" ap- channels. Overtone crystals for CB service 4 27.005 24 27.235
5 27.015 25 27.245
proach and design their circuits around have fundamental resonance at approxi-
6 27.025 26 27.265
filters of known performance. Some filter mately one third of the listed frequency. 7 27.035 27 27.275
suppliers are listed in the Construction 8 27.055 28 27.285
and Data Tables chapter. It is still worth- Filter Applications 9 27.065 29 27.295
10 27.075 30 27.305
while to have an appreciation for the basic The important considerations in circuits
11 27.085 31 27.315
design ideas, however, for many of the using bandpass filters are impedance 12 27.105 32 27.325
less expensive filters can be improved matching and input/output isolation. The 13 27.115 33 27.335
markedly by the addition of a couple of requirements for the latter parameter are 14 27.125 34 27.345
15 27.135 35 27.355
crystals external to the package. The less severe in transmitting applications
16 27.155 36 27.365
technique is to steepen the skirts by group- than they are for receiving, but with prop- 17 27.165 37 27.375
ing sharp notches on either side of the er layout and grounding, the opposite 18 27.175 38 27.385
passband. sideband suppression should be deter- 19 27.185 39 27.395
20 27.205 40 27.405
An important exception to the above mined by the shape factor rather than
commentary is the ladder filter. Although signal leakage. The filter must be ter-
this type of filter is treated in textbooks, it minated with the proper impedances to
has received attention in the amateur ensure a smooth bandpass response.
literature only recently. The significant Fig. 11A shows a typical ssb generator transformer of the modulator. The tank
feature of ladder filters is that all of the using a KVG ( see QST ads) crystal filter. circuit is broadly resonant at 9 MHz and
crystals are ground for the same fre- The grounded-gate JFET presents a rejects any spurious signals generated in
quency. Low-cost CB crystals are ideally broadband 50-ohm termination to the the modulator that might be propagated
suited to this application. Representative balanced modulator and transforms the through the filter. Crystal filters should be
designs by F6BQP and G3JIR are given in impedance to the 500 ohms required by isolated from any dc voltages present in
Fig. 10. Filter sections of this type can be the filter. The dc return for the source of the circuit.
cascaded for improved shape factor with the JFET is through the output A circuit using a Collins mechanical

12-6 Chapter 12
 DOUBLY BALANCED
MODULATOR 2N4857 9MHz
CARRIER
INPUT
-F 7dBm

+12V

(A)

—1-12 V
+12V

100 3.3 k

20 z 3 k

(-°
JW MILLER 455 kHz MECHANICAL 0.01
FILTER
913 CT 10
AUDIO
INPUT

1.8 k
> 2.2
510
— 510
/- 1- 7 470
p—P i AUDIO
INTERSTAGE
TRANSFORMER
455 IcHr --

01

B
0.01

o
CARRIER
GENERATOR

Fig. 11 — Connecting a packaged filter into an ssb generator. ( A) 9- MHz crystal filter. ( 8) 455- kHz mechanical filter.

filter is illustrated in Fig. 11B. The i -f The phasing method was used in many
Table 5
transformer prevents spurious responses pre- 1960 amateur ssb exciters, but became
less popular after the introduction of Unwanted Sideband Suppression
and removes dc bias. The output ter-
as a Function of Phase Error
minating network does double duty as the relatively inexpensive high-performance
bandpass filters. The phase shift and Phase Error (degrees) Suppression (
dB)
bias network for the transistor amplifier
stage. The filter output transformer is the amplitude balance of the two channels 0.125 59.25
0.25 53.24
dc return for the base circuit. This tech- must be very accurate if the unwanted
0.5 47.16.
nique is legitimate so long as the current is sideband is to be adequately attenuated. 1.0 41.11
limited to 2 mA. Table 5shows the required phase accuracy 2.0 35.01
of one channel (af or rf) for various levels 3.0 31.42
SSB Generation: The Phasing Method of opposite sideband suppression. The 4.0 28.85
5.0 26.85
Fig. 12 shows another method for ob- numbers given assume perfect amplitude 10.0 20.50
taining a single-sideband signal. The balance and phase accuracy in the other 15.0 16.69
audio and carrier signals are each split in- channel. It can be seen from the table that 20.0 13.93
30.0 9.98
to components separated 90° in phase and a phase accuracy of ± 1 ° must be main-
45.0 6.0
applied to balanced modulators. When tained if the signal quality is to satisfy the
the dsb outputs of the modulators are criteria tabulated at the beginning of this
combined, one sideband is reinforced and chapter. It is difficult to achieve this level
the other is cancelled. The figure shows of overall accuracy over the entire speech ± 2° if the peak deviations can be made
sideband selection by means of transpos- band. Note, however, that speech has a to occur within the spectral gap.
ing the audio leads, but the same result complex spectrum with a large gap in the The major advantage of the phasing
can he had by means of switching the car- octave from 700 to 1400 Hz. The phase- system is that the ssb signal can be
rier leads. accuracy tolerance can be loosened to generated at the operating frequency

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-7

 BALANCED MODULATOR

SIDEBAND
SELECTION
CARRIER
AUDIO 90 . OSCILLATOR

D SPEECH
AMP
PHASE SHIFT
NETWORK RF 90°
LINEA
PHASE SHIFT RF COMBINER
RF AMP
NETWORK

BALANCED MODULATOR

Fig. 12 — The phasing system of ssb generation.

204

MPF 102

o TO
BAL
MOD
1

4 7pF

15 V

AF INPUT

300- 7R
( 12 V
3000 Hz

T1

SEC ,600 ¡L
47pF

15 V F —.._0
0 TO
BAL
MPF 102
MOD
2

Fig. 13 — A circuit using the B&W 204 audio phase shift network.

100k

0 TO BAL
MOD NO 1

o TO BAL.
MOD NO. 2
R 12k ± 10%
Cl : 0.044pF 12 a0.022e)
C2 0.033pF
C3 I0.02,F U1, U2 HIGH PERFORMANCE 100k
C4 : 0.01pF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
C5: 560OFF
C6 : 4700pF

Fig. 14 — A high-performance audio phase shifter made from ordinary loose-tolerance components.

1243 Chapter 12
 IC BAL
MOD NO
DIRECTIONAL
COUPLER
LIMITER > C

DOUBLY BALANCED
MIXER
CARRIER
o INPUl

TO BAL
PHASE SHIFT NETWORK MOO NO2

DIRECT ORAL LIMITER O

COUPLER

Fig. 15 — A simple rf phase shifter. One of the

capacitors can be variable for precise align-
ment.

PHASE ADJUST

without the need for heterodyning. Phas-

ing can be used to good advantage even in
fixed-frequency systems. A loose-toler-
ance ( ± 4°) phasing exciter followed by a
simple two-pole crystal filter can generate
ahigh-quality signal at very low cost.
Fig. 16 — Block diagram of a phase- locked- loop phase-shifting system capable of maintaining
Audio Phasing Networks quadrature over a wide bandwidth. The doubly balanced mixer is used as a phase detector.
It would be difficult to design a two-
port network having a quadrature (90°)
phase relationship between input and out-
put with constant-amplitude response TO BALANCED
over a decade of bandwidth. A practical MODULATOR 1
approach, pioneered by Robert Dome,
W2WAM, is to use two networks having a
differential phase shift of 90°. This dif- INPUT fc TO BALANCED
0
ferential can be closely maintained in a MODULATOR 2

simple circuit if precision components are

used. The 350/2Q4 audio phase shift net-
work manufactured by Barker and
Williamson is such a circuit. The price
class is $20. The 2Q4 is a 1950 vintage
component but it is still useful. A modern
design using this device is given in Fig. 13. (A)
The insertion loss of the 2Q4 is 30 dB and
the phase shift accuracy is ± 1.5° over the 0TO BALANCED
300-3000 Hz speech band. I MODULATOR 1
The tolerances of the components can
90°
be relaxed considerably if several phase-
shift sections are cascaded. A sixth-order INPUT O TO BALANCED
o
network designed by HA5WH is shown in 4 fc MODULATOR 2

Fig. 14. Using common ± 10-percent

tolerance components, this phase shifter
provides approximately 60 dB of opposite
sideband attenuation over the range of
300 to 3000 Hz.
(B)
Numerous circuits have been developed
to synthesize the required 90° phase shift
electronically. Active-filter techniques are
used in most of these systems, but preci- Fig 17 — Digital rf phase shift networks. The circuit at A uses JK flip flops, and the circuit at B
sion components are needed for good uses D flip flops. In each case the desired carrier frequency must be quadrupled before it is
results. An interesting phasing system processed by the phase shift network.
described in Electronics for April 13,
1978, makes use of atapped analog delay
line. These " bucket brigade" devices are
becoming available at reasonable prices quency, problems similar to those in the small, such as in the 144.1- to 145- MHz
audio networks must be overcome. range, the rf phase shift can be obtained
on the surplus market.
A differential rf phase shifter is shown conveniently by means of transmission-
RF Phasing Networks in Fig. 15. The amplitudes of the quadra- line methods. If one balanced modulator
If the ssb signal is to be generated at a ture signals won't be equal over an entire feed line is made an electrical quarter
fixed frequency, the rf phasing problem is phone band, but this is of little conse- wavelength longer than the other, the two
trivial; any method that produces the quence as long as the signals are strong signals will be 90° out of phase. It is im-
proper phase shift can be used. If the enough to saturate the modulators. portant that the cables be properly ter-
sige is produced at the operating (re- Where percentage bandwidths are minated.

SingleSideband Transmission 12-9

 BALANCED
MODULATOR
BANDPASS FILTER
INFORMATION
INPUT

MIXER

CARRIER
OSC

INFORMATION
INPUT AUDIO HETERODYNE
OSC

BANDPASS FILTER
BALANCED
MODULATOR

IA)

AUDIO COMBINER
NFOR MAT ION
I
e
INPUT
9° > BALANCED
0 -->" PHA0SE
SHIFT MODULATOR

90 .
RF LINEAR
PHASE
COMBINER RF AMP
SHIFT

INFORMATION
INPUT
90*
o > PHASE
SHIFT

O + 90 .
)
BALANCED
r "
eL7 AUDIO
- COMBINER MODULATOR

Fig. 18 -- Independent-sideband generators. (

A) Filter system. (
B) Phasing system. The block marked " rf combiner" can be a hybrid combiner or a
summing amplifier.

One method for obtaining a90° phase microphone input, F5 emission will result. Many commercially manufactured ssb
shift over awide bandwidth is to generate Two alternating tones from an afsk RTTY transceivers have provisions for control-
the quadrature signals at afixed frequency keyer will cause the transmitter to produce ling the transmit cr receive frequency with
and heterodyne them individually to any an FI signal. A keyed audio tone will be an external VFO or receiver. With slight
desired operating frequency. Quadrature translated into an Al signal. This tech- modification it should be possible to slave
41. hybrids having multioctave bandwidths
nique is a perfectly legitimate way to two transceivers to a single VFO for isb
are manufactured commercially, but they operate cw with an ssb transceiver, and is operation. The oscillators in the trans-
cost hundreds of dollars. Another prac- simpler than the more traditional method ceivers must be aligned precisely.
tical approach is to use two VFOs in a of upsetting the balanced modulator for The most obvious amateur application
master-slave phase-locked loop system. carrier leakage. One can vary the for independent sideband is the transmis-
Many phase detectors lock the two signals transmitting frequency independently of sion of slow-scan television with
in phase quadrature. A doubly balanced the receiving frequency by means of simultaneous audio commentary. On the
mixer has this property. One usually changing the audio tone. The strength of vhf bands, other combinations are possi-
thinks of aphase-locked loop as having a the tone determines the transmitter power ble, such as voice and code or SSTV and
VCO locked to a reference signal, but a output. Good engineering practice re- RTTY.
phase differential can be controlled in- quires that the tone be frequency-stable
dependently of the oscillator. The circuit and that the total harmonic distortion be The Speech Amplifier
in Fig. 16 illustrates this principle. Two less than one percent. Also, the carrier The purpose of aspeech amplifier is to
digital phase shifters are sketched in Fig. and opposite sideband must be suppressed raise the level of audio output from a
17. If ECL ICs are used, this system can at least 40 dB. Of course the rise and microphone to that required by the modu-
work over the entire hf spectrum. decay times of the audio envelope must be lator of atransmitter. In ssb and fm trans-
controlled to avoid key clicks. This sub- mitters the modulation process takes place
Other SSB Modes ject is treated in detail in Chapter II. at low levels, so only afew volts of audio
An ssb transmitter is simply afrequency are necessary. One or two simple voltage-
translator. Any frequency- or amplitude- Independent Sideband Emission
amplifier stages will suffice. A-m
varying signal ( within the bandwidth If two ssb exciters, one usb and the transmitters often employ high-level plate
capabilities of the transmitter) applied to other lsb, share a common carrier modulation requiring considerable audio
the input will be translated intact oscillator, two channels of information power, compared to ssb and fm. The
(although frequency inversion takes place can be transmitted from one antenna. microphone-input and audio voltage-
in lsb) to the chosen radio frequency. If Methods for isb generation in filter and amplifier circuits are similar in all three
amplitude-limited tones corresponding to phasing transmitters are shown in Fig. 18. types of phone transmitters, however.
the video information of a slow-scan May 1977 QST carried an article on con- When designing speech equipment it is
television picture are fed into the verting the popular Drake TR4-C to isb. necessary to know ( 1) the amount of
12-10 Chapter 12
 peaks (sharp rises in the reproduction is suspended in amagnetic circuit. When
curve) limit the swing or modulation to sound impinges on the diaphragm, it
the maximum drive voltage, whereas the moves the coil through the magnetic field,
usable energy is contained in the flat part generating an alternating voltage.
of the curve. A microphone must be ter-
minated in its specified load impedance if Electret Microphones
the designed frequency response is to be The electret microphone has recently
realized. appeared as a feasible alternative to the
Microphones are generally omnidirec- carbon, piezoelectric or dynamic micro-
tional, and respond to sound from all phone. An electret is an insulator which
directions, or unidrectional, picking up has a quasi-permanent static electric
CARBON
sound from one direction. If a micro- charge trapped in or upon it. The electret
MPF102
phone is to be used close to the operator's operates in a condenser fashion which
mouth, an omnidirectional microphone is uses aset of biased plates whose motion,
ideal. If, however, speech is generated a caused by air pressure variations, creates a
foot (0.31 m) or more from the changing capacitance and an accompany-
microphone, aunidirectional microphone ing change in voltage. The electret acts as
will reduce reverberation by a factor of the plates would, and being charged, it re-
1.7:1. Some types of unidirectional quires no bias voltage. A low voltage pro-
CRYSTAL, CERAMIC, OR HI- Z DYNAMIC microphones have a proximity effect in vided by a battery used for an FET im-
that low frequencies are accentuated when pedance converter is the only power re-
the microphone is too close to the mouth. quired to produce an audio signal.
Electrets traditionally have been suscep-
Carbon Microphones tible to damage from high temperatures
The carbon microphone consists of a and high humidity. New materials and dif-
metal diaphragm placed against acup of ferent charging techniques have lowered
loosely packed carbon granules. As the the chances of damage, however. Only in
diaphragm is actuated by the sound extreme conditions (such as 120°F or
pressure, it alternately compresses and 49°C at 90 percent humidity) are prob-
decompresses the granules. When current lems present. The output level of atypical
is flowing through the button, avariable electret is higher than that of astandard
dc will correspond to the movement of the dynamic microphone.
Fig. 19 — Speech circuits for use with diaphragm. This fluctuating dc can be
standard-type microphones. Typical parts used to provide voltage corresponding to Microphone Amplifiers
values are given. the sound pressure. The output of acar- The circuit immediately following the
bon microphone is extremely high, but audio input establishes the signal-to-noise
nonlinear distortion and instability has ratio of the transmitter. General-purpose
reduced its use. ICs such as the 709 and 741 op amps are
widely used in speech amplifiers, but they
audio power the modulation system must Piezoelectric Microphones are fairly noisy, so it is best to precede
furnish, and (2) the output voltage Piezoelectric microphones make use of them with a lower-noise discrete device
developed by the microphone when it is the phenomenon by which certain (FET or bipolar transistor). The circuits in
spoken into from normal distance (a few materials produce avoltage by mechanical Fig. 19 fulfill this requirement.
inches) with ordinary loudness. It then stress or distortion of the material. A
becomes possible to choose the number diaphragm is coupled to a small bar of Voltage Amplifiers
and type of amplifier stages needed to material such as Rochelle salt or ceramic The important characteristics of a
generate the required audio power made of barium titanate or lead zirconium voltage amplifier are its voltage gain,
without overloading or undue distortion titanate. The diaphragm motion is thus maximum undistorted output voltage,
anywhere in the system. translated into electrical energy. Rochelle- and its frequency response. The voltage
salt crystals are susceptible to high gain is the voltage-amplification ratio of
Microphones temperatures, excessive moisture, or ex- the stage. The output voltage is the maxi-
The level of a microphone is its elec- treme dryness. Although the output level mum af voltage that can be secured from.
trical output for agiven sound intensity. is higher, their use is declining because of the stage without distortion. The
The level varies somewhat with the type. their fragility. amplifier frequency response should be
It depends to alarge extent on the distance Ceramic microphones are impervious to adequate for voice reproduction; this re-
from the sound source and the intensity of temperature and humidity. The output quirement is easily satisfied.
the speaker's voice. Most commercial level is adequate for most modern ampli- The voltage gain and maximum un-
transmitters are designed for the median fiers. They are capacitive devices and the distorted output voltage depend on the
level. If a high-level mic is used, care output impedance is high. The load im- operating conditions of the amplifier. The
should be taken not to overload the input pedance will affect the low frequencies. output voltage is in terms of peak voltage
amplifier stage. Conversely, amicrophone To provide attenuation, it is desirable to rather than rms; this makes the rating in-
of too low a level must be boosted by a reduce the load to 0.25 megohm or even dependent of the waveform. Exceeding
preamplifier. lower, to maximize performance when the peak value causes the amplifier to
The frequency response ( fidelity) of a operating ssb, thus eliminating much of distort, so it is more useful to consider
microphone is its ability to convert sound the unwanted low-frequency response. only peak values in working with
uniformly into alternating current. For amplifiers.
high articulation it is desirable to Dynamic Microphones A circuit suitable for use as a
reproduce a frequency range of 200-3500 The dynamic microphone somewhat microphone preamplifier or the major
Hz. When all frequencies are reproduced resembles adynamic loudspeaker. A light- gain block of aspeech system is shown in
equally, the microphone is considered weight coil, usually made of aluminum Fig. 20. The response rolls off below 200
"flat." Flat response is highly desirable as wire, is attached to adiaphragm. This coil Hz to reduce hum pickup. Ordinaiy 741

Single-Sideband Transmission 1211

op amps can be used in stages following
the preamp, provided the voltage gain is
held to about 20 (26 dB). Ul• TL081
LF 356

Gain Control NE 5534

A means for varying the overall gain of

the amplifier is necessary for keeping the
final output at the proper level for -6 OUTPUT

modulating the transmitter. The common

method of gain control is to adjust the L0 -4 OUTPUT

value of ac voltage applied to the input of

20V
one of the amplifiers by means of a
voltage divider or potentiometer.
The gain-control potentiometer should
be near the input end of the amplifier, at a
point where the signal voltage level is so
low there is no danger that the stages
ahead of the gain control will be overload- 20V

ed by the full microphone output. In a

high-gain amplifier it is best to operate the
first stage at maximum gain, since this
gives the best signal-to-hum ratio. The
control is usually placed in the input cir- Fig. 20 — A speech amplifier suitable for microphone or interstage use. The input and output im-
pedances can be tailored to match a wide range of loads. Maximum gain of this circuit is 40 dB.
cuit of the second stage.
Remote gain control can be accomplish-
ed with an electronic attenuator IC, such
as the Motorola MFC6040. A dc voltage ELECTRONIC ATTENLJATOR
varies the gain of the IC from + 6to — 85 +12V
RFC
TO Fl R5 -
r 1-/
dB, eliminating the need for shielded leads MIC TT -0AUDIO AM F
220
to a remotely located volume control. A MFC6040
/"+7
typical circuit is shown in Fig. 21. 4

3
NPJT (-00UTPu

Phase Inversion 6 047

TO H I - Z
0 003
C 0--/V\Ar---111---0AUDIO AMP
Some balanced modulators and phase 33k 330

shifters require push-pull audio input. 50A F / ) /

The obvious way to obtain push-pull out- /T / 2 5V

REMOTE
GAIN (B)
put from a single-ended stage is to use a 50k

transformer with acenter-tapped second-

ary. Phase inverter or ',pose splitter cir-
cuits can accomplish the same task elec- Fig. 22 — Rf filters using LC (A) and RC (
B)
tronically. A differential amplifier can be Fig. 21 — A dc voltage controls the gain of components, which are used to prevent feed-
this IC, eliminating the need for shielded leads back caused by rf pickup on the microphone
used to convert a single-ended input to a lead.
to the gain control.
push-pull output. Two additional phase
splitter circuits are shown in Fig. 23.

Speech-Amplifer Construction good ground between the circuit board power outputs too low for consistently ef-
Once asuitable circuit has been selected and the metal chassis is necessary. Com- fective communications. Most modern
for a speech amplifier, the construction plete shielding from rf energy is always re- grounded-grid linear amplifiers require 30
problem resolves itself into avoiding two quired for low-level solid-state audio cir- to 100 watts of exciter output power to
difficulties — excessive hum, and un- cuits. The microphone input should be drive them to their rated power input. An
wanted feedback. For reasonably humless decoupled for rf with afilter, as shown in exciter output amplifier serves to boost
operation, the hum voltage should not ex- Fig. 22. At A, an rf choke with ahigh im- the output power to a useful level while
ceed about one percent of the maximum pedance over the frequency range of the providing additional selectivity to reject
audio output voltage — that is, the hum transmitter is employed. For high- spurious mixing products.
and noise should be at least 40 dB below impedance inputs, aresistor may be used Two stages are usually required to ob-
the output level. in place of the choke. tain the necessary power. The stage
Unwanted feedback, if negative, will When using paper capacitors as preceding the output amplifier is called
reduce the gain below the calculated bypasses, be sure that the terminal mark- the driver. Some tubes that work well as
value; ifpositive, is likely to cause self- ed " outside foil," often indicated with a drivers are the 6CL6, 12BY7, 6EH7 and
oscillation or " howls." Feedback can be black band, is connected to ground. This 6GK6. Since all of these tubes are capable
minimized by isolating each stage with utilizes the outside foil of the capacitor as of high gain, instability is sometimes en-
decouplin2 resistors and capacitors, by a shield around the " hot" foil. When countered in their use. Parasitic suppres-
asoiding layouts that bring the first and paper or mylar capacitors are used for sion should be included as a matter of
last stages near each other, and by coupling between stages, always connect course. Some form of neutralization is
shielding of " hot" points in the circuit, the outside foil terminal to the side of the recommended. Driver stages should be
such as high- impedance leads in low-level circuit having the lower impedance to operated in Class A or ABI to minimize
stages. ground. distortion. The higher quiescent dissipa-
If circuit-board construction is used, tion can be easily handled at these power
high-impedance leads should be kept as Driver and Output Stages levels. The new VMOS power FETs are
short as possible. All ground returns The most-commonly-used balanced well suited to ssb driver circuits.
should be made to a common point. A modulators and transmitting mixers have The exciter output amplifier can be a

12-12 Chapter 12
 +12V

Fig. 23 — Phase splitter circuits using (A) a

JFET and (B) a dual-operational amplifier.
11(

-o

180'

412 V

Iof

Fig. 24 — (A) Typical ssb voice-modulated

18 0* signal might have an envelope of the general
nature shown, where the rf amplitude (current
or voltage) is plotted as a function of time,
which increases to the right horizontally. ( B)
Envelope pattern after speech processing to in-
crease the average level of power output.

U1. MC1458CP1
calibrated in watts only by using a sine-
wave signal — which a voice-modulated
( signal definitely is not.)
The ratio of peak-to-average amplitude
varies widely with voice of different
TV horizontal sweep tube. Some sweep envelope power, abbreviated PEP. The characteristics. In the case shown in Fig.
tubes are capable of lower distortion than peak-envelope power of agiven transmit- 24A the average amplitude, found
others, but if not overdriven most of them ter is intimately related to the distortion graphically, is such that the peak-to-
are satisfactory for amateur use, yielding considered tolerable. The lower the signal- average ratio of amplitudes is almost 3:1.
IMD levels between — 26 and — 30 dB, to-distortion ratio the lower the attainable The ratio of peak power to average power
typically. Some types suitable for AB1 ser- peak-envelope power. as a general rule. is something else again. There is no simple
vice are 6DQ5, 6GB5, 6GE5, 6HF5, 6JE6, For splatter reduction, an S/D ratio of 25 relationship between the meter reading
6JS6, 6KD6, 6LF6, 6KG6 and 6LQ6. A dB is considered a border-line minimum, and actual average power, for the reason
genuine transmitting tube such as a6146B and better figures are desirable. mentioned earlier.
can be operated in the higher efficiency The signal power, S, in the standard
Class-AB2 or B modes for the same dis- definition of S/D ratio is the power in one DC Input
tortion produced by sweep tubes in AB1. tone of atwo-tone test signal. This is 6dB FCC regulations require that the
Transmitting tubes have the additional below the peak-envelope power in the transmitter power be rated in terms of the
advantages of uniformity and ruggedness. same signal. Manufacturers of amateur dc input to the final stage. Most ssb final
Linear amplifiers, including those using ssb equipment usually base their publish- amplifiers are operated Class AB1 or
solid-state devices, are treated in detail in ed S/D ratios on PEP, thereby getting an AB2, so that the plate current during
chapter 6. S/D ratio that looks 6dB better than one modulation varies upward from a
based on the standard definition. In com- "resting" or no-signal value that is
POWER RATINGS OF paring distortion- product ratings of dif- generally chosen to minimize distortion.
SSB TRANSMITTERS ferent transmitters or amplifiers, first There will be a peak-envelope value of
Fig. 24A is more or less typical of afew make sure that the ratios have the same plate current that, when multiplied by the
voice- frequency cycles of the modulation base. dc plate voltage, represents the instan-
envelope of asingle-sideband signal. Two taneous tube power input required to pro-
amplitude values associated with it are of Peak vs. Average Power duce the peak-envelope output. This is the
particular interest. One is th ç maximum Envelope peaks occur only sporadically "peak-envelope dc input" or " PEP in-
peak amplitude, the greatest amplitude during voice transmission, and have no put." It does not register on any meter in
reached by the envelope at any time. The direct relationship to meter readings. The the transmitter. Meters cannot move fast
other is the average amplitude, which is meters respond to the amplitude (current enough to show it — and even if they did,
the average of all the amplitude values or voltage) of the signal averaged over the eye couldn't follow. What the plate
contained in the envelope over some several cycles of the modulation envelope. meter does read is the plate current
significant period of time, such as the time (This is true in practically all cases, even averaged over several modulation-enve-
of one syllable of speech. though the transmitter rf output meter lope cycles. This multiplied by the dc plate
The power contained in the signal at the may be calibrated in watts. Unfortunate- voltage is the number of watts input re-
maximum peak amplitude is the basic ly, such a calibration means little in voice quired to produce the average power out-
transmitter rating. It is called the peak- transmission since the meter can be put described earlier.

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-13

 In voice transmission the power input
and power output are both continually
varying. The power input peak-to-average
ratio, as the power-output peak-to- OUT

average ratio, depends on the voice

characteristics. Determination of the in-
put ratio is further complicated by the fact
that there is aresting value of dc plate in-
put even when there is no rf output. No
exact figures are possible. However, ex-
perience has shown that for many types of +10V

voices and for ordinary tube operating

conditions where a moderate value of
resting current is used, the ratio of PEP
input to average input (during amodula-
tion peak) will be in the neighborhood of
2:1. That is why many amplifiers are rated
for a PEP input of 2 kilowatts even
12 V
though the maximum legal input is 1
kilowatt.
100k

PEP Input
INPUT j1.2p1
The 2-kW PEP input rating can be in- I6V 33k
terpreted in this way: The amplifier can
handle dc peak-envelope inputs of 2kW, 100k

presumably with satisfactory linearity. 22k

0.1

But it should be run up to such peaks if — 0.1

and only if — in doing so the dc plate cur- (

- 0 OUTPUT

rent (the current that shows on the plate E2E. IN270

meter) multiplied by the dc plate voltage IS V

does not at any time exceed 1kW. On the

other hand, if your voice has characteris-
tics such that the dc peak-to-average ratio
is, for example, 3:1, you should not run a
greater dc input during peaks than
(B)
2000/3, or 660 watts. Higher dc input
would drive the amplifier into nonlin-
earity and generate splatter.
If your voice happens to have a peak-
Fig. 25 — Typical solid-state compressor circuits.
to-average ratio of less than 2:1 with this
particular amplifier, you cannot run more
than 1 kW dc input even though the
envelope peaks do not reach 2kW.
It should be apparent that the dc input
rating ( based oil the maximum value of dc
input developed during modulation, of and compression or clipping of the if control electrode in an early stage in the
course) leaves much to be desired. Its waveform after the ssb signal has been amplifier.
principal virtues are that it can be generated. One form of rf compression, The circuit of Fig. 25A works on this
measured with ordinary instruments, and commonly called alc ( automatic level con- agc principle. One section of a Signetics
that it is consistent with the method used trol) is almost universally used in amateur NE57I N IC is used. The other section can
for rating the power of other types of ssb transmitters. Audio processing is also be connected as an expander to restore the
emission used by amateurs. The meter used to increase the level of audio power dynamic range of received signals that
readings offer no assurance that the contained in the sidebands of an a-m have been compressed in transmission.
transmitter is being operated within transmitter and to maintain constant This system is used in the VBC 3000 nbvm
linearity limits, unless backed up by deviation in an fm transmitter. Both com- baseband transceiver. Operational
oscilloscope checks using your voice. pression and clipping are used in a-m transconductance amplifier ICs such as
It should be observed, also, that in the systems, while most fm transmitters the CA3080 are also well suited for speech
case of , a grounded-grid final amplifier, employ only clipping. compression service.
the l - kW input permitted by FCC regula- When an audio agc circuit derives con-
tions must include the input to the driver Volume Compression trol voltage from the output signal, the
stage as well as the input to the final Although it is obviously desirable to system is closed loop. If short attack time
amplifier its Both inputs are measured keep the voice level as high as possible, it is necessary, the rectifier/filter bandwidth
as described above. is difficult to maintain constant voice in- must be opened up to allow syllabic
tensity when speaking into the micro- modulation of the control voltage. This
Speech Processing phone. To overcome this variable output allows some of the voice-frequency signal
Four bas systems, or a combination level, it is possible to use automatic gain to enter the control terminal, causing
thereof, ce be used to reduce the peak- control that follows the average ( not in- distortion and instability. Because the
to-average ratio, and thus, to raise the stantaneous) variations in speech ampli- syllabic frequency and speech-tone fre-
average power level of an ssb signal. They tude. This can be done by rectifying and quencies have relatively small separation,
are compression or clipping of the af wave filtering some of the audio output and the simpler feedback agc systems com-
before it reaches the balanced modulator, applying the rectified and filtered dc to a promise fidelity for fast response.

12-14 Chapter 12
 2200

01 02
MPSA10 MPSA10 Fl LTER

MIC OUTPUT
LEVEL

CLIPPED AF

10k OUTPUT

GAIN

(A)

01 02
2N 3391A 2N2925

FILTER

MIC

CLIPPED AF
OUTPUT

1N 3754 ETC.

+12V
(R)

Fia. 26 — This drawina illustrates use of JFETs or silicon diodes to clip positive and negative voice peaks.

Loop dynamics problems in audio agc while increase in audio power without
systems can be sidestepped by eliminating sacrificing intelligibilty. Once the system
the loop and using a forward- acting is properly adjusted it will be impossible
system. The control voltage is derived to overdrive the modulator stage of the
from the input of the amplifier rather transmitter because the maximum output
than the output. Eliminating the feedback amplitude is fixed.
loop allows unconditional stability, but By itself, clipping generates high-order
the trade-off between response time and harmonics and therefore will cause splat-
fidelity remains. Care must be taken to ter. To prevent this, the audio frequencies
avoid excessive gain between the signal in- above those needed for intelligible speech
put and control voltage output. Other- must be filtered out after clipping and
wise, the transfer characteristic can before modulation. The filter required for
reverse; that is, an increase in input level this purpose should have relatively little COMPRES,

5 10 15 20
can cause a decrease in output. A simple attenuation below about 2500 Hz, but de OF PEAK COMPRESSION
forward- acting compressor is shown in high attenuation for all frequencies above OR CLiPP ,NG ( SSS)

part B of Fig. 25. 3000 Hz.

To test or adjust a speech compressor, There is a loss in naturalness with
Fig. 27 — The improvement in received signal-
one would apply a single steady tone to "deep" clipping, even though the voice is to-noise ratio achieved by the simple forms of
the input and measure the input and out- highly intelligible. With moderate clipping signal processing.
put signal levels over the dynamic range of levels ( 6 to 12 dB) there is almost no
the instrument. The single-tone test may change in " quality" but the voice power is frequency components generated by the
indicate gross distortion, but one cannot increased considerably. clipping action, as discussed earlier. Any
judge the speech performance by this Before drastic clipping can be used, the top- hat or similar silicon diodes can be
result. Provided the release time is longer speech signal must be amplified several used in place of the 1N3754s. Germanium
than the time between syllables, the com- times more than is necessary for normal diodes ( 1N34A type) can also be used, but
pressor will generate distortion only dur- modulation. Also, the hum and noise will clip at a slightly lower peak audio
ing brief signal peaks. must be much lower than the tolerable level.
level in ordinary amplification, because
Speech Clipping and Filtering SSB Speech Processing
the noise in the output of the amplifier in-
In speech waveforms the average power creases in proportion to the gain. Compression and clipping are related,
content is considerably less than in a sine In the circuit of Fig. 26B asimple diode as both have fast attack times, and when
wave of the same peak amplitude. If the clipper is shown following a two- the compressor release is made quite
high amplitude peaks are clipped off, the transistor preamplifier section. The short, the effect on the waveform ap-
remaining waveform will have a con- 1N3754s conduct at approximately 0.7 proaches that of clipping. Speech process-
siderably higher ratio of average power to volt of audio and provide positive- and ing is most effective when accomplished at
peak amplitude. Although clipping dis- negative- peak clipping of the speech radio frequencies, although a combina-
torts the waveform and the result waveform, A 47-1d2 resistor and a0.02-e tion of af clipping and compression can
therefore does not sound exactly like the capacitor follow the clipper to form asim- produce worthwhile results. The advan-
original, it is possible to secure a worth- ple R- C filter for attenuating the high - tage of an outboard audio speech pro-

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-15

 cessor is that no internal modifications are
necessary to the ssb transmitter with
which it will be used.
To understand the effect of ssb speech
processing, reN,iew the basic if wavefornis
shown in Fig. 24A. Without processing,
they have high peaks but low average
power. After processing, Fig. 24B, the
(A) (
C) amount of average power has been raised

11M
considerably. Fig. 27 shows an advantage
of several dB for rf clipping ( for 20 dB of
processing) over its nearest competitor.
Investigations by W6JES reported in
January 1969 QST show that, observing a
transmitted signal using 15 dB of audio
clipping from a remote receiver, the in-
telligibility threshold was improved nearly
(B) (D) 4 dB over a signal with no clipping. In-
creasing the af clipping level to 25 dB gave
an additional 1.5 dB improvement in in-
Fig. 28 — Two-tone envelope patterns with various degrees of rf clipping. All envelope patterns
are formed using tones of 600 and 1000 Hz. ( A) At clipping threshold; ( B) 5 dB of clipping; ( C) 10 telligibility. Audio compression was
dB of clipping; ( D) 15 dB of clipping. found to be valuable for maintaining
relatively constant average- volume

FINAL FINAL AMP

AMP
( • _°
e PL ATE •
--
m TANK
fT7- 7

+H V

CONTROL
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT

(A)

CONTROL
VOLTAGE
-I- 40V
OUTPUT

+200V

FINAL
GRID
4,
00k
0 005 iN 458
ALL
RAc, 6A84 OUTPUT
1 002
1N458
0005 .M 22
3 7-
//

/ 02

,
'T
2200 (
C)
0005 ALL
0-50 dB GAIN REDUCTION
/ BIAS FOR 0- 20v ALL APPLIED
AMP

50
INPUT
30
OUTPUT

(
F)

ALL

Fig. 29 — (A) Con voltage obtained by sampling the r( output voltage of the final amplifier. The diode back bias, 40 volts or so maximum, may be

ei
taken from any convenient positive voltage source in the transmitter. R may be a linear control having a maximum resistance of the order of 50 kl).
DI may ,. AN34A or similar germanium diode.
(B) Co voltage obtained from grid circuit of a Class AB1 tetrode amplifier. Ti is an interstage audio transformer having a turns ratio, secon-
dary top mary, of 2 or 3 to 1. An inexpensive transformer may be used, since the primary and secondary currents are negligible. D1 may be a 1N34A
or similar; time constant R2C3 is discussed in the text.
(C) Control voltage is obtained from the grid of a Class AB1 tetrode amplifier and amplified by a triode audio stage.
(D) Alc system used in the Collins 32S-3 transmitter.
(E) Applying control voltage to the tube or ( F) linear IC-controlled amplifier.

12-16 Chapter 12
Fig. 30 — Transceiver circuits where a section is made to operate on both transmit and receive. See text for details.

speech, but such acompressor added little ping. The effect of such clipping on atwo- dB is typical. An alc circuit with shorter
to the intelligibilty threshold at the tone test pattern is shown in Fig. 28. time constants will function as an rf
receiver, only about 1-2 dB. Automatic level control, although a syllabic compressor, producing up to 6dB
Evaluation of rf clipping from the form of rf speech processing, has found improvement in the intelligibility thresh-
receive side with constant-level speech, its primary application in maintaining the old at a distant receiver. The Collins
and filtering to restore the original band- peak rf output of an ssb transmitter at a Radio Company used an alc system with
width, resulted in an improved in- relatively constant level, hopefully below dual time constants (Fig. 29D) in their
telligibility threshold of 4.5 dB with 10 dB the point at which the final amplifier is S/Line transmitters, and this has proved
of clipping. Raising the clipping level to 18 overdriven when the audio input varies to be quite effective.
dB gave an additional 4-dB improvement over a considerable range. These typical Heat is an extremely important con-
at the receiver, or 8.5-dB total increase. alc systems, shown in Fig. 29, by the sideration in the use of any speech pro-
The improvement of the intelligibility of a nature of their design time constants offer cessor which increases the average-to-
weak ssb signal at a distant receiver can a limited increase in transmitted average- peak power ratio. Many transmitters, in
thus be substantially improved by rf clip- to- PEP ratio. A value in the region of 2-5 particular those using television sweep

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-17

tubes, simply are not built to stand the ef- from the filter is amplified and dent of signal waveform. A thermocouple
fects of increased average input, either in capacitance-coupled to the transmitter ammeter connected in series with the load
the final-amplifier tube or tubes or in the mixer. The relay contacts also apply alc would be a typical example of such a
power supply. If heating in the final tube voltage to the first i -fstage and remove system. The output power would be equal
is the limiting factor, adding acooling fan the screen voltage from the second i -f to PR, where Iis the current in the am-
may be asatisfactory answer. amplifier, when transmitting. meter and R is the load resistance (usually
Bilateral amplifier and mixer stages, 50 ohms). In order to find the PEP output
SINGLE-SIDEBAND TRANSCEIVERS with the latter method (using a two-tone
first used by Sideband Engineers in their
A transceiver combines the functions of SBE-33, also have found application in test input signal), the power output is
transmitter and receiver in a single other transceiver designs. The circuits multiplied by two.
package. In contrast to a packaged shown in Fig. 30B and C are made to A spectrum analyzer is capable of
"transmitter-receiver," it utilizes many of work in either direction by grounding the giving the most information (of the three
the active and passive elements for both bias divider of the input transistor, com- methods considered here), but it is also
transmitting and receiving. Ssb transceiver pleting the bias network. The application the most costly method and the one with
operation enjoys widespread popularity of these designs to an amateur transceiver the greatest chance of misinterpretation.
for several justifiable reasons. In most for the 80- through 10-meter bands is Basically, aspectrum analyzer is areceiver
designs the transmissions are on the same given in the Fifth Edition of Single Side- with a readout which provides a plot of
(suppressed-carrier) frequency as the band for the Radio Amateur. signal amplitude vs. frequency. The
receiver is tuned to. The only practical The complexity of a multiband ssb readout could be in the form of a paper
way to carry on a rapid multiple-station transceiver is such that most amateurs buy chart but usually it is presented as atrace
"roundtable" or net operation is for all them fully built and tested. There are, on a CRT. For a spectrum analyzer to
stations to transmit on the same fre- however, some excellent designs available provide accurate information about a
quency. Transceivers are ideal for this, in the kit field, and any amateur able to signal, that signal must be well within the
since once the receiver is properly set the handle asoldering iron and follow instruc- linear dynamic range of the analyzer. For
transmitter is also. Transceivers are by tions can save himself considerable money a thorough explanation of the function
nature more compact than separate trans- by assembling an ssb transceiver kit. and application of this instrument see
mitter and receiver setups and thus lend Some transceivers include afeature that Rusgrove, " Spectrum Analysis — One
themselves well to mobile and portable permits the receiver to be tuned afew kHz Picture's Worth a . . .," August 1979
use. either side of the transmitter frequency. QST.
Although the many designs available on This consists of a voltage-sensitive
the market differ in detail, there are of capacitor, which is tuned by varying the Two- Tone Tests and Scope Patterns
necessity many points of similarity. All of applied dc voltage. This can be a useful A very practical method for amateur
them use the filter type of sideband device when one or more of the stations in applications is to use atwo-tone test signal
generation, and the filter unit furnishes a net drift slightly. The control for this (usually audio) and sample the transmitter
the receiver i
-fselectivity as well. The car- function is usually labeled RIT for output. The waveform of the latter is then
rier oscillator doubles as the receiver receiver incremental tuning. Other applied directly to the vertical-deflection
(fixed) BFO. One or more mixer or i -f transceivers include provision for a plates in an oscilloscope. An alternative
stage or stages will be used for both crystal-controlled transmitter frequency method is to use an rf probe and detector
transmitting and receiving. The receiver S plus full use of the receiver tuning. This is to sample the waveform and apply the
meter may become the transmitter plate- useful for " DXpeditions" where net resulting audio signal to the vertical-
current or output voltage indicator. The operation (on the same frequency) may deflection amplifier input.
VFO that sets the receiver frequency also not be desirable. If there are no appreciable nonlin-
determines the transmitter frequency. The earities in the amplifier, the resulting
same signal-frequency tuned circuits may Testing aSideband Transmitter envelope will approach a perfect sine-
be used for both transmission and recep- There are three commonly used wave pattern (see Fig. 31A). As a com-
tioqe incleding the transmitter pi-network methods for testing an ssb transmitter. parison, a spectrum-analyzer display for
output circuit. These include the wattmeter, oscilloscope, the same transmitter and under the same
.Usually the circuits are switched by a and spectrum-analyzer techniques. In conditions is shown in Fig. 31B. In this
multiple-contact relay, which transfers the each case, atwo-tone test signal is fed into case, spurious products can be seen which
antenna if necessary and also shifts the the mic input to simulate aspeech signal. are approximately 30 dB below the
biases on several stages. Most commercial From the measurements, information amplitude of each of the tones.
designs offer VOX ( voice-controlled concerning such quantities as PEP and As the distortion increases, so does the
operation) and MOX ( manual operation). intermodulation-distortion-product (IMD) level of the spurious products and the
Which is preferable is acontroversial sub- levels can be obtained. Depending upon resulting waveform departs from a true
ject; some operators like VOX and others the technique used, other aspects of sine-wave function. This can be seen in
prefer MOX. transmitter operation (such as hum prob- Fig. 31C. One of the disadvantages of the
lems and carrier balance) can also be scope and two-tone test method is that a
checked. relatively high level of IMD-product
-amplifier combina- As might be expected, each technique voltage is required before the waveform
tion she transmitter and has both advantages and disadvantages seems distorted to the eye. For instance,
receives 30A. This circuit and the suitability of aparticular method the waveform in Fig. 31C doesn't seem
is used mpany in several will depend upon the desired application. too much different from the one in Fig.
of their . When receiving, The wattmeter method is perhaps the 31A but the IMD level is only 17 dB below
the.out mixer is coupled to simplest one but it also provides the least the level of the desired signal (see analyzer
the 'Cu
. siàl. itch, in turn, feeds the amount of information. Rf wattmeters display in Fig. 31D). A 17- to 20-dB level
first 14 amp' rifler. The output of this stage suitable for single-tone or cw operation corresponds to approximately 10-percent
is tratisformer-coupled to the second i -f may not be accurate with atwo-tone test distortion in the voltage waveform. Con-
amplifier. During transmit, K1 is closed, signal. A suitable wattmeter for the latter sequently, a "good" waveform means the
turning on the isolation amplifier that case must have a reading that is propor- IMD products are at least 30 db below the
links the balanced modulator to the band- tional to the actual power consumed by desired tones. Any noticeable departure
pass filter. The single-sideband output the load. The reading must be indepen- from the waveform in Fig. 31A should be

12-18 Chapter 12
 IF

%NM* SPECTRUM ANALYZER

MOOLL 98-14

1 (

Penns* SPECTRUM ANALYZER

MODEL S8- I2

Fig. 32 — Waveform of an amplifier with a

single- tone input showing flattopping and
crossover distortion.

(c)
tube life or transistor heat-dissipation
problems.
The two primary causes of distortion
can be seen in Fig. 32. While the wave-
form is for a single- tone input signal,
similar effects occur for the two-tone
case. As the drive signal is increased, a
point is reached where the output current
(or voltage) cannot follow the input and
the amplifier saturates. This condition is
often referred to as flattopping ( as men-
tioned previously). It can be prevented by
ensuring that excessive dr ive doesn't occur
(E) (F)
and the usual means of accomplishing this
Fig. 31 — Scope patterns for a two-tone test signal and corresponding spectrum-analyzer
is by alc action. The ale provides a signal
displays. The pattern in A is for a properly adjusted transmitter and consequently the IMD pro- that is used to lower the gain of earlier
ducts are relatively low as can be seen on the analyzer display. At C, the PA bias was set to zero stages in the transmitter.
idling current and considerable distortion can be observed. Note how the pattern has changed on
The second type of distortion is called
the scope and the increase in IMD level. At E, the drive level was increased until the flattopping
region was approached. This is the most serious distortion of all since the width of the IMD spec-
"crossover" distortion and occurs at low
trum increases considerably causing splatter ( F). signal levels. ( See Fig. 32.) Increasing the
idling plate or collector current is one way
of reducing the effect of crossover distor-
tion in regards to producing undesirable
suspect and the transmitter operation has grown concerning the interpretation components near the operating frequency.
should be checked. and importance of distortion in ssb gear. Instead, the components occur at frequen-
The relation between the level at which Distortion is a very serious problem when cies considerably removed from the oper-
distortion begins for the two-tone test high spurious- product levels exist at fre- ating frequency and can be eliminated by
signal and an actual voice signal is arather quencies removed from the passband of filtering.
simple one. The maximum deflection on the desired channel but is less serious if As implied in the foregoing, the effect
the scope is noted ( for an acceptable two- such products fall within the bandwidth of distortion, frequencywise, is to
tone test waveform) and the transmitter is of operation. In this former case, such generate components which
then operated such that voice peaks are distortion may cause needless interference tract in order to make tit&
kept below this level. If the voice peaks go to other channels (" splatter") and should waveform. A more fam
above this level, atype of distortion called be avoided. This can be seen quite drama- would be the harmonic genera ed
"flattopping" will occur and results are tically in Fig. 31F when the flattopping by the nonlinearities often à èred in
shown for a two-tone test signal in Fig. region is approached and the fifth and amplifiers. However', a comme : miscon-
31E. IMD-product levels raise very rapid- higher order terms increase drastically. ception which should ibe}aezrekled is that
ly when flattopping occurs. For instance, On the other hand, attempting to sup- IMD is caused amnal-signal
third-order product levels will increase 30 press in- band products more than neces- components beatin ' harmonics.
db for every 10-dB increase in desired out- sary is not only difficult to achieve but Generally speaking, n such simple rela-
put as the flattopping region is approach- may not result in any noticeable increase tion exists. For instance, single-ended
ed, and fifth- order terms will increase by in signal quality. In addition, measures re- stages have relatively poor second-har-
50 dB ( per 10 dB). quired to suppress in- band IMD often monic suppression but with proper bias-
cause problems at the expense of other ing to increase the idling current, such
Interpreting Distortion Measurements
qualities such as efficiency. This can lead stages can have very good IMD-suppres-
Unfortunately, considerable confusion to serious difficulties such as shortened sion qualities

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-19

 Fig. 35 — Exterior view of the outboard speech
Fig. 34 — Severe clipping (same transmitter processor. The lack of external adjustments
Fig. 33 — Speech pattern of the word " X" in a as Fig. 33 but with high drive and alc makes the unit easy to use and difficult to
properly adjusted ssb transmitter. disabled). abuse.

INPUT 300 Hz 600 Hz 600 Hz

D PRE AM P. HIGH - PASS

FILTER
LOW
FILTER
PASS CLIPPER LOW - PASS
FILTER

HALANCED
MODULATOR
BAND - PASS
1400 Hz
FILTER
HIGH - PASS 9 MHz CF
DSB SSS
FILTER 18 KHz BW

•14

8 998 —
MHz

Fig. 36 — Block diagram of the processor. The separation of the formant channels illustrates the " hybrid" concept.

600 - Hz LOW - PASS FILTER

300 - Hz HIGH - PASS FILTER 0.1dB 3-POLE CHEBYSHEV
PREAMPLIFIER 3-POLE BUTTERWORTH 0033

+12 V
13k

01
MIRE
INPUT FB 0.047 0.01 0.01
"=F

220k

JUMPER I
s

FOR LOW Z
MICROPFIONES
33k
I>16
OeV

TO BALANCED
MODUL ATOR
U1,U2 , TL084

1400 - Hz HIGH -PASS FILTER

3- POLE BUTTERWORTH

Fig. 37 — Schematic diagram of the audio board. All potentiometers are linear taper pc- mount types. See text for complete component information.

12-20 Chapter 12
 However, adefinite mathematical rela- fifth-order term since 3 + 2is equal to 5. amplifier and the result is displayed on a
tion does exist between the desired com- In general, the third, fifth, seventh, and spectrum analyzer, the IMD products ap-
ponents in an ssb signal and the " distor- similar " odd-order" terms are the most pear as " pips" off to the side of the main
tion signals." Whenever nonlinearities important ones since some of these fall signal components (Fig. 31). The
exist, products between the individual near the desired transmitter output fre- amplitudes associated with each tone and
components which make up the desired quency and can't be eliminated by filter- the IMD products are merely the dB dif-
signal will occur. The mathematical result ing. As pointed out previously, such terms ference between the particular product
of such multiplication is to generate other do not normally result from fundamental and one tone. However, each desired tone
signals of the form (2f1 — f2), (3f1), components beating with harmonics. An is 3dB down from the average power out-
(5f2 — fl) and so on. Hence the term exception would be when the fundamental put and 6dB down from the PEP output.
intermodulation-distortion products. The signal along with its harmonics is applied Since the PEP represents the most im-
"order" of such products is equal to the to another nonlinear stage such as amix- portant quantity as far as IMD is concern-
sum of the multipliers in front of each fre- er. Components at identical frequencies as ed, relating IMD-product levels to PEP is
quency component. For instance, aterm the IMD products will result. one logical way of specifying the
such as ( 3f1 — 2f2) would be called a When two equal tones are applied to an "quality" of atransmitter or amplifier in
regard to low distortion. For instance,
IMD levels are referenced to PEP in
"Product Review" specifications of com-
mercially made gear in QST. PEP output
can be found by multiplying the PEP in-
put by the efficiency of the amplifier. The
SUMMING input PEP for a two-tone test signal is
AMPLIFIER given by
1
0
PRODUCT PEP = E I
P 1.57 — -
0.57
P

DETECTOR

where
Ep = the plate voltage
I = the average plate current
I„ = the idling current
Generally speaking, most actual voice
patterns will look alike (in the presence of
distortion) except in the case where severe
flattopping occurs. This condition is not
too common since most rigs have an alc
system which prevents overdriving the
amplifiers. However, the voice pattern in
a properly adjusted transmitter usually
has a " Christmas tree" shape when

CLIPPER

2N2222

AF OUTPUT
O To
SUMMING AMP

/- 7-7 r7-7 m/77

+12V

600 - HZ LOW - PASS FILTER

3 - POLE BUTTERWORTH

RESISTORS ARE 1/4 W. 5%

UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED:

NON - POLARIZED CAPACITORS ARE
DISC CERAMIC, 100 WVDC.
DECIMAL VALUES IN 0F, OTHERS
IN AP; SRI, SILVER MICA,
P. POLYSTYRENE.

- 12V

10k 500 10k

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-21

observed on ascope; an example is shown cessing permits ahigher degree of process- clipping employed is limited by inter-
in Fig. 33. ing for agiven amount of distortion. Ad- modulation distortion rather than har-
ditionally, the design is highly flexible, monic distortion.
AN OUTBOARD SPEECH allowing precise adjustment to an in- Second -formant energy containing
PROCESSOR FOR SSB most of the speech articulation is
dividual's voice characteristics for maxi-
The unit pictured in Fig. 35 features a mum effectiveness. translated to 9 MHz for rf clipping. The
combination of processing techniques Since the low- frequency formant oc- narrow- bandwidth crystal filters used at
borrowed from various successful designs cupies only one octave of spectrum width, this frequency have much steeper skirts
of the past. Fig. 36 is a functional block it can be clipped at audio ( baseband) than would be obtainable by ordinary
diagram of the system. The most signifi- without excessive distortion. Clipping a means in the baseband. After rf process-
cant speech formants ( 300 to 600 Hz and sinusoidal waveform generates only odd ing, the second -
formant signal is
1400 to 2500 Hz) are separated by means harmonics. The third harmonic of the heterodyned back to the baseband for
of active filters and processed in- lowest voice frequency falls outside the recombination with the first -
formant in-
dependently. Independent formant pro- filter passband, so the amount of audio formation.

BALANCED MODULATOR CLIPPER

2N2222 2N2222

AUDIO
INPUT

CARRIER
NULL

BUFFER

VI • 8.998 MHz

LOCAL OSCILLATOR

JISIL
40ovr 7 7

117 VAC

001
r T 7 400V

Fig. 38 — Schematic diagram of the rf board and power supply.

Cl — Pc- mount trimmer capacitor, E. F terminations. Fox-Tango TF - 90H1.8. FT37-72 core.
Johnson 189-506-105 or equiv. RFC — 10 turns no. 26 enameled wire on Vi — Quartz crystal, 8.998 MHz, parallel mode,
FL1, FL2 — Crystal filter, 9.0 MHz center FT37-72 toroidal core. (approx. 50 b4H) 32 pF. Spectrum International XF-901 or
frequency, 1.9 kHz bandwidth, 500 ohm T1 — 10 trifilar turns no. 26 enameled wire on equiv.

12.22 Chapter 12
 Figs. 37 and 38 are the schematic zero-impedance source that swings sym- and electrical integrity. Miniature coaxial
diagrams for the af and rf sections. metrically about ground. cable is used for audio connections to the
Substituting wider 2.4- or 2.7 kHz-
front and rear panels and between boards.
bandwidth crystal filters for the units Construction
A shield wall is visible in Fig. 39. This is to
specified will allow a somewhat simpler The processor is housed in a6-3/4-inch reduce LO leakage around the balanced
circuit and construction in that only the rf (171-mm)-square X 2-1/2 -inch (63-mm)- modulator. The rf board is copper clad on
processing section need be built. The high box fashioned from pc-board both sides, and the top side is used for a
economic advantage of such a scheme is material. The copper sides face inward, ground plane. Be sure to solder all ground
small, because the crystal filters are the and the seams are soldered full length for connections top and bottom where ap-
most expensive components in the pro- shielding against rf from the transmitter. plicable.
cessor. Filters suitable for this application Some construction details are revealed in There are no unusual components used
are in the $55 price class, regardless of Fig. 39. Flanges soldered to the top cover in the processor. The two FETs are
bandwidth. In any event, the balanced provide anchors for sheet-metal screws stocked by Radio Shack, as are the opera-
modulator must be supplied audio from a through the sides, ensuring mechanical tional amplifier ICs and bipolar

DEMOD
SUMMING AMP

+t2V

100e
OUTPUT
LEVEL

0.01

47K
RI- 2 00

LOW 1'
560

CLIPPED US - TL081
AUDIO
IN

SWITCHING DETAIL

S2A lOUT OUT S2B

TO TRANSMITTER
—(3
PROCESSOR MIKE INPUT
CIRCUITRY

ROT

0 TO TRANSMIT'F

O PTT IMP

US

IN OUT
ECG 961 0 2v REGULATED RESISTORS ARE 2 59,1/4 W

T,.
J.
.
470F tyF UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED
T 25V 25V
,

NON -POLARIZED CAPACITORS ARE

, ) ) /
DISC CERAMIC , 100 WVDC
DECIMAL VALUES IN yE, OTHERS
IN pF ; S.M.• SILVER MICA

U6

IN OUT

ir
ECG 960 +12V REGULATED

1
.2L. 1PF

25V 25V 25V

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-23

 (A)

Fig. 39 — Interior view of the speech pro-

cessor, showing the rf board. The audio board
nests beneath the rf board. The power supply
components and microphone connectors are
mounted on the rear panel.

transistors. Perhaps the most difficult

items to procure are the polystyrene
capacitors. Mylar units can be substituted
if necessary, and the values specified can
be synthesized from series and parallel
combinations. Try to hold the capacitance
values within 10 percent of nominal for
predictable filter response.

Adjustment and Operation

A calibrated audio sine- wave generator
is required for initial setup. An indicating
device is also needed — an oscilloscope is
the most useful instrument for this pur-
pose, but an audio voltmeter can be used
if the operator can interpret it properly.
The first step is to make sure the power
"supplies are functioning. Most of the ad-
justments must be made with the boards AUDIO OUTPUT 0.033
TO SUMMING AMP
separated. Set the LO frequency to
8.99795 MHz. The demodulator source
resistor is the best place to connect a
counter. With the audio input short-
circuited, adjust the CARRIER NULL poten-
tiometer for minimum signal at the input
_46
of FL1. Now apply a 2000- Hz signal
having amplitude equal to the station 0.033

microphone output with anormal whistle.

IOK
Adjust the preamplifier GAIN control to
produce the desired amount of clipping,
measured at the demodulator drain. The
a
amount of clipping is the input signal
reduction necessary to produce a slight
CD TC-1
2N2222

reduction in output. A reasonable value is (:) 2N2222

10 dB. -CO}
Move the signal generator to 500 Hz
1.0K
and set the CLIPPING control for slight 270K

clipping, measured at the output of the

clipper stage. Adjust the OFFSET poten- 93)

tiometer for symmetrical clipping. After

symmetry has been achieved, the audio
Fig. 40 — (A) Full-scale etching pattern for the audio processing board, shown from the foil side.
clipping can be set to the desired level. Black represents unetched copper. This pc board is clad on one side only. ( B) Parts- placement
There is room for considerable ex- guide for the audio board. The component side is shown with an x-ray view of the foil. J = wire
perimentation with this level, but a good jumper.

12-24 Chapter 12
starting point is equal to the rf clipping.
Once the rf and af clipping have been set,
they can be varied simultaneously by
changing the preamplifier GAIN adjust-
ment. The OUTPUT LEVEL potentiometer is

er :emirs 8
normally adjusted to produce an output
equal to the microphone input at the clip-
ping threshold.
Because considerable gain is needed to
effect clipping, this processor (like all
others) will amplify background noise
e:Jp"i‘s)
from clocks and blowers. To realize the
communications advantage possible with
this processor, it must be used in aquiet
operating room. This unit is purposely
devoid of external knobs to encourage •
• • •
proper adjustment with instruments and
to combat the all-too-prevalent amateur

9oa
(A)
philosophy " if alittle is good, more is bet-
ter, and too much is just right."

A Sideband-Generator Module
A practical circuit for a simple ssb
.
,
4 lei 88
generator is given in Fig. 42. Output is at 9

°‘
MHz. This circuit can be followed by ap-
propriate stages of the designer's choice,
thereby making it possible to heterodyne
the 9-MHz energy to a desired amateur
band. Circuit design information for the
additional stage necessary to build acom-
plete exciter is found elsewhere in this
book and in Solid State Design for the 0.0.0-0-e0rr S
Radio Amateur.
60+ 40
A 741 op amp functions as the audio
amplifier in Fig. 42. Output from U1is g8
supplied to the gates of Ql. Q1 and Q2 are
used as abalanced modulator. MOSFET
are used to prevent changes in gate-source
capacitance when the audio level is in- •
creased by means of RI. JFETs will not
work properly at QI and Q2 because the
AUDIO INPUT FROM
junction capacitance changes with in- AUDIO BOARD

creased audio drive, thereby unbalancing

the modulator.
TI is a broadband trifilar-wound

a
toroidal transformer. It provides the 560
160_

necessary 180° phase difference for the

90H1 8 ? B

drains of Q1 and Q2 while coupling the C° F

'2v-
balanced modulator output to the i -f
preamplifier, Q3. 2C5-
R2 compensates for differences in T1

operating level between Q1 and Q2. This - (=a-

330
1N914
balancing control makes it unnecessary to 11:914
270

use matched transistors in the balanced (PG d m (2)--

90H1 8
modulator. R2 is adjusted for maximum
carrier suppression, which will be on the ¶00 GE3_,70 I2000

3, Pk)
e

order of 45 to 50 dB, according to lab tests 270

with aspectrum analyzer. The Smeter of

ezît, ( —0220
D S
CLI) 9
ageneral-coverage receiver will suffice for Co on)
adjustment of the carrier null. HIGH -Z
OUTPUT — e Lle -4D
1-C' --E) 10K •
Q4 is a variable dc attenuator. For cw
LOW - 2
operation, S2 is placed in the cw position OUTPUT

and R3 is advanced until the desired car-

rier level is obtained. As the collector cur- AUDIO INPUT TO

rent of Q4 increases with elevated forward SUMMING AMP

18)
bias, the source voltage of Q2 is shifted to
permit carrier insertion during cw use.
Q3 functions as an i -fpreamplifier and
Fig. 41 — (A) Full-scale etching pattern for the rf board, shown from the foil side. Black
helps compensate for the 5-dB insertion represents unetched copper. This pc board is clad on both sides. ( B) Parts-placement guide for
loss of FL1. It operates in Class A. The the rf board. The component side is shown with an x-ray view of the foil. J = wire jumper. The
filter must be terminated in a load circled lotterc oorrespond to the terminals of Ti. (Gee Fig. 38)

Single-Sideband Transmission 12-25

 +12V TI 5.6k

SPEECH AMP I- F AMP 9 MHz

Z

100k 100 • r r -rrn__-

252222 500 n
03
BAL. MOD.
• _PrIr Y -1.
30
0.01
z.uDIO
NPUT
27
01
40673 Q; 90673

0.1 02

TO STBY SWITCH ( 412V

22mF
--; 22,uF
I5V
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I ,IJF I ;

T
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( HF OR .u,UF);
412V 0.001 R2 RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;

CARRIER X • 1000, M•1000 000.

18.2] BAL
OSC. 9MHz AMP 252222

MPF102 04
0 05 06 2N2222 22

GW 52
o 12V
0 01

55B

CW DRIVE

4321
0.01
nrinn
TOP U1
CSD
S
UULIL.1
• • PHASING 05 5678
03, 04,06 01, 02

DC VOLTAGE BOTTOM VIEWS

0 • PK-PK VOLTAGE

Fig. 42 — Schematic diagram of a practical 9- MHz ssb generator. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless otherwise noted. Polarized
capacitors are aluminum or tantalum. Fixed -value resistors are 112 watt composition.
Cl C2 — Miniature 30-pF trimmer. NPO R2 — 1000-0 pc-board- mount control, wire on a T50-2 iron core. µe = 10, dia = 0.5
ceramic preferred. R3 — 25-M1 linear-taper control, panel inch. Link has 10 turns of no. 30 insulated
C3, C4 — Miniature 60-pF trimmer. Mica mounted. wire over D1 end of primary.
compression type suitable. Si, S2 — Single-pole, double-throw miniature 73 — 10-pH. 44 turns of no. 26 enam. wire on
D1 — 9.1-V, 400-mA zener diode. switch, panel mounted. a T50-2 iron core. Link has 22 turns of no.
FL1 — Spectrum International 9- MHz Ti — 15 trifilar turns of no. 26 enam. wire 30 insulated wire over cold end of primary.
crystal- lattice filter. Type XF-9A. (twist 10 times per inch) on an FT-50-61 Y1, Y2 — Crystals to match FL1. Obtain from
(see () ST ads). toroid core (ye = 125, dia = 0.5 inch/13 mm). filter manufacturer or International Crystal
R1 — 10- kit audio-taper control, panel T2 — 10-pH primary. 44 turns no. 26 enam. Mfg. Co.
mounted.

'4Fit
resistance of 500 ohms for proper pass- convenience in ssb operation. The unit threshold voltage, have been used as
band response. described here is compact and uses inex- audio rectifiers instead of silicon units.
The carrier generator consists of Q5 pensive components. It is ideal for inclu- The outputs of the two rectifier stages are
and Q6. Two crystals are used at Q5 to sion in ahome-built transceiver or exciter, summed resistively by means of R6 and
permit operation on upper or lower side- or retrofitting to commercial gear that R7, and applied to the inverting input of a
band. Cl and C2 are adjusted so that the does not have VOX. The performance of voltage comparator, U1D. The output of
carrier is placed at the correct point on the this unit is improved over previously U ID remains high (approximately 0.5 volt
filter (FL1) curve. This is approximately published versions because of amodifica- less than the supply voltage) so long as the
20 dB down from the peak response. The tion suggested by W7KGZ. voltage at the noninverting input is less
trimmers can be set while listening to the than the 0.2-volt reference applied to the
ssb signal on acommunications receiver. Circuit Description inverting input. Whenever the input ex-
They are adjusted for best " naturalness" The schematic diagram of the VOX ceeds the reference, the output of the
of the operator's voice, consistent with device is shown in Fig. 45. Three of the comparator goes low — to near the
adequate rejection of the unwanted side- LM3900 sections have been configured as ground or common potential. Voltage
band. high-gain audio amplifiers. UIA and U1B output from the microphone-signal recti-
e
Q àrnplifies the 9-MHz output of Q5 amplify the signal from the microphone. fier is positive and, thus, will cause the
to provide 4volts pk-pk ( 1.4 volts rms) of U1C functions as an amplifier for audio comparator to switch as soon as the refer-
injection on the sources of QI and Q2. sampled at the station speaker. Coupling ence is exceeded. Because the speaker-
Circuit boards and negatives for this capacitors in the audio stages have been signal rectifier produces negative voltage,
circuit can be obtained from Circuit chosen to reduce response below 300 Hz. it will not trigger the comparator. If the
Board Specialists, Box 969, Pueblo, CO This will minimize hum problems. outputs of the two rectifiers are equal, as
81002. Figs. 43 and 44 are etching pattern Outputs from the microphone and will happen when the microphone is pick-
and parts-placement guide, respectively. speaker amplifiers are capacitively cou- ing up audio from the speaker, the result-
pled to rectifier stages which convert the ing voltage from the summing network
A Modern Solid-State VOX audio signals to varying dc voltages. Ger- will be zero and the comparator will not
Voice-operated T- R control is a great manium diodes, because of their lower trigger. The ability to reject speaker audio

12.26 Chapter 12
 is usually called the antirox function.
The positive-to-ground transition of
the comparator output starts the timing
cycle of the 555. The length of the time cy-
cle is determined by the values used for R9
and CI. The time delay produced is iden-
tical each time the microphone signal
stops. Q1 allows the 555 to be retriggered
continuously. One of the major difficul-
ties of earlier VOX circuits was that the
capacitor discharge circuits were used
where the capacitor would not always be
fully charged, so the time delay produced
would vary.
The 555 has a current-switching capa-
bility of 200 mA, sufficient to directly
drive either arelay oi asolid-state switch-
ing arrangement. D5 is included to protect
the IC from transients generated when
switching an inductive load such as arelay
coil.

Components and Construction

The VOX unit is constructed on a2-3/8
X 2- 3/4-inch (60 x 70- mm) etched cir-
cuit board. The photo indicates that one-
third of the board real estate is unused, so
asmaller version is possible. The type of Fig. 43 — Full-scale etching pattern for the ssb generator pc board, shown from the foil side.
Black represents unetched copper.
controls and relay employed will be deter-
mined by the builder's individual re-
quirements. This unit uses pc- mount con- + 12V

trols which are aligned on the board so

that they may be accessed through small
holes in the rear panel of the transceiver.
If panel- mount controls are desired,
Mallory MLC units may be used for R4,
R5 and R8.
The VOX device is small enough so it
MINIM
FILTER
can be mounted inside most rigs. If a
separate VOX unit is needed, asmall util-
ity box or Minibox will make an appro-
priate housing. Rf interference can cause
trouble, so the unit should be shielded in
any application where rf fields may be
present. The bypass capacitors for the
audio inputs are located on the circuit
board. If the leads from the audio connec-
tors are more than a few inches long, the
bypass capacitors and their associated
ferrite- bead chokes should be mounted at
the connectors.
G4
No provision has been made for mount-
ing the relay on the circuit board, as the
type of relay will depend on how the VOX
device will be used. Any 12-volt relay
which requires less than 200 mA of cur-
rent can be employed. When the VOX re-
lay must drive asecond relay, such as the
antenna relay in a transceiver, the fast
operating time of areed relay is needed to
prevent clipping of the first syllable
Fig. 44 — Parts- placement guide for the ssb generator from the component side with an x-ray
spoken. The total close time of all relays
view of the foil.
connected in tandem should be 10 milli-
seconds or less. If the VOX relay will per-
form all switching functions directly, a
miniature control relay such as the Potter The circuit board is designed for bent too close to the body of the diode,
& Brumfield RIO series is appropriate. 1/4-watt resistors which are mounted flat. breakage can result. If excessive heat is
These relays are available in 2-, 4- and If 1/2-watt units are used, they must be applied to the diode, it can be damaged,
6-pole versions, part numbers RIO- E1- Y2- positioned vertically. Care must be so use aheat sink ( such as asmall alligator
185, R10- E1- Y4-V185 and RIO-EI-Y6- employed when mounting and solderin t clip) when soldering. Assure that proper
V90, respectively. the gcrmanium diodes. If the leads are polarity is nhcerved when installing the

SingleSideband Transmission 12-27

 MIC PREAMP AUDIO AMP COMPARATOR

R2

47M
2k 1M 1M
RFC1
001 Ri
AUDIO DETECTOR T Pi

g.?7-13-1 1 100 22É"

.
INPUT .7,300 - IFV\Ar e 16V
• R:k
1

) / MIC 001 47 k
o 1N67A +1

R3
1N67A IDI R7 100k

GAIN 47k
10M 220
22M
/- 7- 7

/ /
AUDIO DETECTOR R6
47k
AUDIO AMP DELAY AND RELAY DRIVER
D4

ANTIVOX 10M - I( • t
4 RFC3
RFC2 01 iN674 DELAY ADJ.
GAIN 47M
1N67A 103 - 7. 04-i2V

RCVR
00
RE1 °
AUDIO 0 01
/- /- 7 100k
INPUT
47 2
R5
5000 16v

10k

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

o, 4 8 3

CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARAOS I.pf I; 2N5139

2 6
OTHERS ARE IN P1COFARADS Ipf OR pie Y,
NE555 7 IDS
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ; IN 4001
k 1000, H•1000 000.
0 01
10pF
16V /

Fig. 45 — Schematic diagram of the VOX unit. Unless otherwise specified, resistors are 1/4- watt co mposition. Capacitors with polarity marked are
plastic-encapsulated tantalum: others are disc ceramic.
Cl — For text reference. similar. R4, R5, R8 — Miniature control ( see text).
D1-1)4, incl. — Germanium diode, 1N34A, 1N67 K1 — Miniature type, 12- volt coil ( see text). RFC1-RFC3, Inc' — Ferrite bead
or equivalent. 01 — 2N5139 silicon pnp. U1 — National Semiconductor LM3900.
D5 — Silicon diode, 50 PRV or more, 1N4001 or R1- R3. incl., R6, R7 — For text reference. U2 — Type 555 timer.

l'appentus, Bruene and Schoemke. Single Sideband

diodes and tantalum capacitors. microphone input of the VOX unit. The
Principles and Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 1964.
mie gain control should be set so that the Amateur Single Sideband, by Collins Radio
Installation and Operation Company, 1962.
VOX relay closes each time a word is
Newland, " A Safe Method for Etching Crystals"
Typical connections for the VOX unit spoken. The delay control should be ad- QST, January 1958.
are shown in Fig. 47. Shielded cable justed to fit individual speech patterns Kosowsky, " High Frequency Crystal Filter Design
should be used for all audio connections. Techniques and Applications," Proceedings of the
and operating habits. The delay time must IRE. February 1958.
Audio for the antivox function can be be long enough that the VOX relay will Weaver and Brown, " Crystal Lattice Filters," QST,
iampled
le at the station speaker or at the drop out only during a pause in speech. June 1951.
Good, " A Crystal Filter for Phone Reception,"
jhone-patch output ( which is a feature of There are two methods of setting the an- QST, October 1951.
• many commercial transceivers). If VOX tivox gain control. The first way is simply Burns, " Sideband Filters Using Crystals," QST,
No%ember 1954.
operation of a cw rig is desired, connect to advance the control until audio from Morrison, " Cascaded Half- Lattice Crystal Filters
the output of a sidetone monitor to the the speaker does not trip the VOX unit. A for Phone and C.W. Reception," QST, May 1954.
Vester, " Surplus-Crystal High Frequency Filters,"
more scientific approach is to connect a
QST, January 1959.
voltmeter to TP 1. With no audio input, Vester, " Mobile S.S.B. Transceiver," QST, June
the meter should read only the com- 1959.

parator reference voltage, approximately

0.1 volt. Tune the receiver to provide a
12V DC
steady tone signal, such as the heterodyne + -

note from a crystal calibrator. Advance

the antivox control until the voltmeter MIC
INPUT
registers only the reference voltage. The RELAY

antivox gain should be set with the audio TO

OUTPUT
RELAY
from the speaker slightly louder than is TRANSCEIVER

ANTI-
necessary during normal operation. VOX
INPUT

SPKR
SSB Selected Bibliography
FROM
TRANSCEIVER
Single Sideband for the Radio Amateur, American
Fig. 46 — the VOX unit shown here was de- Radio Relay League, Fifth Edition, 1970,
Hennebury, Single Sideband Handbook, Technical
signed and built by N1RM. It originally ap-
Material Corporation, 1964. Fig. 47 — Typical connections to the VOX unit.
peared in March 1976 QST.

12-28 Chapter 12
Chapter 13

Frequency Modulation
and Repeaters

M ethods of radiotelephone com-

munication by frequency modulation
cannot be varied without also varying the
phase, and vice versa.
were developed in the 1930s by Major Ed- The effectiveness of fm and pm for
win Armstrong in an attempt to reduce communication purposes depends almost
the problems of static and noise entirely on the receiving methods. If the
associated with receiving a-m broadcast receiver will respond to frequency and
transmissions. The primary advantage of phase changes but is insensitive to
fm, the ability to produce ahigh signal-to- amplitude changes, it will discriminate
noise ratio when receiving asignal of only against most forms of noise, particularly
moderate strength, has made fm the mode impulse noise such as that set up by
chosen for mobile communications ser- ignition systems and other sparking
vices and quality broadcasting. The disad- devices. Special methods of detection are
vantages, the wide bandwidth required required to accomplish this result.
and the sometimes poor results obtained Modulation methods for fm and pm are
when an fm signal is propagated via the simple and require practically no audio
ionosphere (because of phase distortion), power. Furthermore, since there is no
have limited the use of frequency modula- amplitude variation in the signal, in-
tion to the 10-meter band and the vhf/uhf terference to broadcast reception resulting
section of the spectrum. from rectification of the transmitted Fig. 1 — Many hams think the first vhf
Fm has some impressive advantages for signal in the audio circuits of the bc repeater began operation back in the '60s. No
way. W1AWW, later W1HMO, relayed 5-meter
vhf operation, especially when compared receiver is substantially eliminated.
signals in 1932. The station was installed in a
to a-m. With fm the modulation process 90-foot lookout tower near Springfield,
takes place in a low-level stage and Frequency Modulation Massachusetts.
remains the same, regardless of transmit-
Fig. 2 is a representation of frequency
ter power. The signal may be frequency
modulation. When amodulating signal is
multiplied after modulation, and the PA applied, the carrier frequency is increased
stage can be operated Class C for best during one half cycle of the modulating
efficiency, as the " final" need not be signal and decreased during the half cycle
linear. of opposite polarity. This is indicated in
In recent years there has been in- the drawing by the fact that the rf cycles
creasing use of fm by amateurs operating occupy less time ( higher frequency) when (A)
around 29.6 MHz in the 10-meter band.
the modulating signal is positive, and WAVESHAPE OF MODULATING SIGNAL

The vhf spectrum now in popular use

more time ( lower frequency) when the
includes 52 to 54 MHz, 146 to 148 MHz,
modulating signal is negative. The change
222 to 225 MHz, and 440 to 450 MHz.
in the carrier frequency ( frequency devi-
The subject of fm and repeaters is covered ation) is proportional to the instantaneous
in great depth in the ARRL publication, amplitude of the modulating signal. Thus,
FM and Repeaters for the Radio Amateur. the deviation is small when the instan-
Angle Modulation taneous amplitude of the modulating
signal is small, and is greatest when
It is possible to convey intelligence by
the modulating signal reaches its peak,
modulating any property of a carrier,
either positive or negative. As shown in
including its frequency and phase. When
the drawing, the amplitude of the signal
the frequency of the carrier is varied in
does not change during modulation.
accordance with the variations in a
modulating signal, the result is frequency Fig. 2 — Graphical repres eirrir
' l' ._' ' — uency
modulation ( fm). Similarly, varying the Phase Modulation modulation. In the unmodu Garr at A,
phase of the carrier current is called phase each rf cycle occupies the same amount of
If the phase of the current in a circuit
time. When the modulating signal, B, is ap-
modulation ( pm). shifts there is an instantaneous frequency plied, the radio frequency is increased and
Frequency and phase modulation are change during the time that the phase is decreased according to the amplitude and
nnt independent, since the frequency shifting. The amount of frequency POlaritv of the modulating signal.

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-1

change, or deviation, is directly propor- Fig. 3shows how the amplitudes of the
tional to how rapidly the phase is shifting carrier and the various sidebands vary
and the total amount of the phase shift. with the modulation index. This is for
The rapidity of the phase shift is directly single-tone modulation: the first sideband
proportional to the frequency of the (actually apair, one above and one below
modulating signal. Further, in aproperly the carrier) is displaced from the carrier
operating pm system the amount of phase by an amount equal to the modulating
shift is proportional to the instantaneous frequency, the second is twice the modu-
amplitude of the modulating signal. This lating frequency away from the carrier.
means that the amount of frequency and so on. For example, if the modulating
change, or deviation caused by a phase frequency is 2000 Hz and the carrier Fig. 3 — How the amplitude of the pair of
modulator, is directly proportional to frequency is 29,500 kHz, the first sideband sidebands varies with the modulation index in
an fm or pm signal. If the curves were ex-
both the instantaneous voltage and the pair is at 29,498 kHz and 29,502 kHz, the
tended for greater values of modulation index
frequency of the modulating signal. This second pair is at 29,496 kHz and 29,504 the carrier amplitude would go through zero at
is the outstanding difference between fm kHz, the third at 29,494 kHz and 29,506 several points. The same statement also ap-
and pm, since in fm the frequency devia- kHz, and so on. The amplitudes of these plies to the sidebands.

tion is proportional only to the amplitude sidebands depend on the modulation

of the modulating signal. Apart from this index, not on the frequency deviation.
characteristic there is no way to Note that as shown in Fig. 3, the carrier equivalent to that of an a-m signal. In the
distinguish between the two. strength varies with the modulation index. case of speech, a somewhat higher
(In amplitude modulation the carrier modulation index can be used. This is
strength is constant; only the sideband because the energy distribution in a
FM and PM Sidebands
amplitude varies.) At amodulation index complex wave is such that the modulation
The sidebands set up by fm and pm dif- of approximately 2.4, the carrier disappears index for any one frequency component is
fer from those resulting from a-m in that entirely. It then becomes " negative" at a reduced as compared to the index with a
they occur at integral multiples of the higher index, meaning that its phase sine wave having the same peak amplitude
modulating frequency on either side of the is reversed compared to the phase as the voice wave.
carrier rather than, as in a-m, consisting without modulation. In fm and pm the The chief advantage of fm or pm for
of asingle set of side frequencies for each energy that goes into the sidebands is frequencies below 30 MHz is that it
modulating frequency. An fm or pm taken from the carrier, the total power eliminates or reduces certain types of in-
signal therefore inherently occupies a remaining the same regardless of the terference to broadcast reception. In addi-
wider channel than a-m. modulation index. tion, the modulating equipment is relative-
The number of " extra" sidebands Since there is no change in amplitude ly simple and inexpensive. However,
which occurs in fm and pm depends on with modulation, an fm or pm signal can assuming the same unmodulated carrier
the relationship between the modulating be amplified without distortion by an power in all cases, narrow-band fm or pm
frequency and the frequency deviation, in ordinary Class C amplifier. The modu- is not as effective as a-m with the methods
hertz, and the modulating frequency, also lation can take place in a very low-level or reception used by many amateurs. To
in hertz, is called the modulation index. stage and the signal can then be amplified obtain the benefits of the fm mode, agood
That is by either frequency multipliers or straight- fm receiver is required. As shown in Fig.
through amplifiers. 3, at an index of 0.6 the amplitude of the
If the modulated signal is passed first sideband is about 25 percent of the
modulation index = carrier frequency deviation through one or more frequency multi- unmodulated-carrier amplitude: this com-
modulating frequency pliers, the modulation index is multiplied pares with a sideband amplitude of 50
by the same factor that the carrier percent in the case of a 100 percent
Example: The maximum frequency devia- frequency is multiplied. For example, if modulated a-m transmitter. When copied
tion in an fm transmitter is 3000 Hz either modulation is applied on 3.5 MHz and the on an a- m receiver, anarrow-band fm or
side of the carrier frequency. The modula- final output is on 28 MHz, the total pm transmitter is about equivalent to a
tion index when the modulation frequency frequency multiplication is eight times, so 100-percent modulated a-m transmitter
is 1000 Hz is if the frequency deviation is 500 Hz at 3.5 operating at one-fourth the carrier power.
MHz it will be 4000 Hz at 28 MHz. On asuitable ( fm) receiver, fm is as good
Modulation index = 3000 = 3 Frequency multiplication offers a means or better than a-m, watt for watt.
1000 for obtaining practically any desired The deviation standard now is ± 5kHz,
At the same deviation with 3000 Hz amount of frequency deviation, whether popularly known as narrow band. For a
modulation the index would be 1; at 100 or not the modulator itself is capable of while after WW II, 2.5- to 3- kHz
Hz it would be 30, and so on. giving that much deviation without deviation (" sliver band") was used on 10
distortion. meters and the vhf bands. During the ' 60s
Given a constant input level to the
modulator, in pm the modulation index is and early ' 70s 15 kHz was extensively used
constant regardless of the modulating fre- Bandwidth since many amateur rigs were commercial
surplus. Narrow- band deviation develop-
quency; in fm it varies with the FCC amateur regulations (97.61) limit
modulating frequency, as shown in the ed as a middle ground between audio
the bandwidth of F3 (frequency and phase
quality and spectrum conservation. The
above example. In an fm system the ratio modulation) to that of an a-m transmis-
rule-of-thumb for determination of band-
of the maximum carrier-frequency devia- sion having the same audio characteristics
width requirements for an fm system is
tion to the highest modulating frequency below 29.0 MHz. Greater bandwidths are
used is called the deviation ratio. Whereas allowed from 29.0 to 29.7 MHz and above 2 (AF + FA max )
modulation index is a variable that 50.1 MHz. where
depends on aset of operating conditions, If the modulation index ( with single- AF = 1/2 total frequency deviation
deviation ratio is a constant. The devia- tone modulation) does not exceed 0.6 or FA max = maximum audio frequency
tion ratio for narrow-band fm is 5000 Hz 0.7, the most important extra sideband, (3 kHz) for communication purposes)
(maximum deviation) divided by 3000 Hz the second, will be at least 20 dB below the
(maximum modulating frequency) and is unmodulated carrier level. This should Thus, for narrow-band fm, the bandwidth
equal to 1.67. represent an effective channel width about equals (2)(5 + 3) or 16 kHz. Wide-band

13-2 Chapter 13
 CZ 50 OSC TANK
•—p-To osc
+12V
47k LI

Fig. 4 — Output frequency spectrum of a

AUDIO
INPUT
narrow- band fm transmitter modulated by a
1-kHz tone.

REACTANCE MODULATOR
systems need a 36- kHz receiver band- (A)
width.
15
Comparison of FM and PM (-HO FOOUTPUT
Frequency modulation cannot be ap-
plied to an amplifier stage, but phase 5pF 50pH 40637 RFC
15V 50pH
modulation can; pm is therefore readily O HO-

adaptable to transmitters employing oscil-

lators of high stability such as the 0
001
crystal-controlled type. The amount of
470
phase shift that can be obtained with good
linearity is such that the maximum 390
practicable modulation index is about 0.5.
Because the phase shift is proportional to 120
the modulating frequency, this index can
+12V
be used only at the highest frequency 91V
present in the modulating signal, as- VARACTOR REACTANCE MODULATOR
suming that all frequencies will at one (B)

time or another have equal amplitudes.

Taking 3000 Hz as asuitable upper limit
Fig. 5 — Reactance modulators using (A) a high-transconductance MOSFET and (
B) avaractor
for voice work, and setting the modu- diode.
lation index at 0.5 for 3000 Hz, the
frequency response of the speech- amp-
lifier system above 3000 Hz must be
stability, since the greater the inherent oscillator tank, giving the same effect as
sharply attenuated, to prevent excess
stability of the oscillator the more difficult though an inductance were connected
splatter. (See Fig. 4.) If the " tinny" quali- it is to secure awide frequency swing with across the tank. The frequency increases
ty of pm as received on an fm receiver is to linearity. in proportion to the amplitude of the
be avoided, the audio input must be pro- lagging plate current of the modulator.
cessed to cause the pm output to have the Frequency Modulation Methods:
The audio voltage, introduced through a
same modulation index as an fm signal. Direct FM
radio- frequency choke, varies the trans-
This requires shaping the speech-amplifier A simple, satisfactory device for pro- conductance of the transistor and thereby
frequency-response curve in such a way ducing fm in the amateur transmitter is varies the rf drain current.
that the output voltage is inversely pro- the reactance modulator. This is avacuum The modulated oscillator usually is
portional to frequency over most of the tube or transistor connected to the rf tank operated on arelatively low frequency, so
voice range. When this is done the max- circuit of an oscillator in such away as to that ahigh order of carrier stability can be
imum modulation index can only be used act as avariable inductance or capacitance. secured. Frequency multipliers are used to
to some relatively low audio frequency, Fig. SA is arepresentative circuit. Gate raise the frequency to the final frequency
perhaps 300 to 400 Hz in voice transmis- Iof the modulator MOSFET is connected desired.
sion, and must decrease in proportion to across the oscillator tank circuit, C I / LI, A reactance modulator can be con-
the increase in frequency. The result is through resistor RIand blocking capacitor nected to acrystal oscillator as well as to
that the maximum linear frequency devia- C2. C3 represents the input capacitance the self-controlled type as shown in Fig.
tion is only one or two hundred hertz. To of the modulator transistor. The resis- 5B. However, the resulting signal can be
increase the deviation for narrow band re- tance of RI is made large compared more phase- modulated than it is frequen-
quires afrequency multiplication of eight to the reactance of C3, so the rf current cy- modulated, for the reason that the
or more. through R I / C3 will be practically in frequency deviation that can be secured
It is relatively easy to secure a fairly phase with the rf voltage appearing at by varying the frequency of a crystal
large frequency deviation when a self- the terminals of the tank circuit. However, oscillator is quite small.
controlled oscillator is frequency- modu- the voltage across C3 will lag the current The sensitivity of the modulator ( fre-
lated directly. ( True frequency modu- by 90 degrees. The rf current in the drain quency change per unit change in
lation of a crystal-controlled oscillator circuit of the modulator will be in phase modulating voltage) depends on the
results in only very small deviations and with the grid voltage, and consequently is transconductance of the modulator tran-
so requires a great deal of frequency 90 degrees behind the current through C3, sistor. It increases when RI is made
multiplication.) The chief problem is to or 90 degrees behind the rf tank voltage. smaller in comparison with C3. It also in-
maintain a satisfactory degree of carrier This lagging current is drawn through the creases with an increase in L/C i ail() in the

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-3

 PHASE MODULATOR for both modulator and oscillator. the amplitude of the input excitation
75 47 0 001 produce no appreciable variations in the

INPU T
HT()
OUTPUT
Indirect FM output amplitude.
RFC The same type of reactance-tube circuit For the same type of reactance modu-
1rnH
that is used to vary the tuning of the lator, the speech-amplifier gain required
oscillator tank in fm can be used to vary is the same for pm as for fm. However, as
the tuning of an amplifier tank and thus pointed out earlier, the fact that the actual
vary the phase of the tank current for pm. frequency deviation increases with the
Hence the modulator circuit of Fig. 5A or modulating audio frequency in pm makes
6A can be used for pm if the reactance it necessary to cut off the frequencies
transistor or tube works on an amplifier above about 3000 Hz before modulation
AUDIO INPUT tank instead of directly on a self- takes place. If this is not done, un-
(A)
controlled oscillator. If audio shaping is necessary sidebands will be generated at
used in the speech amplifier, as described frequencies considerably removed from
PREEM PH AS I
S
above, an fm-compatible signal will be the carrier.
generated by the phase modulator.
Speech Processing for FM
The phase shift that occurs when a
circuit is detuned from resonance depends The speech amplifier preceding the
0 75H on the amount of detuning and the Q of modulator follows ordinary design, except
the circuit. The higher the Q, the smaller that no power is taken from it and the af
the amount of detuning needed to secure a voltage required by the modulator grid
10
given number of degrees of phase shift. If usually is small — only avolt or two for
the Q is at least 10, the relationship transistors. Because of these modest re-
O AF OUT between phase shift and detuning (in kHz quirements, only a few speech stages are
either side of the resonant frequency) will needed; a two-stage amplifier consisting
be substantially linear over a phase-shift of two bipolar transistors, both resistance-
range of about 25 degrees. From the coupled, will more than suffice for crystal
(B)
standpoint of modulator sensitivity, the ceramic or Hi-Z dynamic microphones.
tuned circuit Q on which the modulator Several forms of speech processing
operates should be as high as possible. On produce worthwhile improvements in fm
DEEMPHASIS
the other hand, the effective Q of the system performance. It is desirable to
75/5%
circuit will not be very high if the limit the peak amplitude of the audio
FR OM TO amplifier is delivering power to a load signal applied to an fm or pm modulator,
AU DIO
DIS CRIMINATO AMP since the load resistance reduces the Q. so that the deviation of the fm transmitter
001 There must therefore be a compromise will not exceed apreset value. This peak
between modulator sensitivity and rf limiting is usually accomplished with a
power output from the modulated amplifi- simple audio clipper placed between the
er. An optimum Q figure appears to be speech amplifier and modulator. The
Fig. 6 — (A) The phase-shifter type of phase
modulator. ( B) preemphasis and (C) de-
about 20; this allows reasonable loading clipping process produces high-order
emphasis circuits. of the modulated amplifier and the harmonics which, if allowed to pass
necessary tuning variation can be secured through to the modulator stage, would
from a reactance modulator without create unwanted sidebands. Therefore, an
difficulty. It is advisable to modulate at a audio low-pass filter with a cut-off
oscillator tank circuit. However, for low power level. frequency between 2.5 and 3 kHz is
highest carrier stability it is desirable to Reactance modulation of an amplifier needed at the output of the clipper. Excess
use the largest tank capacitance that will stage usually results in simultaneous clipping can cause severe distortion of the
permit the desired deviation to be secured amplitude modulation because the modu- voice signal. An audio processor con-
while keeping within the limits of linear lated stage is detuned from resonance as sisting of acompressor and aclipper has
operation. the phase is shifted. This must be been found to produce audio with abetter
A change in any of the voltages on the eliminated by feeding the modulated sound (i.e., less distortion) than aclipper
modulator transistor will cause a change signal through an amplitude limiter or one alone.
in rf drain current, and consequently a or more " saturating" stages — that is, To reduce the amount of noise in some
frequency change. Therefore it is ad- amplifiers that are operated Class C and fm communications systems, an audio
visable to use a regulated power supply driven hard enough so that variations in shaping network called preemphasis is

AUD I
O CLIPPER REACTANCE
AMPLIF I
ER OSCILLATOR MULTIPL I
ER MULT I
PLIER
FILT ER MODULATOR

AUDIO CLIPPER CRYSTAL PHASE

AMPLIFIER OSCI LLATOR MODULATOR MULTIPLIER MULTIPLIER MULT I
PLIER
FILTER

Fig. 7 — Block diagrams of typical fm exciters.

13-4 Chapter 13
 categories, the heterodyne type and the
digital counter. Today the digital counter
-0+ 9-15V
is used almost universally; units counting
i100k to over 500 MHz are available at relatively
TI DI SI low cost in kit form. Even less expensive
1N457 low-frequency counters can be employed
TO by using a prescaler, a device which
DISCRIMINATOR
D2 S2
divides an input frequency by a preset
ratio, usually 10 or 100. Many prescalers
100k may be used at 148 MHz or higher, using a
0.1

10»F
counter with a 2-MHz (or more) upper
T57 MI frequency limit. If the counting system
does not have asufficient upper frequency
470

ji
il _
D3 5 QP F
N4571 15V
limit to measure the output of an fm
transmitter directly, one of the frequency-
multiplier stages can be sampled to pro-
PEAK DEVIATION METER vide asignal in the range of the measure-
(A) ment device. Alternatively, a crystal-
controlled converter feeding an hf receiver
Audio Deviation Produced
Frequency 1st Null 2nd Null
which has accurate frequency readout can
3rd Null
be employed, if a secondary standard is
905.8 Hz ±2.18 kHz ± 5.00 kHz ± 7.84 kHz available to calibrate the receiving system.
1000.0 Hz ±2.40 kHz ± 5.52 kHz ± 8.65 kHz
1500.0 Hz ±3.61 kHz ± 8.28 kHz ±12.98 kHz
1811.0 Hz ±4.35 kHz ±10.00 kHz ±15.67 kHz
Deviation and Deviation Linearity
2000.0 Hz ±4.81 kHz ± 11.04 kHz ±17.31 kHz A simple deviation meter can be
2079.2 Hz ±5.00 kHz ± 11.48 kHz ±17.99 kHz
2805 0 Hz
assembled following the diagram of Fig.
±6.75 kHz ( e) ± 15.48 kHz ±24.27 kHz
8A. This circuit was designed by K6VKZ.
The output of a wide- band receiver
Fig. 8 - (A) Schematic diagram of the deviation meter. Resistors are 1/2-watt composition and
capacitors are ceramic, except those with polarity marked, which are electrolytic. D1- D3, incl., are discriminator (before any deemphasis) is
high-speed silicon switching diodes. R1 is a linear-taper composition control, and Si, S2 are spst fed to two amplifier transistors. The
toggle switches. Ti is a miniature audio transformer with 10-kft primary and 20-kft center-tapped output of the amplifier section is trans-
secondary (Triad A31X). ( B) Chart of audio frequencies which will produce a carrier null when the former coupled to apair of rectifier diodes
deviation of an fm transmitter is set for the values given.
to develop adc voltage for the meter, MI.
There will be an indication on the meter
with no signal input because of detected
noise, so the accuracy of the instrument
added at the transmitter to proportionally at the operating frequency. In general, the will be poor on weak signals.
attenuate the lower audio frequencies, system shown at A will require a less To calibrate the unit, signals of known
giving an even spread to the energy in the complex circuit than that at B, but the deviation will be required. If the meter is
audio band. This results in an fm signal of indirect method ( B) often produces su- to be set to read 0-15 kHz, then a7.5-kHz
nearly constant energy distribution. perior results. deviation test signal should be employed.
Preemphasis applied to an fm transmitter RI is then adjusted until MI reads half
will give the emission the deviation Testing an FM Transmitter scale, 50 µA. To check the peak deviation
characteristics of pm. The reverse process, Accurate checking of the operation of of an incoming signal, close both Si and
called deemphasis, is accomplished at the an fm or pm transmitter requires different S2. Then, read the meter. Opening first
receiver to restore the audio to its original methods than the corresponding checks one switch and then the other will indicate
relative proportions. See Fig. 6. on an a- m or ssb set. This is because the the amount of positive and negative
common forms of measuring devices deviation of the signal, a check of
FM Exciters
either indicate amplitude variations only deviation linearity.
FM exciters and transmitters take two (a milliammeter, for example), or because
general forms. One, shown at Fig. 7A, their indications are most easily inter- Measurement of Deviation Using Bessel
consists of a reactance modulator which preted in terms of amplitude. Functions
shifts the frequency of an oscillator to The quantities to be checked in an fm Using amathematical relationship known
generate an fm signal directly. Successive transmitter are the linearity and frequency as the Bessel Function it is possible
multiplier stages provide output on the deviation and the output frequency, if the to predict the points at which, with certain
desired frequency, which is amplified by a unit uses crystal control. The methods of audio-input frequencies and predeter-
PA stage. This system has adisadvantage checking differ in detail. mined deviation settings, the carrier
in that, if the oscillator is free running, it is output of an fm transmitter will disappear
difficult to achieve sufficient stability for Frequency Checking
completely. Thus, by monitoring the
vhf use. If acrystal-controlled oscillator is Crystal-controlled, channelized fm carrier frequency with areceiver, it will be
employed, because the amount that the operation requires that a transmitter be possible to identify by ear the deviation at
crystal frequency is changed is kept small, held within a few hundred hertz of the which the carrier is nulled. A heterodyne
it is difficult to achieve equal amounts of desired channel even in the wide-band signal at either the input or receiver i-fis
frequency swing. system. Having the transmitter on the required so that the carrier will produce a
The indirect method of generating fm proper frequency is particularly important beat note which can easily be identified.
shown in Fig. 7B is currently popular. when operating through a repeater. The Other tones will be produced in the
Shaped audio is applied to a phase rigors of mobile and portable operation modulation process, so some concen-
modulator to generate fm. Since the make a frequency check of achannelized tration is required by the operator when
amount of deviation produced is very transceiver agood idea at three-month in- making the test. With an audio tone
small, alarge number of multiplier stages tervals. selected from the chart ( Fig. 8B), advance
is needed to achieve wide-band deviation Frequency meters generally fall into two the deviation control slowly until the first

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-5

Fig. 9 — Fm detector characteristics. Slope
detection, using the sloping side of the
receivers selectivity curve to convert fm to a-m Fig. 10 — Block diagrams of (A) an a-m, (
8) an fm receiver. Dark borders outline the sections that
for subsequent detection. are different in the fm set.

FM Filters
Center Nonimal Ultimate Impedance (r) Insertion Crystal
Manufacturer Model Frequency Bandwidth Rejection In Out Loss Discriminator
KVG ( 1) XF-9E 9.0 MHz 12 kHz 90 dB 1200 1200 3dB XD9-02
KVG ( 1) XF-107A 10.7 MHz 12 kHz 90 dB 820 820 3.5 dB XD107-01
KVG ( 1) XF-107B 10.7 MHz 15 kHz 90 dB 910 910 3.5 dB XD107-01
KVG ( 1) XF-107C 10.7 MHz 30 kHz 90 dB 2000 2000 4.5 dB XD107-01
Heath Dynamics ( 2)- 21.5 MHz 15 kHz 90 dB 550 550 3 dB
Heath Dynamics ( 2) - 21.5 MHz 30 kHz 90 dB 1100 1100 2dB
Clevite (3) TCF4-12D3CA 445 kHz 12 kHz 60 dB 40k 2200 6 dB
Clevite (3) TCF4-18G45A 455 kHz 18 kHz 50 dB 40k 2200 6dB
Clevite (3) TCF6-30D55A 455 kHz 30 kHz 60 dB 20k 1000 5dB

Fig. 11 — A list of fm-bandwidth filters that are available to amateurs. Manufacturers' addresses are as follows: (1) Spectrum international, P.O. Box
1084, Concord, MA 01742; (2) Health Dynamics, Inc., 6050 N. 52nd Ave., Glendale, AZ 85301, tel. 602-934-5234; (3) Semiconductor Specialists, Inc., P.O.
Box 86125, O'Hare International Airport, Chicago, IL 60666.

null is heard. If a higher-order null is side of the selectivity curve. When the Otherwise the functions, and often the
desired, continue advancing the control frequency of the signal varies with circuits, of the rf, oscillator, mixer and
further until the second, and then the modulation it swings as indicated in Fig. audio stages will be the same in either
third, null is heard. Using a carrier null 9, resulting in an a-m output varying receiver.
beyond the third is generally not practical. between X and Y. This is then rectified as In operation, the noticeable difference
For example, if a905.8- Hz tone is used, an a-m signal. between the two receivers is the effect of
the transmitter will be set for 5- kHz With receivers having steep-sided se- noise and interference on an incoming
deviation when the second null is reached. lectivity curves, the method is not very
The second null achieved with a2805- Hz satisfactory because the distortion is quite
audio input will set the transmitter severe unless the frequency deviation is
deviation at 15.48 kHz. The Bessel - small, since the frequency deviation and
function approach can be used to calibrate output amplitude is linear over only a
adeviation meter, such as the unit shown small part of the selectivity curve.
in Fig. 8A.
The FM Receiver
Reception of FM Signals Block diagrams of an a-m/ssb and an
Receivers for fm signals differ from fm receiver are shown in Fig. 10.
others principally in two features — there Fundamentally, to achieve asensitivity of
is no need for linearity preceding de- v,
less than 1m an fm receiver requires a
tection ( it is, in fact, advantageous if gain of several million — too much total
amplitude variations in signal and back- gain to be accomplished with stability on
ground noise can be "washed out") and a single frequency. Thus, the use of the
the detector must be capable of converting superheterodyne circuit has become stan-
frequency variations of the incoming dard practice. Three major differences will
signal into amplitude variations. be apparent from acomparison of the two
Frequency-modulated signals can be block diagrams. The fm receiver employs
Fig. 12 — Representation of limiter action.
received after a fashion on any ordinary a wider- bandwidth filter, a different
Amplitude variations on the signal are removed
receiver. The receiver is tuned to put the detector, and has a limiter stage added by the diode action of the grid- and plate-
carrier frequency partway down on one between the i -famplifier and the detector. current saturation.

13-6 Chapter 13
 needed in the i -
fsystem dictate careful
design and alignment of all interstage
transformers.
For the average ham, the use of ahigh-

!V,
selectivity filter in a homemade receiver
offers some simplification of the align-
ment task. Following the techniques used
in ssb receivers, acrystal or ceramic filter
should be placed in the circuit as close as
possible to the antenna connector — at
the output of the first mixer, in most
Fig. 13 — (A) Input wave form to a limiter stage shows a- m and noise. (
B) The same signal, after cases. Fig. 11 lists a number of suitable
passing through two limiter stages, is devoid of a- m components. filters that are available to amateurs.
Prices for these filters are in the $ 50 range.
Experimenters who wish to " roll their
own" can use surplus hf crystals or
signal. From the time of the first spark capture effect. The loudest signal received, ceramic resonators.
transmitters, " rotten QRN" has been a even if it is only two or three times One item of concern to every amateur
major problem for amateurs. The limiter stronger than other stations on the same fm user is the choice of i -fbandwidth for
and discriminator stages in an fm set can frequency, will be the only transmission his receiver. Deviation of 5 kHz is now
eliminate a good deal of impulse noise, demondulated. By comparison, an S9 a- m standard on the amateur bands. A wide-
except noise which manages to acquire a or cw signal can suffer noticeable inter- band receiver can receive narrowband
frequency- modulation characteristic. Ac- ference from an S2 carrier. signals, suffering only some loss of audio
curate alignment of the receiver i - fsystem in the detection process. Naturally, it also
and phase tuning of the detector are Bandwidth
will be subject to adjacent-channel in-
required to achieve good noise sup- Most fm sets that use tubes achieve i -
f terference, especially in congested areas.
pression. Fm receivers perform in an selectivity by using a number of over-
unusual manner when QRM is present, coupled transformers. The wide band- Limiters
exhibiting a characteristic known as the width and phase- response characteristic When fm was first introduced, the main

FIRST LIMITER SECOND LIMITER

PART OF
455 KHz DISCRIMINATOR TRANSFORMER
455 KHz
01
FROM 2N641 02
I-F 2N641 1
AMP.
I - 270

470

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

82
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS IjiFI; OTHERS
+0 ARE IN PICOFARA DS IpF OR »IF);
12V RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
—0 k .1000. M.1 000 000
4.7,uF
001
+I 15V
/
(A)

FROM PART OF
I- F OH DISC. TRANS.
LIMITER AMP. 001

I - F TRANSFORMER
0.1

FROM
I - F
AMP.
0.1

+11V

(B) (C

Fig. 14 Typical limiter Ciui.uiLs using (A) tubes, (

B) transistors, (C) a ditterential lc, ( U) a high-gain linear IC.

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-7

selling point used for the new mode was not provide good limiting over a wide will be linear.
the noise-free reception possibilities. The range of input signals. Two stages, with A practical discriminator circuit is
circuit in the fm receiver that has the task different input time constants, are a shown in Fig. 16. The fm signal is
of chopping off noise and amplitude minimum requirement. The first stage is converted to a-m by transformer T1.
modulation from an incoming signal is the set to handle impulse noise satisfactorily The voltage induced in the TI secondary
limiter. Most types of fm detectors while the second is designed to limit the is 90 degrees out of phase with the current
respond to both frequency and amplitude range of signals passed on by the first. At in the primary. The primary signal is
variations of the signal. Thus, the limiter frequencies below 1 MHz it is useful to introduced through a center tap on the
stages preceding the detector are included employ untuned RC-coupled limiters secondary, coupled through a capacitor.
to " cleanse" the signal so that only the which provide sufficient gain without a The secondary voltages combine on each
desired frequency modulation will be tendency toward oscillation. side of the center tap so that the voltage
demodulated. This action can be seen in Fig. 14A shows atwo-stage limiter us- on one side leads the primary signal while
Fig. 13. ing transistors in two stages biased for the other side lags by the same amount.
Limiter stages can be designed using limiter service. The base bias on either When rectified, these two voltages are
tubes, transistors, or ICs. For an amplifier transistor may be varied to provide equal and of opposite polarity, resulting
to act as alimiter, the applied voltages are limiting at adesired level. The input-signal in zero-voltage output. A shift in input
chosen so that the stage will overload easi- voltage required to start limiting action is frequency causes ashift in the phase of the
ly, even with asmall amount of signal in- called the limiting knee, referring to the voltage components that results in an
put. As shown in Fig. 12, the input signal point at which collector current ceases to increase of output amplitude on one side
limits when it is of sufficient amplitude so rise with increased input signal. Modern of the secondary, and a corresponding
that diode action of the input voltage and ICs have limiting knees of 100 mV for the decrease on the other side. The differences
output current saturation clip both sides circuit shown in Fig. 14C, using the RCA in the two changing voltages, after
of the input signal, producing aconstant- CA3028A or Motorola MC1550G, or rectification, constitute the audio output.
amplitude output voltage. 200 mV for the MC1590G of Fig. 14D. In the search for a simplified fm
Obviously, a signal of considerable Because the high-gain ICs such as the detector, RCA developed a circuit that
strength is required at the input of the CA3076 and MC1590G contain as many has now become standard in enter-
limiter to assure full clipping, typically 1 as six or eight active stages which will tainment radios which eliminated the need
volt for transistors, and several hundred saturate with sufficient input, one of these for a preceding limiter stage. Known as
microvolts for ICs. Limiting action should devices provides superior limiter per- the ratio detector, this circuit is based on
start with an rf input of 0.21.4V or less, so a formance compared to a pair of tran- the idea of dividing a dc voltage into a
large amount of gain is required between sistors. ratio which is equal to the ratio of the
the antenna terminal and the limiter amplitudes from either side of a dis-
stages. For example, many commercial criminator-transformer secondary. With a
solid-state receivers use nine transistor Detectors detector that responds only to ratios, the
stages to get sufficient gain before the first The first type of fm detector to gain input signal may vary in strength over a
limiter. The new ICs offer some popularity was the frequency discriminat- wide range without causing a change in
simplification of the i -
fsystem, as they or. The characteristic of such a detector the level of output voltage — fm can be
pack alot of gain into asingle package. is shown in Fig. 15. When the fm sig- detected, but not a-m. In an actual ratio
When sufficient signal arrives at the nal has no modulation, and the carrier detector, Fig. 17, the dc voltage required
receiver to start limiting action, the set is at point 0, the detector has no output. is developed across two load resistors,
quiets — that is, the background noise When audio input to the fm transmitter shunted by an electrolytic capacitor.
disappears. The sensitivity of an fm swings the signal higher in frequency, the Other differences include the two diodes,
receiver is rated in terms of the amount of rectified output increases in the positive which are wired in series aiding rather
input signal required to produce agiven direction. When the frequency swings than series opposing, as in the standard
amount of quieting, usually 20 dB. Use of lower the output amplitude increases in discriminator circuit. The recovered audio
solid-state devices allow receivers to the negative direction. Over arange where is taken from a tertiary winding that is
achieve 20 dB quieting with 0.15 to 0.54S the discriminator is linear (shown as the tightly coupled to the primary of the
of input signal. straight portion of the line), the con- transformer. Diode-load resistor values
A single transistor amplifier stage will version of fm to a-m that is taking place are selected to be lower ( 5000 ohms or

DEVIATION
LIMITS

AUDIO
OUTPUT
g+
1111
-
-Io FREQUENCY
o

Fig 15 — The characteristic of an fm

discriminator Fig. 16 — Typical frequency-discriminator circuit used for fm detection. Ti is a Miller 12-C45.

13 -8 Chapter 13
Fig. 17 — A ratio detector of the type often used in entertainment radio and TV sets. Ti is a rat io-
detector transformer such as the Miller 1606.

Fig 19 — ( A) Block diagram of a PLL

demodulator. ( B) Complete PLL circuit

signal. The phase detector produces an

error voltage if any frequency difference
exists between the VCO and the i -fsignal.
This error voltage is applied to the VCO.
Any changes in the frequency of the
incoming signal are sensed at the detector
and the error voltage readjusts the VCO
frequency so that it remains locked to the
Fig. 18 — Crystal discriminator, Cl and Li are resonant at the intermediate frequency. C2 is
equal in value to C3. C4 corrects any circuit imbalance so that equal amounts of signal are fed to intermediate frequency. The bandwidth of
the detector diodes. the system is determined by afilter on the
error-voltage line.
Because the error voltage is acopy of
the audio variations originally used to
less) than for the discriminator. 18. Some commercially made crystal dis-
shift the frequency of the transmitter, the
The sensitivity of the ratio detector is criminators have the input-circuit in-
PLL functions directly as an fm detector.
one-half that of the discriminator. In ductor, LI, built in (Cl must be added)
The sensitivity achieved with the Signetics
general, however, the transformer design while in other types both LI and C2 must
NE565 PLL is good — about 1mV for
values for Q, primary-secondary coupling, be supplied by the builder. Fig. 18 shows
a typical circuit. No transformers or
and load will vary greatly, so the actual typical component values; unmarked
tuned circuits are required. The PLL
performance differences between these parts are chosen to give the desired
bandwidth is usually two to ten per-
two types of fm detectors are usually not bandwidth. Sources for crystal discrimina-
cent of the i -f for fm detection. Com-
significant. Either circuit can provide tors are listed in Fig. 11.
ponents RI/Cl set the VCO to near
excellent results. In operation, the ratio
The PLL the desired frequency. C2 is the loop-filter
detector will not provide sufficient limit-
Since the phase-locked loop (PLL) was capacitor which determines the capture
ing for communications service, so this
reduced to asingle IC package, this circuit range — that range of frequencies over
detector also is usually preceded by at
is revolutionizing some facets of receiver which the loop will acquire lock with an
least a single limiting stage.
design. Introduction by Signetics of a input signal, initially starting out of lock.
Other Detector Designs PLL in asingle flat-pack IC, followed by The NE565 has an upper frequency limit
Motorola and Fairchild (who are making of 500 kHz; for higher frequencies, the
The difficulties often encountered in NE561, which is usable up to 30 MHz,
building and aligning LC discriminators the PLL in separate building-block ICs),
can be employed.
have inspired research that has resulted in allows a builder to get to work with a
a number of adjustment-free fm detector minimum of bother.
A basic phase-locked loop consists Preamplifiers for Increased Sensitivity
designs. The crystal discriminator utilizes
a quartz resonator, shunted by an of a phase detector, a filter, a dc am- Some surplus, homemade and commer-
inductor, in place of the tuned-circuit plifier, and a voltage-controlled oscil- cial new equipment for the vhf and uhf fin
secondary used in a discriminator trans- lator ( VCO). The VCO runs at a bands need additional receiver gain and
former. A typical circuit is shown in Fig. frequency close to that of an incoming noise- figure improvement for weak-signal

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-9

 work. Too much gain can seriously de-
grade the receiver dynamic range, so care PREAMPLIFIER
14 4-148 MHz
must be exercised when adding a pre- C2
amplifier ahead of an existing receiver 144 - 148 MHz

front end. The temptation of some inex- 25 co

perienced amateurs is to use a preamp

which has again of 25 dB or greater. As a C1
L1
I 01
lU310
14;
25

result, strong local signals can overload INPUT

L2
(50n) 60
the receiver and cause severe mixer IMD. OUTPUT
The two preamplifiers described here arc (son':
0.001
tailored for useful but not excessive gain
amounts. They should enhance the per- /
100
/
ji
Z 0.001

formance of receivers or converters that 01

I SHIELD

arc marginal in terms of overall gain and G(CASE)

noise figure. They should not have a

+12V
serious effect on the receiver dynamic
range. BOTTOM

The 2-meter version shown in Fig. 20

utilizes asingle Siliconix U310 JFET in a
Fig. 20 — Schematic diagram of the low-noise 2-meter preamp. Fixed-value capacitors are disc
common-gate circuit. This helps to ensure ceramic. Resistors are 1/4- or 1/2-watt composition. See text for data on the trimmers. Li has 5
stability and provide again of over 10 dB. turns of no. 20 wire, 3/4-inch ( 19-mm) long with an ID of 1/4 inch (6.3 mm). Cl tap approx. 1/2 turn
The U3I0 is well known for its low noise from ground. 01 tap approx. 1turn from ground. L2 has same dimensions except for Q1 tap,
up to 450 MHz (about 3dB at 450 MHz which is approx. 1turn from C3 end. See text for Q1 data.

and 1.5 dB at 144 MHz). This transistor

also has excellent dynamic-range charac-
PREAMPLIFIER
teristics ( in excess of 100 dB). A less costly
substitute is the Siliconix E300, which 440 MHz 440 MHz 440 MHz

comes in aplastic case. The performance -1 -- C3

CI C2
traits arc approximately the sanie, but
stability may be harder to realize because Li S 01 D L2 s 02
D

the E300 has no metal case that can be 10

10
grounded automatically when the gate is RFC1 RFC2
grounded. G G
Cl of Fig. 20 is adjusted for lowest J2
JI
noise figure. The Cl coil tap can be ad- INPUT OUTPUT
(son)
justed also if further improvement is (50n)

needed. C2 and C3 should be high-Q trim-

mers for best performance. Miniature
0001
FT
- - 0.001
F.T.
+12V
ceramic trimmers should be suitable for GAIN. 15 2048
100
NF dB 0.0j1
7
use at Cl, C2 and C3. Ideally, Teflon
trimmers or small air variables would be —0— • FERRITE BEAD ( Ad • 125)
used at those circuit points.
If LI and 12 arc at right angles to one
Fig. 21 — Schematic diagram of the 440- MHz preamp. The 10-pF capacitors are silver mica.
another and spaced well apart, it may not FT indicates feedthrough capacitor.
be necessary to use ashield divider across C1-63, incl. — 1.4 to 9.2-pF miniature air vari- approx. 1/4 inch (6.3 mm) below 62 and 63
Q1 as shown in Fig. 20. However, asmall able, Johnson 189-0563-001 or equiv. ends of line. 01, 02 source taps on Li and
L2 are approx. 3/4 inch ( 19 mm) up from
piece of copper, brass or double-sided pc J1, J2 — BNC-type connector soldered to case
outer wall. ground.
board should be easy to add to the circuit Li- L3, incl. — 2-518 x 1/4- inch (67 x 6.3-mm) Ql, Q2 — Siliconix JFET.
board. brass strip. Input and output taps on Li and RFC1, RFC2 — 420- MHz choke J. W. Miller
A strip-line preamplifier for use at 440 L3 are approx. 1/2 inch ( 13 mm) up from 4584 or equiv. Ferrite beads assoc. with
MHz is shown in Figs. 21 and 22. The ground (see text). Attach Q1/02 drain taps these chokes are Amidon miniature type.

maximum attainable gain is roughly 20 dB

with the circuit shown. Noise figure gate leads of QI and Q2 are made as short be based on something more than casual
should be better than 5dB when the taps as possible. Additional insurance against design if good performance is to be
on LI are optimized. Some experimenting instability is provided by the decoupling realized. Special attention must be paid to
will be necessary. The loaded Q of the circuits in the drain leads of Q Iand Q2. A selectivity, and the noise figure should be
three resonators can be increased by press-fit aluminum or brass cover ( U- low enough to assure the kind of
moving the QI /Q2 taps closer to the shaped) is used to enclose the open side of sensitivity desired by most repeater opera-
ground ends of each line. The tradeoff is the preamplifier case. Craftsmen may tors — 0.2 ¡.4V or less for 20 dB of
;.•
in preamplifier gain. The increased Q may elect to make the housing and divider quieting. Transient and rf-burnout pro-
be important when gain requirements walls from sections of 1/16-inch ( 1.6-mm) tection are the other criteria for successful
aren't too great (as in a repeater installa- brass, using silver solder to join the use at the repeater site.
tion), but when rejection of out-of-band mating surfaces. This unit is suitable for While some groups have had success
commercial signals is vital to good perfor- use anywhere in the 420- to 450- MHz with solid-state preamplifiers, others have
mance. LI, L2 and L3 are silver plated band. found them unreliable mainly because of
in this model. The double-sided pc- board overloading, IMD, and susceptibility to
housing for the amplifier is also silver A SELECTIVE 2- METER device damage from static discharges and
plated, as arc the two internal divider PREAMPLIFIER line transients. Certainly tube-type equip-
walls which isolate the tuned circuits from ment is less subject to catastrophic failure
one another. A preamplifier used ahead of a sur- from the foregoing causes, but aproperly
Amplifier stability is excellent when the plus receiver as part of a repeater must designed solid-state preamplifier can hold

13-10 Chapter 13
 its own when competing against a
vacuum-tube equivalent. The unit treated
here (designed by WIFB) meets the design
specifications of most amateur repeaters.
Precautions have been taken to prevent
the usual problems inherent in homemade
preamps.

Design
JFETs were chosen for use in the
preamp over gate- protected MOSFETs
because the former can sustain up to 80
volts pk-pk. gate to source, before being
damaged. Protected MOSFETs are rated
at 20 volts maximum. Furthermore, the
employment of JFETs eliminated four
resistors and two capacitors, all of which
would have been required in the gate- 2
biasing circuits of the MOSFETs.
In the interest of eliminating the need
for those sometimes- tricky neutralization
circuits, the common-gate configuration
was chosen. Common-gate amplifiers pro-
vide somewhat less gain than do the
common- source types — approximately
10 dB less gain per stage, but by using two
stages in common-gate the gain of the
preamplifier is more than adequate for
most applications. The circuit of Fig. 23
Fig. 22 — Interior view of the 440- MHz preamplifier. The center strip line is reversed from the end should exhibit again of between 15 and 20
ones to prevent excessive lead lengths from Ci1 and 02. The box dimensions are 3 x 3-1/2 x 1 inch
dB, depending upon the transconduc-
(76 x 89 x 25 mm). The internal shields are 3 x 15/16 inches (76 x 24 mm). All mating surfaces of
the box walls are soldered inside and outside. Both sides of the dividers are soldered to the inner lances of the two FETs picked from the
surface of the box. supplier's shelf.

A MP AMP
146 MHz 146 MHz 146 MHz

JI
INPUT

J2
OUTPUT

INNER SHIELD
C7
0
220 RFC1 3 0.F0.T0.1

12 V DC
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF I 0
OUTER SHIELDT
01.02 CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS I ,pF I;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS IpF OR .p.pF
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
k.1000. M.1,000.000.

Fig. 23 — Circuit diagram of the preamplifier. Heavy lines indicate the pc- board shield box and dividers. The outer shield box is shown in dashed
lines. Fixed-value capacitors are disc ceramic unless otherwise noted. S.M. indicates silver mica. Resistors are 1/2 watt carbon.
C1-C4, incl. — 11-pF subminiature air variable 01. 02 — Vhf or uhf JFET ( see text). Keep
E. F. Johnson 189-564. Piston trimmers or gate lead as short as possible, 1/8 inch
Johnson 160-0104-001 suitable also. L1, L3 — 3-1/2 turns no. 14 tinned bus wire, (3 mm) or less.
C5- C7, incl. — Feedthrough capacitor. 1/2- inch ID x 3/4- inch ( 13 x 19 mm) long. RFC1 — 144- MHz rf choke, approximately 2.7
D1, D2 — High-speed silicon switching diode, Tap source at 1-3/4 turns from trimmer end. H. James Millen 34300-2.7 or equivalent.
1N914 or equivalent. Tap L1 also at 1/2 turn from ground. Alternatively, wind 20 inch ( 508 mm) of no.
D3 — 15-volt, 1- watt Zener diode. L2, L4 — 3-1/3 turns no. 14 tinned bus wire, 30 enam. wire on the body of a 2700-ohm
ji, j2 — Coaxial connector of builder's choice. 1/2- inch ID x 3/4- inch ( 13 x 19 mm) long. 1- watt carbon resistor. Use pigtails as
(Type ONC used iii ( his model.) Iap L4 1/2 turn above C6. anchor points for ends of winding.

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-11

 Motorola 2N5484s (MPF106) are used and the partitions are soldered in place by quieting with somewhat less than 0.1
at Q1 and Q2. Alternatively, U310, E300, using a 100-watt soldering iron with a of input signal.
2N44I6 or 2N44I7 devices can be used if small-diameter tip. The metal surfaces of
A SYNTHESIZED 2- METER
one is willing to pay a bit more money. the pc-board sections are silver plated,
TRANSMITTER
MPF102s would probably do agood job though the plating is not necessary as far
in the circuit of Fig. 23. Since the 2N5484s as circuit performance is concerned. The Today, because of the large number of
are designed for use into the 400-MHz plating does, however, retard tarnishing 2-meter repeaters across the country, the
region, they seemed likewise choices for and make soldering somewhat easier. synthesized transmitter has become " stan-
low-noise operation. To assure good The input and output rf connections, dard" on the 2-meter band. The 12-watt
selectivity and thereby offer reasonable and those between the compartments, are transmitter shown in Figs. 24 through 31
immunity to nearby out-of-band commer- made by means of small Teflon push- in covers the entire 2-meter band in 5-kHz
cial signals, high-Q tuned circuits were feedthrough terminals which were ob- steps, has no significant spurious outputs
employed. The section between Q1 and tained as surplus. The source-bias re- and has no audible reference whine or
Q2 is abandpass type, lightly coupled by sistors and bypass capacitors are attached microphonics. The transmitter, designed
means of a 2-pF silver-mica capacitor. to Teflon standoff posts. Satisfactory and built by Albert Helfrick, K2BLA, was
Lighter coupling will provide greater substitutes for the feedthrough bushings described in September 1980 QST.
selectivity, but with an attendant loss in can be fashioned from short lengths of
gain. Aperture coupling can be used in RG-59/U coax with the vinyl jacket and Circuit Description
place of the method shown. If so, the shield braid removed. Epoxy cement can Several features of this transmitter are
aperture size must be adjusted to establish be used to hold the homemade bushings in unique. First, the VCO in the synthesizer
the gain and selectivity desired by the place. operates at the same frequency as the
user. Once the circuit is assembled in its transmitter output stage. That implies
Source bias is used in each stage to pc-board enclosure the subassembly can that there are no mixers or multipliers to
prevent the ampliiiers from saturating in be installed in aMinibox which measures produce spurious outputs, which greatly
the presence of strong signals. The sources 5-1/4 X 3X 2-1/8 inches ( 133 X 76 X 54 simplifies the tuning of the power
are tapped down on their respective tuned mm). amplifiers.
circuits to provide impedance matching. A dual-modulus (or " pulse-swallow-
In the prototype unit the drains were Adjustment ing") divider is a type of programmable
tapped down on the tuned circuits — a divider which allows very high frequencies
Connect the preamplifier ahead of the
method used to achieve stability. As an to be divided by any integer with the use
fm receiver with which it is to be used.
aid to stability each stage has a 10-ohm of only one high-frequency integrated cir-
Apply 12 volts dc to the preamp, then
resistor between its drain and the re- cuit. The heart of the circuit, shown in
supply a low-level signal to Q1 via J1.
lated tuned circuit. However, the gain of the Fig. 25, is U6, a dual-modulus, divide-
Peak each tuned circuit for maximum
preamplifier was somewhat less when by- 10/11 ECL integrated circuit. The out-
response by observing the 1st-limiter
using the 10-ohm resistors and connecting put of this chip drives two presettable
current reading of the fm receiver. The
them to the stators of C2 and C4. TTL down-counters, called the main
unit should then be ready to use.
Decoupling networks are used between
This preamplifier was used ahead of a counter and the swallow counter. Both
the stages ( 220-ohm resistors and 0.001-
Motorola five- pipe Sensicon receiver counters are preset at the same time, and
1.1.F bypass capacitors) to prevent inter-
during all tests. The " barefoot" fm each is clocked down simultaneously with
stage coupling along the 12-volt supply
receiver provided 20 dB of quieting with a the output of the prescaler. The swallow
line. Filtering at rf is provided by using
0.4-iN input signal. With the preamp counter necessarily has a smaller number
RFC Iand another 0.001-uF feedthrough preset than the main counter, and thus
installed it was possible to obtain 20 dB of
capacitor, thus helping to prevent un-
wanted rf from entering the preamplifier
on the dc supply line.
Rfburnout protection is offered by two
1N914 diodes connected from the source
tap on LI to ground. The diodes are
located at an impedance point which is
higher than that of the 50-ohm antenna
tap. This means the diodes will conduct
sooner at the source tap because the
rf-voltage le ...el from static discharge or
abnormally strong signals will always be
greater at the i.ap point than at the 50-ohm
terminal. No change in amplifier per-
formance could be noted after adding the
diodes.
Protection from any abrupt increase in
supply voltage brought about by ac-line
transients is afforded by the use of a
15-volt, I-watt Zener diode ( D3) which is
connected between the 12-volt supply line
and chassis ground.

Construction
To provide for adequate shielding
against RFI, two boxes are used in the
construction of the preamp. The inner box
is made from double-sided copper-clad pc Fig. 24 — Front panel on the synthesized 2- meter transmitter showing the ON- OFF switch and the
board. It measures 4-1/2 X 1-7/8 X 1-1/4 frequency- selector switches. The microphone connector and accessory jack are located on the
inches ( 114 X 48 X 32 mm). The box walls rear panel.

13-12 Chapter 13
 741.516B
100 kHz 74LS168
Ul, U2, U3, AND U5.
+5V
(D 1-5V 2:\ MHz SWITCH +5V SYNC. 4 - BIT
74LS169 UP/DOWN CNTR

16 6 5 4 3 16 6 5 4 3
10 6 5 4
15 7 1
OC 3 A.,!fec 0 C • A
RIPPLE 10
,
ENAIILE
D O DIVIDE- BY- N OUTPUT
OD
u CARRY OCT TO FIG.26
6 _1 u/5 RIPPLE . " EVAllt7E 7
-
u/5 U+ C•RIIT OUT u/5
U3
ONO e e AND RIPPLE 15
CtE LOAD OC 0111 OD CLA LOAD 5V
LE LOAD CARRY 0
2 9 12 13 11 2 9 9
o
36
11C90

0.001 1

U4 6 5 4
+5V
7405 0+5V OYTL VACO OCA 16
3 13 O FROM
330 PRESCA LE R VCO FIG.27
U40 U4F U40
U9A
RI Ma VIE r
VI.

2 74LS168
2 12
3 121 13
CHARLE
CHARLE V

u/EU5 CAIIL

O O C e

180 VJU4E 16 6 15 4

RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;

10
ALL RESISTORS ARE 1/4 WATT;
CAPACITANCE VALUES ARE

o \-7
+ 5V IN MICROFARADS
330 10- kH: SWITCH
(A)
Fig. 25 — Programmable divider chain used in
the synthesized 2-meter transmitter. Si through
+5V S4, inclusive, are BCD-encoded switches. A
toggle switch may be used at S4 is desired.

U7
7805 USE FOR MHz, 100- InFlz,
AND 10 - kHz SWITCHES

I3.6 V + 5V 5 kHz SWITCH

S4

(B) TO 01 BASE
FIG. 26
+ 5V

+ 5V (D)

+12V

2.7 k 0.22
+12V 200pF
---'\/\«/1-1(11-
o 100
J.7 20V
UI
4060
U2
16 5 16 5
4046

1
Voo 05 14 3 Voo INHIB. 100 h
0c) 08
COMP PHASE 62k
2.56 MHz 13
1 47 14 - STAGE IN COMP II
RIPPLE - CARRY OUT U3
> 100k
BINARY COUNTER/ CA3160
0.002 7
11 DIVIDER AND PLL (i.4
)
\OSCILLATOR 100k 6 TO ViRACYOR
-0
Cl C2 DIODE FIG. 27
pF
Øi Vy, R sem
77-35 7- 35
20V
0 8 14 (SEE TEXT)

0.015 0.001

2N3904 „ J-7

FROM DIVIDE - 0.001 Ii

.+12 V
TO 51010
SWITCH FIG. 25
BY- N FIG.25 HE— 0.001

Fig. 28 — Reference oscillator and phase RI

15
detector section of the synthesized 2-meter
100 k MIKE
transmitter. 01 is used to pull the reference GAIN
frequency, permitting 5 kHz cnannel spacing.
U4
0.15 270
CA3160
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS, k 1000.
MIKE
< I
15k
ALL RESISTORS ARE 1/4 WATT;

DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE <

..--. 0.001
IN MICROFARADS ( pn, OTHERS ARE
IN PICOFARADS ( pF).

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-13

 Ll 1 51 51

78L08 -M./\/-41

1pF
REG or I
ôf0.001 20V

,
J
1pF

20V

0.001 \ 0 44. T 1

J30°
8 ,OR /

U308

9.1k
02
3.3
CI 2N918 50 - OHM COAX
DI 27
3-11 3.3 MPN3401 D VCO OUT TO
RFC I 31v109
10,814
/
- 7- 7
I( — 0.001
POWER AMPLIFIER

0. 001 (SEE TEXT)

1-- 27 RFC 2
10pH

) / T/ 27k
0.001 )
27U

9 0.001 )
/
TO SYNTHESIZER
CONTROL VOLTAGE
180
FIG.26
100

50 - OHM COAX
TO SYNTHESIZER
FIG. 25

04 (A)
256109

+13.6 V II V REG.
UN REG.
TO T- R SWITCH
FIG. 28

680
* TI, T2 - - 7 BIFILAR TURNS ON
RI
20k INDIANA GENERAL CF101 CORE

VOLTAGE
220pF ADJ.
6.8 V EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
7 -‘ 10V
074W
- CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS IyF 1 ;
/ 680 OTHERS ARE IN INCOFARADS(DF OR » Fr.
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
k • 1000, M.1000 000.

Fig. 27 — The VCO and buffer of the synthesized transmitter are shown at A, while the 11-volt regulator circuit may be seen at B; the regulator was
included to reduce the possibility of "alternator whine" modulation.

TO ANT.
10 pF RELAY TO FIG.27

20V o
2N6109
IC pF
04
20V

)f
10 10pF

lb 2W lb lb Ib

220
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
0.001

J,
CAPACITANCE ARE IN M1CROFARADS 1yF 1 ;
OTHERS ARE IN INCOFARADS 1DF OR ye);
0 001 RFC I -0
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k I000 , M• 1000 000, * UNDERWOOD TO MIC
LOW - INDUCTANCE
PTT SW.
L4 MI 2
/ I

RFC 2
10pH C2 L5
680 *

B3
41 02 4 - 40
0.001 1
C5 30
4 - 40 /4 - 40
4-40
T° 0-74

FIG 27 /- 7- 7
RFC 3 RFC 4 1.
100 0.47,814 0.47 pH .

0.001

,f,

Fig. 28 — Diagram of the synthesized transmitter's amplifier stages. The ferrite beads may be any commonly available type.
C1-05, incl. — Mica compression trimmers. L2 — 5 turns no. 20, 1/4 in. (6 mm) ID. L4 — 2-1/2 turns no. 18, 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) ID.
L1 — 2 turns no. 20, 1/4 in. (6 mm) ID. L3 — 1turn no. 18, 1/4 in. (6 mm) ID. L5 — 1turn no. 18, 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) ID.

13-14 Chapter 13
 reaches zero before the main counter the uajjsjfliUer output. one of these being
does. Upon reaching zero, the swallow the use of a carefully designed and im-
counter switches the mode of the ECL plemented loop filter. A filter of this sort
prescaler from divide-by- 11 to divide- must not degrade the lockup time, capture
by- 10 operation, and the main counter range, lock range or loop stability. If the
continues toward zero. When the main high- frequency capability of the loop is
counter reaches zero, both counters are reduced too much, excessive noise and
preset to their respective numbers and the microphonics can become aproblem. The
process begins again. use of a higher loop-reference frequency
If M is the number preset into the main allows a wider loop bandwidth with the
counter and N is the number preset into same level of reference sidebands. Quite
the swallow counter, the total number of simply, the higher the reference frequen-
input cycles to the ECL prescaler is cy, the better.
P = 11N + (M — N)10 Normally, if a 10-kHz reference fre- Fig. 29 — Optional transmit/receive frequency.
quency were used with a phase-locked offset circuit for the synthesized transmitter.
= 10M + N
loop, only frequencies that were exact
The output frequency of a properly multiples of 10 kHz could be generated,
locked phase-locked loop is the reference which would not be acceptable for
frequency times the programmable divider 2-meter fm operation. The method of ob- Construction
ratio, or in this case taining 5-kHz resolution while using a Fig. 28 is the diagram for the amplifier
F„, = ( 10 kHz) ( 10M + N) 10-kHz reference is called " reference pull- stages. The entire transmitter is mounted
ing." See Fig. 26. This " pulling" involves inside a7-1/2 X 6 x 3-in. ( 190 X 150 X
The values of both M and N are select- shifting the 10-kHz reference frequency 76-mm) aluminum box. Only an ON-OFF
able; that is , N goes from zero to nine and very slightly so that the 144-MHz output switch, pilot lamp and the frequency-
is selected by the tens-of-kHz switch, frequency moves up by about 5kHz. This selector switches are mounted on the front
while M goes from 1440 to 1479 and is technique does not produce an exact panel. Connections to the microphone
selected from the MHz and hundreds-of- 5-kHz shift on all channels, with the and external equipment (such as areceiver
kHz switches. The two most significant greatest error being at the band edges. If and antenna changeover relay) are made
digits of the number M (i.e., 14) are the frequency shift were set at exactly 5 at the rear of the enclosure.
permanently wired into the counter and kHz at the center of the band, however, The VCO, two buffer amplifiers, PIN
are not selectable. the error at the band edges would be 40 diode switch, and the voltage regulator
Hz, hardly enough to cause problems with are all mounted in a 1-1/2 x 2- x 4-in.
The Loop Reference Frequency even the fussiest repeaters. (38- x 50- x 100-mm) cast-aluminum
A second unique feature is the use of a box. Since the synthesizer operates con-
10-kHz loop reference frequency even The VCO
tinuously, aPIN diode switch is employed
though the channel spacing is 5 kHz. The last and most important feature of to prevent energy from leaking through
There are several ways of keeping all this transmitter is the low-microphonic the power amplifier and being radiated by
traces of the reference frequency out of VCO, Fig. 27. Designing a phase-locked the antenna. There is also apotential for
loop that is to be modulated for fm use is interference with the companion receiver
a very difficult task. Changing the when operating simplex. During repeater
frequency of the VCO to provide modula- operation, the receiver frequency is dif-
tion is exactly what the phase-locked loop ferent from the transmitter frequency, so
is supposed to prevent — i.e., any change that the low-level leakage will not be a
TO FIG. 27
in frequency caused by noise, micro- problem. An optional offset circuit may
.F13.8 V phonics or other disturbances. It is be added (as shown in Fig. 29) to eliminate
55
45.4 ON/OFF
necessary to restrict the capabilities of the any potential interference during simplex
0 0 TO BATTERY loop so that it will not cancel any attempt operation. This circuit causes the syn-
to modulate the VCO. This implies that thesizer to be shifted up or down 5 kHz
500pF

,T
I-r7 25V
any modulation introduced from other between transmit and receive modes. If
sources, such as noise within the VCO cir- the operating frequency ends with the
cuit, from external sources or digit 5, the frequency is shifted down dur-
microphonics, will not be appreciably ing periods of receive, and shifted up 5
removed by the loop, either. Therefore, kHz if the operating frequency ends with
the VCO must be constructed to have a azero. If the receiver filter is broad, the
low level of microphonics and phase 5- kHz shift may not be sufficient. In this
noise, and be free of modulation from case, the same circuit may be applied to
RF noise on the power-supply lines. the one bit of the tens-of- kHz switch in-
To accomplish these objectives, the
OUT
stead. This will cause a10-kHz shift to oc-
VCO is constructed rigidly and mounted cur.
in acast-aluminum box. The oscillator has
asmall amount of inductance and alarge The VCO Inductor
amount of capacitance, which reduces the The coaxial cable used for the VCO in-
effect of stray capacitance from surround- ductor is apiece of miniature, semi- rigid,
ing objects. The inductor itself is asmall 50-ohm cable with atetrafluoroetheleyne
piece of coaxial cable ( details appear (TFE) dielectric. This cable is extremely
later). The cable is totally shielded from expensive and difficult to locate. The cost
its environment and is not affected by is not hard to bear since so little of the
nearby components, as would be its wire- cable is used. If semi-rigid cable of any
wound counterpart. Last, sufficient sort is not available, apiece of miniature,
L6, LB — 5-1/2 turns no. 18. 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) ID. power-line filtering and aseparate voltage flexible cable may be substituted with a
L7 — 4-1/2 turns no. 18, 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) ID. regulator are provided for the oscillator. slight increase in microphonics; types

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-15

Fig. 30 — Top view of the 2-meter synthesized transmitter. The program- Fig. 31 — Side view of the transmitter showing the power amplifier. The
mable divider and the reference oscillator are visible on the top shelf. transistors are mounted on the aluminum box for heat sinking.
The VCO and power amplifier are mounted on the bottom of the
enclosure.

which may be employed are RG-188/U or kHz by switching this capacitor out of the catastrophic errors exist, adjust capacitor
RG-143/U. A larger diameter cable may circuit with the 5- kHz switch. The tran- Cl while watching the VCO control
be used with excellent results. Ensure that sistor switch is connected to the "4" bit of voltage at point H ( see Fig. 3). If the loop
any cable used has TFE insulation so that the switch which raises the output fre- is locked, the voltage at H should change
it may be soldered to the pc board without quency 5kHz for numbers of 4or greater. with the capacitor setting. With the
melting or distorting the dielectric. Both The switch may be mechanically frequency- selector switches set to 146
semi- rigid and flexible cables must be prevented from going beyond the digit 5if MHz, set Cl for aVCO control voltage of
firmly soldered to the pc board to be ef- desired. 5.5 volts. Check to see if the synthesizer is
fective. on the proper frequency by means of a
The synthesizer components other than The Power Amplifier frequency counter or by listening for the
the VCO and the speech amplifier are A three- stage, broadly tuned power synthesizer signal with a2- meter receiver.
mounted on two double-sided pc boards, amplifier provides about 12 watts of out- The frequency counter should be coupled
one containing the digital circuits and the put. The first stage operates Class A and to the VCO by removing the coaxial lead
other the reference oscillator/divider and boosts the 50-mW signal from the VCO to to the power amplifier and keying the
the analog circuitry. about 500 mW. The second stage, mike PTT switch. While monitoring the
The speech amplifier is designed for use operating Class C, develops 3 watts of synthesizer frequency and the VCO con-
with a low- impedance dynamic micro- drive for the Class C final amplifier. A trol voltage at point H, set the frequency-
phone. The normal clipping characteris- low-pass filter is used to remove any har- selector switches to 144 Mhz and 147.99
tics of the CA3160 op amp are utilized for monic energy appearing at the output. All MHz, and determine that the loop re-
modulation limiting. The MOSFET out- bypassing and tuning components mains locked. Set the switches to 146.005
put of the amplifier provides apredictable throughout the power amplifier are MHz and adjust C26 for a counter
clipping level for the speech amplifier. specially selected for low inductance. reading of exactly 146.005 MHz. Move
The unwanted harmonics of the clipped Failure to use these special components the switches to the 146.000 MHz position
waveform are removed with an R-C low- will result in instabilities and possible and adjust C25 for that frequency-counter
pass filter. A similar op amp is used for component destruction. No pc- board pat- reading.
the loop amplifier/filter. tern was produced. Instead, small islands Disconnect the counter and reconnect
An II-% olt regulator is included for use were cut into double-sided pc- board the power amplifier. With the frequency
with the speech amplifier and the loop material with asharp knife and the copper selector at 146.000 MHz, adjust C20
amplifier. It was desired to use the peeled away. through C24, inclusive, for maximum
regulator to reduce the susceptibility of power output. A wattmeter may be used
Switching Circuitry as an indicator of power output. In the
the transmitter to be modulated by input
voltage noise, producing so-called " alter- A solid-state switching circuit is used early stages of tuning up, the power out-
nator whine." It is important to note that for switching the PIN diode and supplying put will be quite low, so careful attention
a 3-terminal regulator is not suitable at the Vcc to the power amplifier stage. In must be paid to the wattmeter readings.
this point because of an input-output addition, a terminal is provided at the The final power output should be on the
voltage differential of only 1volt at worst. back of the transmitter cabinet for use order of 12 watts with an input current of
Most 3-pin regulators have a drop-out with an external changeover relay and approximately 2.5 A.
voltage of 2 volts or more. receiver muting.
Microphone Gain and Modulation Levels
The Crystal Oscillator and Divider Check Out and Tune-Up Set the mike gain and modulation levels
The 2.56-MHz crystal oscillator drives a After the unit has been wired and with the aid of adeviation meter if possi-
CMOS ripple counter that divides the checked to ensure correct assembly, ble. Without the aid of such a device, a
crystal frequency down to 10 kHz (see power may be applied. Before depressing cut-and- try approach may be used by ask-
Fig. 2). A variable capacitor is switched the PTT switch, check for overheating ing for reports on the air or by using a
across the crystal with a transistor (Q1). components or other unwanted symp- receiver and comparing the modulation
The output frequency is raised about 5 toms. Once it has been determined that no level of the transmitter to that of other

13-16 Chapter 13
 stations heard. The microphone-gain
potentiometer may be set so that clipping
occurs only on loud voice peaks and so
that normal speech produces peaks of
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
about 10 volts peak-to- peak. The actual VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
deviation is set by the value of RA which IN MICROFARADS ; OTHERS

can be anywhere between 0and 15 k[2. ARE IN PICOFARA DS ipF OR y.lzF );

RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
k *1000, M-1000000
2- METER SOLID-STATE FM POWER
AMPLIFIER
The majority of the commercially made
2-meter fm transceivers available today .11
146 MHz
01
INPUT
have rf power-output levels of 1 to 15 Cl Li

watts. There are many occasions when an

1- 12 nH
fm operator would like to have a little 80

more power to be able to work over RFC2

greater distances. Described here is a —C2 C3 ° i5°H

— ca — C5
3o 7 180 125 125
50-watt output amplifier for the 2-meter
band. This amplifier makes use of asingle
transistor and operates directly from a
13.6-volt vehicular electrical system.

Circuit Description (A)

ANTENNA
RIB
The amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 33 +13.6V

utilizes a single 2N6084 transistor oper-

ated in aClass C, zero-bias configuration. RIA
o AMPLIFIER
This mode of operation has the advan- D1
OUTPUT

tages of high collector efficiency at full 02

output and zero dc current drain when no MPS- 413
TRANSCEIVER
rf driving signal is applied. The reader RF
INPUT R/ 0 001 D2
should note that zero-bias operation
47(X1
yields an amplifier that is not " linear." It
AMPLIFIER
operates Class C and is designed for fm or 0001
INPUT

cw operation only; it would produce ob-

jectional distortion and splatter if used to
(ED
amplify a-m or ssb signals. RELAY TOP VIEW
RELAY SIDE VIEW
The amplifier operates directly from an
automobile electrical system, so no addi-
tional power supply is required for mobile
SHORTING
operation. The input and output tuned BARS
REMOVE
circuits are designed to match the im- ADDED
CONNECTING
WIRES
pedances of the transistor to a 50-ohm
driving source and to a 50-ohm antenna
system, respectively. Since both the input
and output impedances of the transistor (C)
are extremely low ( in the 1- to 5-ohm
FILTER
region), the matching networks employed LI
are somewhat different than those used INPUTO--Irr rn-r—POurPuT

CI c.2

(D)

Fig. 33 — (A) Diagram of the amplifier which provides 40 to 50 watts output. Capacitors are mica
unless otherwise noted. The heat sink is aThermalloy 61698, Allied Electronics no. 957-2890. ( B)
COR circuit. Capacitors are disc ceramic. (C) The COR relay is modified by removing the connect-
ing wires from all four wiper arms and adding two shorting bars, as shown. Only the stationary-
contact connections are used. ( D) Pi-section output filter, Cl and C2 are 39-pF mica capacitors,
Elemenco 6ED3900J03 or equiv. and 1.1 consists of 2turns of no. 18 tinned wire, 1/4 inch ID, 0.2
inch (61 x 5mm) long (approximately 44 nH).
Cl, C7 — 5- to 80-pF compression trimmer, (Comer CRD-1603-4S35 or equiv., Sigma
Arco 462 or equiv. 67R4-120 also suitable), modified as de-
C2, C4, C5, C6, C8 — Mica button, Underwood scribed above.
J-101. Li — 12 nH, no. 10 tinned wire, 1- 1/4-inch
C3, C9 — 9- to 180-pF compression trimmer, (32- mm) long straight conductor.
Arco 463 or equiv. L2 — 30 nH, 1-3/4 turns, no. 10 tinned wire,
C10 — Feedthrough type. 3/8- inch ID, 3/4 inch ( 10 x 19 mm) long.
C11 — Tantalum. L3 — 15 nH, no. 14 tinned wire, 3/4-inch (19-
C12 — Ceramic disc. mm) long straight conductor.
D1 — 100-PRV or more, 500-mA or more silicon RFC1 — 17 turns, no. 16 enam. wire wound on
diode ( Motorola 1N4001 or equiv.). Amidon T-80-2 toroid core.
D2, 03 — High-speed, low-capacitance 100- RFC2 — Molded rf choke (J. W. Miller 9250-
Fig. 32 — An end view of the breadboard ver- PRV silicon diode ( Motorola MSD7000 dual 15).
sion of the 50-watt 2-meter amplifier. The input package used here). RFC3 — Ferrite bead ( Ferroxcube 58-590-65/3R
circuit is at the lower right, and the output net- J1, J2 — Coaxial connector panel mount Or equiv.).
work is at the upper lett. K1 — 4pdt open- frame relay, 12-V contacts

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-17

 remember that it is better to undertighten
than to overtighten the mounting nut.
The transistor stud is mounted through
ahole drilled in the heat sink. A thermal
compound, such as Dow Corning 340
heat-sink grease, should be used to
decrease the thermal resistance from tran-
sistor case to heat sink. See the excellent
article by White in April 1971 QST for
details of heat-sink design.
Series impedance in the emitter circuit
can drastically reduce the gain of the
amplifier. Both transistor emitter leads
should be grounded as close to the tran-
sistor body as is practical.
The wiring for the dc voltage feeder to
the collector should have extremely low dc
resistance. Even adrop of 1volt can signi-
ficantly reduce the power output of the
amplifier. A good goal is less than 0.5-volt
THESE FOUR AREAS REQUIRE AN ISOLATED CONNECTION POINT. drop from the car battery to the transistor
THIS CAN BE FORMED BY ETCHING A MOAT IN PC BOARD OR BY collector. With operating currents of
ATTACHING A SMALL SQUARE OF PC BOARD ON TOP OF MAIN PC BOARD.
several amperes, the total dc resistance
should be only a fraction of an ohm. A
Fig. 34 — Parts- layout diagram for the 50- watt amplifier ( not to scale). A 4 x 6- inch ( 102 x standard commercially made heat sink is
152- mm) pc board is used as the base. used for the 50-watt amplifier, and it is
adequate for amateur communications.
Forced-air cooling across the heat sink
should be used for any application requir-
ing longterm key-down operation at 40
watts or more of output.

Tune-Up Procedure
Generally, the best way to tune atran-
with tubes. The networks chosen for the Gravel Rd., Columbia, MO 65201. Fer- sistor power amplifier is for maximum rf
amplifier are optimized for low- roxcube components can be purchased power output. If this approach results in
impedance matching. Part D of Fig. 33 from Elna Ferrite Laboratories, Inc., 9 exceeding the power ratings of the tran-
shows api-section output filter. This low- Pine Grove St., Woodstock, NY 12498. sistor, then the power output should be
pass circuit is necessary to ensure com- The amplifier is constructed on a pc reduced by reducing the drive level, not be
pliance with FCC requirements for spec- board that is bolted to aheat sink. A few detuning the final. In the case of an out-
tral purity. islands can be etched on the board for tie board PA stage, such as decribed here,
The elaborate decoupling network used points. A complex foil pattern is not re- both the input and output networks can
in the collector dc feed is for the purpose quired. In the amplifier shown in the be tuned for maximum rf output, if the
of assuring amplifier stability with awide photograph and pictorial layout (Figs. 32 driving source has an output impedance
variety of loads and tuning conditions. and 34) islands were etched only for input of approximately 50 ohms. However, a
The 2N6084 transistor is conservatively and output tie points. Circuit-board better procedure consists of tuning the
rated at 40 watts output (approximately 60 islands may also be etched for the tran- output tank circuit for maximum rf out-
watts dc input). The amplifier can be sistor base and collector leads. However, put and tuning the input circuit for
driven to power-output levels con- an interesting alternative method was used minimum SWR as measured between the
siderably higher than 40 watts, but it is in the author's breadboard amplifier. The exciter and the final amplifier. This tune-
recommended that it be kept below 50 base and collector islands were formed by up procedure has the added advantage of
watts output. If the transmitter or tran- attaching small pieces of pc board to the assuring that the amplifier presents a
sceiver has more than 10 watts of output, top of the main board. This procedure 50-ohm load to the exciter. A dc ammeter
an attenuator should be used at the added afew tenths of apF of capacitance to check collector current is auseful tune-
amplifier input to keep the power output at the connection points, so if you choose up aid. Since tuning is for peak output, a
below 50 watts. to etch islands directly on the main board Monimatch-type SWR bridge is adequate
you may want to increase the value of C6 for the job. The best tuning procedure is
Construction Details slightly. (The values of C4 and C5 are not to monitor simultaneously both output
The usual precautions for building a critical.) power (absolute or relative) and the SWR
solid-state amplifier are followed. These A word about the care of astud-mount between the exciter and amplifier.
include proper mechanical mounting of rf power transistor: Two of the most im- First, apply dc voltage with no rf drive.
the transistor, emitter grounding, heat portant mounting precautions are ( 1) to No collector current should flow. Then
sinking and decoupling of the supply assure that there is no upward pressure ( in apply alow level of rf drive — perhaps 25
voltage leads. The fixed-value mica the direction of the ceramic cap) applied percent or less of the rated 10 watts maxi-
capacitors, Underwood type J-101, are to the leads, and (2) that the nut on the mum drive — and tune the input network
special mica units designed for high- mounting stud is not overtightened. The for maximum indicated collector current.
frequency applications. The core for way to accomplish item 1is to install the The networks may not tune to resonance
RFC1 and the rf bead used for RFC3 are nutsfirst and solder the leads to the circuit at this low drive level, but you should at
Ferroxcube products. Underwood mica later. For item 2, the recommended stud least get an indication of proper operation
capacitors are available from Alpha torque is 6 inch-pounds. For those who by smooth tuning and lack of any erratic
Electronic Laboratories, 2302 Oakland don't have atorque wrench in the shack, behavior in the collector-current reading.

13-18 Chapter 13
 RFC 1 680C10 2EF
RFC3 --- 15V
• 0 0 0+

420-450W1 MHz RFC2 MRF61801

C9 vcc

420-450W2 MHz r-7-7

Ce

50-OHM I
1C425 I
1C515 C6 50-OHM
H

INPUT 2C17 1C215 C325 OUTPUT

018

o
Ir-)
j

—I--
**f

Fig. 35 — Photograph of the completed 430- to

450- MHz amplifier.

Fig. 36 — Schematic diagram of the 15-watt, 430- to 450- MHz amplifier.

C1, C7 — 0.9- to 7-pF mica compression C10 — 680-pF feedthrough capacitor.
Gradually increase the drive until full trimmer, Arco 400. C11 — 15-V tantalum.
rated output is reached. C2, C5 — Unelco 15-pF mica. W1, W2 — 50-ohm microstrip line, 2.3 inches
C3, C4 — Unelco 25-pF mica. long, 0.110- inch wide.
A SOLID-STATE PA FOR 440 MHz C6 — 3- to 35-pF mica compression trimmer, RFC1 — Ferrite bead on cold lead of RFC2.
Arco 403. RFC2 — 8 turns no. 22 enam., 1/8- inch ID,
Whether the application is by a person C8 — 0.018 mF chip capacitor. ATC or equiv. close wound.
using ahand-held transceiver as amobile (a 250-pF Unelco mica or a 0.00114F Erie RFC3 — 4 turns no. 22 enam., 1/4- inch ID,
rig or by an experimenter building a Redcap may work as a substitute). close wound.
C9 — 0.1 -MF disc ceramic.
repeater, a medium-power amplifier
would come in quite handy for increasing
the effective range of his station. This arti-
cle describes a compact, inexpensive,
10-dB gain power amplifier which is sim-
ple enough for nearly any experimenter to
build. This circuit originally appeared in
February 1977 QST in an article by Olsen,
WA7CNP.

Circuit Analysis
The circuit employed, Fig. 36, is essen-
tially a basic narrow-band amplifier
capable of being tuned over abroad range
of frequencies — 430 to 450 MHz. Input-
match and collector-load transformations
are accomplished by using multiple L
sections comprised of 50-ohm microstrip-
line and mica-compression variable Fig. 37 — A parts-placement guide for the 430- to 450- MHz amplifier board. Be sure to provide
capacitors. The active device is the ri -
connecting paths between the top and bottom ground surfaces, as explained in the text.

Motorola MRF618 — an internally

matched, 12.5-volt, controlled-Q tran-
sistor designed for application from 420 to
512 MHz. through the hole, and soldering and trim- flange and bolt it firmly to the heat sink.
ming both sides flush with the board. Be The transistor leads may then be soldered
Construction
sure that there is one such connection to the circuit.
The amplifier is built on double-sided made under each Unelco capacitor and The base-return choke and dc collector-
GIO glass-epoxy board. Fig. 37 is a 1:1 alongside the microstrip line and dc feed feed circuit may now be put into place.
drawing of the board layout. Care should point. C10 may easily be installed by drilling a
be taken in etching to maintain the line Next, the Unelco capacitors are 0.192-inch hole in a small copper strap
width of the microstrip at 0.110 inch for a mounted as closely to the transistor (0.02- inch thick) and then putting aright-
Zo of 50 ohms. package as possible, and at the same time angle bend in the strap so that the capaci-
After the board has been etched, the they double as mounting surfaces for the tor can be mounted upright above the
first step is to cut the hole in the board for transistor emitter leads. Connections to board. Be sure to make the base return
the transistor heat sink ( flange). The tran- the input and output lines may be made and dc- feed connections as close to the
sistor flange can be used as a stencil for with 2- to 5-mil copper strap or foil. transistor package as possible.
laying out the hole. When the hole has The transistor can be mounted at this Now comes the remaining tuning ele-
been formed, the next thing is to ensure time. The holes in the transistor flange are ments and output dc-isolation capacitor.
that agood rf path is continuous from the made to clear no. 4-40 screws. Drill and Fig. 37 shows the mounting position. Care
ground plane on one side to that on the tap two no. 42 holes in the heat sink, using should be taken to solder the ground taps
other. Connections can be made with cop- the flange as adrill guide. Next, clean the of the trimmer to the ground plane to
per or brass eyelets crimped and soldered heat sink and bottom of the transistor reduce the amount of lead inductance in-
to both sides of the board. If no eyelets flange so that foreign matter will not pre- herent in these capacitors at uhf. C8
are available, these connections may be vent the transistor from seating properly should be mounted after cutting a small
made by drilling ano. 50 hole through the on the heat sink. Apply a very small break in the output line near the end. This
buard, Inserting a piece of no. 18 wire amount of thermal compound to the capacitor need not be a0.018-g chip, but

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-19

 120

11.5
Vcc•13.5V
11.0 PouT•15W

1310.5

z 10.0
•7t
9.5

9.0

8.5

80
430 440 450
t(MHz)
(A)

PSAT
25

Í
20

15
e
V:C*13 5V Fig. 39 — This typical 144- MHz amateur
10 fo•450 MHz -

o repeater uses GE Progress- Line transmitter

a. and receiver decks. Power supplies and meter-
5
ing circuits have been added. The receiver
located on the middle deck is a 440- MHz con-
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 trol receiver, also a surplus GE unit. A
DRIVE POWER ( WATTS)
preamplifier, similar to that shown in Fig. 30,
AMPLIFIER TUNED AT Pur
(B) has been added to the 2- meter receiver to im-
prove the sensitivity so that a 0.2-pV input Fig. 40 — Simple repeaters. The system at A is
signal will produce 20 dB of quieting. for local control; remote control is shown at B.
Fig. 38 — These gain and output- power graphs
show what performance can be expected from
an amplifier utilizing the MRF618.

care should be taken in choosing asubsti- ceiver with its audio output directly con- suitable where all operation is to be
tute that will not grossly affect the output nected to the audio input of an associated through the repeater and where the fre-
load characteristic of the circuit (see parts transmitter tuned to a second frequency. quencies to be used have no other activity.
list). Depending upon your application, But, certain additional features are re-
Remote Base Stations
any 50-ohm outside-world connection quired to produce a workable repeater.
may be used, ranging from apiece of coax These are shown in Fig. 40A. The " COR" The remote base, like the repeater,
to RCA phono plugs. or carrier-operated relay is adevice con- utilizes a superior location for transmis-
nected to the receiver squelch circuit sion and reception, but is basically a
Tune-Up which provides arelay contact closure to simplex device. That is, it transmits and
Tuning is simple: Apply low power key the transmitter when an input signal receives on asingle frequency in order to
(about 3/4 watt) to the input and tune the of adequate strength is present. As all communicate with other stations also
input capacitor until a small amount of amateur transmissions require a licensed operating on that frequency. The operator
collector current begins to flow. Then operator to control the emissions, a " con- of the remote base listens to his hilltop
tune the outpia capacitors for peak out- trol" switch is provided in the keying path receiver and keys his hilltop transmitter
put. Switch back and forth between input so that the operator can exercise his over his 220-MHz or higher control chan-
and output, and tune until the desired duties. This repeater, as shown, is suitable nels (or telephone line). Fig. 41A shows
operating conditions are achieved. Fig. 38 for installation where an operator is pre- such a system. Control and keying fea-
shows examples of typical data taken in sent, such as the home of alocal amateur tures have been omitted for clarity. In
the lab. You will find that operating fre- with a superior location, and would re- some areas of high activity, repeaters have
quencies greater than 1MHz away from quire no special licensing under existing all but disappeared in favor of remote
the tune-up frequency can be used with- rules. bases because of the interference to
out the necessity for further adjustment. In the case of arepeater located where simplex activity caused by repeaters
no licensed operator is available, provi- unable to monitor their output frequency
REPEATERS sions must be made to control the equip- from the transmitter location.
A repeater is adevice which retransmits ment over atelephone line or aradio cir-
A Complete System
received signals in order to provide im- cuit on 220 MHz or higher. Fig. 40B
proved communications range and cover- shows the simplest system of this type. Fig. 41B shows a repeater that com-
age. This communications enhancement is The control decoder may be variously bines the best features of the simple
possible because the repeater can be designed to respond to simple audio repeater and the remote base. Again,
located at an elevated site which has tones, dial pulsed tones, or even " Touch- necessary control and keying features
coverage that is superior to that obtained Tone" signals. If a leased telephone line have not been shown in order to simplify
by most stations. A major improvement is with dc continuity is used, control the drawing, and make it easier to follow.
usually found when arepeater is used be- voltages may be sent directly, requiring no This repeater is compatible with simplex
tween vhf mobile stations, which normally decoder. A three-minute timer to disable operation on the output frequency be-
are severely limited by their low antenna the repeater transmitter is provided for cause the operator in control monitors the
heights and resulting short communica- fail-safe operation. This timer resets dur- output frequency from a receiver at the
tions range. This is especially true where ing pauses between transmissions and repeater site between transmissions. The
rough terrain exists. does not interfere with normal communi- control operator may also operate the
The simplest repeater consists of a re- cations. The system just outlined is system as a remote base. This type of

13-20 Chapter 13
 Table 1
EIA Standard Subaudible Tone
Frequencies
Reed Freq. (Hz) Reed Freq. (Hz)

L1 67.0 2A 114.8
VVZ 69.3 28 118.8
L2 71.9 3 123.0
WA 74.4 38 131.8
L3 77.0 4 136.5
WB 79.7 4A 141.3
L4 82.5 4B 146.2
YA 85.4 5 151.4
L4A 88.5 5A 156.7
ZZ 91.5 5B 162.2
L5 94.8 6 167.9
1 100.0 6A 173.8
1A 103.5 68 179.9
1B 107.2 7 186.2
2 110.9 7A 192.8

increasingly popular access method is a

continuous subaudible tone. Popularly
known as PL ( Motorola trademark for
Private Line), it must be applied to a
transmitter after the clipper/filter stage
has shaped the voice audio. Table 1lists
the EIA-standard frequencies.

Practical Repeater Circuits

Fig. 41 - A remote base is shown at A. A repeater with remote-base operating capability is Because of their proven reliability,
commercially made transmitter and re-
shown at B. Control and keying circuits are not shown. Telephone- line control may be substituted
for the radio-control channels shown. ceiver decks are generally used in repeater
installations. Units designed for repeater
or duplex service are preferred because
system is almost mandatory for operation should be clipped in a properly adjusted they have the extra shielding and filtering
on one of the national calling frequencies, repeater is an overdeviated signal. An necessary to hold mutual interference to a
such as 146.52 MHz, because it minimizes audio equalizer circuit easily adaptable to minimum when both the receiver and
interference to simplex operation and per- repeater service is described by Bob Heil, transmitter are operated simultaneously.
mits simplex communications through the K9EID, in "Equalize your Microphone Wide- band noise produced by the
system with passing mobiles who may not and Make Yourself Heard," July 1982 transmitter is amajor factor in the design
have facilities for the repeater-input fre- QST. of any repeater. The use of high-Q tuned
quency. circuits between each stage of the trans-
The choice of repeater input and output
The audio interface between the re- frequencies must be made carefully. In mitter, plus shielding and filtering through-
peater receivers and transmitters can, with general, check with the appropriate out the repeater installation, will hold the
some equipment, consist of a direct volunteer frequency coordinator, who is wideband noise to approximately 80 dB
connection bridging the transmitter mic- listed in the ARRL Repeater Directory. below the output carrier. However, this is
rophone inputs across the receiver speaker since about 4000 repeaters are operating not sufficient to prevent desensitization -
outputs. This is not recommended, how- across the U.S. and Canada. Some the reduction in sensitivity of the receiver
ever, because of the degradation of the 10-meter repeaters are operational, and caused by noise or rf overload from the
audio quality in the receiver-output most use 100-kHz separation. A popular nearby transmitter - if the antennas for
stages. A voltage follower connected to arrangement on 6 meters uses 52.525 the two units are placed physically close
each receiver's first squelch-controlled MHz as either the input or output, with together.
audio amplifier stage provides the best several choices for the other half. Many Desensitization can easily be checked
results. A repeater should maintain aflat stations, however, are moving toward by monitoring the limiter current of the
response across its audio passband to either a 600-kHz or 1- MHz offset. On 2 receiver with the transmitter switched off,
maintain the repeater intelligibility at the meters the standard is 600 kHz. The then on. If the limiter current increases
same level as direct transmissions. There 220- MHz band uses 1.6- MHz separation. when the transmitter is turned on, then
should be no noticeable difference be- On the 450- MHz band it is 5 MHz. The the problem is present. Only physical
tween repeated and direct transmissions. choice and usage is a matter for local isolation of the antennas or the us,e of
The intelligibility of some repeaters agreement. high-Q tuned cavities in the transmitter
suffers because of improper level settings In some cases where there is overlap- and receiver antenna feedline will improve
which cause excessive clipping distortion. ping geographical coverage of repeaters the situation.
The clipper in the repeater transmitter using the same frequencies, special meth-
should be set for the maximum system ods for selecting the desired repeater have Antenna Considerations
deviation, 5 kHz, usually. Then the been employed. One technique requires The ultimate answer to the problem of
receiver level driving the transmitter the user to transmit automatically a receiver desensing is to locate the repeater
should be set by applying an input signal 0.5-second burst of a specific audio tone transmitter amile or more away from the
of known deviation below the maximum, at the start of each transmission. Different receiver. The two can be interconnected
and adjusting the receiver audio gain to tones are used to select different repeaters. by telephone line or uhf link. Another
produce the same deviation at the repeater Standard tone frequencies are 1800, 1950, effective approach is to use a single
output. Signals will then be repeated 2100, 2250 and 2400 Hz. antenna with a duplexer, a device that
linearly up to the maximum desired
deviation. The only inComing signal that
Because of growing congestion among provides up to 120 de of isolation
same- and adjacent-channel repeaters, an between the transmitter and receiver.

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-21

 Fig. 43 — (A) COR circuit for repeater use. R2 sets the length of time that K1 will stay closed
after the input voltage disappears. K1 may be any relay with a 12-volt coil, although the long- life
reed type is preferred. D1 is a silicon diode. ( B) Timer circuit using a Signetics NE555. R1, Cl set
the timer range. Cl should be a low- leakage type capacitor. Si, S2 could have their contacts
paralleled by the receiver COR for automatic START and RESET controlled by an incoming signal.

quired. A typical COR (carrier-operated

Table 2
relay) circuit is shown in Fig. 43A. This
unit may be operated by the grid current Touch-Tone Audio Frequencies
Fig. 42 — Charts to calculate the amount of
isolation achieved by (A) vertical and ( B) of atube limiter or the dc output of the
horizontal spacing of repeater antennas. If noise detector in asolid-state receiver. Low High Tone
Tone (
Hz) 7209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz
600-kHz separation between the transmitted Normally, arepeater is given a " tail"; a
and received frequencies is used, approximate-
timer holds the repeater transmitter on for 697 2 3 Fo
ly 58-dB attenuation ( indicated by the dotted
line) will be needed. ( Feet x 0.3048 = meters.)
afew seconds after the input signal disap- 770 4 5 6
852 7 8 9
pears. This delay prevents the repeater
941 • o
from being keyed on and off by arapidly
High-Q cavities in the duplexer prevent fading signal. Other timers keep each
transmitted signal energy and wideband transmission to less than three minutes
noise from degrading the sensitivity of the duration (an FCC requirement), turn on
receiver, even though the transmitter and identification, and control logging func-
receiver are operating on asingle antenna tions. A simple timer circuit is shown in
simultaneously. A commercially made Fig. 43B.
duplexer is very expensive, and con-
structing a unit requires extensive metal- Touch- Tone® Control
working equipment and test facilities. From the inception of automatic dial-
If two antennas are used at asingle site, ing, signaling from telephone instruments
aminimum spacing of the two antennas is was accomplished using dc pulses. This
required to prevent desensing. Fig. 42 in- signaling method required direct wired
dicates the spacing necessary for repeaters connections, as adc path was needed. For
operating in the 50-, 144-, 220- and transmission via a radio circuit, the dc
420-MHz bands. An examination of Fig. pulses had to be converted to a keyed
42 will show that vertical spacing is far audio tone. In the early 1960s the Bell
more effective than is horizontal separa- Telephone Companies introduced a new,
tion for vertically polarized antennas. The faster tone-coded dialing system which
chart assumes unity-gain antennas will be was given, the registered trade name Fig. 44 — This Western Electric Touch-Tone
used. If some type of gain antenna is Touch- Tone. Because the tone signals of encoder has been mounted in a 4 x 4 x
the Touch-Tone system could be transmit- 2- inch ( 102 x 102 x 51-mm) utility box ( Bud
employed the pattern of the antennas will
AU- 1083). Encoders are sold by most telephone
be amodifying factor. ted over any audio carrier or radio circuit, supply houses, including Telephone Equipment
many amateurs have adopted the tele- Co., P. 0. Box 598, Leesburg, FL 32748. Tel.
Control phone-company system for control of fm 904-728-2730.
Two connections are needed between remote-base stations and repeaters.
the repeater receiver and transmitter, Because two tones are used for each
audio and transmitter control. The audio function in the Touch-Tone system, can be used for the phone patch and
should be fed through an impedance- reliability is excellent even when used on repeater control.
matching network to ensure that the radio circuits that are noisy or fading.
Encoders
receiver output circuit has aconstant load Another factor that has made Touch-
while the transmitter receives the proper Tone popular with repeater groups is that Touch-Tone information is coded in
input impedance. Filters limiting the many use autopatch connections to the tone pairs, using two of eight possible
audio response to the 300- to 3000-Hz public telephone network. By ordering a tones for digits zero through nine and six
band are desirable, and with some gear an Touch-Tone line for the repeater auto- special functions. The audio frequencies
audio-compensation network may be re- patch, the same encoders and decoders used are given in Table 2. The tones are

13-22 Chapter 13
 Fig. 46 — Diagram of a typical Western Electric Touch-Tone generator. Ti and T2 are special
multi-winding transformers manufactured by Sangamo Electric and others. D1- D4, incl. are silicon
varistors.

impedance output may be employed, as disconnected from the transmitter audio

shown in Figs. 45C and D. system when no keyboard switches are
A circuit diagram of a typical tele- pressed. The encoder may be connected to
phone-company pad is given in Fig. 46. the mic input of transceivers having either
Individual models will vary slightly, but high- or low-impedance mike inputs —
the basic circuit used in all models is the with negligible loading of the transmitter
same. A single transistor produces two audio circuitry. The audio frequencies are
tones. Two LC circuits are used, one for crystal-controlled, meaning there is no
the high tone group and one for the low drift. This circuit was originally described
Fig. 45 — Typical connections for the en-
tones. by Hejhall, K7QWR, in the February 1979
coders manufactured by Western Electric (A) issue of QST.
and Automatic Electric ( 13). If low- impedance A HOMEMADE TOUCH.TONE®
output is needed to drive a carbon-microphone ENCODER Theory of Operation
input, the circuit at C can be employed for
either encoder. Likewise, the circuit at D will To be compatible with all repeaters and Fig. 47 is aschematic diagram of the en-
provide a high-impedance output. R1 can be telephone systems, a Touch-Tone signal coder. Tone generation is pet formed by
any miniature composition control; the types must be accurate and stable in frequency, U 1 , a CMOS IC. High-f, -equency tones
made for mounting on circuit boards are ideal.
and have a nearly sinusoidal waveform. from pin 15 are mixed with their low-
Simpler encoders than the one described frequency counterparts from pin 2, and
here can be built, but they will not provide passed through the level control, RI,
its high performance. before reaching emitter follower Q 1 . Q1
This encoder features internal voltage performs an impedance transformation,
divided into the low group, 697, 770, 852 regulation, allowing power to be taken providing the low- impedance output men-
and 941 Hz; and the high group, 1209, from the rig it is used with; there is no tioned previously. Q2, Q4 and Q5 are
1336, 1477 and 1633 Hz. One tone from need to depend on separate batteries for used as switches. Q2 forces the audio-
each group is used for each function. For power. When a tone pair is selected by output impedance high when no keyboard
residential and business telephones, a pressing the keyboard switch, the trans- switches are depressed, preventing the en-
12-button encoder pad consisting of digits mitter is automatically keyed. When the coder from loading the transmitter mike in-
zero through nine and symbols pound # key switch is released, adelay timer keeps put. Q4 and Q5 are operated as a Dar-
and star * are employed. A typical en- the transmitter on long enough for the lington pair, keying the transmitter push-
coder is shown in Fig. 44, and the connec- next tone pair to be selected. It's no longer to-talk ( PTT) line when akeyboard switch
tions for pads manufactured by Western necessary to hang onto the push-to-talk is pressed. A single- package Darlington
Electric and Automatic Electric are shown switch while fumbling with the Touch- pair was originally used in this applica-
in Fig. 45. The telephone pads will work Tone pad, and there are no squelch tails tion, but its saturated collector voltage
with as little as nine volts or as much as 24 between digits. It has a low-impedance was high enough to prevent transmitter
volts dc applied. Either high- or low- audio output which is electronically keying in some transceivers. Substituting

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-23

 discrete transistors solved the problem.
Q2 and Q4 are driven by Q3, which is
turned on by pulses from pin 7 of U 1
when a keyboard switch is depressed.
U 1requires a 5-volt supply for proper
10k
operation. This is provided by the
toy 470-ohm resistor and 1N4733 Zener
diode, D1. With the exception of Q4, the
to remainder of the encoder circuit was also
iov Low_z designed to operate from a 5-volt supply.
Foutzpr, The length of time the transmitter re-
mains keyed after a keyboard switch is
e COMMON
r
released is determined by the value of CI,
connected to the collector of Q3. On the
prototype unit, avalue of 25 µF.provided
a delay of just under one second. If you
U1 PINS
10k
TOP VIEW prefer alonger drop-out time, increase the
16
value of this capacitor. Lowering its value
will decrease drop- out time.
* CONNECTED ONLY
o PTT
IF 16- KEY SWITCH
Construction and Testing
IS USED

The prototype was built on a piece of

DC VOLTAGE MEASURED
WITH RESPECT TO
20V perforated board, but a pc board is pre-
1W
,D2
GROUND USING HIGH
IMPEDANCE METER.
ferable. A commercially available circuit
TOP: NO KEYS PRESSED EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF board is shown in Figs. 48 and 49. U 1
BOTTOM: ONE OR TWO CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS ( yF 1 ;
KEYS PRESSED. OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS IpF OR yyFr, should be installed in a socket. The
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
0.001-14F disc capacitors connected to the
k•1000, M•1000 000,
base of Q4 and collector of Q5 should be
installed as near the transistors as possi-
Fig. 47 — Schematic diagram of the K70WR Touch-Tone encoder. Any properly encoded keyboard ble. Their function is to bypass rf from
may be used with this circuit, but the units specified will plug directly into a row of Molex pins the transmitter, which can cause Q4 and
soldered to the circuit board. If the encoder is constructed on a printed-circuit board there should
be no difficulties. Should you experience problems, voltage levels at various points in the circuit
Q5 to latch up in the keyed position.
are included on the schematic diagram. A few simple checks will tell whether
D1 — 5.1-volt, 400-mW Zener diode, 1N4733, sistance and load capacitance are typically the circuit is functioning properly. The
. HEP Z0406 or equivalent. 540 t) and 7 pF, respectively. Available from
following tests may be performed before
D2 ,-, 20-volt, 1-watt Zener diode, 1N4747, HEP Data Signal, Inc., 2403 Commerce Ln.,
•Z0421 or equivalent. Albany, GA 31707. Price is approximately connecting the encoder to the radio, using
01, 02, 04 — Silicon npn transistor, 2N4123, $6, plus postage. only a 12-volt power supply, a high-
HEP S0036 or equivalent. Z1 — Touch-Tone encoding keyboard. The cir- impedance dc voltmeter, and a scope if
Q3 — Silicon pnp transistor, 2N4125, HEP cuit -
board layout will accommodate Digitran
S0037 or equivalent. keyboards KL0054 ( 12-key) or KL0049 ( 16- one is available.
05 — Silicon npn transistor, 2N4401, HEP key). They are available from distributors in First ensure that D1 is regulating the en-
S0015 or equivalent, single lot quantities. For the name of the coder supply voltage at + 5.1 V dc ± 10
R1 — Circuit- board- mounted trimmer potenti• nearest distributor, contact Bob Privell at
percent. Ul may be damaged if more than
ometer, 10 kfJ, linear taper. Digitran, 855 South Arroyo Pkwy., Pasadena,
U1 — Integrated-circuit Touch-Tone encoder, CA 91105, or call him at 213-449-3110. At the 6 volts is applied to pin 16.
Motorola MC14410 or HEP C4056P. time of this writing, the keyboards cost ap- The two operating states for the en-
Y1 — 1- MHz crystal in HC•18/U holder. Fre- proximately $6 and $ 7.50, respectively. coder are ( 1) no keyboard buttons
quency tolerance is 0.1 percent; series re-
depressed and ( 2) one or more buttons
depressed. Connect the 12-V dc supply
and measure the voltage at the test points
shown on the schematic diagram.
Voltages measured should be in accord-
ance with those shown.
If any voltages are incorrect, look for
R1 wiring errors. If the collector voltage of
R2 Q2 is not at least 4 volts with no buttons
R3
pressed, the problem may be aleaky tran-
R4
Cl sistor at Q Ior Q2. If ascope is available it
C2
may be used to inspect the audio output.
C3 GND
Pressing any one button should produce a
GND signal, while depressing any two buttons
simultaneously should produce a single
13.8 V dc
tone.

Installation
The electrical portion of the installation
simply involves running four wires from
* C4 OR GND DEPENDING ON JUMPERS
* 0.001 the encoder to the transceiver: + 12 V,
ground, push-to-talk ( PTT) and audio
output. Shielded audio cable is recom-
Fig. 48 — If the circuit board is used, this parts overlay will guide you when installing com-
mended for the audio output, which is
ponents. Circuit boards are available from Lea Engineering, 1230 E. Layola Dr., Tempe, AZ 85282,
for $5.50 each. connected to the transceiver mike input.

13-24 Chapter 13
The PTT lead is connected to the hot side
of the mike PTT switch. The + 12-V and
ground leads are self-explanatory. The en-
coder PTT circuit is designed for rigs with
an antenna relay coil which is connected
to the + 12-V bus and the PTT switch.
The latter grounds the cold side of the
relay coil during transmit. Assure that
your rig has this type of PTT circuit and
that the relay coil draws less than 300 mA.
Most of the popular vhf and uhf fm ham
rigs have this type of PTT circuit. The
mechanical details of the installation are
left to the discretion of the reader.
Since the encoder will not load the
audio system, it should not be necessary
to change the setting of any transmitter
mike- level controls. Adjust only R1in the
encoder for proper tone deviation. The
prototype unit has provided excellent per- Fig. 49 — Circuit board etching pattern for the Touch-Tone encoder. The board is single sided,
shown at actual size from the foil size, with black representing copper.
formance on both a Tempo VHF/One
2- meter rig and a Kenwood TR-8300 uhf
rig.
FREQ. ADJ. EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

A UNIVERSAL TOUCH-TONE® RS RI
+ 5V
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE
IN M1CROFARADS ; OTHERS
ARE

DECODER ME IN PICOFARA DS ( pF OR ye);

+5V
o
j 7C1
TP1
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
The control unit described here is ex- 0.1 TEXT/ • • 0
k . 1000 Al• I000000
tremely reliable, flexible and immune to
ALL RESISTORS I/4W R8**
4
false signals. Any number of control func- C2 T Mt TIME
CI - C4 ARE MYLAR
100
.1C, U1 . 1 ',CC

tions can be built into this modular unit. 1.0 ., NE567 our
R7 **
OUTPUT LOW PASS e 47k 01
Starting with asimple, single-digit, on/off IILTERC ONO FILTER)
2N2222
R6*
control, it may be expanded to provide up C5
to 45 different control functions, in- r 1 , 2.2pF/ 50 V UNLATCH
INPUT
cluding a three-digit on/off command. 03

The application of the decoder system

1N270 **
described here is not limited to repeater C8
, L4.7pF/16V
use. Also included is a voltage-to- TP2

o
frequency converter. FREQ. ADJ

The heart of the system is the NE567 RX R3

+5V

r
tone decoder. Note the unique method of R4
151, *
interconnection as shown in Fig. 50. In (SEE TP3
, TEXT)
0.1 • • 0
other systems, seven ICs are used to pro-
6 5
vide all the decoding functions. These TIME 11, C, TIM
4 DI
C4
IN914 *
decoders may respond to false signals and 3
1.12
NE567 0.0

are critical of input tone levels, however. 0.1

OUTPUT
FILTER C
LOW PRISOUT
FILTER CY,. ()OUTPUT
In this unit 24 ICs are used, two for each D2
digit (0to 9) and two each for the asterisk AUDIO C6 IN914
INPUT 2.2F/ 50V
( 6)and pound (#) signs. This may at first R5
r-7-7 15 h
seem to be a waste of ICs, but the selec- 04

tivity of the decoders is greatly enhanced •

and this arrangement allows the use of -"" Cl
IN 270 * *
4.7,u F / 16V
other capabilities of the IC. This circuit
* PARTS FOR LATCH FUNCTION
was originally described in March 1980
QST by WAOUZO. * * PARTS FOR UNLATCH FUNCTION

Circuit Description
Fig. 50 — The circuit diagram of the Universal Touch-Tone Decoder. A pair of ICs is used to pro-
Refer to Fig. 50. U 1is used to decode
vide better reliability and immunity to " falsing." If desired, the capacitor at pin 1of each IC may
the higher frequency ( f1) of the Touch- be increased to 100 1.4F to provide a two-second decoding delay.
Tone pair (see Fig. 51A). When U 1 re-
ceives the correct tone, the output ( pin 8)
will supply alow to U2, pin 7, enabling it the system will unlatch. DIGIT

to decode the lower frequency of the pair Note that the decoders may be built one
FREQUENCIES VALUE OF R X

(f2). Upon reception of the frequency at atime on asmall board or in groups of FI F2 FREI/ VALUE

pair, the output of U2 will go low. four on a larger board. Both boards can 697 1209 6.61,

This low is uscd to " latch" thc digit 1336 5.8k

770 1477 5.1k
into the system. D1, D2, R4 and R5 are
697 13h
used for this purpose. If the latch feature 852
770 12k
is not desired, omit these components. To Fig. 51 — The layout of the 12- key pad and the
852 10k
frequencies associated with each line and row 941
"unlatch" the unit, Q1 is used. When the 941 9.11,
are shown at A. Fig. 51B gives the values re-
hase of QI is low (grounded), the latch is quired for AX for the various frequencies to IA) (F3)

enabled. If the base is high (ungrounded) which the decoders of Fig. 50 are tuned.

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-25

 TO DESIRED
O CIRCUIT

t---
0+ 5V

1N9I4 KI
R8
* DECODER
R7 01
WITH LATCH

D3 R6

0
+ 5V
OUTPUT WILL
GO HIGH
D4 it DECODER
PIN 8 o

1k
+ 5V

PNP
TRANSISTOR OUTPUT
0+ 5 V
(B)
# DECODER Re
WIT HOUT LATCH R7 +5 V
02
OUTPUT WILL
R6 GO LOW
TO PIN 8 lk
U1
* DECODER
PIN 8

(A)
NPN TRANSISTOR OUTPUT

(C)

Fig. 52 — A simple two-button, on/off decoder. A relay is shown at A, but transistor switches may
be substituted as at B and C.

be plugged into a standard 0.156-in. quired for the latch/unlatch circuitry. In-
(4.0- mm) card socket. A 6- pin socket is stall short wires at TP1, TP2 and TP3 for
used for the single-digit model and a attaching test leads. Apply power to the
28- pin socket for the four digit board.' circuit and connect afrequency counter to
TP1. Use alow- value capacitor (approxi-
Construction mately 300 pF) between the counter and
To construct a single-digit decoder, TP1 to prevent the counter from loading
select afrequency pair from Fig. 51A and the IC. Adjust RI to provide the correct
Fig. 54 — The diagram of the TIMER-
the appropriate resistor value for RX chosen frequency. INVERTER board. The timer is used to provide
from Fig. 51B. Mount the components on To adjust U2, asignal source at fl is re- a " window" through which the control data
the board with the exception of those re- quired. A Touch-Tone pad may be con- must be passed. Only one inverter IC is shown,
nected to the audio-input point of Fig. 50. but there are actually three on the board. The
47 -
MF capacitors at the input to the gates slow
The pad will generate a single- frequency down the action of the inverters and prevent
tone ( f1) when two buttons in a vertical system " falsing" because of voltage " spikes."
row are pressed simultaneously. Any two
coincidentally pressed buttons in a hori-
zontal line will generate f2. Feed fl into
the decoder and adjust the amplitude of
the tone so that TP2 goes low. With the
counter at TP3, adjust R3 for f2 with fl
still applied. Now, when the digit cor-
responding to the frequency pair ( fl/f2) is
pressed with the output of the pad applied
to the decoder, the output of U2 ( pin 8)
will go low. When the tones are removed,
pin 8will return to a high.
Install the components associated with
the latch function. Now, when the fre-
quency pair is recognized by the decoder,
the output of U2 will go low and remain
low after the tones are removed. Mount
the unlatch function components and
ground the base of Q1. You should note
that pin 8 will go low when the tones are Fig. 55 — There are three 74LS10 ICs on each
Fig. 53 — With a little ingenuity, this simple
version of the decoder can find many uses. received and remain low until the base of COMBINER board although only one is shown.

13-26 Chapter 13
 +12 V

1.2 k

DI
OUT PuT
11-.1.2 ON kr.1.2 OFF WITH et OFF
-0
01
2NI711

U4A o
74273

FF,
74L SIC

13
OUTPUT
02
291711 o

U48

74L73

FF2
10

N.C.

+I2V

(13)

DECODER
WITHOUT LATCH

OUTPUT

o
Ql
291711

U44 o
Fig. 56 — A diagram of one section of the FINAL board. FF1 and FF2 are both part of the same
IC, a dual J- K flip-flop. Five of these dual flip-flops and 10 of their accompanying output tran- 74L73

sistors are mounted on each board. See Fig. 57 and the text concerning the installation of the FF,
02
optional diode shown in dashed lines.
74LSIO

13
12
OUTPUT
o
22
555
TIMER U49

74LSOO 74L 73

+12 V
FF2
DECODER
U38
W ITHOUT LATCH
9.2

12 k
+5 V

*.1.2 ON WI OFF

OUTPUT
RI (C) i-12 V
o DECODER
[WOUT
ITH LATCH
291 C;111

DECODER
U4 A o
WITH LATCH

74L7 3

FF I
74LSIO

2
9

2
DECOOE R 10
WITH LATCH OUTPUT
o

O
J48

C 74L73

FF2

12
8 N.C.
9
3
DECODER 3
WITH LATCH

A l
et
DECODER
WITHOUT LATCH
34.1.2 ON * 1.3 OFF
if,1.2 ON *. 1.2 OFF

DECODER
WITHOUT LATCH
(D)
Fig. 57 — The four circuits alagraMmed here are discussed in the text. The most simple circuit
(A) does have a weak point, while that at D is the most reliable.

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-27

Q Iis ungrounded or taken high.
By combining two single-digit decoders,
a simple ON/OFF function can be con-
structed. The decoder for the ON digit is
built with the latched output while the OFF
tone decoder is wired without the latch
function. The necessary connections be- O OUTPUT TO
tween the two decoders are shown in Fig. R3
FREQ. COUNTER

52. A relay is shown at the output although

either a relay or transistor may be em-
ployed. When the ON digit is received the
relay will close and remain closed (latched) ALL RESISTORS
AC Cl D2
until the OFF digit is received. 1/4 VI 5%. ALL
INPUT 0 - 1( VARIABLE RESISTORS
VIESTON 830 P
0.05 Di
N270
i
An Expanded System 15- TURN TYPE

RI
A complete system offering up to 45 IN270
2.2M
CAL.
77
different control functions and using a
three-digit entry code can be constructed
by combining the desired number of tone (A)
decoder circuits with some additional
INPUT
logic. Use of either the * or # sign as the INPUT
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
first entry for acontrol function is recom- VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
mended, especially if the repeater is equip- MKROFARADS Ij,FI ; OTHERS

ped with an autopatch. In this manner, ARE IN PICOFARA DS IpF OR .P.PF);

RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
numbers alone cannot initiate a control 1..1000. M• 1000 000
function. Personal preference is to use the
*symbol to initiate the command and the
# sign as an " all clear"; this also permits
system reset. X10 X100
CAL. CAL.
To carry the logic required for the
larger system, other circuit boards are
needed. All are of the 28- pin plug-in varie- X100
X10
ty. A timer is also needed; an NE555 CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT
serves nicely. The timer, activated by the
(B) (C)
decoder, (constructed without alatch) will
open a " window" through which the
other two digits must be passed. This Fig. 58 — The voltage-to- frequency converter is shown at A. Both dc and ac voltage amplitudes
"window" will remain open for only two may be read out on a frequency counter at the output of the IC. The circuits at B and C may be
used as x 10 and x 100 multipliers at the input to the converter.
seconds. The * is also used to reset all
other decoders. This was done so that if
any of the decoders have been accidently
activated, no command function will be INVERTER board and at least one COM- indicating that the function has been car-
carried out. BINER board and one FINAL board. ried out. If desired, a relay could be used
It is necessary to invert all the lows sup- To contain the system, acard cage can at the output of Q 1 . With this simple
plied by the decoders. This operation is be constructed out of double-sided system, one must use the same codes
performed by SN74LSOO quad, two- input printed-circuit- board material. The (*,1,2) to turn off the function. This is not
NAND gates. The input pins of the gates function-control outputs are brought out asound idea since one cannot tell ( from a
are tied together, thereby creating in- to card sockets on the rear of the case. remote point) whether the function was
verters. The timer and inverter diagram is This allows everything to be disconnected being keyed on or off. A better method is
shown in Fig. 54. Only one TIMER- easily for servicing. LEDs are mounted on shown in Fig. 57B. The clear (C) input of
INVERTER board is required for any the front panel of the enclosure to provide U4 is connected to the # decoder. The
system of up to 45 functions. an indication of the status of all the func- basic action of the decoder will be the
To combine the digits and generate one tions. A Touch-Tone pad can also be in- same as before, but now, use of the # key
output, a COMBINER board is used. stalled on the front panel. This pad can be will ensure the function is in its off state.
Each board contains three SN74LS I 0ICs. switched in for local system checks. Extra insurance may be obtained through
Fig. 55 shows the make-up of a single Fig. 57A shows how the system is con- the addition of D2 as shown in Fig. 57C.
74LSIO which incorporates three triple- figured for a *, 1, 2 ON/OFF function. This will prevent the same code (*, 1,2)
input NAND gates. Each board furnishes Note that the output of the * decoder is from turning the function off; now the
nine functions; five boards are used in a used to start the timer and reset all the only way this may be done is with the #
45- function decoding system. decoders. The output of U2 is applied to key.
The last board required is (ap- one input of the three-input gate, U3A. In Fig. 57D, a system is shown which
propriately) the FINAL board, which The second input of the gate is satisfied by uses an ON code of *, 1,2 and OFF code of
contains the latches for the desired func- the output of the " 1" decoder and the •,1,3.
tions and the transistor drivers. Five third input by the " 2" decoder. This It is best to use a number of decoder
SN74L73 dual J-K flip-flops and 10 forces the output of U3A low. This low chips and separate inputs to each chip for
2N1711 transistors are mounted on each toggles the J- K flip-flop U4A (note that acouple of reasons. Some of the decoder
FINAL board. Five of these boards are the clear or C input of U4A is held high audio inputs can be connected to the
used in a 45- function system with 5 func- through R1). The Q output of U4A will go repeater receiver so that anumber of users
tions left open for possible use later. The high and remain high. This causes tran- can key them up, as in autopatch use.
circuit for a single SN74L73 is shown in sistor Q1 (the output transistor) to con- Other decoders can be used with a
Fig. 56. A complete system will require an duct. The corresponding LED will glow, 450- MHz control receiver and still others

13-28 Chapter 13
properly coupled to the telephone line for
other uses.
A highly accurate voltage-to-frequency
converter circuit is presented in Fig. 58A.
Calibration is straightforward. Couple a
frequency counter to the output of the
converter and connect a + I2V source to
the input. Adjust the calibrate potenti-
ometer for areading of 12 kHz, as read on
the frequency counter. A + 1.5-V source
should provide a reading of 1.5 kHz, and
so on. Provisions have been made on the
printed circuit board for inclusion of a
X 10 and x 100 multiplier circuit. These
additions are shown in Fig. 58B and C,
respectively. The ac- to-dc converter per-
mits measurement of ac voltage and will
be read as an rms voltage on the frequency
counter. This novel voltage-to- frequency
converter circuit can be utilized in many
ways such as providing a digital readout
of signal levels. Or, if your repeater is
equipped for telemetry, you could use this
circuit to provide readout of a variety of
data inputs.
dr do,
o • •
GROUND- PLANE ANTENNAS FOR a dr • :0 e
144, 220 AND 420 MHz dr • dr
• • dr
For the fm operator living in the
primary coverage area of a repeater the
ease of construction and low cost of a
quarter-wavelength ground-plane antenna
make it an ideal choice. Three different Fig. 60 — The completed 45- function Touch-Tone decoder. Double-sided printed-circuit board
types of construction are detailed in soldered along the seams makes a sturdy enclosure.

000 0 0 000 0 J
J rt

o
LJ
o

OED

4
4
3
axe-- , cf ,

eà, Dr DT.
é'
5 dj1+
d)
1

"N O__ '11

Fig. 59 — Half-size component placement guides for the pc boards. Clockwise from upper left: INVERTER-TIMER, DECODER, V/F CONVERTER,
FINAL, COMBINER. Circuit boards and parts kits are available from Circuit Board Specialists, P 0 Box 969, Pueblo, CO 81002 Printed-circuit-board
etching patterns are available from the ARRL for 50 cents and an s.a.s.e.

Frequency Modulation and Repeaters 13-29

 SO- 239 COAX -

IAL CONNECTOR

(A)
A.B.C.D — 19 - ENGTHS OF 3/14 ( 4.76 mrn) ALUM
ROD BENT DOWN AT 45 .1 ANGLE.

4-40 HARDWARE
AND SOLDER

,
45 . 7

SO -239

FREQUENCY IMHU A ( INCHES/ BUNCHES/

146 19-5/16 20 - 3/16

223 12 - 5/8 13 - 1/8

445 6 - 3/8 6 - 5/8

Fig. 62 — Here is the dimensional information Fig. 63 — Simple ground- plane antenna for the
for the 220 MHz ground- plane antenna. The cor- 146-, 220-, and 440- MHz bands. The vertical ele-
Fig. 61 — These drawings Illustrate the dimen-
ners of the aluminum plate are bent down at a ment and radials are 3/32- or 1/16- inch brass
sions for the 146 MHz ground-plane antenna. rod. Although 3/32- inch rod is preferred for the
45-degree angle rather than bending the
The radials are bent down at a 45-degree 2-meter antenna, 10 or 12 ga. copper wire can
aluminum rod as in the 146- MHz model. Either
angle. also be used.
method is suitable for these antennas.

Figs. 61 through 64; the choice of con- clamp could be used to secure the antenna the area of the center pin of the connector
struction method will depend upon the to amast. As with the 2-meter version the to prevent water from entering the con-
materials at hand and the desired style of vertical portion of the antenna is soldered nector and coax line.
antenna mounting. directly to the SO-239 connector.
The 2-meter model shown in Fig. 61 A very simple method of construction,
uses a flat piece of sheet aluminum, to shown in Figs. 63 and 64, requires nothing
which the radials are connected with more than an SO-239 connector and some
machine screws. A 45-degree bend is made 4-40 hardware. A small loop, formed at
in each of the radials. This bend can be one end of the radial, is used to attach the
made with the aid of an ordinary bench radial directly to the mounting holes of
vise. An SO-239 chassis connector is the coaxial connector. After the radial is
mounted at the center of the aluminum fastened to the SO-239 with 4-40 hard-
plate with the threaded part of the connec- ware, a large soldering iron or propane
tor facing down. The vertical portion of torch is used to solder the radial and the
the antenna is made of no. 12 copper wire mounting hardware to the coaxial connec-
soldered directly to the center pin of the tor. The radials are bent to a 45-dégree
SO-239 connector. angle and the vertical portion is soldered
The 220-MHz version, Fig. 62, uses a to the center pin to complete the antenna.
slightly different technique for mounting The antenna can be mounted by passing
and sloping the radials. In this case the the feed line through a mast of 3/4 inch
corners of the aluminum plate are bent (19 mm) ID plastic or aluminum tubing. A
down at a45-degree angle with respect to compression hose clamp can be used to
the remainder of the plate. The four secure the PL- 259 connector, attached to
radials are held to the plate with matching the feed line, in the end of the mast.
machine screws, lockwashers and nuts. A Dimensions for the 146-, 220- and
mounting tab has been included in the 440-MHz bands are given in Fig. 63. Fig. 64 — A 440- MHz ground-plane antenna
design of this antenna as part of the If these antennas are to be mounted constructed using only an SO-239 connector,
aluminum base. A compression- type hose outside it is wise to apply asmall amount 4-40 hardware and 1/16-inch brass rod.
of RTV sealant or similar material around

13-30 Chapter 13
Chapter 14

Specialized Communications
Systems

A mateur Radio has many facets,

making its appeal great among ex-
possible to shrink circuits of staggering
complexity down to a single chip that is
forts, teams that are armed with the
knowledge of the latest that industry has
perimenters. Many experimenters pursue small, reliable and affordable. to offer. To the extent possible, names of
new ideas and designs simply to make them Most of the techniques presented in this currently active organizations and
work, leaving the " operating" to others. chapter represent the results of team ef- bibliographies are included.
Many new communication methods have
been pioneered by a few Amateur Radio
experimenters who were rewarded by
simply knowing that they advanced the art.
These methods — and there are many —
have been adopted by other amateurs who
construct their own equipment, and by
manufacturers who make new equipment
available to many amateurs. New methods
explored by amateurs often contributed to
improvements in communications systems
used by commercial and governmental
services.
The once- specialized technique of
transmitting speech by single sideband (ssb)
is now in the main stream. The techniques
covered in this chapter range from those
of interest to only afew amateurs to those
gaining widespread interest. In this chapter,
you will read descriptions of space com-
munications via amateur satellites and
earth-moon-earth (EME); image transmis-
sion by amateur televisiorl (ATV) in the
forms of slow-scan television ( SSTV) and
fast- scan television ( FSTV), and facsimile
(FAX); amplitude-compandored single
sideband (ACSIP)'; and spread-spectrum
modulation systems. Also, you will survey
a panoply of digital communications
techniques such as Baudot, ASCII,
MOTOR and packet radio.
While many of these techniques are
highly sophisticated, once out of the ex-
perimental stage they can be reduced to
functional blocks such as separate pieces
of equipment or printed-circuit boards. The
modern integrated circuit ( IC) makes it Fig. 1 — AMSAT's Phase IIIB spacecraft in construction with solar panels removed. Shown are
spacecraft designers DJ4ZC ( left) and W3GEY ( right). Amateur Radio satellites are but one type
'ACSEs iS atrademark of Sideband Technology, ot specialized communication whose frontiers are being expanded by experimenters seeking
Inc. more efficient ways of communicating. ( AMSAT photo)
Specialized Communications Systems 14-1
Space Communications
Terrestrial communication is limited by the powered its 2-meter and 10-meter beacons was to take place that morning from
spherical shape of the earth. There are for more than six weeks. the ESA launch facility in Kourou, French
numerous propagation mechanisms which AMSAT-OSCAR 6 was the first Guiana. Phase 111A was the first of a
can be used to transmit asignal around the extended-lifetime amateur satellite, using planned series of satellites that would
earth. However, beyond line-of-sight solar cells to generate power. Launched in finally realize the dream of reliable, high-
distances, reliable communication may re- 1972 with adesign life of one year, OSCAR altitude, long-distance satellite communica-
quire the use of higher effective radiated 6continued to support communication for tion over extended periods. But it was
power and may not be possible at all times. over five years. The professional satellite not to be.
When a space object is visible from a whose launch OSCAR 6 shared had long A few minutes after liftoff the Ariane
point on earth, there is nothing in the path since died! It seems that amateurs can do rocket failed, dumping AMSAT-OSCAR
to block or scatter the signal. When that abetter job. Various subsystems of this im- Phase IIIA and the dream that rode with
object is mutually visible to two points on mensely popular and successful satellite were it into the cold Atlantic. Nevertheless,
earth, communication between these two constructed by amateurs in West Germany, this tremendous disappointment left the
points is possible using the object as a Australia and the United States. amateur satellite community with in-
reflector (passive relay) or atransponder AMSAT-OSCAR 7 joined the series valuable experience and a new resolve.
(active relay). The signal trip to space and late in 1974, providing another major A similar spacecraft, AMSAT-OSCAR
back is usually worth it in order to avoid step forward for the amateur satellite 10 ( Phase IIIB), was already under
the greater attenuation involved in sending program: It was designed to remain on construction.
a signal around the earth. continuously, alternating between two dif- A little over a year and a half later,
Amateur Radio space communications ferent modes of operation. Though late in October of 1981, ascientific and educa-
has two major programs: artificial satellites in its lifetime it suffered power problems tional satellite carrying many experiments
and earth-moon-earth (EME). Both are (an open circuit within the batteries), (but no communications transponders) was
rich with technical and operational OSCAR 7was able to support long-range launched as a secondary payload aboard
achievements by radio amateurs. Together, vhf communication in sunlight for atotal a NASA Delta rocket. UoSAT-OSCAR
they make the vhf and higher frequencies service life of over six and one-half years. 9, built by a group of radio amateurs
usable for amateur transcontinental com- A cooperative international effort, OSCAR and educators at the University of Surrey
munications and push today's technology 7 was constructed in module form by in England, was placed into alower orbit
to the limit. amateurs in West Germany, Canada and than other recent OSCARs, an orbit af-
Australia as well as in the U.S. fected by atmospheric drag. For this
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS The latest in the Phase II (low orbit, reason, accurate long-term orbital predic-
Large antenna arrays and comparative- long life) OSCAR series of amateur com- tions are impossible, and the orbital
ly sophisticated equipment may rule out munications satellites, AMSAT-OSCAR parameters change relatively quickly as
some forms of space communications for 8, was launched in March of 1978, joining the satellite descends.
many amateurs, but the amateur satellite its predecessors, though at aslightly lower Many experiments were carried aloft,
program puts the excitement of vhf DX altitude. A joint effort by radio amateurs including hf beacons at 7050, 14,002,
within the reach of every amateur: The in Canada, Japan, the United States and 21,002 and 29,510 kHz for propagation
possibilities grow with every new launch! West Germany, this satellite is intended studies, general and engineering data
It began in 1961 with the successful to continue support for the OSCAR Educa- beacons on 2 m and 70 cm, and two
launch of OSCAR 1, the world's first tion Program while providing another additional beacons on 13 cm and 10 GHz.
nongovernmental satellite. OSCAR 1rode spacecraft for experimentation and An earth-imaging camera, magnetometer,
"piggyback" on a regular launch, with routine communication. By prior agree- synthesized voice telemetry capability and
the tiny ham satellite serving as ballast. ment, several weeks after launch, the onboàrd computer round out the ex-
The small breadbox-size satellite, built ARRL assumed operational responsibility perimental hardware. At the time of this
from out-of-pocket expenses of $64, for OSCAR 8 After five years of flawless writing UoSAT-OSCAR 9 has not been
transmitted the Morse code letters " HI" service, it is experiencing low battery made fully operational. A serious com-
on 2 meters at speeds corresponding to voltage problems, making its future uncer- mand problem has been solved. As of late
the internal spacecraft temperature. This tain as this is written. OSCAR 8is expected 1983, UoSAT-OSCAR 9 should be in a
continued for three weeks before its on- to continue to operate at least while modified operational schedule.
board batteries were finally exhausted. illuminated by sunlight. Radio amateurs from the Soviet Union
The nearly identical OSCAR 2 transmit- surprised the ham community in December
After OSCAR 8 of 1981 with the simultaneous launch of six
ted signals for 18 days after its launch
in 1962. Late in 1978 satellite users throughout Amateur Radio satellites (RS-3 through
The first active communications satellite the world were pleased to welcome two RS-8) aboard a single launch vehicle.
in the OSCAR series was OSCAR 3, additional low circular orbit satellite en- Several of these Radio Sputniks carry Mode
launched in March, 1965. More than 100 tries by the Soviet Union: Radio-1 and A transponders that permit communication
stations in 16 countries helped make Radio-2. Intended for educational and over distances greater than 5000 mi (8000
satellite history with OSCAR 3, the first communication use with very low power km). Also aboard two of the RS satellites
free-access satellite. OSCAR 4 followed ground stations, RS- 1and RS-2 are no is aunique device nicknamed " Robot" that
later that year and achieved another com- longer functional. Those who com- can automatically handle acw QSO with
munications first despite a bad orbit — municated through them are grateful for terrestrial stations. Although the Robots
the first U.S.-to-U.S.S.R. satellite con- the work of our fellow radio amateurs demand anearly perfect fist, it's sometimes
tact. Australis-OSCAR 5, constructed by in the Soviet Union. difficult to believe that one is working an
a team at Melbourne University in May 23, 1980 has come to be known orbiting computer and not another ham.
Australia in 1970, was the first launch as " Black Friday" among the amateur In May of 1982 the Iskra-2 satellite was
coordinated by a newly formed group satellite community. The long-awaited manually launched by two Soviet cosmo-
of amateurs in the Washington, DC area: launch of AMSAT-OSCAR Phase IIIA nauts from the Salyut 7space station. With
AMSAT. The spacecraft internal batteries aboard the ESA Ariane LO2 test mission the call sign RK02, Iskra-2 sported atele-

14-2 Chapter 14
metry beacon on 10 m and a15-m to 10-m
hf transponder. Iskra-2, in avery low or- Table 1
bit, was not intended to be long lived and Amateur Radio Spacecraft Orbital Parameters
was destroyed on reentering the earth's at- Satellite Inclination Apogee (km) Perigee (km) Period (Min.) Increment (Deg. W)
mosphere a few weeks after launch. In AMSAT-OSCAR 8 98.79° 916 904 103.17 25.80
November of the same year, cosmonauts UoSAT-OSCAR 9 97.48° .-
-
--544* 536'
on the same Salyut 7, nearing the end of RS 3" 82.96 1688 1577 118.46 29.76
RS 4 82.96 1691 1640 119.34 29.98
their 211-day mission, launched another
RS 5 82.96 1690 1653 119.50 30.02
satellite, Iskra-3, which was even shorter RS 6 82.95 1690 1592 118.66 29.81
lived than its predecessor. RS 7 82.96 1689 1634 119.14 29.93
RS 8 82.96 1693 1657 119.71 30.07
AMSAT-OSCAR 10 0111B••• 63° 36,000 1500 630-660 165
(10-1/2-11 hrs.)
The launch of the second of the AMSAT
Phase HI satellites was scheduled for early *Note: UoSAT-OSCAR 9 is in a low orbit that is affected by atmospheric drag. The apogee, perigee, period and
increment, all interrelated parameters, are approximate values that will change significantly with time.
1983 and had been postponed anumber of
"RS data based on late 1982 figures and should be close to actual parameters throughout 1983.
times. On the morning of June 16, 1983, "Projected figures — satellite had not been launched at press time.
OSCAR 10 was launched aboard an ESA
Ariane rocket. It was successfully placed
in its initial elliptical orbit. Then the word
came from ZL1A0X that telemetry was
being copied, indicating a " live bird." As on the globe to any other. The orbit is to downed aircraft, and in relaying complex
this is being written, AMSAT is checking be such that each ground station will be medical data such as electrocardiograms
out the satellite prior to turning it over forable to communicate with the spacecraft at from coast to coast, simulating in-transit
amateur operations. least twice daily, at the same times each work from a disaster site. Finally, when
Pending any problems that may be day. Plans are to use 435 MHz for the OSCARs 6, 7 and 8 have been in close
discovered in the process, OSCAR 10 uplink and 145 MHz for the downlink. The proximity, satellite-to-satellite linkups have
should open up a vast communications downlink is expected to use asignaling rate been achieved: another milestone for free
resource for radio amateurs throughout the of 2400 or 4800 bauds, depending on the access satellites. In the future, with the
world. The thanks of all radio amateurs go type of modulation used. Because of prob- greatly extended access time and insignifi-
to the AMSAT crew who labored countless lems associated with multiple ground sta- cant Doppler shift near AMSAT Phase
hours over athree-year period to bring us tions trying to transmit to PACSAT at the III's apogee, and with the flexibility that
OSCAR 10, or as AMSAT President same time, either ahigher signaling rate or results from its sophisticated on-board
W3IWI put it, to " bring Phoenix from several uplink channels may be necessary computer, many more experiments are
the ashes." to balance the system. planned in areas of remote-store-and-
Japanese radio amateurs, in a joint forward data transmission, computer pro-
On the Horizon undertaking of the Japan Amateur Radio gram exchange and emergency
The future holds tremendous promise for League (JARL) and Japan's National communication.
Amateur Radio satellite communication. Space Development Agency (NASDA), In recognition of the experimental and
The technical possibilities are virtually with technical support from Japan educational potential of these free-access
limitless. But practical problems abound. AMSAT (JAMSAT), are building an satellites, NASA, and more recently ESA,
There is afinite number of launch oppor- Amateur Radio satellite to be called JAS- 1. have been most generous in providing
tunities that are affordable and within This spacecraft, intended to carry alinear "secondary payload" launch opportunities
desired operational parameters. Many of transponder and adigital transponder with to AMSAT to get its OSCARs in orbit.
the talents needed to advance the program store-and-forward capability (much like NASA has a particularly strong interest
involve not only state-of-the-art electronics AMSAT's PACSAT), is scheduled for a in the OSCAR Education Program, de-
but other disciplines such as rocketry. 1984 or ' 85 launch aboard aJapanese H-1 signed to bring satellite and space
Amateur Radio satellite projects require the rocket. The intended orbit will be circular technology into classrooms throughout
voluntary efforts of both individuals and at aheight of 940 miles ( 1500 km) at an in- the world. Using readily available com-
groups to do the system development as clination of 50 degrees. mercial equipment, students are ex-
well as for numerous support tasks. In 1982, Cablesat General Corporation periencing firsthand the unique aspects
As this is written, NASA astronaut and proposed to donate two Amateur Radio of space communications: Doppler shift,
radio amateur Owen Garriott, W5LFL, is Network Transponders (ARNET) to the orbital mechanics, Faraday rotation,
to operate 2-m fm from earth orbit aboard Amateur Radio Service and place them in telemetry decoding and much more. (If
the NASA Space Shuttle Columbia STS-9 geostationary orbit, one aboard each of you are interested in participating in this
mission scheduled for September 1983. their commercial communications satel- program locally, contact OSCAR Educa-
This is to be the first time that aham in lites. These transponders would operate in tion at ARRL Headquarters.)
space communicates with fellow hams in the amateur bands near 5.65 GHz uplink
all corners of the globe. Though not truly and 3.4 GHz downlink. The entire project The Spacecraft
acommunications satellite, STS-9in avery is now pending FCC approval of the overall Present communications satellites are
real sense represents Amateur Radio space Cablesat General proposal and assignment functionally integrated systems. Re-
communication. Also, it is possible that a of geostationary " parking slots." chargeable batteries, solar cell arrays,
Marshall Space Flight Center group will use voltage regulators, command decoders,
Amateur Radio to telemeter data to earth The Record of Achievement antenna-deployment mechanisms, stabili-
from their " Getaway Special" experiment More than achallenging means of com- zation systems, sensors, telemetry en-
aboard the STS- 11 mission in 1984. munication for hams, the amateur satellites coders and even on-board computers and
AMSAT is designing a packet-radio have been involved in a host of unique kick motors each serve a unique and in-
satellite (PACSAT) for low earth orbit. experiments. Using the Phase II AMSAT- dispensable purpose. But to the radio
Unlike other satellites, which need mutual OSCAR series, amateurs have amateur interested in communication
visibility for two ground stations to carry demonstrated the effectiveness of satellites through OSCAR, of primary importance
on aQS0. PACSAT will be able to receive, in pinpointing emergency locator transmit- is the transponder. Present transponders
store and forward packets from any place ters similar to those that are carried aboard receive signals over agiven segment of one
Specialized Communications Systems 14-3
Table 2 1000

Spacecraft Frequencies 900

Uplink Downlink Beacon
OSCAR 8 ▪ aoo
2

Mode A 145.850-145.950 MHz 29.400- 29.500 MHz 29.402 MHz

Mode J 145.900-146.000 MHz 435.200-435.100 MHz 435.095 MHz 700

RS-5 145.910-145.950 MHz 29.410- 29.450 MHz 29.330/450 MHz

29.410/450 MHz 600
RS-6 145.910-145.950 MHz 29.410- 29.450 MHz
RS-7 145.960-146.000 MHz 29.460- 29.500 MHz 29.340/500 MHz
soo
RS-8 145.960-146.000 MHz 29.460- 29.500 MHz 29.460/500 MHz
LU
RS-5 ROBOT 145.826 MHz 29.331 MHz g 400
RS- 7 ROBOT 145.835 MHz 29.341 MHz
300
RS-3 and RS-4 are for experiments only to be announced by USSR.
MAP RANGE •
L.;
21TR cos -i R
OSCAR 9 200
360 R+ H
Hl Beacons — 7,050, 14,002, 21,002 and 29,510 kHz. On-off keying with Morse telemetry.
R • EARTH RADC39605TAT MI.)
Interspersed with a carrier or continuous carrier. - 100
1.1
H• SATELLITE ALTISTAT MI.)
Vhf Beacon — 145.825 MHz nbfm ± 5 kHz. ASCII, Baudot, voice, afsk and Morse.
I I
Uhl Beacon — 435.025 MHz nbfm ± 5 kHz. ASCII, Baudot, voice, afsk and Morse. o
1000 15'00 2000 25003000
S- Band Beacon — 2401.0- MHz nbfm ± 10 kHz. ASCII, Baudot, voice, afsk and Morse. 500
X- Band Beacon — 10.470- GHz steady carrier. S- and X- band beacons use Ihcp. MAP RANGE IN STATUTE MILES

OSCAR 10
Mode B 435.025-435.175 MHz 145.975-145.825 MHz General 145.812 MHz
Engin. 145.990 MHz
1269.050-1269.850 MHz 436.950-436.150 MHz General 436.040 MHz Fig. 2 — Satellite altitude above earth versus
Mode L
Engin. 436.020 MHz ground station map range (statute miles).

amateur band and retransmit each signal The first such report received from each
over another segment in another band. station is rewarded with ahandsome QSL
For example OSCAR 8 receives signals as shown in Fig. 4. One final note:
between 145.850 and 145.950 MHz on its AMSAT Phase Ill, thanks to its on- board
Mode A transponder and retransmits the computer, will be able to transmit any of
signals between 29.4 and 29.5 MHz. Other over 60 possible satellite parameters in
modes and other transponders may have many different transmission modes. Thus,
different passbands, though their opera- the format on its general beacon will not
tion is similar. The use of a transponder be quite so obvious. We can expect,
rather than a channelized repeater allows however, that telemetry will frequently be
more stations to use the satellite at one in Morse code, and with the proper
time. In fact, the number of different sta- decoding charts, agreat deal of pertinent
tions using OSCAR at any one time is information will be readily accessible. Fig. 3 — Satellite passes through the range of
limited only by mutual interference, and two stations, enabling contact.
the fact that the output power of the Altitude, Time and Range
satellite ( a couple of watts on the low- The determining factor in the maxi-
orbit satellites and about 50 watts on mum theoretical range of satellite com- munication through the satellite is il-
Phase III) is divided among the users. munications is the height of the satellite. lustrated in Fig. 3. The greater the range
Each satellite transponder is equipped Fig. 2can be used to determine the range circle overlap for the two stations, the
with atelemetry beacon that continuously for the low, nearly circular orbit Phase longer the time that these stations can
transmits status reports on a variety of II amateur satellites in which the altitude remain in contact. With low-orbit satellites,
satellite parameters, such as internal is assumed to be constant throughout each communication at maximum range may
temperature, current drain, power genera- orbit. To determine when you can hear last less than one minute between stations
tion from the solar cells, and more. ( See the satellite, draw a circle with a radius whose range circles overlap only a small
Table 2 for beacon frequencies.) The equal to the map range from Fig. 2. For amount; the effective range, therefore,
telemetry information is used to monitor OSCAR 8, orbiting at an altitude of 560 is slightly less than twice the radius of
the " health" of the satellite and diagnose miles (910 km), the map range is about your range circle. The key here is in mutual
any operating difficulty. 2000 miles (3265 km), and for the latest access of the satellite with the other sta-
The telemetry from OSCAR 8is sent in series of Soviet RS spacecraft; it is roughly tions. At times with Phase III satellites,
Morse encoded numbers at approximately 2590 miles (4170 km) for their 1030- mile you'll be able to communicate with sta-
20 wpm. Its repetitive format makes copy- (1660-km) high orbits. When a given tions almost halfway around the world.
ing the code easy for even the beginner, satellite passes through your range circle, The length of time the satellite is within
many of whom tape record the code at it is within range of your location and range of your station is determined, as
7-1/2 in./s and play it back at half speed you should be able to hear it. is the range, by the height of the orbit.
(3-3/4 in./s). With the use of decoding With the Phase III elliptical- orbit As many satellite users can tell you, the
charts, one can compute any of the satellites, communication range is, of higher the orbit, the slower the satellite
parameters being monitored and get afeel course, still determined by altitude, but moves, and the longer the satellite will
for the condition of the satellite at that the altitude continuously varies between be in range. With the Phase II low, nearly
time. Keeping track of the telemetry over a perigee of 915 miles ( 1500 km) and circular orbit satellites, the altitude is
long periods of time, you'll be able to apogee of about 22,300 miles ( 35,900 km). assumed to be constant. With the Phase
discern patterns as the satellite goes from Near apogee, the satellite illuminates, ful- III high elliptical orbit, however, as the
darkness to sunlight or spends adifferent ly, that half of the earth's surface directly altitude varies, so does the apparent speed
percentage of time in sunlight as the below. This enables reliable, very long of the satellite. AMSAT Phase III will
seasons change. AMSAT is always look- distance vhf communication for long seem to travel slowest at apogee where
ing for telemetry reports as is the ARRL, periods. its coverage is greatest, meaning that it
particularly for reports from OSCAR 8. The maximum range of two-way corn- spends more time in those portions of
14-4 Chapter 14
 Passbaod Center
OSCAR 10 Band Plan
Higher freq. Lower freq.
70cm uplink I SSC
Q o o o o o o SSC
reference scale Uplink co o o o
04 o (o Uplink
(kHz) Zone
Zone

7Ocm uplink z fi
r (*sr
Mixed z '0 1
Ipectrum (.) '' 0 .
0 0
'
7
0
.
u)
0
CO
aillocations o CW/SSB o
o

PHASE 38 TRANSPONDER
TRANSPONDER

70cm Inverting linear transponder USB—.--LS8

..

2m downlink c
A4 or
spectrum is.
/SB z 0 0 u
allocations CW/SSB

2m downlink
reference scale O o co o o
o o o o o o o o o 0 us
.
—
cv
+ <0
t 0 .<1. m Cy --.sr m 1
(kHz) + cv
++ + In co 0
1
L1
Lower Iraq. Higher freq. H1
Offset ___ --1
-Olfset
--- L2 Offset — Passband genter
,),) M.1, 82 se
General Communications Band: 124 kHz
(courtesy of AMSAT)

Notes:
1. ANCF: AMSAT Net and Calling Frequency.
2. Beacons placed at 145.810 MHz (General) and 145.987 MHz ( Engineering).
3. Passband centers ( uplink and downlink) will be announced after systems calibration. Approximate values are: 435.100 MHz uplink and 145.903
MHz downlink, -± 3 kHz.

its orbit where communications range is the range of EQX longitudes that will QST, pages 46-50, or refer to the detailed
greatest! The time it takes a satellite to bring the satellite in range of your loca- descriptions in ARRL's The Satellite Ex-
make a complete revolution around the tion. In general, for amateurs in the United perimenter's Handbook. Groundtrack and
earth is called its period. States and the lower latitudes of Canada, "spiderweb" data will be available when
those orbits crossing the equator between the final orbital parameters of AMSAT-
Satellite Tracking
your longitude and 15 degrees or so east, OSCAR 10 have been sufficiently refined.
The first step in using a satellite is, will pass close to your QTH. Now, using Keep in mind that Phase III satellites will
of course, knowing where it is. The simplest the reference orbit data, knowing that be in range for very long periods. Once you
way to determine this is with an ARRL the satellite is travelling from south to hear the 2- meter downlink, periodically
OSCARLOCATOR. Briefly, you will need north on its reference orbit, and knowing peaking the signal with steerable antennas
one reference point each day, usually the that each successive orbit will cross the as the satellite moves slowly across the
first time in a given UTC day that the equator at a point x degrees (the incre- northern hemisphere will be asimple task.
satellite passes over the equator in a ment, also published in QS7) further west
northerly direction. The necessary data and y minutes (the period) later than the AMSAT Software Exchange ( ASE)
are reference orbit EQX (equator cross- previous orbit, you can approximate when You can obtain information about
ing) time and longitude. They can be found to begin listening. With this method, allow available computer programs from
in a variety of places: W1AW bulletins, 10 to 15 minutes for error. AMSAT Software Exchange, Box 27,
AMSAT's Orbit magazine and QST. Arm- Tracking high elliptical orbit satellites is Washington, DC 20044. Information on
ed with one reference point and the locator, another matter entirely — either much programs for Hewlett-Packard HP-41C
you can determine the approximate loca- more complex or much simpler, depending calculators may be obtained from: AMSAT
tion of and bearing to the satellite anywhere on your approach. Tracking information Calculator Program Library, John Mon-
in the Northern Hemisphere. and announcements of the availability of tague, WORUE, Box 541, Willenie, MN
A similar way to get a rough estimate Phase III type tracking devices will appear 55090. U.S. inquirers should include an
of when to listen if you haven't access in QST, Orbit, and the Amateur Satellite s.a.s.e., and IRCs would be appreciated
to an OSCARLOCATOR, is to find your Report, or you can build your own plot- with overseas requests.
"EQX window." Given your station ter. ( For complete instructions, see Martin Versions of the W3IWI orbit prediction
latitude and longitude and the previously R. Davidoff's " AMSAT-OSCAR Phase Ill computer program are available for: ( 1)
described range circle, you can estimate On the Horizon — Part 3" in May 1980 TRS-80® Model II level Il BASIC 32-k; (2)

Specialized Communications Systems 14-5

 ly poor noise figures, in the range of 6
Table 3 dB or more. With today's modern rf com-
AMSAT Nets and Bulletins Schedule ponent devices, however, it is not
The following AMSAT Nets meet regularly to disseminate information to newcomers and to keep unreasonable to shoot for a noise figure
regular satellite users in communication with one another. of 2 dB or better. If your receiver per-
forms less than adequately and you've
USA- East Coast Net Wednesdays 2100 Eastern time 3850 kHz lsb
done everything to minimize losses ( short
USA- Mid States Net Wednesdays 2100 Central time 3850 kHz lsb
runs of high quality coaxial cable, prop-
USA-West Coast Net Wednesdays 2000 Pacific time 3850 kHz lsb erly soldered coaxial connectors —
International Net Sundays 1800 UTC 21,280 kHz usb preferably N-type at 435 MHz, and proper
International Net Sundays 1900 UTC 14,282 kHz usb sealing against corrosion), consider
building or buying a low- noise preampli-
Bulletins of general interest to those interested in amateur satellites are transmitted regularly on OSCAR-8 fier. Alternatively, you could first borrow
reference orbits, at approximately 10 minutes after ascending node. These bulletins are transmitted on a
downlink frequency of approximately 29,490 kHz and 435.160 MHz and can be received over most of eastern one from a friend to ensure that the im-
North America.
provement in performance warrants the
expense.
The shorter wavelength at vhf and uhf
means that multi-element gain antennas
how to use the Bulletin Board System is in are more compact, easier to build and
Orbit 12. more easily aimed than hf arrays. The
excellent performance of the OSCAR 7
Receiving the Satellites Mode B transponder showed, however,
Receiving is an excellent way to get that in some instances little more than
started in satellite work. As in any aquarter wavelength ground-plane anten-
endeavor, you have several alternatives na may be necessary. Generally, a beam
based on your present station, your QTH with modest gain will pay large dividends
restrictions and your budget. To receive when the going gets rough.
the Mode A downlink, for example, you'll
need an antenna ( 10 meter) and an hf Transmitting to the Satellites
Fig. 4 — The OSCAR 8 OSL card you'll receive
for submitting OSCAR 8 telemetry reports to receiver with adequate sensitivity on 10 After listening to the OSCARs for a
ARRL Headquarters. meters. Most hams already have the needed short time you'll probably want to try
equipment and can listen to OSCAR with making contacts through the satellite. Once
very little effort. What is adequate sensi- you know what the satellite " wants to
tivity? Compare the noise level produced see," you're faced with several choices.
TRS-80 Model III, either 32-k or 48-k; ( 3) in your receiver with the antenna con- Currently, AMSAT and ARRL request
North Star® BASIC under North Star nected, and then with a dummy load or that you use a maximum of 100 watts
DOS, 5- 1/4-in, hard- sectored diskettes; (4) other 50-ohm nonreactive load. If the noise erp (effective radiated power) on OSCAR
Microsoft® BASIC version 5.21 under level is higher on the antenna, you have 8 ( 10 watts erp on Monday UTC QRP
CP/M® single- density, soft- sectored 8- in. the needed sensitivity. If not, a low-noise days) and approximately 1000 watts erp
diskettes; ( 5) Apple Il® BASIC on cassette preamplifier for 10 meters should make for AMSAT-OSCAR 10 at apogee. Mode
or diskettes ( specify 13 or 16 sector); ( 6) a world of difference. A and J uplink frequencies are in the
PL/I-80 version 1.3 under CP/M, single- What is the ideal antenna for 10-meter 2-meter band, Mode B is in the 70-cm
density, soft-sectored, 8-in. diskettes; ( 7) satellite reception? If you already have band, and that for the OSCAR 10 L-band
IBM PC® Advanced BASIC for 64K disk a beam, a quarter-wavelength vertical or transponder is in the 23-cm band.
systems; (8) TI 99/4 cassettes. dipole, try them. You may find that the Effective radiated power can be
The KORZ antenna-positioning software beam works best when the satellite is low calculated as the power leaving your anten-
as described in Orbit 10 is available for the on the horizon, and performs adequately na and is equivalent to the power output
Apple II. when it's overhead; you will have to aim of your transmitter minus losses in your
Of particular interest is AMSAT's the beam, however. A vertical antenna feed line, all times the gain of your anten-
AMS-81 tracking system that puts the in- may be adequate for low satellite eleva- na. For example, 10 watts of output from
expensive (under $ 100) Sinclair ZX81/ tions, but may exhibit anull when OSCAR your transmitter at 145.950 MHz, through
Timex Sinclair 1000 computer (with 16-k is overhead. A dipole may perform just 100 feet of RG-8/U ( approximately 3-dB
of RAM) to good use. (AMSAT does not the opposite. Two antennas that are loss results in 5watts reaching the anten-
sell the computer.) In the near future, especially well suited to OSCAR work na) into a 13-dB gain beam would yield
perhaps as you read this, the necessary pro- are the turnstile and the full-wave loop. 100 watts erp. The same erp would result
grams and interfacing hardware plans and Both exhibit broad patterns and work well from an arrangement with 10 watts out-
kits will be available from AMSAT to from horizon to horizon. Examples of put into a 10-dB gain amplifier ( 100 watts),
enable ZX81 users to track Amateur Radio both these antennas appear later in this 100 feet of RG-8/U and a3-dB gain anten-
satellites automatically by computer, free- chapter. na. Alternatively, a 10-watt transmitter
ing the operator to concentrate on his Mode B and Mode Jreception ( 2meters fed into a 13-dB gain amplifier, 100 feet
receiver and transmitter. These programs and 70 cm, respectively) present even more of RG-8/U, and a ground plane, dipole
also are being written for other inexpensive alternatives. The key points toward suc- or turnstile antenna will also produce the
microcomputers. cessful reception at vhf and uhf are same erp. Where is the difference? Given
Present ASE prices per computer pro- minimizing the losses between your anten- your present station and future budget,
gram are: $ 15 on diskette, $ 10 on cassette, na and receiver, getting the antennas out one of the alternatives will probably be
and $5 for hard copy. in the open, and having adequate sensi- best. Vhf/uhf amplifiers and their
New versions will be announced in Orbit, tivity. There are many 2-meter receivers associated power supplies are agood deal
Amateur Satellite Report and on ,the and several 2-meter and 70-cm receive con- more expensive than gain antennas that
AMSAT Bulletin Board System which can verters on the market to choose from. you can easily build yourself. The trade-
be accessed with a computer terminal Many of the commercially available off lies in the fact that the higher the
by calling 512-852-8194. Information on receivers in the vhf/uhf range have relative- gain of an antenna, the narrower its beam-
14-6 Chapter 14
width, and the more accuracy you'll need tion. The important factor to note for
in tracking. A typical 10-dB gain, 2-meter our purposes, however, is that one achieves
antenna has abeamwidth of roughly 260 : maximum downlink signal strength when
an arc through which OSCAR 8and the the circularly polarized antenna has the
RS satellites will pass quickly. At the very same sense of polarization as the incoming
least you'll have to track the satellite in wave. Cross polarization can result in 30
azimuth (keeping the antenna at a fixed dB or more attenuation of the signal.
30-degree elevation above the horizon) or How does this affect OSCAR opera-
more likely resort to tracking in both tion? The 2-meter antennas on the OSCAR
azimuth and elevation. 8 and OSCAR 10 satellites are circularly
For the AMSAT-OSCAR 10's Mode polarized. Theoretically, to maximize sta-
B you'll need close to a kilowatt erp at tion performance, you'll want antennas
435 MHz to span the 35,900-km distance that are circularly polarized in the same
at apogee. Practicality limits the choice sense as those on the spacecraft. A better
here, however, and areasonable approach choice, however, would be an antenna
would suggest a 100-watt signal through that is switchable between right- hand and
Fig. 5 — Satellite transmitter frequency
as short a feed line as possible into a left-hand circular polarization. As the
versus Doppler shift for satellite in 200- or
13-dB gain antenna. Several 70-cm solid- downlink signal from the satellite passes 1000-statute-mile orbits. For atranslator, use
state amplifiers in the 100-watt class are through the ionosphere the polarization the difference between uplink and downlink
now on the market or you can build a sense may switch, an effect commonly frequencies as the "frequency."
suitable amplifier yourself. The narrow referred to as Faraday rotation. An exam-
beamwidth of high-gain antennas will be ple of a switchable right- hand and left-
much less a problem with the Phase III hand polarized antenna is given later in
satellite elliptical orbit as the spacecraft this chapter. This does not mean that frequency of downlink signals will increase
moves across the sky at a comparatively circularly polarized antennas are arequire- by asmall amount. As the satellite passes
slow speed ( ± 3 hours at apogee). ment — in fact it would be abetter idea overhead and begins to move away from
On the L-band transponder you'll need to begin with simple antennas and modify you, there will be a sudden drop in fre-
an equivalent erp at 1269 MHz. At these them to suit your needs after you've had quency of a few kilohertz, in much the
frequencies, techniques and available a little experience. same way as the tone of a car horn or
equipment pose new challenges to the The 10-meter antenna on OSCAR 8 train whistle drops as the vehicle moves
satellite user. Though amplification is is adipole that was deployed after orbital past you. This Doppler effect will be dif-
trickier, the use of high-gain dish anten- insertion. With a linearly polarized ferent for stations located at different
nas becomes more reasonable. Regardless 10-meter, ground-station antenna, you'll distances from the satellite. The result
of your approach, be very careful with notice periodic fading as the satellite spins is that signals passing through the satellite
high rf levels at these frequencies. Safety on its axis: maximum signal strength oc- move slowly around the calculated
first! curs when the antennas are parallel, downlink frequency. Locating your own
minimum when perpendicular. With afull- signal is alittle more difficult than simply
Satellite Hints and Kinks wave horizontal loop or a circularly computing the relation between input and
Satellite communications confronts the polarized turnstile the effect of this fading output frequency, as the rather hard-to-
newcomer with many unfamiliar pheno will be minimized. predict effects of Doppler must be taken
mena that will challenge his or her into account.
operating techniques. Here are a few ex- Full Duplex
planations and " tricks of the trade" to In satellite communications you can con- Mode-A Downlink
help make your satellite work as effective tinuously monitor your transmitted signal When first listening to the OSCAR
and enjoyable as possible. through the satellite, as the down-link satellites, one is likely to tune to the
signal from the satellite is on a different Mode-A transponder downlink between
Circular Polarization band from the uplink. You can thus 29.4 and 29.5 MHz. This may prove disap-
When considering atravelling wavefront evaluate both the strength and quality of pointing in that the signal may have a
of rf energy, we can describe it in terms your own signal throughout contacts. It warbling quality, reminiscent of weak hf
of polarization. Radio waves are made is through this full-duplex capability that DX. If this is the case, check the re-
up of both electric and magnetic fields one is able to adjust for Doppler shift mainder of the 10-meter band. At times
that are perpendicular to each other and (see Doppler Shift below). in the sunspot cycle with high solar activi-
to the direction of propagation. The To locate yourself in the satellite pass- ty, you may find the band "wide open."
classification of polarization is determined band, select an appropriate uplink fre- This means that the ionosphere is bending
by the plane in which the electric compo- quency, calculate the approximate down- terrestrially originated 10-meter signals
nent lies: If the plane of the electric com- link frequency, transmit a string of dots back down to earth and long distance
ponent is vertical, the polarization is ver- and tune a few kilohertz either side of communication at 28 MHz is successful.
tical; if horizontal, the polarization is the calculated downlink frequency. Once The OSCAR satellites orbit above the
horizontal. In the case where components you've located your signal in the pass- ionosphere and so 29-MHz downlink
exist in both the vertical and horizontal band, you'll know approximately how signals are also bent by the ionosphere
planes, displaced in time by 90°, polariza- much to change the transmit frequency — but away from the earth! You'll usually
tion is elliptical. Circular polarization is to " hit" agiven receive frequency. Simply find that the downlink signal degradation
the special case where the vertical and change your transmit frequency by the is worse at low elevations where the angle
horizontal quadrature components are proper amount — with the transmitter of incidence with the ionosphere is shallow;
equal; the field effectively rotates. off! Swishing the passband with the key with the satellites at high elevations, the
The sense of polarization, whether right- down is inconsiderate of the other users. angles are much steeper and the probabili-
hand circularly polarized (clockwise) or ty of a signal penetrating the ionosphere
left-hand circularly polarized (counter- Doppler Shift is greater.
clockwise), is determined, by convention, Doppler shift is caused by the relative
as though viewed from behind the anten- motion between you and the satellite. As Mode-J Desensing
na, looking out along the axis of propaga- the satellite is moving toward you, the As most members of the Mode JClub

Specialized Communications Systems 14-7

Glossary of Satellite Terminology
AL/NS — AMSAT Launch Information Network COSMAC 1802 — A CMOS, 8 bit micro- appears to be fixed above a given point.
Service, worldwide live coverage of processor made by RCA. Its low power Groundtrack — The imaginary line traced on
Amateur Radio satellite launches via W1AW, consumption, high noise immunity, wide the surface of the earth by a satellite's
WA3NAN and other stations. temperature tolerance and flexible (to the subsatellite point.
AM/CON — AMSAT International Computer programmer) architecture, make it well HI — NASDA launch vehicle ( rocket).
Network — Packet- radio operation on suited to use in orbital hardware. The 1802 IHU — Integrated housekeeping unit —
SSC L1 of the Phase Ill satellites to provide is the heart of the on-board Phase Ill-A and Phase Ill's on- board computer that will
networking of ground stations acting as Phase III- B computers. manage many of the routine in-flight
gateways to terrestrial packet- radio net- Delta — NASA launch vehicle ( rocket). tasks automatically.
works. Descending Node — The point where the Inclination — The angle at which a satellite
AMSAT — The Radio Amateur Satellite Cor- satellite crosses the equator traveling crosses the equator at its ascending node;
poration, a nonprofit organization located in from north to the south. also the highest latitude reached in an orbit.
Washington, DC, has overseen the OSCAR Desense — A problem characteristic of Mode An orbit crossing directly over the North
program since the launch of OSCAR 5. J operation in which the strong 2-m uplink Pole would have an inclination of 90°, east
(AMSAT, P.O. Box 27, Washington, DC signal overloads a low- noise 70-cm of the pole less than 90° and west of the
20044.) preamplifier or converter. pole greater than 90°.
AOS — Acquisition of signal — The time you Doppler Effect — An apparent shift in frequen- Increment — The number of degrees longitude
can first hear satellites, usually just after it cy caused by satellite movement toward or that the satellite appears to move westward
rises above the horizon. away from your location. at the equator with each orbit, caused by the
Apogee — That point in a satellite's orbit Downlink — The frequency of signals earth's rotation under the satellite during
where It is farthest above the earth. transmitted from the satellite to earth. each orbit. (The earth rotates 360° in a
Area Coordinators — Volunteers in the AMSAT Earth sensor — A device to be used on the 24-hour period.)
organization who coordinate satellite activity AMSAT Phase- III satellite that will lskra — Soviet low-orbit satellites launched
in their regions. Most states have at least enable the computer to determine the manually by cosmonauts aboard Salyut mis-
one; many countries are also represented. spacecraft's orientation with respect to sions; iskra means " spark" in Russian.
Argument of Perigee — Polar angle that the earth. JAMSAT — Japan AMSAT.
locates the perigee point in the orbital Eccentricity — That orbital parameter used to JAS- 1 — Proposed Japanese Amateur Radio
plane, measured counterclockwise from the describe how much an elliptical orbit satellite.
ascending node. deviates from a circle; eccentricity values Keplerian Elements — Classical set of six
Ariane — ESA launch vehicle ( rocket). vary between 0 and 1: e = 0 for a circle. numbers used as a standard to define
ARNET — Geostationary Amateur Radio Net- Elliptical Orbit — Those orbits in which the orbits. The set is comprised of inclination,
work Experimental Transponders proposed satellite path traces an ellipse with the eccentricity, argument of perigee, Right
by Cablesat General Corporation. earth at one focus. Ascension of Ascending Node ( R.A.A.N.),
Ascending Node — The point where the Elevation — Direction ( up-and-down in the ver- mean anomaly and semi-major axis of el-
satellite crosses the equator traveling tical plane) from a given point on earth lipse. For tracking purposes, the epoch, the
from the south to the north. usually specified in degrees (0° = plane of date and time for which the elements are
ASSC — Amateur Satellite Service Council — the earth's surface at your location; and given, also must be specified.
A coordinating body comprising equal repre- 90° = straight up, perpendicular to the Kick Motor — A motor on board the Phase Ill
sentation from Project OSCAR, AMSAT and plane of the earth, overhead). satellites that typically is fired at perigee a
ARRL. EQX — Equator crossing, usually specified in few weeks after launch to adjust the orbit
Az-el mount — Antenna mount that allows time ( UTC) of crossing, and in degrees west to the desired final perigee and inclination.
antenna positioning in both the azimuth longitude (0-360"). LHCP — Left-hand circular polarization —
and elevation planes. erp — Effective radiated power — system counterclockwise.
Azimuth — Direction (side-to-side in the power output after transmission- line LOS — Loss of signal — The time when the
horizontal plane) from a given point on losses and antenna gain are considered. satellite passes out of range.
earth; usually specified in degrees (N = 0°, ESA — European Space Agency — Agency Mean Anomaly — An angle that increases
E = 90', S = 180°, W = 270°). responsible for the AMSAT Phase Ill uniformly with time that specifies where the
Circular Polarization — A special case in launches. satellite is in its orbit. In the case of
which the electric field component of a Experiment Day — Routinely scheduled days OSCAR 10, the orbit is divided into 256
radio wave is equal (but displaced 90°) in the during which the satellite is closed to parts with 0/256 corresponding to perigee
vertical and horizontal planes and effectively casual use and reserved for scientific and and 128/256 corresponding to apogee.
rotates. The sense of polarization, whether educational experimentation; a secondary Mode A — Transponders with 2-meter uplink
right-hand circular or left-hand circular, is purpose is to allow for battery recharge. and 10-meter downlink.
determined from behind the antenna, Fe/sing — Unscheduled, unintentional and Mode A/J — Simultaneous operation of the
looking out along Its axis of propagation. undesirable mode switching initiated by Mode A and Mode J transponders on
Codestore — A special system that allows conditions in the spacecraft. AMSAT-OSCAR 8.
digital information (Morse Code, e.g.) to Geostationary Orbit — An orbit at such an alti- Mode 13 — Transponders with 70-cm uplink and
be placed by ground stations into on-board tude (22,300 miles) and in such a direction 2-meter downlink.
electronic memory storage for later re- (W to E) over the equator that the satellite
transmission.

(details in Fig. 6) will tell you, the strong located close to each other your 2-m uplink $5 you can build an effective 70-cm cavity
2- meter uplink signal from your station signal may obliterate the 435- MHz filter from materials readily available at
will overload or " desense" most 435-MHz downlink while you are transmitting! your neighborhood hardware or plumbing
low-noise preamplifiers and converters. If The problem is common and the solu- retailer. This filter, placed in the receive
your transmit and receive antennas are tion is, fortunately, simple. For about line, has avery narrow passband and only
0.4 to 0.5 dB of insertion loss. An exam-
ple of such a filter is shown later in this
Fig. 6 — To become a member of the Mode J chapter.
Club, first complete eight Mode J contacts.
OSL cards are not required. Just list the call Spin Modulation
sign of each station worked, date, orbit number
and station equipment used for the contacts. Spin modulation is aphenomenon that
Send this information along with $3 in U.S. has emerged with the introduction of the
funds, a one-time charge to cover certificate AMSAT Phase III type of satellite. As
and newsletter costs, to: Mode J Club, c/o
the satellite orbits overhead, the on-board
Larry Roberts, W9MXC, AMSAT Area Coor-
dinator, 3300 Fernwood, Alton, IL 62002. To computer pulses an electromagnet that
receive the Mode J Club Newsletter, send an works against the earth's magnetic field.
s.a.s.e. to W9MXC for each issue. Details on This spins the spacecraft at approximately
the Mode J Club are outlined in the January
1revolution per second, thereby stabiliz-
1979 issue of OST.
ing it. A side effect, however, is the relative-
14-8 Chapter 14
Mode C — Equivalent to Mode B with less and recharge their batteries, these satellites ple, was a secondary payload " hitchhiker" to
power output; of no discernable difference have been shown to be capable of lasting up the LANDSAT C Earth Resources Tech-
from Mode B to the user. to five years. (OSCARs 6, 7 and 8, for nology Satellite primary payload; secondary
Mode D — Battery-recharge mode; example). payloads, in effect, subsitute for ballast
transponders off. Phase Ill — Extended-range, high-orbit weight.
Mode J — Transponders with 2-meter uplink satellites, typically in either elliptical orbit Semi- Major Axis of Ellipse — One half the
and 70-cm downlink. as AMSAT Phase Ill B, or in geostationary length of the major ( long) axis of an ellipse,
Mode L — Transponders with 23-cm uplink orbit. a Keplerian element that helps define an el-
and 70-cm downlink. Power Budget — A determination of how much liptical orbit.
NASA — National Aeronautics and Space power is actually available to operate the Spin Modulation — Periodic amplitude fade-
Administration — U.S. Government agency on-board satellite systems, taking into and- peak resulting from Phase Ill's 60-rpm
that has provided " piggyback" launch oppor- account such things as solar cell surface spin; the effect is a 3- Hz " modulation" of
tunities for AMSAT OSCARs 5, 6, 7 and 8 in area, solar cell efficiency and angle toward the passband.
recognitition of the OSCAR program's the sun. A positive power budget means SSC — Special service channels — Frequen-
contributions. that ample power will be available to power cies in the downlink passband of AMSAT
NASDA — National Space Development Agen- the desired systems; a negative power Phase Ill that are set aside for authorized,
cy (Japan) — NASA counterpart. budget means that periods of shutdown and scheduled use in such areas as education,
OSCAR — Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur recharge must be periodically scheduled. data exchange, scientific experimentation,
Radio; there have been nine Amateur Radio Precession — An effect that will be bulletins and official traffic.
satellites named OSCAR as of the beginning characteristic of the AMSAT Phase Ill SSP — Subsatellite point — That point directly
of 1983 and nine Soviet Amateur Radio satel- orbit; the satellite apogee after the beneath a satellite on the surface of the
lites, designated RS- 1 through RS-8, and firing of the perigee kick motor will occur earth at a given instant; usually defined in
lskra 2. at about 37 N latitude, but will gradually terms of latitude and longitude.
OSCAR Education Program — A special pro- rise higher to 57' N latitude within a few STS# — Shuttle Transport System —
gram that brings live demonstrations of the years. Then, gradually, it will move lower designator for the NASA Space Shuttle mis-
OSCAR satellites to classrooms, helping in latitude until after five years or so, sions. For example, STS-9 designates the
teach students physics, space science, the apogee will occur near the equator. ninth Space Shuttle flight — the first to
astronomy and related subjects. Teachers Project OSCAR — California- based group, carry Amateur Radio.
use ARRL curriculum materials to structure among the first to recognize the potential Sun Sensor — A device to be used on AMSAT
their courses around the OSCAR satellites. of space for Amateur Radio; responsible for Phase Ill to determine the spacecraft
OSCARLOCATOR — A satellite tracking device OSCARs 1through 4. orientation to the sun.
consisting of a ranging oval and ground- CtRP Test — Special orbits set aside for Sun-synchronous — A type of orbit that ap-
tracks superimposed on a polar projection operating through the satellites while proximates the sun's apparent movement.
map. using a maximum of 10 watts erp; output For example, because its orbit is roughly
Packet Radio — A digital communications powers of less than 1watt have proven sun-synchronous, OSCAR 8 can be heard at
technique involving radio transmission of effective in some cases. a given location at about the same times
short bursts (frames) of data containing ad- R.A.A.N. — Right Ascension of Ascending each day.
dressing, control and error-checking in- Node, the angular distance measured east- Telemetry Beacon — The transmitters aboard
formation in each transmission. ward along the celestial equator, between each satellite that enable ground stations to
PACSAT — Packet Satellite. Proposed AMSAT the vernal equinox and the hour circle of monitor the satellite's vital functions.
packet- radio satellite with store-and- forward the ascending node of the spacecraft. This Transponder — The repeater(s) aboard a
capability. can be simplified to mean roughly the longi- satellite that retransmits on another fre-
Pass — An orbit of the satellite. tude of the ascending node. quency the signals it receives. Unlike
Passband — The range of frequencies handled Radio Sputnik — Soviet Amateur Radio terrestrial repeaters that operate on a fixed
by a satellite transponder. satellites ( see RS#). pair of frequencies, amateur satellite trans-
Perigee — That point in a satellite orbit where Reference Orbit — The orbit beginning with ponders translate an entire portion of a band
it passes closest to earth. the first ascending node during a given day (commonly 100 kHz bandwidth) to another;
Period — The time it takes for a complete UTC. many signals share a transponder simul-
orbit, usually measured from one EQX to the RHCP — Right-hand circular polarization — taneously.
next. The higher the altitude, the longer clockwise. UoSAT-OSCAR — Amateur Radio satellites
the period. RS# — The designator used for most Soviet built under the coordination of radio ama-
Phase I — The term given to the earliest, short- Amateur Radio satellites (e.g., RS1, RS5 and teurs and educators at the University of
lived OSCAR satellites that were not equip- RS8). Surrey, England.
ped with solar cells. When their batteries Secondary Payload — Usually smaller UMDH — Unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine,
were depleted, they ceased operating. packages that in essence share the launch the liquid rocket fuel used aboard the Phase
Phase II — The term given to low altitude, with the primary payload that is the main IIIB kick motor.
long-lived satellites. Equipped with solar purpose for the launch. OSCAR 8, for exam- Uplink — The frequency at which radio
panels that powered the spacecraft systems signals are transmitted up to the satellites.

ly rapid (3Hz) periodic fade-peak of the downlink signals from OSCAR 7 and 8.
transmitted signal amplitude — called spin It consists of ahorizontal wire loop, one
modulation. It is important to note that wavelength in circumference, that is
the passband is not electronically mounted one-eighth wavelength or higher
modulated in the sense to which amateurs above ground. This arrangement provides
are accustomed; rather, the apparent for excellent reception of signals when
modulation is aresidual effect of physical the satellite is roughly 30 degrees above
rotation. the horizon. Maximum response favors
Operationally, using linear antennas will the satellite when it is nearly or directly
deepen the fades to a point where they overhead.
may become annoying. Circularly polar The impedance of the loop is in the
ized antennas of the proper sense will vicinity of 100 ohms, and aquarter-wave
minimize the effect and allow normal com- matching section of RG-59/U or RG- 11/U
munications to continue with little is used to lower the impedance to
disturbance. somewhere near 50 ohms. Make sure to
include the velocity factor for the coaxial
A Full-Wave Horizontal Loop cable when calculating the length of this
Fig. 7 This is a drawing of a horizontal loop
Described here is an antenna that is transformer. antenna that is ideally suited for the reception
ideally suited for the reception of 10-meter The loop can also be arranged in a of Mode A downlink signals.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-9

Fig. 8 — The turnstile- reflector (TA) array con-
sists of crossed dipoles above a screen
reflector. Fig. 10 — Dimensions and connections for the
turnstile antenna. The phasing line is 13.3
inches of RG-59/U coax. A similar length of
RG-58/U cable is used as a matching section
between the turnstile and the feed line.
triangle or some other polygonal configura-
tion with little deterioration in the per-
formance. Use whatever supports are
available and try to open the loop up
as much as possible. Details of this anten-
na are shown in Fig. 7.

A 146-MHz Turnstile Antenna

Here is asimple and effective 146- MHz
antenna suitable for use with relatively
low orbit ( Phase II) satellites' Modes A,
B and J. The antenna, called a turnstile-
reflector array, can be built very inexpen-
sively and put into operation without the
need for test equipment. The information Fig. 9 — Elevation patterns for dipoles Fig. 11 — A cross- polarized antenna system
mounted over a ground plane. Pattern A Is for for satellite communications on 146- and
contained here was extracted from a QST
spacing of 0.25 wavelength, B is for 0.37, and 435- MHz. The array is assembled from KLM
article by Davidoff, that appeared in the C is for 1.5-wavelength spacing. log-periodic Vagis.
September 1974 issue.
Experience with several OSCAR satellites
has shown that rapid fading can be a
severe problem for satellite communicators.
Fortunately, the ground station has con- Corner bracing of the reflector screen will
trol over two important parameters af- help provide mechanical stability. Spar
fecting fading — cross polarization be- varnish applied to the wooden members
tween the ground-station antenna and will help extend the life expectancy.
OSCAR antenna, and nulls in the ground- Dimensions for the two dipole antennas
station antenna pattern. Fading because and the phasing network are shown in
of cross polarization can be reduced by Fig. 10. Spacing between the dipole anten-
using acircularly polarized ground-station nas and the reflecting screen affects the
antenna. Fading because of radiation pat- antenna pattern. This is illustrated in Fig.
tern nulls can be overcome by ( 1) using 9. Choose the pattern that best suits your
arotatable, tiltable array, and continuously needs and construct the antenna accord
tracking the satellite or (2) using an anten- ingly. Alternative methods of construct
na with a broad null- free pattern. The ing turnstile arrays can be found in cur-
turnstile reflector array solves this prob- rent editions of The ARRL Antenna Book.
lem since it is circularly polarized and
produces a balloon- like pattern. Cross-Polarized Antennas for
2-Meter and 70-Cm Satellite Work
Construction
The antenna described here provides
The mast used to support the two dipoles the ability to receive right-hand or left-
was constructed from wood and is 2inches hand circular polarization and positioning
square and 8feet long. Dipoles are form- for both azimuth and elevation. This
ed from no. 12 copper wire, aluminum system makes use of commercially available
rod, or tubing. The reflecting screen is antennas ( KLM 144-148-9 and KLM
20-gauge hexagonal chicken wire, 1-inch 420-450-14), rotators (Alliance U-100 and
mesh, stapled to afour-foot-square frame Fig. 12 — The phasing of the antenna is con-
CDE TR-44) and relays ( Inline Instruments
trolled by the coaxial relays and phasing lines.
made from furring strips. Hardware cloth type 101) which are combined in asystem The 146- and 435- MHz systems are controlled
can be used in place of the chicken wire. that offers total flexibility. This setup is independently.
14.10 Chapter 14
suited for operation with OSCAR satellites.
As shown in the accompanying
photographs, the whole assembly is built
on a heavy-duty, TV type of tripod so
that it may be roof-mounted. The idea
for this system came from Clarke Greene,
K1JX.

System Outline
The antennas displayed in Fig. 11 are
actually two totally separate systems
sharing the same azimuth and elevation
positioning systems. Each system is iden-
tical in the way it performs — one system
for 2 meters and one for 70 cm. This
arrangement is quite handy for Mode B
and J work since both antenna systems
are tracked together automatically. In-
dividual control lines allow independent
control of the polarization sense for each
system. This is mandatory, as often a
different polarization sense is required for
the uplink and downlink. Furthermore,
throughout any given " pass" of the
Fig. 13 — A drawing of the switchable- Fig. 14 — This is adrawing of the basic anten-
satellite the sense is apt to switch several phasing antenna system complete with cable na system to approximate right- or left-hand
times. specifications. When calculating the length of circular polarization. The quarter-wavelength
individual cable be sure to include the lines between the antennas and the relay step
Mechanical Details velocity factor of the cables. up the antenna 50-ohm impedance to 100
ohms. The phasing line is made from 95-ohm
The TR-44 rotator is mounted inside coaxial cable so as to provide a good match
the tripod by means of a rotator plate to the 100-ohm system. See text for adetailed
of the type commonly used with a top description of the system. The shorter lengths
are for 435.15 MHz and the longer lengths are
section of Rohn 25 tower. U bolts around
for 145.925 MHz.
the tripod legs secure the plate to the
tripod. A length of 1-inch galvanized water antennas mounted apart from each other
pipe (used as the mast) extends from the as shown in the photograph. One advan-
top of the rotator out through ahomemade tage of this system is that the weights
aluminum bearing at the peak of the tripod. on each side of the elevation rotator are
Since a relatively small diameter mast is equal. As long as the separation between line is always in series with the system
used, several pieces of shim material are antennas is small, performance should be feed point and one of the antennas. As
required between it and the body of the as good as having both sets of elements shown, the antenna on the left delivers
rotator to assure that it will be aligned on a single boom. received energy 90 degrees ahead of the
in the bearing through 360 degrees of In order to obtain circular polarization, one on the right. If the relay were switch-
rotation. This is covered in detail in any one antenna must be fed 90 degrees out ed, just the opposite would be true.
TR-44, CD-45, Ham-M or Ham-IV rotator of phase with respect to the other. For In reality it is not necessary to use single
instruction sheet. switchable right-hand and left-hand quarter wavelengths of line. For example,
The Alliance U-100 elevation rotator polarization some means must be includ- the 75-ohm impedance transforming lines
is mounted to the 1-inch water-pipe mast ed to shift a 90-degree phasing line in between each antenna and the relay could
by means of a 1/8 aluminum plate. TV series with either antenna. Such ascheme be any odd multiple of one quarter
U-bolt hardware provides a perfect fit is shown in Fig. 13. Since two antennas wavelength, such as 3/4, 5/4, 7/4
for this mast material. The cross-arm that are essentially connected in parallel, the wavelength, etc. The same is true for the
supports the two 2-meter and 70-cm anten- feed impedance will be half that of either 95- or 125-ohm phasing line. One must
nas is apiece of 1- 1/4-inch thick fiberglass antenna alone. The antennas used in this keep track while using different lengths
rod, 6 feet in length. Though other system have a 50-ohm feed impedance. for the phasing line. This is especially
materials can be used, most cannot match For this reason both antennas make use true when figuring out which position of
the strength of fiberglass. This should be of a quarter-wavelength transformer be- the relay is appropriate for right- or left-
aconsideration if you live in an area that tween the antenna and the relay. This hand polarization. The builder is apt to
is frequented by ice storms. Although it quarter wavelength of 75-ohm line steps find that it will be necessary to use one
is relatively expensive (about $3per foot), up the 50-ohm impedance of each antenna of the odd multiples of a quarter
one piece should last a lifetime. to roughly 100 ohms. As shown in the wavelength since a single quarter
drawing, each fixed contact of the relay wavelength of line, when the velocity fac-
Electrical Details is also connected to the quarter-wavelength tor is taken into consideration, will be
Since the antenna systems are identical, (90-degree) section of cable that acts as extremely short. The lengths used in this
this description will apply to either. A the phasing line. The phasing line was particular system are shown in Fig. 14.
simple way to obtain acircularly polariz- constructed from RG-133/U cable, which The builder should try to use the shortest
ed pattern is to use two Yagi antennas has acharacteristic impedance of 95 ohms. lengths practical, since the higher the multi-
with the elements mounted at right angles This provides a very close match to the ple of quarter wavelengths of line the
to each other and to feed the antennas 100-ohm impedance of the system. If narrower the SWR bandwidth will become.
90 degrees out of phase. For true circular RG-133/U proves difficult to locate,
polarization the horizontal and vertical RG-63/U ( 125-ohm impedance) may be A Cavity for 435 MHz
elements must be mounted on the same used with aslightly higher mismatch. As If your 435-MHz receiving system is
boom. It is practical to use two separate can be seen in the drawing the phasing quite sensitive, chances are that you might
Specialized Communications Systems 14-11
 suffer desensing problems related to the phones may be barely perceptible above
145- MHz uplink signal. This " Mode J the noise. Nevertheless, for any type of
filter" should eliminate the problem. The amateur communication over a distance
filter is inserted between the 435- MHz of 500 miles ( 800 km) or more at 432
antenna and the 435-MHz preamplifier MHz, for example, moonbounce comes
or converter. The insertion loss is roughly out the winner over terrestrial methods
0.4 to 0.5 dB and the " nose" of the when various factors are figured on a
filter is approximately 7 MHz wide. One balance sheet.
important feature of this filter is the ex- EME thus presents amateurs with the
cellent roll-off characteristic lower in fre- ultimate challenge in strengthening radio
quency than the passband. This allows systems. Before amateur involvement the
a 50-dB attenuation ( or more) of the only other known moon relay circuit was
145-MHz uplink signal frequency. operated by the U.S. Navy between
DRILL OR PUNCH TO FIT
COAX CONNECTOR 3- 3/4"
Most small plumbing businesses can Washington, DC and Hawaii. Their 400
FROM BOTTOM supply you with the materials needed for megawatts of effective radiated power car-
3- 3/4
construction. A local plumber cut several ried four multiplexed RTTY channels. The
pieces of the 3/4- and 3-inch copper pipe first two-way amateur link took place be-
and charged the writer only a few dollars. tween the Eimac Radio Club, W6HB, and
Circuit-board material can be used for the Rhododendron Swamp VHF Society,
the top and bottom plates. Silver plating W1BU, on 1296 MHz in July 1960. Only
all of the parts is a good idea to protect a few amateurs heard anything more than
against poor contacts, though it's not man- their own echoes during the next few years.
datory. The dimensions for the filter are Hams at government and private institu-
given in Fig. 15. tions began conducting tests with other
Parts List hams by using very large arrays such as
EARTH-MOON•EARTH the 150- foot steerable dish at WA6LET
Piece No.
Popularly known as moonbounce, EME (Stanford University) or the 1000- foot
1 Pipe, Copper Cut ends square.
3" dia. 5" long Drill or punch for is the most popular method of space com- parabolic surface at KP4BPZ (Arecibo).
connectors 3-3/4" munication after OSCAR. The concept Amateur-to-amateur contacts did not
from bottom. is straightforward: Stations that can become established until the early ' 70s,
2 Pipe, Copper Solder to certer simultaneously see the moon communicate a notable effort being between VE7BBG
3/4" dia. 4" long of 10
by reflecting vhf and uhf signals off the and WA6HXW. Activity spread to all
3 Disc, Copper Drill thru center.
3/4" dia. lunar surface. Unlike OSCAR, though, continents - except South America. In
Solder solid hook
1/16" - 1/8" thick up wire between the two stations have a relatively stable July 1976, the Mt. Airy VHF Club of
disc and connector target and may be separated by virtually Philadelphia ( Packrats) staged an expedi-
to space disc 180 degrees of arc on the earth's surface, tion to Barranquilla, Colombia, which
3/16" from pc 2.
which translates to more than 11,000 miles allowed K2UYH to become the first
4 Disc, Copper Drill thru center.
3/4" dia. (17,700 km). amateur to work all continents on 432
Solder solid hook
1/16" - 1/8" thick up wire between There is a trade-off, though; since the MHz.
disc and connector moon's mean distance from earth is Through the efforts of these early
to space-disc 239,000 miles (385,000 km), path losses pioneers and others, the state of the art
3/16" from pc 2.
are huge when compared to " local" vhf has progressed such that most of the com-
5 Connector, Coax BNC, SMA or N
type. Solder to
work. Thus, each station on an EME cir- ponents for an EME station on 144 or
prevent turning. cuit demands the most out of the trans- 432 MHz are now commercially available.
For large mitter, antenna, receiver and operator Whether aprospective EMEer chooses that
connector use
skills. Even with all those factors in an route or builds all the gear, some design
chassis punch
optimum state, the signal in the head- considerations must be taken because it
6 Connector, Coax BNC, SMA or N
type. Solder to
prevent turning.
For large
connector use
chassis punch. NOMINAL APOGEE - 14.7
7 Nut, Brass
I
1/4-20 hex MU, LOSS 14 .G

50 - 244.0 dB 15.0
8 Nut, Brass 144 - 253.5 de 15.1
1/4-20 hex 220- 257 . 0 d8_, I,. 2
432- 263.0 dB
9 P/C Board, Drill hole in center 1296 - 272.5 dB15.3
double sided to clear 1/4-20 bolt 2504 - 276.0 dB 15 . 4

15.5
Top 4" x 4". Solder 7 and 8 115.6
each side of hole. 15.7
(Use bolt 11 to 5.8 d
hold nuts in place
when soldering.)
10 P/C Board, Solder 2 in center.
double sided. MHz LOSS --

50-242 048
Bottom 4" x 4" 144 - 251 . 5de
11 Bolt, Brass 220 - 255.0 dB
Insert thru 12 NOMINAL PERIGEE 432- 261.0d13 --
1/4-20 x 3" then thru 7 and 8. 1296- 270.5 dB
I 2304 - 276.0 dB
12 Locking Nut, To hold piece 11
Brass after resonance 0 + 0.4 + 0.8 + 1.2 + 1.6 + 2.0
1/4-20 Hex adjustment. ADDITIONAL PATH LOSS IN DECIBELS

Fig. 15 - Details of the " Mode J desense Fig. 16 - Variations in EME path loss can be determined from this graph. S.D. refers to the semi-
filter."
diameter of the moon, which is indicated for each day of the year in The Nautical Almanac.
14-12 Chapter 14
is weak-signal work. If perigee occurs near the time of a dow as accurately as possible. The term
1) Transmissions must be made on cw new moon, one to two days will be "window" means the period of time that
or ssb with as close to the maximum legal unusable since the sun behind the moon a station can " see" the moon. This can
input as possible. will cause increased sun-noise pickup. be determined with the help of informa-
2) The antenna should have at least Therefore, schedules should be avoided tion contained in a later section of this
20 dB of gain over a dipole. when the moon is within 10° of the sun chapter. Most EME operators determine
3) As with an OSCAR antenna system, (and farther if your antenna has a wide their local window and translate it into
rotators are needed for both azimuth and beam or strong side lobes). The moon's GHA (Greenwich hour angle) and declina-
elevation. Since the half-power beamwidth orbit follows a cycle of 18 to 19 years, tion. This information is a constant, so
of a high-gain antenna is quite sharp, so the relationships between perigee and once it is determined it is usable by other
the rotators must have an appropriate new moon will not be the same from stations just as one would use UTC.
accuracy. one year to the next. Likewise, it helps to know the window
4) Transmission-line losses should be Low moon declinations and low aiming of the station to be scheduled. Most EME
held to a minimum. elevations generally produce poor results stations are limited in some way by local
5) The receiving system should have a and should be avoided if possible. Con- obstructions, antenna-mounting con-
very low noise figure and sharp filters. versely, high moon declinations and high straints, geographical considerations, and
Don't let these requirements scare you! elevation angles should yield best results. the like. Therefore, the accuracy of each
Most EMEers started out as listeners, and Good results are usually obtained when station's EME window is very important
in the first, second and third ARRL Inter- both stations are using similar elevation for locating common windows and setting
national EME Competition operators with angles, since then both stations are look- schedule times.
nothing more than a single Yagi, ing through comparable electron densities. A boresight of some type is practically
preamplifier and multimode transceiver Generally, low elevation angles increase mandatory in order to align your antenna
were hearing the stronger stations. For antenna- noise pickup and increase accurately with the moon. Most antenna
those who are seriously interested in tropospheric absorption, especially above systems exhibit some pattern skewing which
assembling acomplete station, the Eimac 420 MHz, where the galactic noise is very must be accounted for. A simple calibra-
Division of Varian has assembled acom- low. This situation cannot be avoided when tion method is to peak your antenna on
prehensive package on the technical details. one station is unable to elevate the anten- received sun noise and then align the
Write to Eimac, 301 Industrial Way, San na above the horizon or when there is boresight tube on the sun. The boresight
Carlos, CA 94070. a great terrestrial distance between sta- of the antenna is now calibrated and can
A short section about operating tech tions. Ground gain (gain obtained when be used to aim the antenna at the moon.
niques is offered as aguide to the begin- the antenna is aimed at the horizon) has Readers are cautioned against using a
ner. It should be noted, however, that been used very effectively at 144 MHz, telescope or other device employing lenses
the details differ from one band to another but has been more elusive above 420 MHz. as a boresight device! Even the best of
to some degree. Such differences are slight, It is hoped that current tests on 144 and optical filters will not eliminate the hazard
and should cause no great concern. Perhaps 432 MHz, using this mode of propagation, from solar radiation when viewed direct-
as the ranks grow an accepted universal will yield more predictable results. ly. A simple piece of tubing of small
operating procedure will evolve. Usually, signals are stronger in the fall diameter and two or three feet long can
and winter months and weaker in the sum- serve the purpose in this instance. A sym-
EME Scheduling mer. Also, signals are generally better at metrical spot of light cast upon a piece
The best days to schedule are usually night than during the day. This may be of paper near the back end of the tube
when the moon is at perigee ( closest to attributable to decreased ionization or less will indicate alignment.
the earth) since the path loss is typically Faraday rotation. A remote readout (such as a syncro
2dB less than when the moon is at apogee Whenever the moon crosses the galactic or selsyn) is ahighly recommended conve-
(farthest from the earth). The moon's plane (twice a month for three to five nience. Accuracies of ± 2 ° are usually
perigee and apogee dates may be deter- days each occurrence), the sky temperature necessary and can be attained with syn-
mined from publications such as The will be higher. Hence, some degradation cros. A remote readout is particularly im-
Nautical Almanac' by inspecting the sec- (1 to 2 dB) may be observed, especially portant for scheduling when the moon
tion of the tables headed " S.D." (semi- above 420 MHz where the normal back- is within 45° of the sun or when the sky
diameter of the moon in minutes of arc). ground sky temperature is lower. Areas is overcast. Very few of us are not bothered
An S.D. of 16.53 equates to an approxi- of the sky to avoid are the constellations by occasional fog, rain, snow or overcast.
mate earth-to-moon distance of 225,000 Orion and Gemini at northern declina- Aiming the antenna blindly seldom pays
miles (362,000 km), typical perigee, and tions and Scorpius and Sagittarius at off.
an S.D. of 14.7 to an approximate distance southern declinations. Positions of the
moon with respect to these constellations Locating the Moon
of 252,500 miles (406,400 km), typical
apogee. If the semi-diameters are located can be checked with Sky and Telescope The moon orbits the earth once in ap-
on Fig. 16, the EME path losses in decibels magazine or The Nautical Almanac. The proximately 28 days, a lunar month.
may be determined for the most popular galactic plane is biased toward southern Because the plane of the moon's orbit
amateur frequencies. declinations, which will cause southerly is tilted from the earth's equatorial plane
The moon's orbit is slightly elliptical. declinations to be less desirable (with by approximately 23.5 °, the moon swings
Hence, the day-to-day path-loss changes respect to noise) than are northern in a sine-wave pattern both north and
at apogee and perigee are minor. The declinations. south of the equator. The angle of depar-
greatest changes take place at the time Finally, the time of the day and the ture of the moon's position at a given
when the moon is traversing between day of the week must be considered since time from the equatorial plane is termed
apogee and perigee. However, several other most of us have to work for a living declination. Declination angles of the
factors must be considered for optimum and cannot always be available for moon, which are continually changing (a
scheduling aside from the path losses. schedules. Naturally, weekends and even- few degrees a day), indicate the latitude
ings are preferred, especially when perigee on the earth's surface where the moon
'The Nautical Almanac for the Year****, where will be at zenith. For this presentation,
**** indicates the calendar year for the data. occurs on a weekend.
This annual publication is printed by the U.S. positive declination angles are used when
Printing Office, Washington, DC. It is avail- General Considerations the moon is north of the equator, and
able from the Superintendent of Documents
and from many dealers of marine products. It helps to know your own EME win- negative angles when south.
Specialized Communications Systems 14-13
 The longitude on the earth's surface located. The LHA and declination infor- GHA of the moon is 140° and its declina-
where the moon will be at zenith is related mation may be translated to an EME win- tion is 10°. To determine the az-el infor-
to the moon's Greenwich Hour Angle, dow by taking local obstructions and any mation we first find the LHA, which is
abbreviated G.H.A. or GHA. " Hour other constraints into account. 140 — 100 or 40°. Then we solve Eq. 1:
angle" is defined as the angle in degrees
to the west of the meridian. If the GHA Azimuth and Elevation sin E = sin 50 sin 10 +
of the moon were zero degrees, it would An antenna system that is positioned cos 50 cos 10 cos 40
be directly over the Greenwich meridian. in azimuth (compass direction) and eleva- sin E = 0.61795 and E = 38.2°
If the moon's GHA were 15 degrees, the tion (angle above the horizon) is called Solving Eq. 2for F, we proceed. (The
moon would be directly over the meridi- an az-el system. For such asystem, some value for sin E has already been deter
an which is designated as 15° W. longitude additional work will be necessary to con- mined in Eq. 1.)
on a globe. As one can readily unders- vert the almanac data into useful informa- 0.61795 — 0.01657
tand, the GHA of the moon is continually tion. The GHA and decl. information may tan F —
cos 38.2
changing, too, because of the orbital veloci- be converted into azimuth and elevation
ty of the moon and because of the earth's angles with the mathematical equations = 0.76489
rotation inside the moon's orbit. The that follow. An electronic calculator or
moon's GHA changes at the rate of ap- computer that treats trigonometric func- From this, F, the moon's elevation angle,
proximately. 347° per day. tions may be used. CAUTION: Most is 37.4°.
GHA and declination are terms that almanacs list data in degrees, minutes, We continue by solving Eq. 3 for C.
may be applied to any celestial body. The and either decimal minutes or seconds. (The value for sin E has already been
Nautical Almanac and other publications Computer or calculator programs generally determined.)
list the GHA and decl. of the sun and require this information in degrees and
sin 10 — 0.61795 sin 50
moon (as well as for other celestial bodies decimal fractions, so a conversion may cos C —
cos 38.2 cos 50
that may be used for navigation) for every be necessary before the almanac data is
hour of the year. This information may entered. = — 0.59308
be used to point an antenna with preci- Determining az-el data from equations
sion, rather than merely looking up in follows aprocedure similar to calculating C therefore equals 126.4°. To determine
the sky and pointing one's antenna by great-circle bearings and distances for two if C is the actual azimuth, we find the
eye. Almanac tables for the sun may be points on the earth's surface. There is polarity for sin LHA, which is sin 40°
useful.for boresighting an antenna array, one additional factor, however. Visualize and has a positive value. The actual
as explained earlier in this chapter. two observers on opposite sides of the azimuth then is 360 — C = 233.6°.
earth who are pointing their antennas at If az-el data is being determined for
Using the Almanac the moon. Imaginary lines representing the sun, use of Eq. 2 may be omitted;
Books such as The Nautical Almanac the boresights of the two antennas will Eq. 2 takes into account the nearness of
and other almanacs show the GHA and converge at the moon at an angle of the moon. The solar elevation angle may
declination of the sun or moon at hourly approxi mately 2°. Now assume both be determined from Eq. 1alone. In the
intervals for every day of the period observers aim their antennas at some dis- above example, this angle is 38.2°.
covered by the book. Instructions are in- tant star. The boresight lines now may The mathematical procedure is the same
cluded in such books for interpolating be considered to be parallel, each observer for any location on the earth's surface.
the positions of the sun or moon for any having raised his antenna in elevation by Remember to use negative values for
time on agiven date. The orbital velocity approximately 1°. The reason for the southerly latitudes. If solving Eq. 1 or
of the moon is not constant, and the -efore necessary change in elevation is that the 2yields a negative value for E or F, this
precise interpolations are not linear. Linear earth's diameter in comparison to its indicates the celestial body is below the
interpolations, however, are much more distance from the moon is significant. The horizon.
suitable for simple calculator and com- same is not true for distant stars, or for The above equations may also be used
puter programming. And fortunately, the sun. to determine az-el data for man-made
linear interpolations from one hour to Equations for az-el calculations are: satellites, but a different value for the
the next, or even from one day to the sin E = sin L and D + constant, K, must be used. K is defined
next, will result in data which is entirely cos L cos D cos LHA (Eq. 1) as the ratio of the earth's radius to the
adequate for Amateur Radio purposes. distance from the earth's center to the
sin E — K
If linear interpolations are made from tan F = (Eq. 2) satellite.
0000 UTC on one day to 0000 UTC on cos E
The value for K as given above, 0.01657,
the next, worst-case conditions exist when sin D — sin E sin L is based on an average earth- moon distance
apogee or perigee occurs near mid-day cos C — (Eq. 3) of 239,000 miles (384,630 km). The actual
cos E cos L
on the date in question. Under such con- earth-moon distance varies from approxi-
ditions the total angular error in the posi- where mately 225,000 mi (362,100 km) to 253,000
tion of the moon may be as much as E = elevation angle for the sun mi (407,200 km). This change in distance,
a sixth of a degree. Because it takes a L = your latitude (negative if south) if taken into account, yields a change
full year for the earth to orbit the sun, D = declination of the celestial body in elevation angle of approximately 0.1 °
the similar error for determining the posi- LHA = local hour angle = GHA when the moon is near the horizon. For
tion of the sun will be no more than plus or minus your longitude (plus greater precision in determining the cor-
a few hundredths of a degree. if east long., minus if west long.) rect elevation angle for the moon, the
If a polar mount (asystem having one moon's distance from the earth may be
F = elevation angle for the moon
axis parallel to the earth's axis) is used, taken as:
K = 0.01657, aconstant (see text
information from the Almanac may be
that follows)
used directly to point the antenna array. D = — 15074.5 x S.D. + 474,332
C = true azimuth from north if sin
The local hour angle (LHA) is simply
LHA is negative; if sin LHA is posi-
the GHA plus or minus the observer's where
tive, then the azimuth = 360 — C
longitude (plus if east long., minus if west). D = moon's distance in miles
The LHA is the angle west of the observer's Assume our location is 50° N. lat., S.D. = moon's semi-diameter, from
meridian at which the celestial body is 100° W. long. Further assume that the the almanac.
14-14 Chapter 14
 Calculator and Computer Programs data, of course, will be the same as for
0000 UTC for the following day from
Table 4
As has been mentioned, a calculator the almanac. After all data is entered,
Calculator Program for Determining or computer may be used in solving the the computer performs calculations for
Azimuth and Elevation of Celestial Bodies each half hour. Only those results for
equations for azimuth and elevation.
Tables in this section list suitable pro- which the body is above the horizon are
grams. The program of Table 4 is for displayed, so there may be periods of
Line Key Entry 15 seconds or more where nothing ap-
Hewlett- Packard HP- 25 and similar
01 RCL 1 pears to be happening. This is normal.
calculators using reverse Polish notation
02 -
(RPN). With this program, the GHA and This program may be modified to print
03 STO 4
04 fcos declination of acelestial body are entered the results of calculations on paper if a
05 x*y for a particular time of day, and the line printer is available, or to adapt it
06 STO 5 for use on other computers with varia-
calculator computes the azimuth and eleva-
07 fcos
tion for that time. Calculations must then tions in BASIC language.
08 X
09 RCL 0 be repeated for a different time of day, Either of these programs may be used
10 fcos by using different GHA and declination for determining the azimuth and elevation
11 STO 6 for more distant bodies, by using program
values, as appropriate. For EME work,
12 X
it is convenient to calculate az-el data steps 26 and 27 for the sun in Table 4,
13 RCL 0
14 fsin at 30- minute intervals or so, and to keep or by entering SUN at the keyboard for
15 STO 7 the results of all calculations handy during statement 130 in Table 5. Further, Table
16 RCL 5 4 may be used for determining the posi-
the EME window. Necessary antenna-posi
17 fsin
18 STO 5 tion corrections can then be made tions of man-made satellites for a given
19 X periodically. time, if the appropriate value for the con-
20 + Table 5 is a BASIC language program stant K is stored in register 3. For this
Use these pro- Use these pro-
21 STO X 7 application, the coordinates of the sub-
gram steps for gram steps for for the IBM PC. This program provides
22 ENTER
the moon the suri and azimuth and elevation information for satellite point are used in place of GHA
23 g sin - 1
distant bodies and declination.
24 fcos half-hour intervals during aUTC day when
25 STO X 6 the celestial body is above the horizon.
Libration Fading of EME Signals
The program makes alinear interpolation
26 Y g 1/x 26 fLAST x
of GHA and declination values (discussed One of the most troublesome aspects
27 X*y 27 GTO 32
earlier) during the period of the UTC day. of receiving a moonbounce signal besides
28 RCL 3 With the program of Table 5in opera- the enormous path loss and Faraday rota-
29 tion fading, is libration fading. This sec-
tion, the computer first asks for various
30 X
31 g tan - 1 data to be entered via the keyboard, in- tion will deal with libration (pronounced
32 RCL 5 cluding GHA and declination for 2400 lie-bray-shun) fading, its cause and ef-
33 RCL 7 UTC for the date of the calculations. This fects, and possible measures to minimize it.
34
35 RCL 6
36
37 g cos - 1
38 RCL 4
39 fsin Table 5
40 g x>0 Computer Program for Determining Azimuth and Elevation of Celestial Bodies
41 GTO 44
42 R 10 REM * * * MOONTRAK.BAS * * *
43 GTO 00 (or R/S) 20 CLS:PRINT"PROGRAM TO CALCULATE AZ- EL DATA FOR THE SUN OR MOON"
30 PRINT:PRINT"Program by J. Hall, K1TD, ARRL Hq., Rev 1.1, June 1983":PRINT
44 R
40 PRINT"This program may be reproduced without prior permission"
45 CHS 50 PRINT"provided The ARRL Handbook is credited. ': PRINT
46 RCL 2 60 8$="###.#":1=57.2958:K=.01657
47 716 PRINT"Enter negative values for southerly latitudes."
80 PRINT"Enter negative values for easterly longitudes."
48 GTO 00 (or R/S)
90 PRINT:INPUT"Your latitude ( degrees and decimal)";A
Instructions: 100 INPUT"Your Ion itude ( degrees and decimal)";L1
110 D=SIN(A/I):F=C S(A/I)
1) Load the program, selecting lines 26 and 27 120 INPUT"UTC date ( no comma, please)";AS
for either the moon or for more distant bodies. 130 INPUT"Data for which, sun or moon";CS:PRINT
Switch to RUN. 140 PRINT A$" bHA of "; CS;" at 0000 UTC":INPUT" ( degrees and decimal)";L2
150 PRINT A$" declination at 0000 UTC":INPUT" ( degrees and decimal)";81
2) Initialize: fPRGM; fFIX 1; g DEG 160 PRINT A$" GHA at 2400 UTC":INPUT" ( degrees and decimal)";L3
3) Store constants: 360 STO 2; 0.01657 STO 3 170 PRINT A$" declination at 2400 UTC":INPUT" ( degrees and decimal)";82
4) Store data: 160 GI.(L3+360-L2)/24
Your latitude (degrees and decimal; negative 190 81=(82-81)/24
200 Jh=0:GOSUB 330
if south) STO 0 210 FOR Ah=0 TO 48:G=SIN(81/I):L=L2 - L1
Your longitude (degrees and decimal; negative 220 E=D*G+F*COS(81/D*COS(L/I):C=(G - D*E)/F:J=E
if east) STO 1 230 IF E>=1 THEN E=1.5708:GOTO 250
240 IF E<.-1 THEN E=-1.5708 ELSE E=ATN(E/SQR(ABS(1 - E*E)))
5) Input data:
250 C=C/COS(E):IF C>=1 THEN C=0:GOTO 270
Decl. of celestial body (degrees and decimal) 260 IF C<=-1 THEN C=180 ELSE C=I*(-ATN(C/SQR(ABS(1 - C*C)))+1.5708)
ENTER 270 IF LEFTS(CS,1)="M" OR LEFTS(CS,1)="m" THEN GOSUB 430
GHA of celestial body (degrees and decimal) 280 E=I*E:IF JX=8 AND E>=0 THEN GOSUB 410
R/S 290 IF E>=0 THEN GUSUB 360
300 81=81+BI/2:L2=L2+GI/2:IF L2>360 THEN L2=L2 - 360
The result displayed after afew seconds is the 310 NEXT:PRINT:PRINT"Data for "; A$i" is completed for the "; CS
azimuth or bearing in degrees clockwise from 320 INPUT"To continue, press enter '; JX:CLS:PRINT"Next ";: GOTO 120
north. 330 CLS:PRINT"Data for the "; C$" from " A;"deg. lat., "; L1;"deg. long."
340 PRINT"for "; AS:PRINT
Depressing xy displays the elevation angle 350 PRINT"Time, UTC","Azimuth","Elevation":PRINT:RETURN
above the horizon. (The body is Deiow tne 360 IF INT(AX/2)=Ah/2 THEN DS=STRS(50*A.0 ELSE DS=STRS(30*A,4-20)
horizon If a negative angle is displayed.) 370 DS=RIGHTS(DS,LEN(DS)-1)
6) For another az-el calculation from the 360 IF LEN(DS)<4 THEN DS="0"+DS:GOTO 360
390 PRINT D$ : IF SIN(L/I)<=0 THEN PRINT USING BS;C; ELSE PRINT USING 85 ;360 - C;
same location, go to step 5. 400 PRINT TAB(32);:PRINT USING BS;E:JX=.1%+ 1 :RETURN
7) For az-el calculations from adifferent loca- 410 PRINT:INPUT"For more data press enter";r4
tion on the earth's surface, go to step 4 using 420 rh=0:GOSUB 330:RETURN
new latitude and longitude 430 4=(J-K)/COS(E):E=ATN(J):RETURN
440 REM NOTE: 'h = integer

Specialized Communications Systems 14-15

Fig. 17 — Chart recording of moon echoes received at W2NFA on July 26, 1973, at 1630 UTC. Antenna gain 44 dBi; transmitting power 400 watts and
system temperature 400 K.

Libration fading of an EME signal is flat mirrors on the moon that reflect small
characterized in general as afluttery, rapid, portions (amplitudes) of the incident wave
irregular fading not unlike that observed energy in different directions (paths) and
in tropospheric scatter propagation. Fading with different path lengths (phase). Those
can be very deep, 20 dB or more, and paths directed toward the moon arrive
the maximum fading rate will depend on at your antenna as a collection of small
the operating frequency. At 1296 MHz wave fronts (field vectors) of various
the maximum fading rate is about 10 Hz, amplitudes and phases. The vector sum-
and scales directly with frequency. Fig. 18 — How the rough surface of the moon mation of all these coherent (same fre-
On a weak cw EME signal, libration reflects a plane wave as one having many field quency) returned waves (and there is a
fading gives the impression of arandomly vectors. near-infinite array of them) takes place
keyed signal. In fact on very slow cw at the feed point of your antenna (the
telegraphy the effect is as though the key- collecting point in the antenna system).
ing is being done at amuch faster speed. The level of the final summation as
On very weak signals only the peaks of measured by a receiver can, of course,
libration fading are heard in the form have any value from zero to some maxi-
of occasional short bursts or " pings." mum. Remember now that we assumed
Fig. 17 shows samples of atypical EME the earth and moon were stationary, which
echo signal at 1296 MHz. These record means that the final summation of these
ings, made at W2NFA, show the wild multipath signal returns from the moon
fading characteristics with sufficient S/N Fig. 19 — The moon appears to " wander" in its will be one fixed value. The condition
ratio to record the deep fades. Circular orbit about the earth. Thus, a fixed marker on of relative motion between earth and moon
polarization was used to eliminate Fara the moon's surface will appear to move about being zero is a rare event which will be
in a circular area.
day fading; thus these recordings are of discussed later in this section.
libration fading only. The recording band- Consider now that the earth and moon
width was limited to about 40 Hz to are moving relative to each other (as they
minimize the higher sideband-frequency thusiastic newcomer to EME communica- are in nature), so that the incident radio
components of libration fading that exist tions will be stymied by this effect since wave " sees" a slightly different surface
but are much smaller in amplitude. For he knows that he can hear the signal strong of the moon from moment to moment.
those who would like a better statistical enough on peaks to copy but can't make Since the lunar surface is very irregular,
description, libration fading is Raleigh any sense out of what he tries to copy. the reflected wave will be equally irregular,
distributed. In the recordings shown by What causes libration fading? Very changing in amplitude and phase from
Fig. 17, the average signal-return level simply, multipath scattering of the radio moment to moment. The resultant con-
computed from path loss and mean reflec- waves from the very large (2000-mile tinuous summation of the varying
tion coefficient of the moon is at about diameter) and rough moon surface com- multipath signals at your antenna feed
the + 15 dB S/N level. bined with the relative motion between point produces the effect called libration
It is clear that enhancement of echoes earth and moon called librations. fading of the moon-reflected signal.
far in excess of this average level is ob To understand these effects, assume first The term libration is used to describe
served. This point should be kept clearly that the earth and moon are stationary small perturbations in the movement of
in mind when attempting to obtain echoes (no libration) and that aplane wave front celestial bodies. Earth libration consists
or receive EME signals with marginal arrives at the moon from your earth-bound mainly of its diurnal rotation; moon libra-
equipment. The probability of hearing an station as shown in Fig. 18A. tion consists mainly of its 28-day rotation
occasional peak is quite good since ran- The reflected wave shown in Fig. 18B which appears as a very slight rocking
dom enhancement as much as 10 dB is consists of many scattered contributions motion with respect to an observer on
possible. Under these conditions, however, from the rough moon surface. It is perhaps earth. This rocking motion can be visualiz-
the amount of useful information that easier to visualize the process as if the ed as follows: Place amarker on the sur-
can be copied will be near zero. The en- scattering were from many small individual face of the moon at the center of the
14-16 Chapter 14
Table 6 (not depth of fade) is coincident wit4 minute mark, and start listening 21 /
2

minimum total libration. Calculation ot minutes later. Thus a schedule starting

Signal Reports Used on 144- MHz EME
minimum total libration is at best tedious at 0030 would be an "odd" period,
T — Signal Just detectable and can only be done successfully by means although operators on 432 MHz seldom
M — Portions of calls copied of a digital computer. It is a problem label them as such. It is convenient for
0 — Complete call set has been received
in extrapolation of rates of change in coor- the operators simply to start with the
R — Both "0" report and call sets have been
received dinate motion and in small differences eastern-most station calling on the hour
— End of contact of large numbers. or half hour, unless arranged otherwise.
Of course there is much room for change
EME Operating Techniques in these arrangements, but they do serve
Table 7 Most EME signals tend to be near the as vital guidelines for schedules. As signals
threshold of readability, acondition caused become stronger, the rules can be relaxed
Signal Reports Used on 432- MHz EME
by a combination of path loss, Faraday to a degree, and after many contacts,
T — Portions of calls copied stations can often ignore them complete-
rotation and libration fading. This
M — Complete calls copied
O — Good signal — solid copy ( possibly
weakness and unpredictability of the signal ly, if the signals are strong enough.
enough for ssb work) has led to the development of techniques Calls are often extremely difficult to
R — Calls and reports copied for exchange of EME information that hear in their entirety. A vital dot or dash
ST< — End of contact
differs from those used for normal vhf can be missing, which can render acom-
work — the usual RST reporting would plex call unreadable. To copy both calls
be jumbled and meaningless for many completely requires much patience and
Table 8
EME contacts. Dashes are often chopped a good ear. Both calls must be copied,
144- MHz Procedure-2-Mlnute Sequence into pieces, a string of dots would be because even though most work is by timed
Period 1-1/2 minutes 30 seconds incomplete, and complicated words would schedules, there can be last-minute substitu-
1 Calls (W6XXX DE make no sense at all. tions because of equipment trouble at one
W1XXX) station, unexpected travel, changes in plans
Unfortunately, there is no universal
2 W1XXX DE W6XXX TTTT
3 W6XXX DE W1XXX 0000 agreement as to procedures for all the or the like, which make it impossible for
4 RO RO RO RO DE W1XXX K bands, although there is similarity. Two- the scheduled station to appear. Thus,
5 RRRRR DE W6XXX K meter operators generally use the rather than have one station spend the
6 QRZ? EME DE W1XXX K
"T M O R" system, while those on 432 entire period listening, only to find that
MHz use a similar system but applied no one was there, a system of standby
at somewhat different levels of readabili- stations is becoming more popular. This
Table 9 ty. The meanings and typical use, of each is good, because nothing will demoralize
432•MHz Procedure-24/241ln. Sequence part of the sequence are given in Tables anewcomer faster than several one-sided
Period 2minutes 30 seconds 6 through 9. schedules.
1 VE7BBG DE K2UYH At the moment, there is no widespread An exchange of signal reports is auseful
2 K2UYH DE VE7BBG system in use for bands other than 144 and required bit of information: useful
3 VE7BBG DE K2UYH T T T and 432 MHz. There are so few par- because it helps in evaluating your station
4 K2UYH DE VE7BBG M M M
5 RM RM RM RM DE K2UYH K ticipants on 50 and 220 MHz that performance and the conditions at the
6 RRRRR DE VE7BBG SK presumably they will have no difficulty time, required because it is a " non-pre-
in arranging tech niques by correspondence arranged" exchange, thereby requiring that
prior to schedules for EME tests. The you copy what was sent as part of the
amount of operation on 1296 MHz is contact. Obviously there are other things
low, but on the increase. Perhaps an that could be included in an " exchange
operating technique can evolve that will of unknown information," and when con-
moon disc, which is the point closest to be acceptable to those on any band. The ditions permit stronger signals, many
the observer, as shown in Fig. 19. Then important consideration is that an exchange operators do include names, elaborate on
over time we will observe that this marker of information takes place. This informa- the signal reports, arrange next schedule
wanders around within a small area. All tion should include three basic parts: calls times, and so on. Unfortunately, such
this means is that the surface of the moon of both stations, signal reports, and con- exchanges are rare.
as seen from the earth is not quite fixed firmation that previous information was Confirmation is essential for comple-
but changes slightly as different areas of received. tion of the exchange. There is no way
the periphery are exposed because of this In the schedule sequence for both 144 that you can be sure that the other operator
rocking motion. Moon libration is very and 432 MHz, the initial period starts copies what you sent until you hear him
slow (on the order of 10 -7 radians per on the hour, but because of the difference say so. That final R or " roger" means
sec ond) and can be determined with some in sequence lengths for the two bands, that he has copied your information, and
difficulty from published moon ephemeris schedules starting on the half hour will your two-way contact is complete.
tables. not be the same. On 2 meters, there are Sending speed is usually in the 10- to
Although the libration motions are very 15 sequence periods to the half hour, which 13-wpm range, although it can be ad-
small and slow, the large surface area would make the period 0030 to 0032 an justed according to conditions and operator
of the moon, having nearly an infinite "even" sequence. This could make adif- skill. Characters sent too slowly tend to
number of scattering points (small area), ference, depending on which operator was become chopped up and confusing. High-
means that even these slight geometric assigned an " odd" or " even" sequence. speed cw is hard to copy at marginal signal
movements can alter the total summation Note that odd or even refers to the se- levels for most amateurs, and the fading
of the returned multipath echo by asignifi- quence number, not the minutes desig that is typical of an EME path can make
cant amount. Since the librations of the nated within that sequence. it nearly impossible to decipher the content.
earth and moon are calculable, it is only On 432 MHz, there are 12 sequence
Other Modes
logical to ask if there ever occurs a time periods to the half hour. The eastern-most
when the total libration is zero or near station calls first, and since two 21
/-
2 minute Only afew stations have the capability
zero? The answer is yes, and it has been periods fill a 5-minute space, it works of sending (and receiving) signals of a
observed and experimentally verified on out conveniently that the eastern (or first) strength sufficient to allow experimenta-
radar echoes that minimum fading rate station will call starting with every five tion with other than çw. There have been
Specialized Communications Systems 14-17
 Of course, it is obvious that as the this would be to use cross-polarized Yagis
number of stations on EME increases, and arelay-switching system to select the
the frequency spread must become greater. desired polarization. This represents acon-
Since the moon is in convenient locations siderable increase in system cost and com-
only a few days out of the month, and plexity. Polarization shift at 144 MHz
only a certain number of stations can is fairly slow and the added complexity
be scheduled for EME during a given of the cross-polarized antenna system may
evening, the answer will be in the use not be worth the effort. At 432 MHz,
of simultaneous schedules, spaced a few where the shift is at a somewhat faster
kilohertz apart. The time may not be too rate, an adjustable polarization system of-
far away — QRM has already been ex- fers adefinite advantage over afixed one.
perienced on each of our three most active A photograph of the Yagi antenna
EME frequencies. system used at K1ZZ is shown in Fig.
20. The system consists of four, 2-meter
EME Net Information Cushcraft Boomer antennas mounted on
An EME net meets on weekends on a70-foot, Rohn 25 tower. A CDE Ham-
Fig. 20 — The EME antenna system used at
14.345 MHz for the purpose of arranging Ill rotator is used for positioning the anten-
K1ZZ — four Cushcraft 2- meter Boomers with schedules and exchanging pertinent infor- na in azimuth and aTET KR-500 rotator
associated stacking and wiring harness. This mation. The net meets at 1600 UTC con- is used for elevation control. The gain
system is mounted atop a 70- foot Rohn 25
cerning EME operation on 432 MHz and of this array is approximately 20 dB, taking
tower.
at 1700 UTC regarding 2-meter EME into account phasing line losses.
operation. Quagi antennas (made from both quad
and Yagi elements) are also popular for
Antenna Requirements
EME work. Slightly more gain per unit
The tremendous path loss incurred over boom length is possible as compared to
some ssb contacts and echoes of RTTY an EME circuit places stringent re- the conventional Yagi. Additional infor-
and fm signals have been heard, but no quirements on the station performance. mation on the quagi is presented in the
two-way communication by these latter Low-noise receiving equipment, maximum VHF and UHF Antennas chapter of this
modes has been accomplished to date. legal power and large antenna arrays are book.
In general, only the stations with large required for successful EME operation. The collinear is another popular type
parabolic reflectors try these more dif- Although it may be possible to copy some of antenna for EME work. A 40-element
ficult means of EME work. Such installa- of the better-equipped stations while using collinear array has approximately the same
tions are often " borrowed" from some asingle high-gain Yagi antenna, it is doubt- frontal areas an an array of four Yagis.
research program for the amateur ful whether such an antenna could pro- The collinear array would produce ap-
endeavors. vide reliable two-way communication. proximately 1- to 2-dB less gain. Of course
Antenna gain of at least 20 dB is required the depth dimension of the collinear array
Frequencies for reasonable success. Generally speak- is considerably less than for the long-
Most amateur EME work is conducted ing, more antenna gain will yield the most boom Yagis. An 80-element collinear
within a few kHz of some convenient noticeable improvement in station per- would be marginal for EME communica-
spot frequency. On 144 MHz there is some formance, as the increased gain will aid tions, providing approximately 19-dB gain.
room to move about, but most operation both the received and transmitted signals. Many operators choosing this type of
is very near the low edge, consistent with Several types of antennas have become antenna use 160-element or larger systems.
the ability of the station to stay within popular among EME enthusiasts. Perhaps As with Yagi and quagi antennas, the
the band. the most popular antenna for 144-MHz collinear cannot be easily adjusted for
Operation on 432 MHz is generally work is an array of either four or eight polarity changes. From a constructional
within 1or 2kilohertz of that frequency, long-boom ( 14- to 15-dB gain) Yagis. The standpoint there may be little difference
with a few stations going as far afield four-Yagi array would provide approxi in complexity and material costs between
as 431.997 to 432.050 for general schedules. mately 20-dB gain, and the eight-antenna the collinear and Yagi arrays.
It is not unknown for a pair of stations system would show an approximate 3-dB The parabolic dish is another antenna
to move up 10 or 15 kHz for a contact, increase over the four-antenna array. At that is used extensively for EME work.
while others are on the nominal ".000" 432 MHz, eight or 16 long-boom Yagis Unlike the other antennas described, the
spot. There has been a movement afoot are used. Yagi antennas are available com- major problems associated with dish
recently to reach agentleman's agreement mercially or can be constructed from readi- antennas are mechanical ones. Dishes 20
to avoid any short-range, local, or non- ly available materials. Information on feet in diameter are required for successful
DX operation between 432.0 and 432.025 maximum-gain Yagi antennas is presented EME operation on 432 MHz. Structures
MHz — a concept that most EME en- in the VHF and UHF Antennas chapter of this size and wind/ice loading place a
thusiasts hearti'y approve of. of this volume. The dimensions presented severe strain on the mounting/positioning
For EME ssb contacts on 144 and 432 are based on figures developed by the systems. Extremely rugged mounts are re-
MHz, contact is usually established on National Bureau of Standards for Yagi quired for large dish antennas, especially
cw, and then the stations move up 100 design. At least one manufacturer has used when used in windy locations. Several
kHz from the cw frequency. (This method the NBS design information for their latest aspects of the parabolic dish antennas
was adopted because of the U.S. require- series of high-performance antennas. make the extra mechanical problems
ment for cw only below 144.1 MHz.) A moderately sized Yagi array has the worth the effort. For example, the dish
For operation on 1296 MHz, most sta- advantage that it is relatively easy to con- antenna is inherently broadband and may
tions are within a very few kilohertz of struct and can be positioned in azimuth be used on several different bands by
'at spot frequency. Many devices, tubes and elevation with commercially available simply changing the feed. The graph at
irpsistors, would work much better equipment. Matching and phasing lines Fig. 21 relates antenna gain, frequency
at the low end of the 1215-MHz band, present no particular problems. The main and size. As can be seen, an antenna that
but the 1296.0 spot became popular disadvantage of a Yagi array is that the is suitable for 432 MHz work is also
because it was convenient to triple from polarization plane of the antenna cannot usable for each of the higher amateur
an existing 432-MHz exciter. be conveniently changed. One way around bands. Additional gain is available as the
14-18 Chapter 14
Fig. 21 — Parabolic-antenna gain versus size, frequency and surface errors. All curves assume
60- percent aperture efficiency and 10-dB power taper. Reference: J. Ruze, British IEE.

frequency of operation is increased. and others have been used. These types
Another advantage of this antenna is in have not gained the popularity of the
the feed system. The polarization of the Yagi, quagi, collinear and parabolic dish,
feed, and therefore the polarization of the however.
antenna, can be adjusted with little dif-
ficulty. It should be a relatively easy mat- Receiver Requirements Fig. 23 — Two systems for switching a
ter to devise a system whereby the feed A low- noise receiving setup is essential preamplifier in and out of the receive line. At
could be rotated remotely from the shack. for successful EME work. Since many of
A, a single length of cable is used for both the
Changes in polarization of the signal transmit and receive line. At B is a slightly
the signals to be copied on EME are bare- more sophisticated system that uses two
could be compensated for at the operating ly, and not always, out of the noise, alow- separate transmission lines. See text for
position! As polarization changes can ac- noise- figure receiver is a must. The mark details.
count for as much as 30 dB of signal at-
to shoot for at 144 MHz is something
tenuation, the rotatable feed could make
under 2 dB, as the cosmic noise will then
the difference between working a station
be the limiting factor in the system. Noise
and not. A photograph of the parabolic
figures of this level are relatively easy to
dish antenna used at K2UY11 is shown in achieve, even with inexpensive devices
Fig. 22. Mott; information on parabolic that are available.
dish antennas is available in The ARRL
As low anoise figure as can be attained
Antenna Book. will be usable at 432 MHz. Noise figures
Antennas suitable for EME work are by on the order of 0.5 dB are possible with
no means limited to the types described GaAs FETs. As most GaAs FETs are
thus far. Rhombics, quad arrays, helixes currently still quite expensive and
somewhat fragile, many builders choose
the more rugged bipolar, which offers a
noise figure just under 1dB.
Since the loss in the transmission line Fig. 24 — The preamplifier relay switching
system suitable for EME work. The relay box is
that connects the antenna to the mounted at the antenna and the control box is
preamplifier adds directly to the system located in the station. A length of four-
noise figure, most serious EME operators conductor wire connects the two units.
mount a preamplifier at the top of the
tower or directly at the antenna. If an ex-
ceptionally good grade of transmission tain, two relays with alower- isolation fac-
line is available, it is possible to obtain tor may be used. When the relays are
almost as good results with the switched for the transmit mode, K1 con-
preamplifier located in the shack. Two nects the antenna to the transmit line,
relay/preamplifier switching systems are K2 switches the preamplifier into the
sketched in Fig. 23. The system at A 50- ohm termination. Hence, two relays
makes use of two relays and a single provide the isolation between the trans
transmission line for both transmit and mitter connection and the preamplifier.
receive. The preamplifier is simply If independent control of K2 is provided
switched " in" for receive and " out" for for, the preamplifier can be switched be-
transmit. tween the 50-ohm termination and the
The system outlined at Fig. 23B also antenna during receive. This feature is
uses two relays, but the circuit is some especially useful when making sun-noise
what more sophisticated. Two transmission measurements to check system perfor-
lines are used, one for the receive line mance. For this measurement the antenna
and one for the transmit line. In addition, is directed toward the sun and the
a 50- ohm termination is provided. Since preamplifier is alternately switched between
rig. 22 — A newcomer to EME stands in awe relays with high isolation in the vhf/uhf the 50- ohm load and the antenna. The
of the K2UYH 28- foot dish. range are difficult and expensive to ob- dB difference can be recorded and used
Specialized Communications Systems 14-19
Fig. 25 — S..F.,:matic diagram of the preamplifier switching system. The diagram is divided into two parts; the top portion is for the circuitry at the
antenna and the bottom is that for use in the station.
DS1 — Neon indicator light with built-in Resistor built into a PL-259 connector. 117-V ac secondary, 15 VA. Stancor P-6411
dropping resistor. S1 — Toggle, spst. or equiv.
K1, K2 — At-coaxial relays suitable for the fre- S2 — Toggle, spdt. TB1-TB3, incl. — Terminal block, screw con-
quency range to be used. Ti — Isolation transformer, 117-V ac primary, nection, four terminals.
R1 — Termination, 50-ohms, noninductive.

as a reference when checking system im- RG-8 cable is acceptable for runs up to work on up through 432 MHz. Since many
provements. The complete circuit for this 100 feet at 144 MHz. contacts may require long, slow sending,
relay system is presented later in this It is important to get as much transmit- the transmitter/amplifier should have ade-
chapter. ter power as possible to the antenna. For quate cooling. An amplifier with some
As the preamplifier is mounted ahead this reason rigid or semirigid low-loss cable power to spare rather than an amplifier
of the transmission line to the receiver, is specified for the transmit line. running " flat out" is desirable. This is
a cable of mediocre performance can be especially important should ssb com-
used. The loss of the cable, as long as Transmitter Requirements
munication be attempted. An amplifier
it is within reason, will not add appreciably In many EME installations the antenna run all out on ssb will likely produce large
to the system noise figure. Information gain is not much above the minimum re- amounts of odd-order IMD products that
contained in the VHF/UHF Receiving quired for communications. It is highly fall within the band. While the splatter
chapter of this book explains how to likely that the maximum legal limit of produced will not affect your communica-
calculate system noise figures. Foam-type power will be required for successful EME tions, it will certainly affect that of others
14-20 Chapter 14
close in frequency! at the bottom center of the enclosure is
acommercial preamplifier. Power for the
Remote Preamplifier-Switching System preamplifier ( 12 V dc) is fed through the
The preamplifier- switching system de fourth wire of the four-wire cable that
scribed here is intended primarily for EME connects the two modules (tower and sta-
applications. Serious vhf and uhf operators tion) together. When all components are
may wish to consider similar systems for properly mounted, the chassis is sealed
terrestrial work, as a tower- mounted with silicone rubber (RTV). A terminal
preamplifier usually means a noticeable block provides for connection to the four-
reduction in system noise figure. The conductor cable. Two 0.01-µF capacitors
thoughts behind this system are outlined are mounted across the relay coils at ter-
in the previous section, entitled Receiver minal block TB3.
Requirements. The station circuitry is mounted in a
small aluminum cabinet. A neon indicator,
The Circuit on/off power and termination switch are
Fig. 26 — Interior view of the package that is
The relay-switching system is separated mounted at the antenna. The object at the bot- mounted to the front panel. The fuse and
into two parts. One section is mounted tom center of the chassis is a commercial interconnection terminal blocks TBI and
preamplifier.
at the tower, and the other, the control TB2 are mounted on the rear apron. Com-
circuitry and power supply, is mounted ponent layout is not at all critical.
at the station. A length of four-conductor, the station is essentially a power supply
and control circuitry. A line- isolation Additional Thoughts
TW-rotator cable can be used to connect
the two units. The package that is mounted transformer is used to power the 117-volt Although the circuit described here per-
at the tower consists of two rf coaxial relay coils. S2 controls the action of K2, formed flawlessly for many months, one
relays and a preamplifier. The schematic which is either connected in parallel with change might be considered by the pro-
diagram is shown in Fig. 25. As can be K Iin the ANTENNA position, or activated spective builder. The change would in-
seen, K1 is used to switch the antenna separately for the TERMINATION position. volve rewiring the relays so that the
between the transmit line and a line that A pilot light, fuse and ON/OFF switch are preamplifier would be automatically
connects with K2. K2 switches the provided in this design. switched into the termination when the
preamplifier to either the antenna or to system is de-energized. This would protect
a50-ohm termination. Two relays provide Construction the preamplifier from static or nearby light-
more than adequate isolation between the The items to be mounted at the tower ning strikes. As the circuit is presently
preamplifier and the transmit line. Addi- are enclosed in an ordinary chassis and shown, the preamplifier will remain con-
tionally, K2 can be switched between the bottom plate assembly. A photograph, nected to the antenna when the power
antenna and the termination independent- shown in Fig. 26, indicates the general is switched off. Although no damage has
ly of K 1 . This allows for sun-noise layout. Short lead lengths are used occurred to the preamplifier used by the
measurements when the system is in the throughout. Bulkhead uhf feedthrough author, some GaAS FET amplifiers may
receive mode. connectors are used to ensure an rf- and not be able to tolerate the voltage levels
The portion of the system mounted at water- tight enclosure. The item shown produced by nearby lightning storms.

Microwave Communications
Much attention has been given to is at the transition from uhf to microwave but continue to be in common U.S. usage
Amateur Radio communications from hf technology. Some commercially produced for microwave and radar. These old radar
through 450 MHz. There is a wealth of transceivers, repeaters and power designators are shown in Table 4along with
amateur-designed and commercial equip- amplifiers are now available. Also, the current official U.S. Department of
ment to cover this part of the spectrum. numerous construction projects for 23-cm Defense letter designators for microwave
Microwaves, or frequencies above 1GHz, equipment have appeared in the North bands. The inclusion of thew. designators
are very much the province of the American and European Amateur Radio does not signify ARRL adoption but is
experimenter. periodicals. This band is attractive not only done to help you understand references to
The 1215- to I300-MHz (or 23-cm) band for its terrestrial line-of-sight and long- these letters in trade literature and surplus
distance communications but will be useful catalogs.
for space communications. There is also
More Information
current amateur interest in the 10.0- to
Table 10 10.5 -GHz (3-cm) band, primarily because In addition to the ARRL, the following
Amateur Microwave Bands in Frequency of the availability of equipment incor- organizations are sources of additional in-
and Wavelength with Old and New U.S. porating the Gunn diode, as described in formation on amateur microwave
Radar Designators this chapter. communications:
Frequency Meter Old Radar Official Central States VHF Society, annual
Band (GHz) Band Designator DoD Band Band Designations conference, T. P. Mathewson, W4FJ,
Designator
In addition to using the frequency range 1525 Sunset La. Richmond, VA
1.215-1.3 23 cm 23221.
to connote a given microwave band,
2.3-2.45 13 S E
3.3-3.5 9 S amateurs also often use the approximate The Lunar Letter Magazine, monthly ($ 12),
5.65-5.925 5 C G metric wavelength, such as 23 cm for the 312 12th Ave. South, Nampa, Ill
10-10.5 3 X 1215- to 1300- MHz band. In addition, 83651.
24-24.25 12 mm Mt. Airy VHF Radio Club (Pack Rats),
some amateurs use letter designators, such
48-50 6 V
71-76 4 as "L-band," which originated in the monthly newsletter Cheese Bits
1940s. They have been declared — obsolete — ($2.50/year), Harry B. Stein, SIOC1_,
Specialized Communications Systems 14-21
 Editor, 2087 Parkdale Ave. Glenside, The Gunnplexer is most often used in
PA 19038. wide-band fm systems and is ideal for
Radio Society of Great Britain, Cranborne audio, full-color video and data transfer.
Rd. Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 With suitable peripheral equipment, sys-
3JW, United Kingdom. tems for full-duplex audio, color video and
Southern California Repeater and Remote up to several megabit data transfer are pos-
Base Association ( SCRRBA), P.O. Box sible. Such high data rates should allow di-
5967, Pasadena, CA 91107. rect computer-to-computer memory trans-
W6GD UHF Society, West Coast fer that would not be practical (or legal) on
VHF/UHF Conference, P.O. Box other lower-frequency amateur bands.
4104, Fremont, CA 94539. Communications at 10 GHz is normally
limited to line-of-sight or slightly extended
Selected Microwave Bibliography paths although several other forms of
Dana Atchley, W1CF, " Microwave propagation exist. Several of these are
Drawing Symbols," QST, March shown in Fig. 28. A combination of
1979, p. 39. Fig. 27 — View of the Microwave Associates propagation modes has allowed the
Bob Atkins, KA1GT. QST: Gunnplexer. A protective resistor and diode are Italians to set the world distance record at
connected from the detector output to ground. 476 miles (767 km). It is anticipated that
"Rf Connectors," September 1982,
A 50-pF electrolytic capacitor is connected
p. 67. from the Gunn diode terminal to ground. The most communications will occur over line-
"Microstrip Impedance and Wavelength Gunnplexer is designed to mate a UG-39/U of-sight paths and information is included
Program," December 1981, p. 88; waveguide flange when the horn antenna is in afollowing section on how to calculate
removed. expected signal levels taking path loss into
Feedback: April 1982, p. 71.
"Amateur Microwave Spectrum Allo- account.
cations," July 1981, p. 72. K = 4/3 The Gunnplexer, or microwave hard-
"Aiming Microwave Antennas," June ware portion of the communication
1981, p. 60. system, can be tower mounted, provided
"Microwave Matching Techniques," it is enclosed in aweather-tight enclosure.
April 1981, p. 73. Shielded cable, such as RG-58/U, can be
"Estimating Microwave System Perfor- TRUE EARTH CURVATURE used between the Gunnplexer and the
mance," December 1980, p. 74; Atmosphere Refraction "electronics," which may be mounted in-
February 1981, p. 63. K 4/3 Normal, bends slightly less than earth side at some convenient location. In many
(extends horizon)
"Simple Microwave Video," March K = 2/3 Inverse, bends toward earth cases the tower mounting will be man-
1980, p. 71. K = 1 Straight line datory in order to provide a reasonable
K = 0, Infinity, follows earth exactly (super
Cliff Buttschardt, W6HDO, " Microwave refraction) line-of-sight path. Trees (with leaves)
Bibliography," Ham Radio, January make excellent microwave absorbers!
1978, pp. 68-71.
James R. Fisk, W1HR. Ham Radio: The Gunnplexer
"Microstrip Transmission Line," The heart of the Gunnplexer is aGunn
January 1978, pp. 28-37. diode oscillator, named after its inventor,
Elevated Duct
"A Second Look," March 1977, p. 4. John Gunn of IBM. A more detailed dis-
1. Radio Beam is trapped between interfaces of
J. R. Jessop, VHF/UHF Manual, Radio stratified atmosphere. cussion of the Gunn diode is presented in
Society of Great Britain, 1983. 2. Once again signals stronger than normal since Chapter 4. Refer to the cut-away drawing
duct acts as low loss waveguide.
Geoffrey H. Krauss, WA2GFP, " First 3. Infrequent occurrence — beacons are useful for of the Gunnplexer, Fig. 29, for the follow-
detection of such conditions.
Building Blocks for Microwave ing discussion. The Gunn diode is
Systems," Ham Radio, December mounted with avaractor diode in areso-
1980, pp. 52-62. nant cavity. When a regulated voltage is
Daniel N. Peterson, WA60IL, " The Care applied to the Gunn diode it oscillates and
and Feeding of Gunnplexers," QST, the frequency of oscillation is determined
April 1983, pp. 14-18. by the capacitance of the varactor diode
H. Paul Shuch, WA6UAM, " Solid State and two mechanical tuning screws. The
Surface Ducting
Microwave Amplifier Design," Ham 1. Ray is bent to follow earth curvature by either mechanical tuning screws can be likened
Radio, October 1976, pp. 40-47; Feed- a rapid increase of temperature and/or decrease to coarse tuning controls and are factory
of water vapor with heights.
back: September 1977, p. 98. 2. Signals can be MUCH stronger than normal path. set for the appropriate tuning range. The
3. Surface ducting occurs over water or desert areas.
Robert C. Wilson, KL7ISA, " Wire Line — voltage applied to the varactor diode ( 1to
A New and Easy Method of Microwave 20 V dc) tunes the frequency electronically
Fig. 28 — Signal propagation on 10 GHz can
Construction," QST, July 1981, aminimum of 60 MHz. Power is coupled
take any of the several forms outlined here.
pp. 21-22. Extended horizon propagation ( K = 4/3) will out of the cavity through a small iris
Current information about microwave be the form most often encountered. which has been designed as somewhat of a
topics can be found in the following compromise between maximum power
columns: output and isolation from changes in
"The New Frontier," QST, ARRL. with the advent of the Microwave Asso- diode impedance and load.
"VHF+ Technology," QEX — The ciates GunnplexerTM transceivers. It is in- The Gunn oscillator is also used to pro-
ARRL Experimenters' Exchange. teresting to note that a similar com- vide the local oscillator signal for the
"Microwaves," Radio Communication, munications system as little as 10 years detector diode. A ferrite circulator
Radio Society of Great Britain. ago would have required, literally, arack couples an appropriate amount of energy
full of equipment. The Gunnplexer trans- into the low-noise Schottky mixer diode
ceiver will fit conveniently in your hand and isolates the transmitter and receiver.
10-
GHz GUNNPLEXER and is operated from a single 12-volt As the Gunn oscillator functions as both
COMMUNICATIONS power supply, either ac line operated or the transmitter and the receiver local
Communications on the amateur batteries! This makes the Gunnplexer oscillator, the i-fat each end must be at
10-GHz band has been simplified greatly ideal for fixed or portable operation. the same frequency. Furthermore, the fre-
14-22 Chapter 14
 Table 11
Gunnplexer Specifications @ TA = 25° C
Electrical Characteristics
RF Center Frequency 10.250 GHz'
Tuning
Mechanical ± 50 MHz
Electronic 60 MHz min.
Linearity 1to 40%
Frequency Stability —350 kHz/°C max.
RF Power vs
Temperature and
Tuning Voltage 6 dB max.
Frequency Pushing 15 MHz/V max.
Input Requirements
DC GUNN Voltage
Range + 8.0 to + 10.0-V/dc'
Maximum Operating
Current 500 mA
Fig. 29 — Drawing of the Gunnplexer assembly. The Gunn oscillator assembly consists of a reso- Tuning Voltage +1to + 20 volts
nant cavity in which is mounted the Gunn diode and varactor diode. The cylinders contain the Noise Figure' <12 dB
quarter-wave choke sections, which connect to the diodes. The Gunn oscillator assembly bolts to RF Output Power'
the mixer assembly, which contains the detector diode and ferrite circulator. A horn antenna bolts Model P out (m W)
to the front of the mixer assembly. ( Reproduced with permission from Ham Radio Magazine,
MA87141-1 10 min. 15 typ.
January 1979.)
MA87141-2 20 min. 25 typ.
MA87141-3 35 min. 40 typ.

NOTES:
'Tuning voltage set at 4.0 volts.
'Operating voltage specified within this range
quencies of the Gunnplexers must be such as video or data transfer. However, on each unit.
separated by the i -f. This is illustrated in for relatively narrowband audio work (200 '1.5 dB i-
fNF at 30 MHz.
Fig. 30. Intermediate frequencies of 30 kHz and less) some form of afc, phase lock
MHz are more or less standard for audio or other frequency control scheme is re-
work in the U.S. Both 45 and 70 MHz are quired. In most cases simple afc circuitry
used for video and high-speed data work. is sufficient and quite easy to implement.
As can be seen from Fig. 30, the Gunn- The electrical characteristics of the vative estimate as most Gunnplexers
plexer communications system is full Gunnplexer are given in Table 11. generate several decibels of power in ex-
duplex. In other words, both parties can cess of their rating. For range calculation
talk and listen at the same time, without Communications Range the power is expressed in dBm and is
throwing any switches. This is something The effective communications range of calculated as follows:
that may take a while to get used to as a Gunnplexer system depends on a dBm = 10 log P(mW)
most amateurs are programmed for VOX number of factors, including transmitter where P is the power output.
or PTT operation. In short, it is the power, path loss, receiver noise figure, Since most communications will occur
ultimate break-in system! receiver bandwidth, antenna gain and over aline-of-sight path, the expected at-
One detail of the Gunnplexer that does desired carrier-to-noise ratio. tenuation of signal strength can be readily
require some specific attention is fre- Power output from the Gunnplexer can calculated as follows:
quency control. The Gunnplexer has afre- be measured by using a waveguide-to-
quency stability specification of — 350 kHz coax transition and apower meter. If this dB = 92.5 dB + 20 log f(GHz)
frequency change per degree Celcius in- equipment is not available the power + 20 log D ( kilometers)
crease. This does not pose much of apro- rating of the Gunnplexer can be used. In dB = 96.6 dB + 20 log f(GHz)
blem with wide-bandwidth applications most cases this will represent a conser- + 20 log D (miles)

Fig. 30 — This drawing depicts a Giirinplexer communications system running full duplex. The VCOs are offset by the desired i
-f, which in this case
is 30 MHz.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-23

 Alternatively, the distance separation can
DISTANCE VS. CARRIER TO NOISE RATIO
be specified and the resulting carrier-to-
noise ratio can be computed. The latter
I- F SW. 200 MHz
90
FOR 15 kHz I- F ADD 11 dB technique will be illustrated.
80
TO C/N RATIO ( ENI. -120 dElm) To make the communication range cal-
NF=12013 culation it is necessary to take into ac-
70 Tx POWER . 15 mW (+ 11d8m)
count the power, system gains and system
60
Rx ENI - 109 dBrn
losses. For ahypothetical link assume the
o * USEFUL FM THRESHOLD . 10dB C/N following: transmitter power 15 mW,
50
o t
4' DISHES- 38dB EACH
transmitter and receiver antenna gain 17
cc 40 dBi, 10 mile path, 12-dB receiver noise
30 figure and 200-kHz receiver bandwidth.
Calculation is as follows:
20
2' DISHES - 32dB EACH
10 HORNS Individual System
Item Total
o
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 Transmitter power
DISTANCE ( MILES) 15 mW + 11.8 dBm + 11.8 dBm
Transmitter
antenna gain + 17 dB + 28.8 dBm
Fig. 31 — This graph shows distance vs. carrier- to- noise ratio. Path loss 5 miles — 130.8 dB — 102 dBm
Receiver antenna
gain + 17 dB — 85 dBm
Receiver noise
where fis the operating frequency and D Two final factors are required for com- figure — 12 dB — 97 dBm
munication range calculation. These are Receiver
is the distance between sites. From these
bandwidth factor — 23 dB — 120 dBm
equations it can be seen that the first the thermal noise floor and the carrier-to-
kilometer of station separation will yield noise ratio. The thermal noise floor is Thermal noise
112.7 dB. Note that each time the distance — 144 dBm and is set by the laws of floor — 144 dBm
is doubled the path loss increases by only nature and in fact determines the ultimate Carrier-to- noise
6 dB. For example, two-mile separation sensitivity of receivers. A discussion of ratio + 24 dB

would be 122.8-dB loss and four-mile this factor is presented in Chapter 9.

separation would be 128.8-dB path loss. When the effective communications range
Unless sophisticated equipment is is being calculated, the carrier-to- noise A similar calculation could be made with a
available to measure the receiver noise ratio can be chosen and the resulting specified carrier-to-noise ratio, obtaining
figure, the manufacturer's specification distance between the stations computed. distance as the result.
must be used. In most cases the 12 dB
figure turns out to be a conservative
number as long as a good low-noise i -
f
receiver is used. The receiver bandwidth
factor can be calculated as follows:

dB = 10 log R
— WkHz

where BW is the receiver bandwidth. A

chart of various receiver bandwidth factors
is given in Table 12.
Antenna gain is aknown quantity. The
horn antennas supplied with the Gunn-
plexers are rated for 17 dBi. Optional
2- foot parabolic antennas have 32 dBi and
4-foot dishes have 38 dBi. Remember to
consider antenna gain at each end of the
link.

Table 12
Bandwidth Fazlors for Microwave
Range Calculations (see text)
Bandwidth Attenuation (dB)
30 ME* 44.8
15 hlriz 41.8
10 MHz 40
5 MHz 37
1MHz 30
:=C3 kHz 27
kHz 23
100 kHz 20
50 kHz 17
25 kHz 14
10 kHz 10 Fig. 32 — Here is a complete " bare minimum" communications system using the Gunnplexer
5 kHz 7 transceivers. An inexpensive automobile fm converter or receiver is used for the receiver i
-f. A
2 kHz 3 7810 voltage regulator is used for the Gunn diode supply and a simple 741 op amp serves as the
microphone stage. The frequency of operation is set by the potentiometer that biases the varactor
diode. A 10-turn potentiometer provides a comfortable tuning rate.

14-24 Chapter 14
 There are several methods for increas-
ing the distance of effective communica-
tions using Gunnplexer transceivers. In
general these are: higher power transmit-
ter, higher gain antennas, lower noise
receiver and narrower bandwidth receiver.
The receiver noise figure is limited prin-
cipally by the noise figure obtainable from
the detector diode (assuming the i -fdoes
not add appreciable noise to the system).
Significant reduction in noise figure is not
likely with currently manufactured de-
vices. Narrowing the receiver bandwidth
to less than 200 kHz for audio work will
require crystal or phase-locking techni-
ques to keep the two units " locked up."
Although these systems are not particular-
ly difficult to build and make operational,
they are somewhat more involved than
simple afc techniques.
The largest increases in distances can be
achieved with higher power and larger
antennas. Gunnplexers are manufactured
with power options of 10, 20 and 35 mW.
The 35-mW version represents a 5.44-dB
increase over the 10-mW unit. Perhaps the
easiest way to obtain asubstantial amount
of system gain is with alarger antenna. As
mentioned earlier, a 2- foot parabolic
antenna has 32-dBi gain as compared to
the 17-dBi horn supplied with the Gunn-
plexer. That is a 15-dB increase. If 2- foot
dishes are used at each end of the link a
total gain of 30 dB will be realized over the
17-dB horns! Fig. 31 illustrates how the
additional gain of these antennas increases
system performance. The use of 2- foot
dish antennas places a stringent require-
ment on antenna alignment as these
antennas have half-power beamwidths of
4degrees.

Bare Minimum
Audio Communications System
The simplest of communications sys-
tems using the Gunnplexer transceivers
can be formed with two 88- to 108-MHz
fm receivers, two Gunnplexers, two
microphones and associated amplifiers,
and two sources of 12 V dc. A diagram of
Fig. 33 — Interconnection diagram for the high-performance audio Gunnplexer communications
such asystem is shown in Fig. 32. Some of system.
the low-cost fm converters and receivers
for automotive use make good i -fstrips
for this communications system. The afc
signal developed in the converter or tune the Gunnplexers over quite a range oped by Advanced Receiver Research,'
receiver can be routed to the Gunnplexer with the varactor diode tuning, it is possi- Burlington, Connecticut, and is sold as an
varactor diode to lock the two units ble to tune them on either side of each amateur/commercial product. The infor-
together. The microphone amplifier can other. This means that the single polarity mation is included here for those who
be a single 741 operational amplifier as afc system in the receiver or converter will wish to construct their own system.
shown in the diagram. work for only one combination. If the This Gunnplexer support system has
There are two shortcomings with this units are operated so that the afc polarity been specifically designed for use with the
system. The first involves the use of the is incorrect, the afc will push the received Microwave Associates Gunnplexers. The
fm broadcast band as the i -f. If mountain- signal out of the receiver passband. If this board contains a complete 30-MHz fm
top DXing is planned, it is likely that happens, simply tune the two Gunnplex- receiver, diode-switched i -ffilters, dual-
strong fm broadcast stations will be re- ers to produce the " other" i -
fsignal. Afc polarity afc system, Gunn-diode regulator
ceived no matter how short the lead be- lock should then be obtained. and modulators for phone and cw. The
tween the detector and the fm converter or system is suitable for fixed, portable or
receiver is made. It will be necessary to A High-Performance mobile operation. Power-supply re.
select that part of the band where there Audio Communications System
are no strong signals present. The second The high-performance Gunnplexer 'Advanced Receiver Research, Box 1242
item involves afc. Since it is possible to audio system described here was devel- Burlington, CT 06013, tel. 203-584-0776.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-25

 150
82k

21
FL1
001

001
001
220

47k
RFC1
02
35204
01 MIXER 15914 0.01
001
35204 2200
RF AMP
5pF
CA
2- 20 pF )1
_LCC
I- F T 43 [IF
7"--2- F
INPUT
10pF
)
P
L3
30 MHz

DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE 3900

ARE IN MICROFAR ADS » F ): OTHERS ARE
IN PICOFAR ADS ( pF OR »» FI; RESISTANCES
r— —
L2
ARE IN OHMS; h 2 1000
— —
(000 1000

RFC 2 RFC 3

47

001

47k 100
2
225y
vF
RA 10h
CW LEVEL 2500
11
10k
L6

22 pF
01

0.1
15
)
47k
H- 04
555
15
001
407
MHz 3300

470 I- 27 pF

4 2
001
MICROPHONE MICROPHONE GAIN
/ / / /
INPUT

Fig. 34 — Schematic diagram of the high-performance audio communications system. All ca pacitors specified in picofarads are silver mica. DM5
variety. All resistors are quarter-watt film types.
FL1 — Mi.rata SFJ10. 7 mA, 10.7 MHz. L4, L5 — 25 turns no. 30 enam. wire on a RFC2, RFC3 — 10 turns no. 28 enam. wire on
L1 — 25 tens no. 30 enam. wire on a T25-10 T25-20 core. an FT23-72 core.
core. L6 — 16 turns no. 28 enam. wire on a RFC4 — 11 turns no. 28 enam. on an FT23-43
L2, L3 — 13 turns no. 28 enam. wire on a T25-6 T25-10 core. core.
core. RFC1 — 10 turns no. 28 enam. wire on an Y1 — 40.7 MHz, third overtone.
FT23-43 core.

quirements are a nominal 13 volts at 250 Fig. 33. Signal energy arriving at the i
-fin- diode-switched ceramic filters. Supply
mA (this includes the current drawn by put (pins 24 and 25) is routed to QI, a voltage applied to pin 23 selects FL1 (sup-
the Gunnplexer assembly). The circuit is low-noise rf amplifier. A band-pass filter, plied) and supply voltage applied to pin 22
specified for operation over the tempera- with a 3-dB bandwidth of 2 MHz, is selects FL2 (optional). Output from the
ture range — 25 to + 65° C. located between the rf amplifier and filter is fed to i -f amplifier state Q3.
mixer, Q2. LO injection for the mixer is Amplified 10.7-MHz energy is routed to
Theory of Operation provided by acrystal controlled 40.7-MHz the fm subsystem chip, U I , a CA3189E.
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 34, oscillator stage. Output from the mixer, at Detected audio passes through an af gain
and an interconnection wiring guide in 10.7 MHz, is applied to either of two control (pins 16, 17 and 18) to U2, the
14-26 Chapter 14
 L5

§ 82k
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OUTPUT OUTPUT INPUT VOLTAGE

audio output amplifier. This stage has suf- minal of the Gunnplexer. USD functions for mcw operation. Voice and mcw infor-
ficient power to drive headphones and/or as a meter driver for center tune mation is applied to the varactor of the
aspeaker. Squelch control is available by (discriminator zero) and manual tuning Gunnplexer along with the AFC/tuning
USA. USB inverts the amplified afc signal voltage indication. Input to the driver is voltage. U6 is a three-terminal positive
so that either polarity afc may be selected selected by SI. voltage regulator that provides an ac-
by S3. Overall afc gain is controlled by R. U3 is amicrophone amplifier boosting curate 10-volt supply for the Gunn diode.
USC sums the afc information along with the output from a microphone to a level A IN4001 diode is included to protect
the manual tuning voltage and this com- suitable for modulating the Gunnplexer. against inadvertent application of reverse-
posite signal is applied to the varactor ter- U4 generates an approximate 500- Hz tone polarity voltage.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-27

 The Gunnplexer system is capable of and — afc positions, adjust Rb so that the
It is advisable to mount the board in a
well-shielded enclosure since the receiver complete duplex communications, so same meter reading is obtained in both the
is quite sensitive. The Gunnplexer unit can good separation between the microphone switch positions. This reading should be
be mounted ( atop atower) and connected and speaker is mandatory. The use of mid scale on the discriminator meter.
to the board through three lengths of headphones for this type of communica- 7) Reconnect the signal generator to
coaxial cable. Although the Gunn diode tions is generally advisable. the input and center the signal in the
and varactor line carry only dc and low- receiver passband.
Alignment 8) While switching Si between the afc
level audio signals, shielded cable is a
must as even small voltage pickups can 1) Connect a signal generator capable on and off positions, adjust Cd so that the
produce relatively large modulating of delivering a30-MHz signal to the i
-fin- same meter reading is obtained for both
voltages (which are undesirable). In cases put connection. positions. This reading should be mid
of severe pickup, small rf chokes may be 2) Adjust the output level of the scale on the discriminator meter.
required directly at the Gunnplexer Gunn generator to a point where the signal 9) Adjust Ft, for the desired afc
diode and varactor connections of the strength meter just begins to move up gain/locking range by shifting the signal
Gunnplexer. Lengths of cable of up to scale. generator frequency away from the pass-
several hundred feet between the Gunn- 3) Adjust C a,Cb and C, for maximum band center.
plexer and the board have been used with indication on the meter. 10) It, is adjusted while in communcia-
no problems. For long i -fconnection runs 4) Temporarily disconnect the signal tion with another station. Advance the
it is desirable to install a 30- MHz generator from the input. level of this control to the point where
preamplifier at the Gunnplexer to prevent 5) Place SI in the discriminator posi- distortion occurs. Back off the setting of
the long cable run from adversely affec- tion. the control to the point where distortion is
ting the system noise figure. 6) While switching S3 between the + no longer present.

Amateur Television

Television is not exactly new to Amateur

Radio; enterprising amateurs have been
involved in this branch of the electronics A B C D

art for more than 50 years. QST began

carrying articles on TV in 1925. Those
early experiments used crude mechanical E F G H
methods. Nevertheless, radio amateurs
were transmitting pictures. As early as
1928 a QST author pointed out the
I J K L
possibility of electronic television. The days
of the motor-driven scanning disc were
numbered. Introduction of the moderate-
ly priced iconoscope in 1940 made elec- Fig. 35 — A picture can be described by
tronic television apractical reality for the dividing it into parts and then describing the Fig. 36 — Bandwidth is conserved by scanning
amateur. By 1960, amateurs were trans- parts. even and odd lines in alternate fields.

mitting color-TV signals.

FAST- SCAN TELEVISION

A standard television channel occupies ment on its own channel. While that ap- of 12 squares. If the total area contained
about 70 07o more spectrum than is available proach would be extremely difficult to a picture, the scene could be described
to amateurs in the entire mf and hf ranges realize, it is also quite unnecessary. If by detailing the contents of the individual
combined. At 6 MHz wide, the standard light reaches the eye for a brief instant, squares in sequence. That is how tele-
TV signal would not even fit into any the eye responds, sending the information vision works. The difference is that there
of our vhf bands. For that reason, fast- to the brain. However, when the light are more than 12 squares to make up
scan TV (ATV) is permitted only on the stops, the eye continues to send to the a picture. A picture or " frame" in the
bands above 420 MHz, where the necessary brain for an additional fraction of a sec- NTSC ( National Technical Standards
bandwidth can be accommodated. ond. If you have ever experimented with Committee) television system used in the
astrobe light or viewed amotion picture, U.S. and Canada comprises 525 horizontal
How Television Works you should know that light does not have lines. A new frame is transmitted 30 times
As you are looking at this page, the to be continuous for the eye to perceive each second. Some people would see a
sensors in the back of your eyes are re- it as such. The fact that the eye " retains" flicker at that rate. Therefore, the picture
ceivinwreflected light from the page. The an image for a fraction of a second after area is scanned 60 times per second. Even
light rays are focused by the lens. These it has gone makes television possible. This and odd line numbers are scanned in alter-
sensors convert the optic energy to elec- retention of an image is called persistence. nate passes or " fields."
trical (nerve) energy, which is sent to the Persistence is also an important property Why complicate the system by scanning
brain. Each sensor is continuously send- of cathode-ray tubes used for displaying even numbered lines in one field and odd
ing information. The total picture is being images. in the next? The reason is bandwidth.
sent from the eye to the brain in parallel In television, the picture is presented It would require twice the bandwidth to
fashion. to the viewer in asequential manner. The scan every line 60 times per second.
The scene before a TV camera could repetition rate is rapid enough so that Scanning of field 1begins in the upper
also be treated as a large number of pic- there is no apparent flicker. In Fig. 35, left corner, as shown in Fig. 36. (This
ture elements to be transmitted, each ele- an area has been divided into a mosaic is actually line 22 of field 1, as will be

14-28 Chapter 14
 ceded and followed by 6equalizing pulses\
The equalizing pulses are twice the frel
quency and approximately half the dura-
tion of horizontal sync pulses (2equaliz-
ing pulses per line). The equalizing pulses
ensure that there is always apulse to lock
the horizontal sweep to at the beginning
of each line. Line 1 of field 1 begins
at the first equalizing pulse and vertical
sync occurs at line 4. In field 2, line 1
begins at the second equalizing pulse and
vertical sync starts at line 3-1/2. This
Fig. 37 — Waveform of aTV line showing creates the 1/2-line offset that generates
horizontal sync pulses. (
Facilities courtesy of the interlaced scanning pattern shown in
ESPN, The Entertainment and Sports Program- Fig. 36. The vertical sync pulse has a
ming Network, Inc., a subsidiary of Getty Oil
duration of 3 line times and is 'slotted
Company)
or serrated at the end of each half-line time.
Blanking is an intensity voltage level
that is " blacker than black." While the
sync pulses keep the scanning beams at
the transmitting and receiving ends in step,
explained later.) The scanning beam moves the blanking levels are used to " turn off"
across the picture to the right side and the scanning beam during the time that
then is rapidly returned to the left side. it is moving from right to left and from
In the meantime, the beam has moved bottom to top. Horizontal blanking can
a bit down the screen. At the end of be seen in Fig. 37. Vertical blanking begins
262-1/2 lines the beam has reached the at the first equalizing pulse and continues
Fig. 38 — Vertical sync. Field 1Is shown at A,
bottom of the picture and it is then re- through line 21. Picture video begins on field 2at B. (
Facilities courtesy of ESPN)
turned to the top. Scanning of field 2 line 22.
begins at the top in the middle. Because In commercial TV the lines preceding
of this the scan lines of field 2 will fall 22 are used for various signals. Line 21
between the scan lilies of field 1. No pic- is digitally encoded closed captions for
ture information is transmitted during the the hearing impaired. Line 19 carries the
time the beam is moving right to left or vertical interval reference signal (VIR).
bottom to top. The VIR is used to automatically adjust
To ensure astable picture at the receiver, picture parameters in the TV receiver. Ver-
the scanning process at the transmitting tical interval test (VIT) signals are found
and receiving ends must be synchronized. on lines 17 and 18. There are a variety
Fig. 37 shows the pulses that are used of VIT signals; all are used to evaluate
to control the horizontal scan. They are picture transmission performance.
called horizontal sync pulses, and occur The various luminance levels in the pic-
once per line. A line is the time it takes ture are converted to voltage amplitudes.
for the beam to scan once across the pic- This can be seen in Fig. 39. The voltage
ture. Vertical scanning is controlled by that corresponds to white is highest.
Fig. 39 — A single line of the TV picture at A
vertical sync pulses, which can be seen However, when the picture is transmitted has its voltage waveform shown at B.
in Fig. 38. The vertical sync pulse is pre- (a-m for most systems), sync tip is peak (Facilities courtesy of ESPN)

FLUORESCENT
SCREEN

VERTICAL
FOCUSING ACCELERATING + DEFLECTION
ANODE ANODE \ PLATES
GRID

- -
7

ELECTRON BEAM
NEATER
, - - 1, - , _- -- - - -
,
' - f -
, ,
CATHODE

O HORIZONTAL
INTENSITY DEFLECTION
PLATES
B
FOCUS

Fig. 40 — Cathode ray tube using electrostatic deflection and focusing.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-29

Table 13
Standard Video Levels

°/.3 Peek
IEEE Units Envelope Power
Zero carrier 120
White 100 12.5
Black 7.5 50
Blanking 0 75
Sync peaks — 40 100

envelope power and white is minimum

power. It is easier to view anoisy picture
than one that does not hold sync.
The standard video level used at camera
outputs and modulator inputs is 1 volt
pk-pk. That is, the voltage difference be Fig. 41 — Electromagnetic focus is shown at A and deflection at B. Drawings show the physical
tween the sync tip and the whitest location of the windings.
(reference) white is 1 volt. This volt is
divided into 140 IEEE units. A television
used in oscilloscopes is shown in Fig. 40. control the deflection of the electron
waveform monitor has a graticule that
The heater and cathode supply a stream stream. In Fig. 40 the top vertical deflec-
is divided into IEEE units. Levels for
of electrons that is controlled by the grid. tion plate is positive with respect to the
the television waveform components are
Focus of the stream to a single point at bottom plate. Therefore, the negatively
given in Table 13.
the screen is realized by adjusting the charged electron stream is deflected up-
How a Picture Tube Works voltage on the focusing anode. Voltage ward. When the electrons strike the coating
A picture tube (CRT) similar to those differences between the deflection plates on the back of the screen there is aresulting

BLACK AND WHITE TV RECEIVER

45 MHz

CONVERTER
(MOUNTED NEAR ANTENNA)

MIXER

RF

AMP

VCO 45 MHz
TRAP

-̀leYr`

PICTURE
TUBE

.'",.. VERT
,HORIZ :7( SWEEP
SWEEP ..
1 COILS

f
REMOTE COILS
TUNING
60 Hz
V
CONTROL
. VERT

OSC
I SYNC PULSE
SEPARAT').

PWR ne

SUPPLY

Fig. 42 — An antenna, remotely tuned converter and a black-and-white TV set comprise the major components of the ATV receiving system

14-30 Chapter 14
fluorescence. Persistence and color of the
fluorescence will depend on the material TRANSPARENT CONDUCTIVE FILM

that coats the back of the screen.

Unlike an oscilloscope CRT, the modern PHOTORESISTIVE LAVER

TV picture tube uses electromagnetic PHOTOCONDUCTIVE MOSAIC

deflection and focus. This is illustrated LENS

in Fig. 41. Notice that the top and bottom

deflection coils are used to sweep the beam
horizontally. That is because they are
employing the magnetic rather than the
electric field.
04 :
Fig. 42 is a block diagram of an ATV
receiving station. For best results the con-
verter should be mounted near the anten-
na. Any TV set may be used after the
converter. o TARGET
VIDEO CONNECTION
What About Cameras? OUTPUT

Most TV cameras today employ a o

vidicon or one of its variations (Fig. 43).
Control of the electron scanning beam
Fig. 43 — Cross-sectional view of avidicon.
is under control of the various grids as
well as aset of focus and deflection coils
arranged around the tube. Electrostatic
focus or deflection or both may be used layer it shows a lower resistance, conse- typically splits light, by means of aprism,
in some tubes. Key to the operation of quently allowing electrons from the scan- into the three primary colors, RGB. A
avidicon is the target. Three layers com- ning beam to flow through the target. separate tube is used to detect each
prise this target. Video output voltage will be lowered ac- primary. The ROB outputs are combined
To understand how a vidicon works cordingly. Thus the signal to the first to give a luminance (brightness) signal,
consider what happens when there is no preamplifier stage has black more positive which is transmitted in the normal way.
light falling on the tube faceplate. With than white. While this is the sense in which In addition, difference signals are used
no light reaching the photoresistive layer, the picture will be transmitted, the picture to phase modulate a3.58-MHz subcarrier
it exhibits avery high resistance (around polarity will be inverted in the preamp. (actually 3,579,545 Hz) with the color,
50 MO). During the scan of the low- Except for transmission, white is usually or chroma, information. Eight cycles of
velocity electron beam, a charge is built represented by a voltage more positive the color subcarrier called the burst ore..
up on the photoconductive mosaic. Very than that of black. color burst are transmitted after horizontal •
little of this charge " leaks" through to sync during horizontal blanking (Fig. 37). .*
the target connection. The video output Color TV The color burst provides areference phase
voltage is very close to the supply voltage. Light contains three primary colors, red, that is used by the receiver during syn-
When light strikes the photoresistive green and blue (ROB). A color TV camera chronous demodulation of the color signal.

ELECTRON
-"---- BEAM

GI 02 03 04

SLOTTED PHOSPHOR
• APERTURE STRIPES
GRILL
B

CONVERGENCE

PLATES

(A)

•'•

Fig. 44 — Modern single-gun color picture tube. Earlier color CRTs employed three guns and a shadow mask. The advantage of the single gun type
of tube is that it is easier to converge. Convergence occurs when the RGB electron beams illuminate the same aperture in the slotted grill at the
same time. That ensures that the constituent parto of the color image ale aligned with one anotner.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-31

 RGB plus luminance signals are detected 420- MHz band. Actual frequencies in use
and are then used to control three separate vary from place to place. It is best to
electron beams (one per primary) in the determine locally which frequencies are
picture tube. A typical color picture tube used in your area.
can be seen in Fig. 44. In the 1983-84 Repeater Directory, 46
ATV repeaters were listed for the United
TV Sound States and Canada. These fell into two
In a regular TV channel, the sound categories — inband and crossband
is transmitted by fm on acarrier 4.5 MHz repeaters. The inband variety is the most
higher than the picture carrier ( Fig. 45). common; it has input and output in the
A separate transmitter can be used to same amateur band. A crossband repeater
generate the sound signal, but that re- allows the sending station to view the
quires a hard- to-build combiner or a sec transmitted signals. That makes it easier
ond antenna. It would be easy to frequen- to evaluate one's, signal and make ap-
cy modulate the visual carrier, but that propriate adjustments.
would require special circuitry for re- Vertically polarized antennas are pre-
ceiving. An alternative would be to ferred for repeater and mobile ATV opera-
generate an fm subcarrier at 4.5 MHz tion. In some localities horizontal polari-
and combine that with the picture infor- zation is used so that 432- MHz ssb, and
mation at the video modulator input. cw operation can be enjoyed without
Perhaps the easiest way to transmit TV switching antenna polarity. You will have
sound is to use an fm simplex channel to determine what the local practice is.
on another band. Yagi antennas are marginal performers
(B) In many areas a 2-meter fm simplex for ATV. However, satisfactory results
Fig. 45 — Frequency spectrum of a color TV
channel is used for ATV coordination. can be realized if the antenna is optimized
signal shown in diagram at A and in an off-air This helps minimize interference. Another for the video carrier frequency plus
spectrograph at B. Each vertical division in the signal 50 dB weaker can cause noticeable 1 MHz. Because of broader bandwidth,
photo represents 10 dB; horizontal divisions
interference to an ATV picture. When a quagi or collinear array would be a
are 1- MHz apart.
the ATV station is sending in-channel better choice.
sound, the receiving station can transmit
A color TV receiver is somewhat similar on the coordinating frequency; the result FSTV Circuits
to the set shown in Fig. 42. The major is full duplex sound — a most pleasant Home constructors can build the follow-
difference is in the video detection and benefit. Most CQ calls for ATV are heard ing modules, or they can be purchased
11‘ display. A simple envelope detector will on the coordinating frequency. from P. C. Electronics (see ARRL Parts
not do for color reception; the phase- Supplier List in Chapter 17). The receiving
encoded chroma information must be ex- Frequencies, Repeaters and Antennas converter shown in Fig. 46 is sensitive
tracted from the 3.58-MHz subcarrier. Most FSTV work is being done in the and selective, and it performs quite well,

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Fig. 46 — The circuit of the ATV receiving converter (TVC-1b) consists of a low-noise, high-gain rf
amplifier, a doubly balanced mixer and a varicap-tuned VCO. Remote tuning of the converter permits

E it to be mounted on the antenna if desired. Variable capacitors are Arco moo, 1-10 pF, or equiv. L1
consists of a horseshoe- shaped loop of no. 18 wire, 45-inches long and 0.75 inch wide. Loop ends
are soldered to a ground plane; a right-angle bend 0.5 inch from the grounded ends causes the rest
of the loop to be parallel to the ground plane. Taps are made 0.75 inch from the ends. L2 consists of
1-1/2 turns of no. 18 wire, 0.375- inch diameter, tapped at 0.5 inch from the lower end. L3 is a hairpin
loop, 0.5 inch across the bottom and 0.625 inch high. It is made with no. 18 bus wire.

14-32 Chapter 14
 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS IpF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS IpF OR » F);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
•I000, M.I 000000

Fig. 47 — Diagram of the ATV exciter (TX45). Variable capacitors are Arco 400, 1- to 10-pF, or equiv. All coils are wound from no. 24 bus wire,
using a 10-24 screw for a winding form. Coupled coil pairs are placed one wire diameter apart.

yet it is an example of simplicity. Perfor- found at two settings of C3, use the higher Higher settings of the bias control will
mance is enhanced by a commercially capacitance position. result in sync compression. While some
manufactured, doubly balanced mixer and An 80-mW FSTV exciter for the compression can be tolerated, too much
a voltage-controlled oscillator that is 420-MHz band is shown in Fig. 47. This will not allow the receiver to hold astable
remotely tuned by a 10-k9 potentiometer. amplitude-modulated rig was designed to picture.
The latter feature allows the converter drive a Motorola MHW 710-2 power A 4.5-MHz fm subcarrier input allows
to be mounted on the antenna or some module to 10 watts output. A fifth- transmission of standard TV sound along
location apart from the operating position. overtone crystal is used in the oscillator; with the picture. Fig. 48 is a diagram
The output signal may be fed to an this ensures that no harmonics fall in the of an ATV sound-subcarrier generator.
ordinary television set for viewing the pic- 2- meter band and disrupt reception of Dual audio inputs accommodate adynamic
ture and hearing the sound. No modifica- the coordinating frequency during duplex microphone and a high-level source, such
tion of the TV set is required. Therefore, operation. as video cassette recorder output.
the TV receiver may be used in the normal Rf stages can be tuned by peaking the No preemphasis is necessary. The audio
manner for home entertainment without emitter voltage of the following stage. response can be adjusted by substituting
any inconveniences. Set the video gain control for best picture. different values for CI.
To align the converter, tune the TV The modulator bias potentiometer con- The level adjust potentiometer..should
set to a channel that is not used in your trols the sync- tip clamp level and, be set so that the sound subcarrier is about
area (2, 3 or 4). With no power applied therefore, the peak envelope output power. 10-dB below the video carrier. This cor-
to the converter, adjust the set fine tuning With no video applied, set the bias control responds roughly to the midpoint of the
for minimum interference. Then apply for no more than 10 watts out of the control or 0.5 V pk-pk. Too much injec-
power and tune the converter across the MHW 710-2 power module. When the tion will give a beat pattern in a color
band to locate a nearby ATV station. exciter is transmitting pictures, the power picture; not enough will give degraded
Adjust C 1and C2 for maximum signal. meter will read lower. This is normal; sound performance.
Set the frequency- adjust potentiometer for it is caused by the change in picture levels. Connect a frequency counter to the
4 volts on the wiper. Use an insulated Clamping will maintain a constant sync generator output. Adjust the 18-µF1 in-
tool to carcfully adjust C3 to tune in level and ensure faithful tonal reproduc- ductor for asubcarrier frequency of 4.500
the ATV signal again. If the signal is tion in the picture. MHz ± 10 kHz.
Specialized Communications Systems 14-33
 MIKE AMP SOFT
4 5 MHz BUFFER

LiMITER
OSC
470 pF

+8V
o
DYNAMIC MIKE
504 1000
=200 OHMS

1000 MIKE GAIN

10pF 1000

v-)
0 01 IN 751
51v
/— 7 /4_7
M52115 TO
100 F VM- 3 OR FM- 45
TUNE 4V 4 5M1-1/ FM
YQ
47k 1N 914 470 OUTPUT
4 500 ,
11
18 V. 470 .25 kHz OE V
MHz /
LINE IN NOMINA,_ LE VEL o
01 TO 2 Vp-p 23422SRPC
10k 01 22 h AC J
-E.
14
GAIN

Fig. 48 — This ATV sound-subCarrier generator ( FM-A5) permits both voice and video to be transmitted. U1 is either a Motorola MC1458 CP1 or
Raytheon RC4558DN operational amplifier.

In the completed installation a coaxial

441%relay can be used for antenna switching. Table 14
A set of auxiliary contacts on that relay Amateur Slow-Sean Standards
should be used to switch power to the 60- Hz Areas 50- Hz Areas
various modules for transmit and receive. Sweep Rates:
Horizontal 15 Hz 16 2/3 Hz
FSTV Station Identification (60 Hz/4) 50 Hz/3)
As of June 15, 1983, the FCC dis- Vertical 8 sec. 7.2 sec.
No. of Scanning
continued the requirement for FSTV sta-
Lines 120 120
tions to identify by cw or voice, thus per- Aspect Ratio 1:1 1:1
mitting FSTV stations to identify by video. Direction of Scan:
Please note that this applies only to Horizontal Lt to Rt Lt to Rt
Vertical Top to Bot. Top to Bot.
transmissions employing U.S. 525- line
Sync Pulse Duration:
standards, legally " those which conform, Horizontal 5 millisec. 5 millisec.
at a minimum, to the monochrome Vertical 30 millisec 30 millisec.
transmission standards of Section Subcarrier Freq.:
Sync 1200 Hz 1200 Hz Fig. 49 — A typical slow -
scan TV picture.
73.682(a)(6) through Section 73.682(a)(13),
Black 1500 Hz 1500 Hz
inclusive ( with the exception of Section White 2300 Hz 2300 Hz
73.682(a)(9)(iii) and Section 73.682(a) Req. Trans.
1.0-2.5 kHz
a good signal on ssb can be 'worked via
(9)(iv)." The FCC also requires that the Bandwidth 1.0-2.5 kHz
slow scan. Many DX stations are now
characters be " readily legible." It follows
equipped for picture transmission, and
that ATV operators should use an ordinary
more than one amateur has worked over
type style for identification and make their
100 countries on SSTV!
call signs cover enough of the screen to be
bic. ( However, aform of image transmis- The signal that comes out of an SSTV
readable even under weak- signal
sion called medium-scan television (
MSTV) camera is avariable- frequency audio tone
conditions.
allows limited motion in a fairly narrow — high tones for bright areas and low
bandwidth. Don Miller, W9NTP, and tones for dark. To send SSTV over the
SLOW- SCAN TELEVISION others are experimenting with MSTV on air, you just feed this tone into the
Fast-scan TV signals take up more than the 10-meter band under special temporary microphone jack of any ssb transmitter.
5 MHz of bandwidth. Since this is more authority from FCC). If FSTV is analogous (SSTV on double sideband a- m or fm
kHz than in all the amateur bands below to watching home movies by radio, then is illegal on the hf bands.) To receive,
6 meters, it is obvious that if we want SSTV resembles a photographic slide you tune in the signal on an ssb receiver
to work TV-DX on the hf bands we will shown on the air. In addition, SSTV pic- and feed the audio into the SSTV monitor.
have to modify the TV signal a bit. ture definition is four times coarser than All you need to get started is an ssb
Slow-scan TV (SSTV) is, just as its name fast- scan TV. Table 14 summarizes the station, a monitor (the slow-scan " TV"
implies, a TV signal with a very slow video SSTV format used by amateurs. set") and a camera. You don't even need
scan rate. While a regular fast-scan TV But these disadvantages are more than the camera if you already have a tape
signal produces 30 frames per second, it balanced by the fact that SSTV can be recorder.
takes eight seconds to send once SSTV used in any amateur phone band above Recent advances have led to the develop-
frame. Thus, motion pictures are impossi- 3.5 MHz. Anyone you can work with ment of fast-scan converters. On receive,
14-34 Chapter 14
such adevice converts the incoming audio brightness and the 1200-Hz synchroniza- is taken. If you want to do this without
to asignal that is usable by aconventional tion pulses will be detected. If the signal darkening the room lights, you'll have
fast-scan video monitor. Similarly, on is not "in sync," the picture will appear to fabricate a light-tight hood to fit be-
transmit the converter changes the output wildly skewed. The easiest way to tune tween the camera and the monitor screen.
of afast-scan camera to astandard slow- SSTV is to wait for the transmitting On SSTV, FCC rules require that iden-
scan signal. operator to say something on voice and tification be made by voice or cw. Sending
SSTV may be used by amateurs holding then tune him in while he is talking. With "This is WAOXYZ" on the screen is not
a General class license or above in their experience you may find you are able sufficient. Most stations intersperse the
respective hf voice segments, and by to zero in on an SSTV signal by listening pictures with comments anyway, so voice
Technician-class licensees or above in the to the sync pulses and by watching for i-dis not much of aproblem. Otherwise,
voice bands above 50 MHz. The following proper synchronization on the screen. SSTV operating procedures are quite
SSTV operating frequencies have been Many SSTV monitors are equipped with similar to those used on ssb.
recommended by AS magazine: tuning aids of various kinds. As with RTTY, the station transmitter
If you want to record slow-scan pic- must be tuned for 100-percent duty cycle,
75 meters — 3.990- 4.000 MHz tures off the air, there are two ways of since the SSTV emission is a constant
40 meters — 7.290- 7.300 MHz doing it. One is to tape record the audio tone. Only the frequency is changing.
20 meters — 14.340-14.350 MHz signal for playback later. The other is For more information about amateur
15 meters — 2I .440-21.450 MHz to take apicture of the image right from TV, see Amateur Television Magazine,
10 meters — 28.990-29.000 MHz the SSTV screen. Polaroid cameras equip- c/o Mike Stone, W130QCD, P.O. Box
ped with a close-up lens enable you to H, Lowden, IA 52255. A QST television
SSTV signals must be tuned in properly see the results shortly after the picture bibliography is available for an s.a.s.e.
so the picture will come out with the proper from ARRL.

Special Modulation Techniques

Research into new modulation techni- that the mobile users (who are not trained signaling purposes.
ques has been an important part of both operators) couldn't master the control
amateur and commercial radio. Some in- known as CLARIFIER LO land mobile people Amplitude Compandoring
teresting work has been done in both nar- and receiver incremental tuning or RIT to Compression of voice signals is commo
rowing and deliberately spreading the amateurs. In addition, the users were an- in Amateur Radio ssb. What is no
bandwidth of aradio signal, as in coherent noyed by the fading experienced with ssb common in amateur ssb is to employ an ex-
cw and spread spectrum, respectively. over the fm they were familiar with. So, to pandor at the receiving end. The term
Similarly, there has been a considerable get the spectrum savings of ssb over fm, the "compandor" is a fusion of the terms
amount of research in processing of speech land mobile engineers had to come up with "compressor" and "expandor." The com-
to make it more efficient to transmit. In a form of ssb that gave the land mobile pandor circuitry provides an operator with
order to conserve spectrum space, ssb to users everything that they were accustomed asensation similar to the "capture effect"
some extent has replaced a-m at hf for com- to with fm, including signaling. in fm. Thus, when the signal strengths are
munications purposes. Because of conges- high, fm and ACSB give comparable
tion in the vhf bands, there is current in- Pilot Tone results with noticeably less flutter on ACSB
terest in substituting ssb for fm voice to A conventional ssb transmission has a than on fm. But in weak-signal areas, when
pack more signals into an available band. suppressed carrier. In order to demodulate noise is greater than the compandor cir-
Some of these modulation techniques the signal at the receiver, the missing car- cuitry can handle, the audio on ACSB is
were possible in the past but were made im- rier is replaced. At higher frequencies it is noisier than on fm.
practical by state-of-the-art limitations. Ssb unrealistic to expect the original carrier at ACSB is ameans of packing about four
and coherent cw need good frequency the transmitter and that reinserted at the times more voice transmissions in agiven
stability, which is now possible even at uhf. receiver to be exactly the same. As men- band than fm. The pilot tones and compan-
Spread spectrum, although used ex- tioned above, adding aknob to compensate doring compensate for some inherent ssb
perimentally decades ago, awaited the for the error is unacceptable for land-mobile shortcomings but with additional complexi-
development of frequency-agile syn- service. So manufacturers have added a ty. This appears to be an interesting area
thesizers, the microprocessor and other pilot tone to the audio, sufficiently for Amateur Radio experimentation.
digital ICs to make it practical. separated in frequency and filtered so that
the two do not interfere. Although there For Further Reading on ACSB
AMPLITUDE COMPANDORED is some variation between manufacturers, John S. Belrose, VE2CV, "On Ssb Radio
SINGLE SIDEBAND the pilot tone is usually 3or 3.1 kHz. The Communications," QEX, July 1982
There has not been much said about pilot power level is about 10 dB below the pp. 3-4.
Amplitude Compandored Single Sideband voice peak power. Thus, the transmitter has Fred B. Childs, "ACSB — Filling the Gaps
(ACSB®) in Amateur Radio literature. an output power of approximately 1/10th Between FM Channels," Mobile Radio
However, amateur experimenters should be when there is no voice modulation. Technology, January/February 1983,
aware of ACSB developments now under- At the receiver, the pilot tone is com- pp. 60-66 -
way in the land-mobile communications pared with an internal reference oscillator Bob Snyder, W9GT, " What ACSB Means
industry. in a phase-locked loop circuit. The dif- to You," Business Radio Action,
Ssb is routine for hf communications. ference voltage thus produced is used to June 1982, pp. 13-17.
Amateurs have used ssb at vhf and uhf with shift the receiver local oscillator until the
SPREAD-SPECTRUM
good success but usually between fixed frequency error is eliminated. The time
COMMUNICATIONS
locations and experienced operators. When constant of the phase-locked loop is short
ssb was tried in the land-mobile service, enough to be ignored by the user and to be Intentionally broadbanding a radio
several problems were noticed. One was compatible with tone decoders used for signal by some means other than increased
Specialized Communications Systems 14-35
 modulation by the baseband information
is called spread- spectrum ( SS) transmis-
sion. Scattering the rf energy over abroad
frequency spectrum and " descattering"
or refocusing the signal at the receiver can
result in several communications advan-
tages, including signal-to-noise ratio
enhancement and interference rejection.
Spread-spectrum development began in
the late 1940s, the objective then being
secure, jam-proof military communica-
tions. John P. Costas, W2CRR was the
first person to recognize non-military ap-
plications for SS. In 1956 he submitted an
article, " SSB Better than A- M?" for pub-
lication in QST. This manuscript
challenged the conventional wisdom that
narrowband communications systems are
inherently superior to wideband ones. Fig. 50 — This sketch shows a simple method for spreading a baseband signal over a wide fre-
QST declined to publish the article, prob- quency spectrum. Carrying this technique to its logical extreme ( infinitely many spectral lines
having infinitesimal spacing) would generate an apparent white noise spectrum having nearly zero
ably not because the ideas were heretical,
energy at any discrete frequency.
but more likely because ultra wideband
schemes were nearly impossible to imple-
ment with the hardware then available to
most amateurs. Process gain is the signal-to-noise ratio
Somewhat ironically, the first published advantage achieved by SS techniques. Fig.
paper suggesting the use of SS on the 50 illustrates the process-gain mechanism
amateur bands appeared in the professional by way of the simplest possible example.
literature. " Poisson, Shannon, and the An ordinary narrowband signal is hetero-
Radio Amateur," by Costas, was presented dyned with ( modulated by) awideband rf
in Proceedings of the IRE for December signal. A comb generator is shown in this
1959. ( Poisson and Shannon developed example, and was also used by Costas for
mathematical models for communications his analysis of amateur spectrum utili-
.; systems — all analytical studies in com- zation. The codes used in actual SS
munication theory and information theory communications systems are much more
are based on their results.) The following complex. The mixer output consists of a
statements are excerpted from Costas' set of discrete identical narrowband
paper to induce the reader to study the en- signals, two corresponding to each spec-
tire work. Congested band operation as tral line from the comb generator. The
found in the amateur service presents an Fig. 51 — Unwanted (or improperly coded) energy from the original narrowband
interesting problem in analysis which can signals and noise are spread by the SS LO, generator is distributed among the comb
only be solved by statistical methods. Con- causing only a small portion of the unwanted
lines. An identical comb generator serves
energy to be presented to the demodulator.
sideration is given to the relative merits of as the receiver LO. Each incoming line of
two currently popular modulation tech- the SS signal is offset from the LO comb
niques, ssb and dsb. It is found that in spite generator by the i -f, so the receiving mixer
of the bandwidth economy of ssb this By spreading the power over awide band, reconstructs the original narrowband
system can claim no over-all advantage the amount of energy in any particular signal for conventional i -f processing.
with respect to dsb for this service. It is fur- hertz or kilohertz is very much smaller Any noise or unwanted discrete narrow-
ther shown that there are definite advan- than for conventional narrowband modu- band signal present at the receiver input is
tages to the use of very broadband tech- lation techniques. Depending upon the "chopped up and spread out" by the SS
niques in the amateur service. transmitter power level and the distance LO, and only a small fraction of the un-
In the two decades since Costas' exposi- from the transmitter to the receiver, the wanted energy falls within the i -
f pass-
non, congestion in the amateur bands has SS signal may be below the noise level. band. This effect is shown in Fig. 51.
increased dramatically — possibly even SS systems also use coding sequences to
beyond Costas' imagination. This, cou- modulate and demodulate the transmis- Types of Spread Spectrum
pled with technological advances which sion. Receivers with the wrong code will There are four basic types of spread
bring very broadband communications not demodulate the encoded SS signal and spectrum; direct sequence, frequency hop-
systems within practical reach, has caused will be highly immune to interference ping, pulse- fm and time hopping. In addi-
renewed amateur interest in SS. Novem- from it. On the other hand, receivers with tion, there are hybrids consisting of com-
ber 1980 QST featured an article by Paul the right code are able to add all the binations of two or more of the above
Rinaldo, W4RI, entitled " Spread Spec- spread energy in a constructive way to basic types.
trum and the Radio Amateur." Most of reproduce the intended modulation. In Direct Sequence (DS): Direct sequence
the material that follows is taken from fact, the use of coherent correlation can SS is produced by modulation of acarrier
that article. yield some process gain. Changing the with adigitized code stream. This type of
code to another sequence effectively modulation is also known by the terms
Spread-Spectrum Fundamentals
creates a new " channel" on which a pseudo- noise ( PN), phase hopping ( PH),
SS systems employ radio- frequency private conversation can take place. Many direct spread, or direct code. Phase- shift
bandwidths that greatly exceed the band- good code combinations could be made keying ( psk) is usually used to produce the
width necessary to convey the intelligence. available on a single chip and selected by marks and spaces, but frequency-shift
Bandwidths for SS systems generally run means of thumbwheel switches on the SS keying ( fsk) could also be used. The wide
from 10 to 100 times the information rate. transceiver. rf bandwidth arises from the use of ahigh-
14-36 Chapter 14
 Pulse-FM (Chirp): A chirp spread-
FREQUENCY USED AT ONE INSTANT
spectrum system sweeps its carrier fre-
quency over awide band at aknown rate.
Again, conventional narrow-band modula- Ill 11111111111 1111
Ill 11111111111 1111
tion of the sweeping carrier is used to con-
11111111111 1111
vey the intelligence. The receiver uses a
matched, dispersive filter to compress the FREQUENCY

signal to a narrow band. Chirp systems

typically do not use a code sequence to Fig. 53 — Power vs. frequency for frequency-
control the sweep generator. Sweep time hopping spread spectrum signals. Emissions
Fig. 52 — Power vs. frequency for adirect- jump around in pseudo-random fashion to
sequence-modulated spread-spectrum signal. can be largely independent of the infor-
discrete frequencies.
mation rate. Normally a linear-sweep
The envelope assumes the shape of a sin 2
pulse is used, similar to that produced by
curve. With proper modulating techniques x
,the a sweep generator. The power spectrum
carrier is suppressed.
for achirp system is illustrated in Fig. 54.
Time Hopping (TH): Time hopping is a
form of pulse modulation using acode se-
speed code. Of course, if the transmitter quence to control the pulse. As in other
were allowed to rest on the mark fre- pulse techniques, the transmitter is not on
quency, there would be asteady carrier in full time and can have a duty cycle of
one place whenever there is no modula- 50% or less. Several systems can share the
tion. This would produce interference to a same channel and function as a time-
narrowband user on that frequency. It division multiple-access (TDMA) system.
would also pose problems for other SS TH is more vulnerable to interference on
users of the same band, particularly if its center frequency than other SS Fig. 54 — Power vs. frequency for chirp
they did the same thing. So it is conven- systems. Seldom seen in its pure form, TH spread-spectrum signals. The carrier is
tional for SS systems to include tech- is typically used in hybrid systems using repeatedly swept, continuously, from one end
to the other in agiven band.
niques to continue apseudo-random code frequency hopping as well.
sequence even during intervals when in- Hybrids: In addition to the TH/FH
telligence is not being transmitted. hybrid system just mentioned, there are
The power spectrum for aDS signal (as also DS/FH and DS/TH combinations.
might be seen on a spectrum analyzer) is Hybrid systems are typically designed to phase with one another and may then be
not uniform across the band, but has a accommodate alarge number of users and locked up. After initial synchronization, „.;
main lobe and sets of sidelobes as il- to provide a higher immunity to inter- maintaining sync presents another prob-
lustrated in Fig. 52. The bandwidth of the ference. They also produce better results lem which can be solved in different ways.
main lobe as measured from null to null is at practical code sequence rates governed, One is to use acode sequence preamble at
two times the clock rate of the code se- for example, by how fast afrequency syn- the beginning of each transmission.
quence. The bandwidth of the side lobes is thesizer can be switched. Also, hybrids can Another is to use ultra-stable clocks at all
equal to the clock rate. To receive a DS produce greater spreads than those prac- stations to ensure that the code-sequence
signal, the receiver must collapse or tical for pure SS systems. clock frequency does not change.
"despread" it to the original bandwidth Numerous other schemes have been de-
of the information. This is done by using Some Considerations vised and implemented with varying
areplica of the code sequence used by the Synchronization: In the design of a degrees of difficulty. The exception is that
transmitter. spread-spectrum system, usually the chirp systems do not have this problem
Frequency Hopping (FH): As the name toughest problem is synchronization of because the matched filter used in
implies, frequency hopping is simply the code sequence at the receiver with that demodulation inherently achieves sync on
jumping to a number of different fre- of the incoming signal. If sync is not at- each pulse transmitted.
quencies in an agreed sequence. The code tained, even just one bit off, nothing but Transmitter and Receiver Design: One
sequence is usually at a slower rate than noise can be heard. The problem becomes difference between SS and conventional rf
for direct sequence and is normally slower worse when more than two stations are equipment is that SS requires transmitters
than the information rate. The hopping trying to communicate in a net. This is and receivers that have 10 to 100 times the
rate may also be determined by practical because of the different propagation de- bandwidth of narrow-band systems. That
considerations, such as how long it takes lays between stations; i.e., it takes a may pose some problems at lower fre-
for a particular frequency synthesizer to different time for a signal to travel over quencies, but in the 420-MHz band the
settle down on anew frequency. paths A- B, A-C, or B-C if the stations are amateur television (ATV) experimenters
Actual modulation of the frequencies not equidistant. These differences may be already have equipment that can handle
uses normal narrowband techniques such only slight but just enough to degrade the wideband signals. The transmitter design,
as frequency modulation. At any instant, signal-to-noise ratio of the received signal. which should be well within amateur
an FH transmitter is emitting all of its In addition to the time uncertainty related capability, amounts to taking care in
power on a specific frequency slot and to propagation, there is also a frequency broadbanding the rf stages after modula-
potentially could interfere with someone uncertainty in trying to keep oscillators at tion to maintain amplitude linearity, and
else using a narrowband system on that two or more stations from drifting. in keeping the antenna system VSWR very
frequency. However, the FH dwell time Because the stations cannot be expected low. Receivers must not only have wide-
on that particular frequency is so short to synchroni7e on their own with no band front ends but must also have good
that most narrowband users would not be reference, it is normal for at least one sta- dynamic range and linearity to handle
bothered. Mutual interference between tion to transmit an initial reference for both the desired signal and any in-
two or more FH users sharing the same sync purposes. Upon reception, the re- terference. Where an i -fis used, the fre-
band could be extremely low, depending ceiving stations can generate the code se- quency chosen must be higher than for
upon the design of the code sequences. quence at a rate different from the code conventional transceivers. In practice, 70
Fig. 53 illustrates the power spectrum for. sequence used at the transmitter Fven- MHz is a common SS i -
f. Components
an FH signal. tually, the two code streams will slide into (such as filters) are available for this fre-
Specialized Communications Systems 14-37
quency to build SS i
-f modems
(modulator/ demodulators).

Amateur SS Experimentation
In 1980, the FCC Office of Science and
Technology (OST) suggested that radio
amateurs experiment with spread-spectrum
modulation techniques. The rationale was
that (a) the civil radio services could take
advantage of the spread-spectrum pioneer-
ing of the military, (b) design of spread-
spectrum systems by the private sector was
slow because of the high cost of develop-
ment vs. return on investment, (c) more ex-
perimentation was needed in areas such as
designing for low-cost and on-the-air
testing in congested frequency bands, and
(d) radio amateurs could perform useful ex-
periments without the need for either
governmental or industrial research and
development money.
The Amateur Radio Research and
Development Corporation (AMRAD) re-
quested, and the FCC granted, aSpecial
Temporary Authority (STA) to permit
spread-spectrum tests in the Amateur
Radio bands by a small number of
amateurs, for one year beginning March 6,
1981.
Fig. 55 — A ccw communications link.
Under the STA, the first Amateur Radio
SS tests were conducted by W4RI in
McLean, Virginia and K2SZE in Rochester,
New York. Later, WA3ZXW in Annapolis,
Maryland ran additional on-the-air tests
with K2SZE. The equipment was capable were able to hear both ends. In addition, the following articles on SS
of hopping over a frequency range up to AMRAD has plans for additional SS have appeared in Amateur Radio
100 kHz at rates of 1, 2, 5and 10 hops per testing in the vhf bands. The SS coor- publications:
second. Rf power output levels of 100 and dinator is Hal Feinstein, WB3KDU. Feinstein, " Spread Spectrum — areport
500 watts were used into dipole antennas. The FCC has adopted a Notice of In- from AMRAD," 73, November 1981.
These particular radios functioned best quiry and Proposed Rulemaking (Docket Feinstein, " Spread Spectrum" column,
at 5hops per second. This was subjective- 81-414) that would amend the rules to per- AMRAD Newsletter, April, June,
ly judged on the basis of least-bothersome mit SS experimentation on certain Amateur July, August, October, November and
interference from the various signals at the Radio bands. As of this writing, the Com- December 1981; January, April, May
different hopping frequencies. It was mission has not taken final action on this and October 1982; and June 1983. Back
observed that frequency hopping was more docket. issues are available for $ 1 each
successful in the presence of heavy cw in- from AMRAD, P.O. Drawer 6148,
terference than it was in the presence of Selected SS Bibliography - McLean, VA 22106.
heavy ssb interference. In comparison, con- Reading material on spread spectrum Feinstein, " Amateur Spread Spectrum Ex-
ventional ssb usually provided better com- may be difficult to obtain for the average periments," CQ, July 1982.
munications than frequency-hopped ssb amateur. Below are references that can be Rinaldo, " Spread Spectrum and the Radio
whenever asingle clear channel could be mail ordered. Spread-spectrum papers have Amateur," QST, November 1980.
found for the conventional ssb. However, also been published in IEEE Transactions Sabin, " Spread-Spectrum Applications in
the conventional ssb could be disrupted by on Communications, on Aerospace and Amateur Radio," QST, July 1983.
strong interference on that channel. While Electronic Systems and on Vehicular
hampered by cyclic interference when busy Technology.
frequencies were revisited, the frequency- Dixon, Spread Spectrum Systems, 1976, COHERENT CW
hopped link could be maintained despite Wiley Interscience, 605 Third Ave., New While spectrum management has re-
band congestion. York, NY 10016, $29.50. ceived much attention in the recent
Although the tests were announced Dixon, Spread Spectrum Techniques, Amateur Radio literature, the problems
beforehand in Amateur Radio publications IEEE Service Center, 445 Hoes La., and possibilities of " more QS0s power
and on the air from W1AW, no cor- Piscataway, NJ 08854, IEEE member kilohertz" were first recognized more than
respondence was received indicating that prices $ 19.45 clothbound, $ 12.95 paper- half a century ago. The late Frederick
the frequency-hopping tests either in- bound; nonmembers $29.95 clothbound. Emmons Terman, 6FT, presented his vi-
terfered with, or were heard by, other Brumbaugh, et al., Spread Spectrum sion of narrow-band communications in
Amateur Radio stations. The only excep- Technology, a series of papers pre- "Some Possibilities of Intelligence
tion was that several amateurs in the North- sented at the 1980 Armed Forces Com- Transmission When Using aLimited Band
ern Virginia area could recognize the munications Electronics Association of Frequencies," published in Proceedings
presence of the frequency-hopped transmis- show printed in the August 1980 issue of the Institute of Radio Engineers,
sions on conventional ssb receivers after of Signal, available from AFCEA, January 1930.
learning what the signal sounded like. All 5641 Burke Centre Pkwy., Burke, As early as 1927, the Bell Telephone
were within 5miles (8km) of W4RI and VA 22015. Company had reported successful ex-
14-38 Chapter 14
 o

OUTPUT
SIGNAL ' INPUT
MIXER MODULATOR AUDIO
IkHZ 0-0 9 INTEGRATOR CON -
90 ° -0
SAMPLE AND HOLD BINER

OUT

100 MS

1MS
S E

lkfiz
RESET
REFERENCE GENERATOR SAMPLE

100 MS

10 HZ

PHASE

o—
c>
o
9
...100Hz

DECADE ®C) ® ® 00 0g)

COUNTER/ 100 Hz DECADE
DECODER COUNTER/DECODER

TIMING CONTROL KEYING SYNCHRONIZATION

Fig. 56 — Block diagram of a ccw receiving filter. The operation is outlined in the text.

periments with 200-wpm Baudot TTY com- of 12 wpm the unit pulse length is 0.1 proper frequency of phase- locking to a
munications in a 50- Hz bandwidth over second. Since a dot and a space each reference standard. Precisely timed key-
undersea cables. The bandwidth reduc- require 0.1 second, a string of dots at ing pulses are derived from the same
tion resulted from synchronization of the 12 wpm is a square wave having a fun- reference standard. A similar reference
transmitter and receiver. damental frequency of 5 Hz. To preserve standard stabilizes the receiver frequency
Technology made giant leaps in the next the square- wave characteristic of the emis- and synchronizes the audio output filter.
45 years. In September 1975 QST, Ray- sion, an ssb transmission bandwidth of The receiver output is sampled at twice
mond Petit, W6GHM, described the ex- at least 15 Hz is required. A base- band the keying frequency. A block diagram
periments of some radio amateurs with (or dc wire telegraph) receiver needs a of a ccw communications link is given
a mode he called " coherent cw." Petit similar bandwidth for conventional infor- in Fig. 55. Increased frequency stability
did not acknowledge Terman's paper, so mation recovery. Terman reported that and accuracy can be achieved through
we must conclude that he rediscovered with synchronization techniques, the phase- locking both reference generators
the wheel. In any case, ccw is an idea receiver bandwidth could be reduced to to a standard frequency broadcast sta-
whose time has come. Adrian Weiss, 1.5 or 2.0 times the keying rate. In con- tion. A good signal for this purpose is
WORSP, disclosed some of the technical ventional ( Morse) radiotelegraphy, the in- broadcast on 60 kHz from WWVB. The
details of the ccw system in June and telligence is ultimately received as an audio 3.58- MHz color burst signal generated by
July 1977 CQ. The presentation contains tone. Even a 15-Hz bandwidth filter the television networks is another excellent
some errors, but the astute reader will centered on, say, 500 Hz, would require reference source.
be able to recognize the significant a Q of 33, causing intolerable ringing. Fig. 56 shows the elements of the audio
principles. The ringing problem can be overcome output filter in more detail. A combina-
The bandwidth required for transmitting with time- domain processing at both ends tion of digital and analog techniques pro-
aradiotelegraph signal is directly propor- of the communications path. The transmit- duces a 3-dB bandwidth of 9 Hz, which
tional to the keying rate. For a speed ter is stabilized to within 1 Hz of the is within the range predicted by 1erman.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-39

 Fig. 58 — This is the first complete amateur
station to be built for coherent cw operation.
Assembled by Andy McCaskey, WA7ZVC, it
consists of a modified Ten-Tec PM-2
transceiver and homemade modules that pro-
vide for the control and processing of signals
as required for coherent-cw operation.
Fig. 57 — Amplitude vs. frequency response of the receiving filter.

At the end of the 0.1-second integrating

period, the mixer output waveform will
have completed one cycle. Assuming the
cycle started at zero volts, the sample-and-
When the receiver is properly tuned, the cycle repeats. The sample-and-hold voltage hold will acquire the integrated mixer
filter input signal frequency is 1 kHz. controls the amplitude of the reference voltage at the zero crossing and instruct the
Since this frequency is " zero beat" with signal passed by the output modulator. Fig. output modulator to pass zero reference
the reference (LO) signal, the mixer out- 56 shows aseparate phase-shift network at signal. (The above assumption isn't
put is a dc voltage proportional to the the output modulator for clarity, but the necessarily valid for asingle channel, but
cosine of the phase angle between the input network can serve both circuits. The it holds for the resultant of the quadrature
input and reference signals. When the square-wave outputs are in phase quadra- channels.) Any whole number of beat-
signals are phase-coincident the mixer pro- ture. The combined output waveform is a frequency cycles will cause the sampled
duces a maximum positive voltage. The staircase that can be filtered into a sine voltage to be zero. Since the sampling in-
mixer output voltage swings negative when wave with relative ease. terval is 0.1 second, the response nulls oc-
the input and reference signals are 180° The timing signals are derived from the cur every 10 Hz away from the peak. If the
out of phase. A 90° relationship results 1-kHz reference, which is synthesized from input and reference signals differ by a
in zero output voltage. The actual hard- the master frequency standard used to multiple of 5 Hz, the mixer voltage is
ware uses square waves for mixer LO stabilize the receiver LO. A decade counter sampled at the peak of ahalf cycle, causing
injection, so the phase detection transfer with a decimal decoder produces 10 out- an alias. The aliases diminish 6dB every
characteristic is linear rather than puts, each having the duration of one in- time the beat frequency doubles because the
sinusoidal, but the minimum and maxi- put pulse and afrequency of one-tenth of integrator is a first-order low-pass filter
mum voltages occur at the same points. the input clock. Output one goes high having a 6-dB-per-octave roll off.
The phase of the input signal varies ran- during the first clock pulse, output two Noise bursts and strong adjacent-channel
domly with respect to the reference, even goes high during the second clock pulse, signals result in an occasional extra dot or
though the reference generators at each and so on. Every second pulse of a se- an elongated dash, but are otherwise un-
end of the communications link may be quence of 10 commands the sample-and- noticed. At the 12-wpm keying speed used
locked to the same standard frequency hold circuit to sample, and every fourth by ccw experimenters, a signal-to-noise
transmission. This variation results from pulse resets the integrator. A second decade ratio improvement of about 20 dB can be
changing propagation conditions. Phase counter/decoder is cascaded with the realized over the bandwidths typically used
variations of the input signal have little timing control, and its phase-adjustable for cw. Faster speeds are possible, but the
effect on the timing of the sampling win- output gates the timing signals to select a bandwidth must be increased at the expense
dow because the sampling rate is only 0.1-second integrating window that is syn- of signal-to-noise ratio.
one-hundredth of the signal frequency. chronized with the incoming keying pulses. To establish ccw contact, one station
The sampling window position is ad- Because the signal is sampled at the end of sends a preamble of dots to allow the
justable, in any case. To prevent loss of the integration interval, the filter output is receiving operator to synchronize his filter.
output voltage when the input/reference delayed 0.1 second with respect to the Experience thus far indicates that once the
phase relationship swings through 90°, input. filter has been synchronized, it usually
two signal channels are driven in phase Fig. 57 shows the approximate won't need adjustment for several hours.
quadrature by the reference generator. amplitude-versus-frequency response of the Fig. 58 depicts atypical ccw station. The
Thus, if the input signal is shifted 90° filter. Note the symmetry of the skirts. early experimenters built their stations
from the reference signal applied to one Unlike analog filters composed of linear around simple QRP equipment to
mixer, that mixer output will be zero, circuit elements, the sampling filter does dramatize the communications advantages
but the other mixer will see a0° or 180° not exhibit arithmetic selectivity. The offered by the mode and to emphasize the
relationship. The two channels are summed spurious responses on either side of the accessibility of the necessary technology.
at the filter output, so the output amplitude main passband resemble the infinite rejec- The simple gear requires some add-on cir-
is independent of the input phase, pro- tion notches characteristic of an elliptic cuitry to allow oscillator stabilization. The
vided the frequency is zero-beat. filter and are called aliases. The frequency more modern synthesized transceivers can
The voltage from the mixer is integrated response is quasi-periodic because signals be outfitted for ccw more easily — re-
over a0.1-second period. Near the end of that are not zero-beat with the reference placing the internal reference oscillator with
this interval, the timing logic causes the frequency produce adifference frequency an external standard is all that's required.
sample-and-hold circuit to acquire the in- signal from the input mixer. If the input To send ccw, the paddle-actuated clock in
tegrated output voltage. One millisecond signal is 10 Hz away from the reference, the keyer must be replaced by acontinuous
later, the logic resets the integrator and the the mixer output will be a10-Hz ac signal. pulse train from the frequency standard.
14-40 Chapter 14
Coordinating one's paddle movements with (controlled by the standard) is the ideal ccw ty, the mode may prove highly useful for
the " metronome" requires a different sending instrument, emergency communications. Another
keying technique. A buffered keyboard When more stations have ccw capabili- possibility for ccw is in EME work.

Digital Communications
The oldest form of Amateur Radio widths of 20 kHz between 50 and 220, and There are many variations in five-level
digital communications is cw. After all, cw 100 kHz between 220 and 1215 MHz. coded character sets, principally to accom-
is sent by making or breaking contacts, Responding to another ARRL petition modate foreign-language alphabets.
which are binary 1and 0states. The inter- (RM-4122) on February 8, 1983, the FCC Current FCC rules in section 97.69(a)
national Morse code is unique among digi- amended its rules to permit transmissions identify the Baudot code as the Interna-
tal codes in that it can be encoded and by amateurs of the digital teleprinter code tional Telegraph Alphabet Number 2 (ITA
decoded by either ahuman operator or a specified in Recommendation No. 476-2 No. 2). This code is recognized by the In-
machine such as a computer. The digital (1978) of the International Radio Con- ternational Telegraph and Telephone Con-
communications codes discussed below are sultative Committee (CCIR), known as sultative Committee (CCITT) and allows
encoded and decoded by machine (either AMTOR, in the high-frequency bands. In for national variations. The ITA No. 2
mechanical or computer based). the same order, they made the maximum coded character set is shown in Table 15.
The term " radioteletype" (abbreviated speeds for AMTOR and Baudot the same The bits are arranged according to the
RTTY) has been used to mean telegraphic as specified for ASCII. order of transmission, starting with the
radio communications between teletype- Another FCC order, which was effective least-significant bit (LSB) and proceeding
writers. Since the earliest amateur use of on June 15, 1983, made several other to the most-significant bit (MSB). For stan-
RTTY, this meant communications be- changes which affected digital communica- dard binary representation, read from MSB
tween typewriterlike machines using a tions. The maximum audio- or radio- to LSB and substitute 0for A and 1for Z.
telegraph code known as Baudot (or Mur- frequency shift was redefined as not to ex- As ITA No. 2is a five-level code, and
ray). There was no serious movement to use ceed 1000 Hz (between the mark and space there are only two conditions for each level
other codes, and the FCC rules permitted frequencies) below 50 MHz, also that the (A or Z, space or mark, binary 0 or 1).
only Baudot code for teleprinter-to- frequency shift in hertz shall not exceed the Therefore, atotal of 2x2x2x2x2 = 25
teleprinter communications. Before 1975, sending speed in bauds or 1000 Hz, = 32 different code combinations are
few amateurs thought about any terminal whichever is greater. The same order possible. Because it is necessary to provide
other than ateleprinter. eliminated the need for cw or voice iden- 26 Latin letters, 10 numerals and punctua-
The year 1975 marked the availability of tification of digital transmissions and tion, the 32 code combinations are not suf-
the first affordable personal computers. A authorized stations to identify in Baudot, ficient. This problem is solved by using the
number of radio amateurs acquired com- AMTOR or ASCII, whichever code is used codes twice; once in the letters (LTRS) case
puters (which used an 8-bit code) and im- for all or part of the communication below and again in the figures ( FIGS) case. Two
mediately thought of interfacing them to 50 MHz or when any digital code is used special characters, LTRS and FIGS are
Baudot teleprinters (which used five infor- above 50 MHz. The order also added that used to indicate whether subsequent
mation bits). One application was to use for AMTOR either CCIR Recommenda- characters will be in letters or figures case.
ateleprinter to produce apaper printout tion 476-2 ( 1978) or 476-3 ( 1982) may be The receiving terminal stores the last re-
(hard copy) for their computer. Another used. ceived LTRS or FIGS characters so that it
was to use the computer to send and receive These regulatory changes have done remains in the last-received case until
Baudot RTTY and cw on the amateur much to clear the way for sigificant changes changed. Control functions such as LTRS,
bands. in Amateur Radio digital communications FIGS, carriage return (CR), line feed (LF),
in the years ahead. No doubt, there will be space (SP) and blank are assigned to both
Regulatory Changes more changes to facilitate newer forms of the letters and figures cases so that they can
On September 15, 1978, the Canadian digital communications. be used in either case. The remaining 26
Department of Communications (DOC) code combinations have different character
announced rules creating the Amateur BAU DOT RADIOTELETYPE meanings, depending on whether preceded
Digital Radio Operator's Certificate and The commercial- or military-surplus by a LTRS or FIGS character.
establishing regulations for packet radio Baudot- encoded teletypewriter (TTY) was FCC rules provide that ITA No. 2
(covered later in this chapter). the mainstay of amateur RTTY operators transmissions must be single channel and
On March 17, 1980, the FCC legalized from 1946 through around 1977. There are sent using start-stop pulses as illustrated in
Amateur Radio transmission of the still numerous TTY machines in use, but Fig. 59. The bits in Fig. 59 are arranged in
American National Standard Code for In- many RTTY operators are now using aleft-to-right order, as would be observed
formation Interchange (ASCII). U.S. computer-based terminals. In some cases, on an oscilloscope.
amateurs were then permitted to use either the terminal was designed from the outset FCC rules also permit ITA No. 2figures
Baudot at 45, 50, 56.25 or 75 bauds or as amultimode RTTY and cw terminal. In case positions not utilized for numerals and
ASCII at 300 bauds below 21.25, 1200 others, amateurs adapted personal com- the slant sign or fraction bar to be
bauds between 28 and 225 MHz and 19,600 puters to send and receive the Baudot code. employed for the remote control of re-
bauds above 420 MHz. ceiving printers. They may also be used for
In response to an ARRL petition The Baudot Telegraph Code other purposes indicated in Section 97.69,
(RM-3788), on October 28, 1982, the FCC One of the first data communications which are defined as follows:
amended its rules to permit any digital code codes to receive widespread use had five in- "These digital codes may be used for
to be used above 50 MHz. It raised the per- formation pulses (or levels) to represent the such communications as (but not limited
missible speeds for ASCII transmission to alphabet, numerals, symbols and machine to) radio teleprinter, voice, facsimile, televi-
19.6 kilobauds between 50 and 220 MHz functions. In the United States, the current sion, communications to control Amateur
and 56 kilobauds above 220 MHz. Rather five-level code is commonly called the Radio stations, models and other objects,
than set maximum speeds for other digital Baudot code. In Great Britain the almost- transference of computer programs or
codes, the FCC specified maximum band- identical code is called the Murray code. direct computer-to-computei wininunica-

Specialized Communications Systems 14-41

Table 15 Table 16
Baudot ( ITA No. 2) and AMTOR Codes AMTOR Service Information Signals

International Emitted
Combin- Figures Case Telegraph Mode A (ARQ) signal Mode B (FEC)
ation Letters Alphabet No. 2 AMTOR
Control signal 1
No. Case ITA No. 2 Some U.S. Machines Code Code(')
(CS1) BYBYYBB
1 A ZZAAA BBBYYYB Control signal 2
2 '? '? ZAAZZ YBYYBBB (CS2) YBYBYBB
3 AZ7_ZA BYBBBYY Control signal 3
4 D (
2) ZAAZA BBYYBYB (CS3) BYYBBYB
5 E 3 3 ZAAAA YBBYBYB Idle signal i3 BBYYBBY
6 (
2) ZAZZA BBYBBYY Idle signal cc BBBBYYY Phasing signal 1
7 G (
2) AZAZZ BYBYBBY Signal repetition YBBYYBB Phasing signal 2
8 H (2) # or motor stop AAZAZ BYYBYBB
9 8 8 AZZAA BYBBYYB
10 Audible signal ZZAZA BBBYBYY
11 7777A YBBBBYY
12 AZAAZ BYBYYBB
13 AAZZZ BYYBBBY
14 N AAZZA BYYBBYB
15 0 9 AAAZZ BYYYBBB sequence. A teleprinter with keyboard and
16 0 AZZAZ BYBBYBY printer may be known as a KSR which
17 1 1 ZZZAZ YBBBYBY stands for Keyboard Send- Receive
18 4 4 AZAZA BYBYBYB terminal.
19 S BELL ZAZAA BBYBYYB
5 5 AAAAZ YYBYBBB
A perforator is aunit that punches paper
20
21 U 7 7 ZZZAA YBBBYYB tape and may be controlled by akeyboard
22 V A7777 YYBBBBY by direct mechanical connection. The term
23 2 ZZAAZ BBBYYBY reperforator (reperf) signifies that the per-
24 X ZAZZZ YBYBBBY
ZAZAZ BBYBYBY
forator punches tapes from electrically
25 Y 6 6
26 ZAAAZ BBYYYBB received signals and usually prints the cor-
27 • (Carriage return) AAAZA YYYBBBB responding characters on the tape. A
28 ( Line feed) AZAAA YYBBYBB Receive-Only Typing Reperforator (ROTR)
29 1 ( Letter shift) 77777 YBYBBYB
30 ! ( Figure shift) ZZAZZ YBBYBBY receives serial data and perforates and
31 (Space) AAZAA YYBBBYB prints on the tape.
32 ( Blank) AAAAA YBYBYBB A Transmitter-Distributor ( TD) set is a
(') B represents the higher emitted frequency and Y the lower. tape reader which senses the perforations
(3)At present unassigned. Reception of these signals, however, should not initiate in the tape and produces encoded start-stop
a request for repetition. pulses. A teletypewriter with a tape
3)The pictorial representations of 21 or 4. indicate WRU (Who are you?), which is used for an
( capability may be called Automatic Send-
answer- back function in telex networks.
Receive or ASR.

Computer-Based Baudot Terminals

Electronic Baudot terminal equipment,
"REST"
CHARACTER NO.1 CHARACTER NO.2 as shown in Fig. 60, is similar to counter-
CONDITION
part mechanical teletypewriter units.
A microcomputer is the foundation of
MARK the system and is used to encode and
(CURRENT ON) decode ASCII characters, convert them to
and from the comparable Baudot codes,
and provide for the start-stop code se-
SPACE
(CURRENT OFF) 2 3 4 5 2 quence for transmission and reception. The
(m) ( s) ( s) ( m) ( s) (m) ( s) heart of the microcomputer is the
l. microprocessor. There is also random-
y
DATA PULSES FOR " D" )
access memory ( RAM) for volatile ( tem-
START STOP START
porary) storage of data and read-only
PULSE TIME PULSE PULSE memory ( ROM) for nonvolatile ( perma-
nent) storage. Electronically programmable
read-only memory (EPROM) is nonvolatile
Fig. 59 — Time sequence of typical Baudot character, the letter D. but can be erased and reprogrammed.
The other units described below can be
considered peripherals from the standpoint
of the microcomputer.
tions, and, communications in various types of paper (in aroll or fan folded) about the A keyboard usually produces an ASCII-
of data networks (including so-called width of letter- size paper. Although it has encoded parallel output.
"packet switching" systems); provided that been known as apage printer, it prints a A video-display unit or VDU is the nor-
such digital codes are not intended to character at atime. A printer, often called mal display device. Many VDUs use
&-, scure the meaning of, but are only to aReceive- Only or RO terminal, will allow cathode-ray tubes ( CRTs), but flat-screen
facilitate, the communications... " you to decode and print what RTTY character displays are coming into use.
operators are sending. A character printer is used when apaper
Baudot Teletypewriters
A keyboard is used by an operator to (hard) copy is desired.
Mechanical teletypewriter equipment originate messages. Most mechanical A disk drive may be added to the system
consists of these basic components: keyboards have encoders to send out the to store text or software on flexible ( flop-
A printer prints on acontinuous supply character code in start-stop (asynchronous) py) diskettes. Alternatively, an audio
14-42 Chapter 14
 keyboard is reproduced on both printers.
Connection of the keyboard directly to its Table 17

associated printer is called alocal loop, giv- Baudot Signaling Rates and Speeds
ing local copy of transmitted text. Signaling Data Stop Common
Selector magnets used in older machines Rate Pulse Pulse Speeds Name
such as the Teletype Corp. model 15 were (bauds) (ms) (ms) (wpm)

designed for amark loop curent of 60 mA 45.45 22.0 22.0 65.00 Western
Union
dc. Newer machines use a20-mA loop, and
22.0 31.0 61.33 "60 speed"
some electronic interface circuits accept a 22.0 33.0 60.61 45 bauds
wide range of loop currents ( 10 to 120 mA 50.00 20.0 30.0 66.67 European;
for the HAL DS3100, for example). 50 bauds
Since the dc resistance of the selector 56.92 17.57 25.00 76.68 " 75 speed"
magnets is rather low ( 100 to 300 ohms, 17.57 26.36 75.89 57 bauds
typically), it would at first seem that alow- 74.20 13.47 19.18 100.00 " 100 speed"
13.47 20.21 98.98 74 bauds
Fig. 60 - Many RTTY operators now use all. voltage loop supply could be used.
electronic systems. 100.0 10.00 15.00 133.33 100 bauds
However, the inductance of the magnet is
usually quite high (on the order of 4henrys
cassette tape recorder may be used. for amodel 15), causing adelay in the cur-
rent rise time. This, in turn, delays the is limited to amaximum of 1000 Hz. Direct
Baudot Speeds and Signaling Rates selector magnet reponse to amark pulse, frequency-shift keying of hf transmitters is
The operating speed of mechanical distorting the signal. This distortion can be possible using a diode and a variable
teletypewriter machines is determined by severe enough to cause misprinting of capacitor or avoltage-variable-capacitance
motor speed and gearing ratios or elec- received text, particularly if other forms of diode in an oscillator circuit. Some com-
tronic timing circuits. Common speeds are distortion are present (such as caused by mercial transceivers have frequency-shift
60, 67, 75 or 100 wpm. See Table 17 for variations in the radio signal). In general, keyers of this type built in.
the relationship of speeds, and signaling the higher the loop voltage and loop
rates and pulse times. resistance used, the lower the distortion. In Audio-Frequency-Shift Keying
The speed is given in the approximate practice, loop power-supply voltages be- Above 50 MHz where A2 or F2 emis-
number of five-letter-plus-space combina- tween 100 and 300 V dc are common. sions are permitted, audio-frequency-shift
tions transmitted in acontinuous sequence Newer loop supplies use a150- to 200-volt keying (afsk) is generally used. In this case
in start-stop format over aone-minute in- loop supply and a2000- to 3000-ohm loop the rf carrier stays on the air throughout
terval. Convenient choices of gearing ratios resistor to set the 60-mA loop current. the transmission and amodulating audio
and motor-shaft speeds have resulted in Amateur Baudot RTTY demodulators nor- tone is shifted in frequency. U.S. amateurs
nonintegar wpm rates. Common usage, mally contain loop power supplies and traditionally have used an audio frequen-
a.
however, has rounded the exact speeds to current-limiting resistors. cy of 2125 Hz for mark and a frequency
easily remembered numbers. Thus, " 60 somewhat higher for space. At one time,
speed" Baudot actually is sent at 61.33 Baudot RTTY Modems when 850-Hz shift was used by amateurs
wpm, and "75 speed" is really 76.67 wpm. The term modem is a contraction of on hf, this same shift was used for vhf afsk,
A problem occurs with the use of words modulator-demodulator. Some amateurs making the space tone 2975 Hz. After the
per minute or characters per second as TTY use the term terminal unit or TU to mean shift on hf was reduced to 170 Hz, the com-
speed specifications because of the varying modem or sometimes just ademodulator. mon vhf afsk space frequency was chang-
length of stop pulses in use. For example, It is possible to transmit teleprinter ed to 2295 Hz.
"60 speed" Baudot TTY has 22-ms-long signals by on/off keying (ook) as is used
start and data pulses and a31-ms stop pulse for regular Morse code cw transmissions. AFSK of SSB Transmitters
(1.42 times the data-pulse width); the In the early days of amateur RTTY, ook Probably most modern RTTY stations
Western Union " 65 speed" also has 22-ms was the only legal way of operating RTTY simply feed afsk tones to the microphone
start and data pulses, but the stop pulse is on the hf bands. Ook demodulators had input of an ssb transmitter or transceiver.
also 22 ms long (a 1:1 ratio); some elec- problems distinguishing between signal and When properly designed and adjusted, this
tronic terminals use 22-ms start and data no signal because the no-signal condition method of modulation, while technically
pulses and 33-ms stop pulses (a1.5:1 ratio). contains both natural and man-made noise. A2J emission, cannot be distinguished
In light of the above character-length This method of keying worked only when from F1 emission on the air. The user
variation from the different stop-pulse-to- there was asufficiently high signal-to-noise should make certain that audio distortion,
data-pulse ratios in use, it is now common ratio. carrier, and unwanted sidebands are not
to refer to the number of shortest pulses In February 1953, the FCC changed its present to the degree of causing in-
per second. The baud is aunit of signaling rules to permit frequency-shift keying (fsk) terference. The user should also make cer-
speed equal to the number of pulses (events in the hf amateur bands. Fsk has the ad- tain that the equipment is capable of
or symbols) per second. The signaling rate vantage of providing either amark or space withstanding the 100-percent duty cycle
in bauds can be found by dividing the signal during transmission. Thus the receiv- needed for the duration of an RTTY
shortest pulse length into one; for exam- ing demodulator has the easier decision be- transmission. For safe operation, it is often
ple, 1/0.22 = 45.45, commonly ab- tween two on-the-air signals rather than necessary to reduce the transmitter power
breviated to 45.5 or even 45 bauds. comparing the mark signal against noise. output to 25 to 50 percent of thé power
The result of fsk is asubstantial improve- level which is safe for cw operation.
Teletypewriter Loop Circuits ment in readability over ook. In the U.S. it has been customary to use
Teletypewriter printing mechanisms use the same modems for both vhf afsk and hf
selector magnets to sense the presence Frequency-Shift Keying via an ssb transmitter. This proved diffictili
(mark) or absence (space) of the loop cur- Below 50 MHz, fsk (F1 emission) is used when the 850-Hz-shift tones of 2125 Hz
rent. The characters typed on the sending for Baudot RTTY. The nominal transmit- mark and 2975 Hz space were used because
keyboard are encoded with proper mark ter frequency is the mark condition. The of the narrow filtering used in most ssb
and space pulses. Since the keyboards and space condition causes the transmitter to equipment. So some amateurs, particular-
selector magnets of both machines are shift downward in frequency, normally 170 ly those in IARU Region 1 (Europe and
series connected, text typed on one Hz. The frequency shift on the hf bands Africa), went to the " low tones" of 1275
Specialized Communications Systems 14-43
Hz mark and 2125 Hz space to operate demodulators, when properly designed, 160 m (RTTY not permitted at
more in the center of the ssb filter permit continuous copy even when the present)
passbands. When the shift was reduced to mark or space frequency fades out com- 80 m 3610-3630 kHz
170 Hz, 1275 Hz was retained mark, and pletely. However, at 170-Hz shift, the mark 40 m 7090-7100 kHz
1445 Hz was used for space. Both high and and space frequencies tend to fade more at 7035-7045 kHz
low tones can be used interchangeably on the same time than they do independently. (when working IARU
the hf bands because only the amount of In other words, when one fades chances are Region 1stations)
shift is important. The slight frequency dif- that the other will fade about the same 30 m 10,140-10,150 kHz
ference is unnoticed on the air because each time. For this reason, fm and a-m types of 20 m 14,075-14,100 kHz
station tunes its transmitters and receivers demodulators are comparable at 170-Hz 17 m 18,100-18,110 kHz
for best results. On vhf afsk, however, the shift. However, at wider shifts (say 425 Hz (when this new WARC
high and low tone pairs are not compatible. and above), the independently fading mark band is authorized)
Because the convention on hf is that the and space can be used to achieve an in-band 15 m 21,090-21,100 kHz
higher frequency is the mark condition, and frequency- diversity effect if the 12 m 24,920-24,930 kHz
as the afsk modem uses the lower frequen- demodulator is capable of processing it. To (when this new
cy for mark, it is normal to use the lower conserve spectrum, it is generally desirable WARC band is
sideband mode for RTTY on ssb radio to stay with 170-Hz shift for 45-baud authorized)
equipment. If you want to tune to an ex- Baudot and forego the possible in-band- 10 m 28,090-28,100 kHz
act RTTY frequency, remember that the frequency-diversity gain. However, the in-
Above 50 MHz, RTTY operation may
ssb radio equipment will display the fre- band-frequency-diversity gain should be
be found wherever A2, Fl or F2 emissions
quency of its (suppressed) carrier, not the kept in mind for higher signaling rates
are permitted. For authorized frequencies
frequency of the mark signal. For exam- which would justify greater shift.
and emissions, see Chapter 1. For the
ple, if you want to operate on 14,083 kHz
Diversity Reception vhf/uhf band plans and specific repeater
and you are using a2125-Hz afsk mark fre-
frequencies, see The ARRL Repeater
quency, your ssb radio (suppressed-carrier) Another type of diversity can be achieved
Directory.
frequency should be 14,083 + 2.125 = by using two antennas, two receivers and
14,085.125 kHz. adual demodulator. This setup is not as Further Reading on Baudot RTTY
far fetched as it may sound; some amateurs
AFSK Modulators A bibliography of RTTY articles from
are using it with excellent results. One of
QST is available from ARRL Hq. for a
The audio tone produced by the afsk the antennas would be the normal station
large s.a.s.e.
modulator must be nearly sinusoidal. A antenna for that band. The second anten-
Groacher and Denny, The Teleprinter
nonsinusoidal waveform contains har- na could be either another antenna of the
Handbook, Radio Society of Great
monics of the fundamental frequency. If, same polarization located at least
Britain, 35 Doughty St., London WC1N
for example, anonsinusoidal (low) tone of 3/8-wavelength away, or an antenna of the
2AE, 1973.
1275 Hz is used, the audio outputs will be opposite polarization located at the first
Kretzman, The New RTTY Handbook,
1275, 2550 and 3825 Hz. Any properly antenna or anywhere nearby. A problem
Cowan Publishing Corp., 14 Vander-
designed ssb transmitter can be expected to is to get both receivers on the same frequen-
venter Ave., Port Washington, NY,
filter out 3825 Hz but may not be able to cy without having to carefully tune both.
1962.
reduce 2550 Hz to an acceptable level, While rare, some RTTY diviersity en-
Nagle, " Diversity Reception: an Answer
depending on the filter characteristics. Par- thusiasts have located slaved receivers on to High Frequency Signal Fading",
ticularly when using the low tones, the har- the surplus market. More recently, ICOM
Ham Radio, November 1979, pp. 48-55.
monic distortion of the tones should be has introduced the IC-7072 Transceiver
RTTY Journal, P.O. Box RY, Cardiff,
kept to a few percent. Unit, which slaves an IC-720(A) transceiver
CA 92007.
Most modern afsk generators are of the to an IC-R70 receiver. Other methods could
Schwartz, " An RTTY Primer," CQ,
continuous-phase type. Older types of fsk include a computer controlling two
issues of August 1977, November
generators had no provisions for phase con- receivers so that both would track.
1977, February 1978, May 1978 and
tinuity and produced sharp switching Two demodulators are needed for this
August 1978.
transients. The noise from phase discon- type of diversity. Also, some type of diver-
Tucker, RTTY from A to Z, Cowan
tinuity caused interference several kilohertz sity combiner or selector is needed. Many
Publishing Corp., 14 Vanderventer Ave.,
around the RTTY signal. commercial or militàry RTTY demodu-
Port Washington, NY, 1970.
lators are equipped for diversity reception.
AFSK Demodulators
The payoff for using diversity is aworth-
An afsk demodulator takes the shifting while improvement in copy. Depending on
tones from the audio output of areceiver fading conditions, adding diversity may be AMTOR
and produces TTY keying pulses. equivalent to raising transmitter power RTTY circuits are plagued with problems
Many afsk demodulators are of the fm sevenfold. of fading and noise unless something is
type. In this type of demodulator, the done to mitigate these effects. Frequency,
signal is first sent through aband-pass filter Autostart
polarization and space diversity are
to remove out-of-band interference and Mechanical teletypewriters cannot print methods of providing two or more simul-
noise. It is then limited to remove until their motors are running at the pro- taneous versions of the transmission to
amplitude variations. The signal is fm- per speed. Rather than letting the motor compare at the receiving station. Another
demodulated (in adiscriminator or aphase- run continuously, many Baudot RTTY sta- method of getting more than one oppor-
locked loop or PLL). The output of the tions employ an autostart circuit that senses tunity to see agiven transmission is time
detector is run through alow-pass filter to the presence of amark signal and turns on diversity. The same signal sent at different
remove noise at frequencies above the key- the motor. times will experience different fading and
ing rate. The result is fed to acircuit which noise conditions. Time diversity is the basis
makes the ultimate decision between mark RTTY Frequencies
of AMTOR or Amateur Teleprinting Over
and space. On the hf bands, U.S. amateur RTTY Radio).
Other demodulator designs use a-m operators generally use the following AMTOR always uses two forms of time
(limiterless) detectors in place of a subbands: diversity in either Mode A (ARQ or
discriminator or PLL. These types of Automatic Repeat Request) or Mode B
14.44 Chapter 14
(FEC or Forward Error Correction). In
Mode A, a repeat is sent only when re-
quested by the receiving station. In Mode
B, each character is sent twice. In both
Mode A or Mode B, the second type of
time diversity is supplied by the redundan-
cy of the code itself.
This new type of RTTY was introduced
to Amateur Radio by Peter Martinez,
G3PLX, through several articles which ap-
peared in RSGB Radio Communication,
QST and elsewhere. AMTOR was derived
from acommercial system, SITOR, which
was designed for use in the Maritime
Mobile Service. It is used for ship-to-shore,
ship-to-ship and between a ship and a
subscriber of the (international) telex net-
work. If you listen to shore station cw traf-
fic lists, you will probably hear references
to both TOR (SITOR) and TLX (telex).
Bill Meyn, K4PA, and asmall group of
U.S. amateurs operated AMTOR under a
Special Temporary Authority (STA) that
was granted by the FCC for tests that began
in January 1982. His test report was
published in the July 1983 QST Technical
Correspondence column. Also in the same W1AW AMTOR operating position.
QST issue was " An Introduction to
AMTOR," by Paul Newland, AD7I, one
of the AMTOR experimenters under the
STA. Additional references are listed at the quest. In addition to these three unique ser- return trip back to the ISS. Turnaround or
end of the AMTOR part of this chapter. vice information signals, there are three switching time associated with the modem
As aresult of aJanuary 27, 1983 FCC others (CS1, CS2 and CS3) which are not and the radio transmitter and receiver must
order, AMTOR was made part of the U.S. unique but are borrowed from, the 32 com- occur within this 240-ms period. A
Amateur Radio rules. The rule provided binations which equate to ITA No. 2. They receive/transmit turnaround time of less
that "the code, baud rate and emission are not confused with the message than 20 ms is required.
timing shall conform to the specifications characters because they are sent only in the When an ISS is done sending, it can
of CCIR Recommendation 476-2 ( 1978) reverse direction. enable the other station to become the ISS
Mode A or B." In alater action, the FCC by sending the three-character sequence
also recognized Recommendation 476-3, a Mode A (ARQ) FIGS Z B. A station may end the contact
later document which corrected some in- This is asynchronous system, transmit- by sending an "end of communication
consistencies in the earlier one. Anyone in- ting blocks of three characters from the In- signal" consisting of three Idle Signal
terested in the design aspects of AMTOR formation Sending Station (ISS) to the In- Alphas.
should refer to CCIR Rec. 476-3; you can formation Receiving Station (IRS). On the air, AMTOR Mode A signals
request aphotocopy from ARRL Hq. for The station that initiates the QS0 is have acharacteristic chirp-chirp sound to
a $2 fee for copying and mailing. known as the Master Station (MS). The MS them. Because of the 210/240 ms on/off
first sends the selective call of the called sta- timing, Mode A can be used with some
An Overview of AMTOR tion in blocks of three characters, listen- transmitters at full power levels.
In the Maritime Mobile Service, this type ing between blocks. Four-letter calls are
of system was devised as ameans of im- used in AMTOR and are normally derived Mode B (FEC)
proving communications between 5-unit, from first and last three letters of the sta- When transmitting to no particular sta-
asynchronous teleprinters using the ITA tion call sign, in order to follow the inter- tion (for example calling CQ, net or
No. 2(Baudot) code. The system'converts national maritime standard. The Slave Sta- bulletins) there is no (one) station to act as
the 5-unit code to a 7-unit code for tion (SS) recognizes its selective call and IRS, thus no one to send in the reverse
transmission. There is aone-for-one cor- answers that it is ready. Identities change, direction. Even if there were one, its abili-
respondence between the 5- and 7-unit and the MS now becomes the Information ty to receive properly may not be represen-
codes for all 32 combinations of the 5-unit Sending Station (ISS) and will send traffic tative of others desiring to copy the signal.
code, as can be seen in Table 15. Ordinari- as soon as the Information Receiving Sta- Mode B uses a simple forward-error-
ly, a7-unit code could have up to ror 128 tion (IRS) says it is ready. control (FEC) technique of sending each
possible combinations. In this case, there After contact is established, the ISS character twice. If the the repetition were
is aconstant ratio of four Bs to 3Ys. If sends its message in groups of three sent immediately, a single noise burst or
areceived character does not have this con- characters and pauses for areply from the quick fade could mutilate both. Burst 'er-
stant ratio, the receiving station knows that IRS. Each character is sent at arate of 100 rors can be virtually eliminated by delay-
it is erroneous. The constant ratio limits the bauds, amounting to 70 ms for one char- ing the repetition for aperiod thought to
number of usable combinations to 35. So acter or 210 ms for athree-character block. exceed the duration of most noise bursts.
32 of the combinations equate to the 32 The block repetition cycle is every 450 ms, In AMTOR, the first transmission (DX) of
ITA No. 2combinations, and there are 3 so there are 240 ms during each cycle that a character is followed by four other
left over for use as service information the ISS is not sending. This 240-ms period characters, after which the retransmission
signals as shown in Table 16. These three is taken up by propagation time from the (RX) of the first character occurs. At 70
unique combinations are Idle Signal Beta, ISS to the IRS, 70 ms for the IRS to send ms per character, this leaves 280 ms be-
Idle Signal Alpha and RQ or Repeal Re- its service information signal, and the tween the end of the first transmission and

Specialized Communications Systems 1445

the beginning of the second. From the start Daley, " Hf Radio Marine Telex," IEEE stitute (ANSI) Standard X3.4-1968. ANSI
of the first to the start of the second, the Transactions on Vehicular Technology, has issued arevision, X3.4-1977, which dif-
duration is 350 ms. VT-26, No. 3, August 1977, pp. 199-202. fers only in terminology and elimination of
In Mode B, the receiving station tests for DaSilva, Goldstern and Kok, " Simplex two choices for certain graphics. Its inter-
the constant 3B/4Y ratio and prints only TOR STB 75," Phillips Telecommuni- national counterparts are International
unmutilated DX or RX characters, or cations Review, Vol. 30, No. 1, Organization for Standardization Standard
prints an error symbol or space, if both are December 1971, pp. 1-14. ISO 646-1973 and International Alphabet
mutilated. Martinez, " Amtor, An Improved RTTY No. 5 as specified in CCITT Recommen-
The sending station's transmitter must be System Using aMicroprocessor," RSGB dation V.3.
capable of 100%-duty-cycle operation for Radio Communication, August 1979. ASCII uses seven bits to represent letters,
Mode B. Thus it may be necessary to Martinez, " Amtor, the Easy Way," RSGB figures, symbols and control characters.
reduce transmitter power level to 25% to Radio Communication, June/July 1980. Unlike ITA No. 2( Baudot), ASCII has
50% of full rating. Martinez, " Amtor — aProgress Report," both upper- and lower-case letters. The
RSGB Radio Communication, ASCII coded character set is shown in
AMTOR Operation September 1981, p. 813. Table 18. The bits in the table are arrang-
A number of U.S. and overseas stations Meyn, " Technical Correspondence — ed according to standard binary represen-
are now active on AMTOR. It no doubt Operating with AMTOR," QST, July tation (b7 through bl). In the international
will grow in popularity as soon as amateurs 1983, pp. 40-41. counterpart codes, £ usually replaces #, and
realize the virtually error- free operation Newland, " An Introduction to AMTOR," $may be replaced by the international cur-
that it offers. QST, July 1983. rency sign a .
The frequency shift is 170 Hz for both Some early video display terminals and
Maritime Mobile and amateur use of CCIR teleprinters, such as the Teletype Corp.
Rec. 476-3. Existing 170- Hz- shift ( Baudot model 33, implemented only the upper-case
RTTY) modems may be used for AMTOR. ASCII
letters. They usually display the upper-case
However, some demodulators designed for The American National Standard Code letters when lower-case letters are received.
45- or 50- baud Baudot RTTY service have for Information Interchange ( ASCII) is a On newer terminal equipment, a CAPS-
narrow filter bandwidths and may require coded character set used for information- LOCK feature on the keyboard may be
modification before they are suitable for processing systems, communications used to shift all letters to upper case.
100- baud AMTOR operation. Most systems and related equipment. Current
modem manufacturers will have modifica- FCC regulations provide that amateur use Parity
tion instructions or kits available. If you of ASCII shall conform to ASCII as de- While not strictly a part of the ASCII
have built amodem according to someone fined in American National Standards In- code ( ANSI X3.4-1968 or X3.4-1977), an
else's design, an s.a.s.e to the designer
probably will bring you the modification
information.
Some of the commercially built AMTOR
converters have built-in modems ( for ex- Table 18
ample, the I.C.S. Electronics AMT- 1uses The ASCII Coded Character Set
the low- tone pair of 1445 Hz and 1275 Hz).
Bit 7 0 0 0 0 1 1
One commercial unit ( the Hal Communica-
Number 6 0 0 1 1 0 0
tions Corp. ARQ1000) has an optional 5 0 1 0 1 0 1 o
170- Hz-shift modem with a 1700- Hz center 4321
frequency as specified in CCIR Recommen- 0000 NUL DLE SP 0 @ P
dation 476-3. Other manufacturers of 0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a
AMTOR equipment are Digital Electronic 0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R
0001 ETX DC3 # 3 C S
Systems, Inc. and Microlog.
0100 EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d
At the moment, most AMTOR activity 0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e
is around 14,075 and 3637.5 kHz, which 0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V
are used as calling frequencies. Operators 0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h
usually move off the calling frequency to
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y y
free it for others. However, there are some 1010 LF SUB J Z
a' it controlled stations which just 1011 VT ESC + : K [
stay on these frequencies. At this writing, 1100 FF FS ,
1101 CR GS — = M I
automatic control of an AMTOR station
1110 SO RS . > N /\
in the U.S. requires an FCC Special Tem- 1111 SI US / ? DEL
porary Authority. ACK = acknowledge FF form feed
You can listen for W1AW AMTOR BEL = bell FS = file separator
Mode B transmissions following the II BS = backspace GS = group separator
CAN = cancel HT = horizontal tab
A.M. Eastern Time RTTY transmissions
CR = carriage return LF = line feed
Monday through Thursday on 14,095 kHz. DC1 = device control 1 NAK = negative acknowledge
The WIAW AMTOR schedules should be DC2 = device control 2 NUL = null
expanded when you read this. Check alter- DC3 = device control 3 RS = record separator
DC4 = device control 4 SI = shift in
nate issues of QST for the W 1 AW
DEL = (delete) SO = shift out
schedule. DLE = data link escape SOH = start of heading
ENO = enquiry SP = space
Further Reading on AMTOR EM = end of medium STX = start of text
EOT = end of transmission SUB = substitute
Azimullah and Deraemaeker, " Simplex
ESC = escape SYN = synchronous idle
TOR STB 750 for World- Wide Radio ETB = end of block US = unit separator
Telegraph Communications," Phillips ETX = end of text VT = vertical tab
Telecommunications Review, Vol. 35,
Note: " 1" = mark, "0" = space
No. 4, December 1977.
14-46 Chapter 14
 transmission, only the information bits Table 19
CHAR.
CHARACTER NO 1 NO 2 (and optional parity bit) are sent, as shown
ASCII Asynchronous Signaling Rates
(CURRENT 7 ASCII BITS PARITY in Fig. 61A.
OFF)
Asynchronous (start-stop) serial trans- Bits per Data Stop
MARK
Second Pulse Pulse CPS WPM
mission adds astart pulse at the beginning
(ms) (ms)
SPACE—
and a stop pulse at the end of each
(CURRENT 0, 4 0, 4 4 b. b, P
110 9.091 18.182 10.0 100
OFF) character. The start pulse is the seine length 150 6.667 6.667 15.0 150
TIME

(A) SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

as for the information pulses. The stop 300 3.333 3.333 30.0 300
pulse may be one or two bit periods long. 600 1.667 1.667 60.0 600
1200 0.8333 0.8333 120 1200
CHAR Although there is some variation, the con-
ONE CHARACTER NO.2 2400 0.4167 0.4167 240 2400
vention is that the stop pulse is one bit 4800 0.2083 0.2083 480 4800
7 ASCII BITS
period long except for 110-baud transmis- 9600 0.1041 0.1041 960 9600
MARK-
sions where mechanical teletypewriters may 19200 0.0520 0.0520 1920 19200
SPACE-
be involved.
b, bp b, 4 4
4 p t
CPS = characters per second
STOP
ASCII Data Rates
START
PULSE PULSE

TIME Personal computers usually provide a START + 7 ( DATA) + PARITY +

(B) ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
choice of ASCII serial input/output data STOP
rates ranging from 110 to 19,600 bits per
CPS
second, as shown in Table 19. WPM = words per minute = x 60
Fig. 61 — Time sequence of typical ASCII 6
character, the letter S. sent serially.
Data communications signaling rates de-
= number of 5- letter- plus-space groups
pend largely on the medium and the state
per minute
of the art when the equipment was selected.
There are numerous national and interna-
eighth bit (P) may be added for parity tional standards which recommend dif-
checking. A parity check is the addition of ferent data rates, according to the service. ASCII has two (or three with aparity bit
binary Is in the grouping of bits to make The most-used rates tend to progress in 2:1 added) more bits than aynchronous Baudot
the sum of all the bits always odd or always steps from 300 to 9600 bits per second and and is usually sent at higher speeds. Thus,
even. This permits the detection of single in 8000 bits-persecond increments from it was felt that the greater data rates and
bit errors. However, the single parity bit 16,000 bits per second. For Amateur Radio increased bandwidth needed for ASCII
does not contain sufficient information for serial ASCII transmissions the data rates would make its reliability lower than that
the correction of errors. of 75, 110, 150, 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, of Baudot. This is true as far as it goes but
FCC rules permit optional use of the 9600, 16,000 and 56,000 bits per second are does not exhaust the the theoretical possi-
parity bit. The applicable U.S. standard suggested. bilities which will be discussed below.
(ANSI X3.16-1976) and international stan- On the practical side, some amateurs
Bauds vs. Bits Per Second tried ASCII on the air and experienced
dard (CCITT Rec. V.4) recommend an
even parity sense for asynchronous data The term baud is a unit of signaling poor results. In some cases, this can be
communication and odd parity sense for speed equal to the number of discrete con- traced to the use of modems which were op-
synchronous data communication. ditions or events per second. In single- timized for 45-baud operation. At 110 or
However, there is very little standardiza- channel transmission, such as the FCC 300 bauds, the 45-baud mark and space
tion within the computer industry, and you prescribes for Baudot transmissions, the filters are too narrow. On the hf bands,
will find five variations: ( 1) no parity, (2) signaling rate in bauds equals the rate in speeds above 50 or 75 bauds are subject to
always mark, (3) always space, (4) odd pari- bits per second. However, the FCC does intersymbol distortion (slurring one pulse
ty or (5) even parity. not limit ASCII to single-channel transmis- into the next) from multipath propagation.
sion. There are digital modulation systems Multiple paths can be avoided by operating
Code Extensions which have more than two (mark and at the maximum usable frequency (mut)
By sacrificing parity, the eighth bit can space) states. In dibit modulation two where there is only one ray path. The
be used to extend the ASCII 128-character ASCII bits are sampled at atime. The four amount of multipath delay varies according
code to one having 256 possibilities. Work possible states for adibit are 00, 01, 10, and to operating frequency with respect to the
is now underway to produce an interna- 11. In four-phase modulation, each state muf and path distance. Paths in the 600-
tional standard on extended coded is assigned an individual phase of 0, 90, 180 to 5000-mile ( 1000- to 8000-km) range are
character sets for text communication and 270 degrees, respectively. Using dibit generally less bothered by multiparh than
which will provide supplementary sets of phase modulation, the signaling speed in shorter or longer ones, with paths of 250
graphic characters. Use of these extended bauds is half the information-transfer rate miles (400 km) or less being difficult from
character sets by U.S. amateurs is per- in bits per second. As the FCC specifies the amultipath stanlipoint. As are.uh, suc-
mitted above 50 MHz but not below 50 digital sending speed in bauds, amateurs cessful operation at the higher ASCII
MHz where only specified codes (Baudot, may transmit ASCII at higher information speeds dependecyi using the highest fre-
AMTOR and ASCII) are authorized by rates by using digital modulation systems quency band possible as well as having
FCC rules. which encode more bits on each signaling suitable modems at both ends of the circuit.
element. This technology is open for Returning to the theoretical comparison
ASCII Serial Transmission exploration by Amateur Radio of Baudot and ASCII, recall that the FCC
Serial transmission of ASCII is covered experimenters. requires asynchronous ( start- stop)
in ANSI Standards X3.15 and X3.16, and transmission of Baudot. This means that
Amateur ASCII RTTY Operations the five information pulses must be sent
CCITT Recommendations V.4 and X.4.
They specify that the bit sequence for serial On April 17, 1980 the FCC first per- with astart pulse and astop pulse, usually
transmission of an ASCII character shall mitted ASCII in the Amateur Radio Ser- of 1.42 times the length of the information
be least-significant bit first to most- vice. U.S. amateurs have been slow to pulses. Thus, an asynchronous Baudot
significant bit or bl through b7 (plus the abandon Baudot in favor of asynchronous transmitted character requires 7.42 units.
parity, bit P if used). serial ASCII. In contrast, 7bits of ASCII plus aparity
Serial transmission may be either syn- Some of the reluctance to use it arises bit, astart and atwo-unit stop pulse has
chronous or asynchronous. In synchronous from the reasoning that asynchronous 11 units. However, it is possible to send

Specialized Communications Systems 14-47

 to synchronously transmit 8bits (7ASCII more positive than + 5 V and more
bits plus a parity bit) and take advantage negative than — 5V will operate the circuits
of the error-detection capability of parity. successfully. It is common practice to supp-
V FORBIDDEN
4-V 1iAX Also, there is nothing to prevent ASCII ly + 12 V and — 12 V power to type 1488
from being sent at alower speed, such as RS- 232-C drivers which are used in con-
ON
(SPACE) 50 or 75 bauds, to further make it as im- junction with type 1489 RS-232-C receivers.
mune to multipath as 45- or 50- baud In the case of either RS-232-C or V.24, the
+3V
Baudot RTTY is. So it is easy to see that signaling rate is guaranteed to operate on-
OV
- 3V
- TRANSITION
REGION ASCII can be as reliable as Baudot RTTY ly up to 20,000 bits per second and
if care is used in system design. distances up to 50 feet ( 15 meters).
OFF While 45- or 50-baud RTTY circuits can Pin assignments for RS- 232-C and
(MARK)
provide reliable communications, this range CCITT V.24 are shown in Table 20. A par-
of signaling speeds does not make full use ticular 25- pin connector will not be found
of the hf medium. Speeds ranging from 75 in these documents but in ISO/DIS 2210.2.
, FORBIDDEN
to 1200 bauds can be achieved on hf with The commercial types are the TRW-Cinch
error-detection and error-correction tech- D-Subminiature DB25P and DB25S or
RSOURCE < 300 OHMS niques similar to those used in AMTOR. equivalent by other manufacturers. The
3000 OHMS < RLOAD < 7000 OHMS Reliable transmission at these higher speeds male pin connector ( DB25P) is normally in-
can be accomplished by means of packet stalled on data terminal equipment, and the
OLOAD < 2500 pF
radio, which is described later in this female connector ( DB25S) on the data
VMAX < 25 VOLTS, SOURCE chapter. communications equipment (modem).
OPEN CIRCUITED

< 15 VOLTS, SOURCE Data Interface Standards Bibliography on ASCII

LOADED WITH 3000 OHMS

In most equipment using ASCII, voltage ANSI X3.4-1977, " Code for information
Fig. 62 — RS-232-C and V.28 voltage limits. levels are specified for mark and space con- interchange," American National
ditions, rather than current levels used in Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway,
Baudot teletypewriter loops. The Electronic New York, NY 10018.
only the 7 ASCII information bits syn- Industries Association (EIA) Standard ANSI X3.15-1976, " Bit sequencing of the
chronously (without start and stop pulses), RS- 232-C is used in the U.S. Its interna- American national standard code for
making the number of units that must be tional counterparts are CCITT Recommen- information interchange in serial- by- bit
transmitted (7vs. 7.42) slightly smaller for dations V.24 and V.28. The voltage ranges data transmission."
ASCII than for Baudot. Or, it is possible are shown in Fig. 62. Most signals that are ANSI X3.16-1976, " Character structure

Table 20
Data Interface Connections

RS- 232-C V.24 Common

Pin Ckt Description Number Name Abbr.•
1 AA Protective Ground 101 Frame Ground FG
2 BA Transmitted Data 103 Transmitted Data TxD
3 BB Received Data 104 Received Data RxD
4 CA Request to Send 105 Request to Send RTS
5 CB Clear to Send 106 Clear to Send CTS
6 CC Data Set Ready 107 Data Set Ready DSR
7 AB Signal Ground 102 Signal Ground SG
8 CF Received Line Signal Detector 109 Data Carrier Detect CD
9 — ( Reserved for Data Set Testing)
10 — ( Reserved for Data Set Testing)
11 Unassigned
12 SCF Sec. Rec'd Line Sig. Detector 122 Backward Channel Received Line SCD
Signal Detector
13 SCB Sec. Clear to Send 121 Backward Channel Ready SCTS
14 SBA Sec. Transmitted Data 118 Transmitted Backward Channel Data STxD
15 DB Transmission Signal Element 114 Transmitter Signal Element Timing TxC
Timing ( DCE Source) (DCE Source)
16 SBB Sec. Received Data 119 Received Backward Channel Data SRxD
17 DD Receiver Signal Element Timing 115 Receiver Signal Element RxC
(DCE Source) Timing ( DCE Source)
18 Unassigned
19 SCA Sec. Request to Send 120 Transmitted Backward Line Signal SRTS
20 CD Data Terminal Ready 108/2 Data Terminal Ready DTR
21 CG Signal Quality Detector 110 Data Signal Quality Detector SQ
22 CE Ring Indicator 125 Calling Indicator RI
23 CH/CI Data Signal Rate Selector 111 Data Rate Selector
112 Data Rate Selector
24 DA Transmit Signal Element Timing 113 Transmitter Signal Element timing, ETxC
(DTE Source) (DTE Source)
25 Unassigned
26 ( Not used)

•Most abbreviations in this column are generally recognized by association with their full names. Exceptions are: ETxC = External Transmitter Clock, RxC = Receiver Clock and
TxC = Transmitter Clock.

14-48 Chapter 14
 and character parity sense for serial-by- This layer establishes alink (radio circuit)
f
AFi3.1CA I
Ivft APPLICAIION
bit data communication information
7
through supervisory frames and performs
interchange." 6
PRESENTATION 6
PRESENTATION error detection and recovery.
- - - -

ANSI X3.25-1976, " Character structure 5

SESSION 5
SESSION
and character parity sense for parallel- 4
TRANSPORT 4
TRANSP0f, Network Layer (Level 3)
by-bit communication in American INTERFACE
3
NETWORK 3
NETWORK The Network layer deals with address-
national standard code for information ing, routing, multiplexing and flow control.
2
LINK 2
LINK
interchange," X3 . 25. EP
1701
C7CC7LS
7 The term packet is used in this layer to
Berner, " Inside ASCII," Interface Ake, 1
PHYSICAL C---- 1
PHYSICAL describe the message structure. Two types
May, June and July 1978. of networks are virtual circuit which first
CCITT V.3, " International Alphabet No. COMMUNICATIONS MEDIUM establishes alogical connection between the
5," International Telegraph and Tele- end points, then uses an abbreviated packet
phone Consultative Committee. CCITT Fig. 63 — Open Systems Interconnection header and datagram which uses a com-
volumes with recommendations prefixed reference model protocol levels. The solid plete header in each packet. Layer 3is often
with the letters V and X are available lines between layers, as shown between 3 subdivided into sublayers A (network) and
from United Nations Bookstore, Room and 4, are interfaces. The dashed lines in-
dicate logical communication between peer
B (internet).
32B, UN General Assembly Building, layers.
New York, NY 10017 or from Inter- Transport Layer (Level 4)
national Telecommunications Union, The Transport layer arranges the infor-
General Secretariat, Sales Service, mation in the correct order in the event of
area for future experimentation.
Place de Nation, CH 1211, Geneva 20, packets arriving out of sequence through
This type of digital communication is still
Switzerland. a network. If the network fragments the
highly developmental. Over 300 U.S.
CCITT V.4, " General structure of packets, the transport level reassembles the
amateurs are active on packet radio, and
signals of International Alphabet No. 5 data in correct order.
the number is growing rapidly. There is also
code for data transmission over the
packet radio activity in Australia, Canada,
public telephone network." Session Layer (Level 5)
New Zealand, South Africa and Sweden,
CCITT V.24, " List of Definitions for The session layer initiates and terminates
with Japan and some other European coun-
Interchange Circuits Between Data- communications through the network. This
tries expected to join in soon.
Terminal equipment and Data Circuit- layer handles network log- on and
Terminating Equipment." Packet-Radio Standards authentication.
CCITT V.28, " Electrical Characteristics
Packet-radio experimenters have paid
for Unbalanced Double-Current Inter- Presentation Layer (Level 6)
close attention to standards developed by
change Circuits." The presentation layer performs any
the communications industry and have
EIA RS-232-C, " Interface Between Data code conversion, controls data structure
adopted them where applicable. This
Terminal Equipment and Data and display formats and manages data in-
• enables the amateur to benefit from the ex-
Communication Equipment Employing terchange with peripheral storage devices.
perience of others and maintain a high
Serial Binary Data Interchange,"
degree of compatibility with industrial
Electronic Industries Association, Application Layer (Level 7)
standards.
Engineering Department, 2001 Eye The application layer contains the user
Street, Washington, DC 20006. Open Systems Interconnection software that requires communication via
Mackenzie, " Coded Character Sets, Reference Model the network.
History and Development," Addison-
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Wesley Publishing Co., 1980. Amateur Packet Radio
reference model is along-term project of
the International Organization for Stan- Historical Perspective
PACKET RADIO dardization (ISO) and was introduced in The Canadian Department of Com-
Packet radio takes advantage of the 1978. The OSI model was developed to pro- munications authorized packet radio in
speed differences between how fast humans mote compatibile communications between 1978. With this head start, Canadian radio
can type on a keyboard and how fast awide variety of devices. In it, the com- amateurs in Montreal, Vancouver and
microcomputers can send data via radio. munications structure is specified in sevenelsewhere began experimenting with this
By saving (or buffering) data from a layers, each with its own protocol. Each new form of communication. The Van-
keyboard until afull line is typed and then layer is modular, enabling a division of couver Amateur Digital Communications
sending it in aburst at high speed, asta- labor in the design and validation of Group (VADCG) adopted a form of the
tion needs to transmit only intermittently. protocols. ISO High-Level Link Control (HDLC) bit-
During the transmission gaps, other sta- The seven OSI layers are illustrated in oriented protocol which permits manipula-
tions can send their data on the same Fig. 63. The OSI-layer concept is so in- tion of each bit rather than each character
channel. grained in data communications that an ap- or byte. Doug Lockhart, VE7APU, de-
To ensure that each transmission is signed aTerminal Node Controller (TNC)
preciation of it is essential for anyone in-
received by the intended station(s), each terested in packet radio. to perform assembly and disassembly of
transmission carries an address. The selec- frames (or packets) according to aprogram
tive addressing feature of packet radio can Physical Layer (Level I) supplied on programmable read-only
be used for direct contact between two sta- Layer 1, the Physical layer, is concerned memory (PROM). Whenever someone im-
tions or for automatic routing throughout with bits (binary ones and zeros, marks and proved the protocol, new PROMs could be
anetwork. spaces). EIA RS-232-C and CCITT programmed and exchanged for the old
Packet radio uses Automatic Repeat Re- V.24/V.28 standards apply here. Modems, ones.
quest (ARQ) to eliminate transmission er- radios and the communications medium In 1980, two groups in the U.S. began
rors. AMTOR, discussed earlier in this are layer 1considerations. experimenting with the VADCG TNC
chapter, has both ARQ and Forward- boards. One was in San Francisco where
Error-Control (FEC) options. Although Link Layer (Level 2) Hank Magnuski, KA6M, activated the first
work has been done by W9JD and DJ4ZC, The Link layer arranges the bits into U.S. amateur packet radio digital repeater
FEC has not been fully developed for frames. The most-common protocol is ISO on 2m. While VADCG boards were used
amateur packet radio and is an interesting High-Level Data Link Control ( HDLC). by other stations, KA6M/R used an STD
Specialized CommunIcatIona Systems 14-49
 used for experimental 1200-baud transmis-
sions on 10 m.
Synchronous modulation and demodula-
OUTPUT INPUT
SPAR
tion offers atheoretical 3-dB improvement
TERMINAL NODE
MODEM TRANSCEIVER over nonsynchronous operation. For syn-
/rERMINAL CONTROLLER
mIc chronous operation, the frequency shift (in
INPUT OUTPUT an fsk modem) must be harmonically re-
lated to the signaling speed in bits per sec-
TERMINAL SIDE LINE SIDE ond. Thus, a 1200 bit-per-second syn-
chronous modem could use frequency
Fig. 64 — Block diagram showing a typical packet- radio station. The arrows indicate the shifts of 2400, 1200 or even 600 Hz. In the
direction of data flow. case of 600-Hz shift, the shift (in hertz) is
half the signaling rate ( 1200 bits per sec-
ond), making it minimum-shift keying
bus with a Z80 microprocessor driving a which provides aservice to other packet- (msk). Msk is particularly conservative of
Western Digital type 1933 HDLC protocol radio stations. A packet-radio digital bandwidth compared to wider-shift fsk or
controller chip. The San Francisco group repeater consists of the same blocks except with phase-shift keying ( psk). As of
is now known as the Pacific Packet Radio that the terminal is omitted. mid- 1983, there are no completed Amateur
Society. In the Washington, DC area, the Radio msk modem designs, but develop-
Amateur Radio Research and Development Packet-Radio Networks
ment is under way.
Corporation (AM RAD) used its The term Local-Area Network ( LAN) is The use of a fixed 600-Hz shift for hf
WD4IWG/R 2-m fm repeater for shared used in the communications industry to in- packet radio would permit synchronous
voice and packet-radio operation. A packet dicate apacket-switched network within a modulation and demodulation for speeds
repeater, WB4JFI/R, was linked with building or campus, connected by coaxial of 75, 150, 300, 600 and 1200 bits per sec-
WD4IWG/R. cable, optical fiber or very short-range ond. At 1200 bits per second, it would
In October 1981, the ARRL sponsored radio. While the term LAN has been used qualify as msk. As discussed under Baudot
an Amateur Radio Computer Networking to mean an amateur packet-radio network RTTY, the 600-Hz shift is wide enough to
Conference in the Washington, DC area. operating on 2m, such usage violates the take advantage of in-band frequency diver-
This conference helped to focus attention industry definition. The term Metropolitan sity. A multispeed hf packet-radio modem
on packet-radio technology and introduce Area Network ( MAN) is gaining favor in incorporating these features, designed by
packet-radio experimenters who had never industry and is closer to the Amateur Radio Robert Watson and W4RI, is currently in
met each other until then. A second ARRL local network concept. However, amateur the process of pc-board layout.
conference was held in San Francisco, in packet-radio networks can cover metro- Because of its bandwidth conservation,
March 1983. Proceedings of both con- politan, suburban and rural areas as well msk is probably the best type of modula-
ferences are listed in the bibliography, as thousands of miles via hf or satellite. tion to use for high-speed intercity packet
below. Thus an amateur packet-radio network is radio links which may operate at speeds
•After the conference in late 1981, Den the logical connection of a number of such as 16,000 or 56,000 bauds. Modem
Connors, KD2S, moved to Tucson, AZ packet-radio stations either directly or via and radio-equipment designs are needed for
and founded the Tucson Amateur Packet anet-control station on aspecific radio fre- these links.
Radio Corporation (TAPR). This group quency (or group of frequencies) employing
designed the TAPR INC which added an common protocols. VADCG Terminal Node Controller
on-board modem. About 200 TAPR TNC The VADCG TNC uses an Intel 8273
boards have been built and are being tested Internetworking
HDLC controller for assembly and dis-
throughout the U.S. and other countries. While packet experimenters are working assembly of frames and a type 8085
To bring the hardware-development toward common protocols, it is likely that microprocessor to control all on-board
history up to date, Bill Ashby, K2TKN, has some networks will adopt dissimilar pro- functions. Virtually all users have elected
designed areduced-size (4.5 x6in.) TNC, tocols. Connections between incompatible to use the type 8250 serial input/output
and Terry Fox, WB4JFI, of AMRAD, is networks can be accomplished by agreeing (I/O) chip, but an 8255 parallel I/O IC may
finalizing the pc layout of his PAD (Packet on a common internet protocol. Packet- be used. Fig. 66 is a photograph of an
Assembler/Disassembler) on an S-100 radio stations which act as interfaces be- assembled VADCG TNC, and Fig. 67 is a
(IEEE Std 696-1983) board. tween different protocols or networks are functional block diagram. VADCG TNC
called gateway stations. pc boards are available from VE7A0G,
A Typical Packet-Radio Station
The eventual goal is to develop aglobal KA6M or K8MMO for $30.00.
Fig. 64 shows a block diagram of a amateur packet-radio network which ties
typical amateur packet-radio station. Either together the hf, vhf and uhf networks TAPR Terminal Node Controller
an ASCII terminal (Video Display Unit or around the world, both terrestrial and The TAPR TNC " Beta Test" model is
printer) or amicrocomputer can be used. satellite. shown in Fig. 68. It is similar to the
The computer can be used for applications VADCG TNC except for the addition of
internal to the station or may become ahost Modems
aBell 202-compatible modem in the lower
VADCG chose Bell 202 modem stan- right-hand portion of the photograph. The
dards for their 2-m packet radio network functional block diagram is shown in Fig.
because some were available on the surplus 69.
market. Bell 202 modems use the audio TAPR is currently preparing TNC kits
tones of 1200 Hz (mark) and 2200 Hz with improvements over the Beta Test
(space), as shown in Fig. 65. This is aserial, model for release in September 1983 or as
800 1200 1700 2200 3300
half-duplex, fsk modem which operates at soon as possible thereafter. The price of
387 MARK
FREOUE 110'1 111,1
,
SPACE
1200 bits per second (optionally 1800 bits these kits is expected to be about $250.
per second on telephone lines). U.S.
Fig. 65 — Bell 202 modem frequencies. The packet-radio stations are currently using the Protocol Development
387- Hz reverse channel on some Bell 202 Bell 202 standard for afsk with 2-m fm The original VADCG protocols were
modems is not used for amateur packet radio. transceivers. The Bell 202 also has been modified several times by the PPRS and
14-50 Chapter 14
 SERIAL 1,0
8250 — 1
FIDLC CONTROLLER OEM
8273

PARALLEL 1/0
8255

CPU
8085

MEMORY RAM
EPROM
DECODER
21845
741.5138

Fig. 66 — A VADCG Terminal Node Controller board fully assembled.

The software is easily changed by replacing the PROM chips in the Fig. 67 — Functional block diagram of the VADCG Terminal Node
upper left-hand corner. Controller for packet radio.

AMRAD. Lack of agreement on protocols of physical-level standards, and K3NA is beginning flag, address field, control field,
prompted Tom Clark, W3IWI, of drafting aproposed network-level protocol information field, frame-check sequence
AMSAT, to call ameeting of U.S. packet- based on CCITT X.25. While there is (FCS), and ending flag.
radio groups in October 1982. AMSAT's general agreement among U.S. packet- The flags are always 01111110. To en-
concern was that standards were needed for radio experimenters on protocols for levels sure that six ones appear only at the begin-
AMICON packet-radio operation on the 1and 2, there is controversy concerning ning and ending of aframe, zero insertion
OSCAR 10 Li Special Service Channel. level 3 whether a virtual-connection or or bit stuffing is used as illustrated in Fig.
This resulted in U.S. groups adopting a datagram oriented protocol should be 71.
common link-level protocol proposed by adopted, particularly for internetworking. The address field consists of two or three
AMRAD as part of its AX.25 (amateur More work toward level 3agreement is ex- specially encoded Amateur Radio call
version of CCITT X.25) and modified by pected in late 1983 and 1984. signs. The first address is that of the
PPRS. In terms of industry standards, the To date, only isolated work has been destination or called station. The second is
groups adopted ANSI 3.66 ADCCP- done to develop level-4through level-7pro- the source or calling station. The third is
HDLC BA Class, with options 2, 4, 7, 8 tocols. These protocols need to be com- optional and used only to identify the par-
and 11. Most packet-radio experimenters pleted before application programs can be ticular terrestrial packet-radio repeater
refer to it as " AX.25." accessed via packet radio. desired to retransmit the frame. Because ex-
As of this writing, only the link-level pro- tension of the HDLC address field uses the
tocol has been published. Refer to Link-Level Protocol first (least-significant or low-order) bit, the
WB4JFI's "AX.25 Level 2Protocol," in Fig. 70 shows the current (AX.25) frame call signs are shifted so that the second bit
the proceedings of the Second ARRL format. Transmission of the frame is nor- is the first one of the ASCII character of
Amateur Radio Computer Networking mally preceeded by 16 bit reversals for syn- the call sign. There is space for seven-
Conference. W4RI has circulated adraft chronization. The frame consists of the character call signs; those having fewer

Fig. 69 — Functional block diagram of the TAPR Terminal Node

1-ig. 68 — IAPH ferminal Node Controller beta lest model Controller.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-51

 quencies ( an input and an output), 2-m
E FLAG . ADDRESS CONTROL INFORMATION FCS FLAG packet- radio repeaters normally use
simplex frequencies (input and output on
14/21 — — 1 2
01111110 1 OCTET PIDIVARIABLE OCTETS 01111110 the same frequency). The source station
OCTETS 1
' sends a frame to the repeater. After veri-
fying the accuracy of the frame using the
Frame- Check Sequence (FCS) the repeater
retransmits the frame ( setting the "H" bit)
on the same frequency. Direct simplex
REPEATER communication between two packet sta-
DESTINATION SOURCE
(OPTIONAL) tions is also possible where arepeater is not
I 1 1 I I Iss IIIIIIss I 1111 I SS required.
K 8 MMO SP WB 4 J F I WD 4 1WG
Here are some packet- radio firsts on hf.
LIIII IID IIIIII ID I IIIII ID
The first transcontinental hf packet- radio
contact was made between K1RT in Con-
necticut and W6LLO in California on 20
oS o SS D H mon February 8, 1982. On May 31, 1982,
D
K8MMO and W4RI made a successful
1200- baud packet-radio QSO on 10-m
groundwave. W3IWI and N5AHD made
ASCII K SECONDARY SET SSID HAS BEEN
STATION TO REPEATER
two-way contact on 10-m using 1200- baud
IDENTIFIER o 1 = HAS packet radio on October 16, 1982. Suc-
O = NOT cessful two-way 10-m intercontinental
RESERVED FOR LOCAL USE
packet- radio tests were conducted between
W3IWI and ZL1AOX on May 27, 1983.
HDLC EXTENDER BIT SET TO 0 EXCEPT FOR LAST Also participating in this test series were
OCTET N5AHD, N6TE and WA2LQQ.
Hf packet radio uses the same subbands
as Baudot RTTY and AMTOR. Suggested
Fig. 70 — Packet- radio frame format.
packet- radio frequencies are:
80 m 3611.5 and 3628.5 kHz
40 m 7091.5 and 7098.5 kHz
7036.5 and 7043.5 kHz ( to
work stations in IARU
AG Region 1)
DATA 1 0 0 0 0 I 1 0
011 110 ,BITS 30 m 10,141.5 and 10,148.5 kHz
4444444 444
,

,
20 m 14,076.5 and 14,098.5 kHz
NRZI
17 m 18,101.5 and 18,108.5 kHz
(WARC band pending FCC
Fig. 71 — The HDLC controller chip uses R
approval for U.S. use)
zero- insertion or bit- stuffing to eliminate the 15 m 21,091.5 and 21,098.5 kHz
possibility of flags appearing within a frame. Fig. 72 — Non- Return-to-Zero ( NRZI) encoding 12 m 24,921.5 and 24,928.5 kHz
The transmitter examines the content between performed by the HDLC conroller. Signal con- (WARC band pending FCC
flags and inserts a 0 bit after all sequences of dition does not change to send a 1. A binary 0
contiguous 1 bits to ensure that a flag se- causes a change in state. Long strings of
approval for U.S. use)
quence is not simulated. The receiver discards zeros cause transition every bit time. Long 10 m 28,091.5 and 28,098.5 kHz.
any 0 bit which directly follows 5 contiguous 1 strings of ones are broken by zero- bit
bits which occur between the flag sequences. insertion. Packet Radio Biblography
ARRL, "( First) ARRL Amateur Radio
Computer Networking Conference,"
to prevent the reception of identical frames, characters are padded with ASCII spaces. October 16, 1981. Photocopy of pro-
one direct and one from the repeater. A full The last octet of each address element is ceedings available for $ 8 postpaid
discussion of this frame format is in apaper the Secondary Station Identifier ( SSID). from AMRAD, P.O. Drawer 6148,
by WB4JFI given at the Second ARRL The first bit is the extender and is always McLean, VA 22101.
Amateur Radio Computer Networking set to zero. The next four bits are left up ARRL, " Second ARRL Amateur Radio
Conference listed in the bibliography, to the individual station to identify dif- Computer Networking Conference,"
below. ferent packet-radio stations operating March 19, 1983. Proceedings available
The HDLC controller chips automatical- under the same call sign. For example, a for $9 postpaid from ARRL Hq.
ly encode the data stream in Non-Return- station may have a terminal station, host D. Borden and P. Rinaldo, " The Making
to-Zero-Inverted ( NRZI) format to ensure computer and a repeater operating under of an Amateur Packet- Radio Network,"
that the channel has a transition ( change the same call sign. The all- one ( 1111) con- QST, October, 1981.
from mark to space or vice versa) at least dition is an all-call SSID to address any/all H. Magnuski, " National Standards for
every 5bit intervals. NRZI encoding is il- stations operating under the same call sign. Amateur Packet Radio Networks," Con-
lustrated in Fig. 72. The two bits marked " R" are reserve and ference Proceedings of the Eighth
may be used in an agreed upon manner in (1983) West Coast Computer Faire,
Packet-Radio Operation
individual networks. Otherwise, they are set 245 Swett Rd., Woodside, CA 94062.
To date, nearly all packet-radio opera- to one. M. Morrison, D. Morrison and L.
tion has taken place on 2-m fm. There are The SSID octet in the repeater address, Johnson, " Amateur Packet Radio,"
2-m packet-radio networks in anumber of when used, differs from the others in that Ham Radio, July and August 1983.
areas throughout the U.S. and Canada. its last bit, "H" is used to indicate whether P. Rinaldo, " Evolution of the Amateur
While 2-m fm voice repeaters use two fre- aframe has been repeated. This is necessary Packet Radio Network," Conference

14-52 Chapter 14
 Proceedings of the Eighth ( 1983) Corp. (AMRAD), monthly AMRAD Tucson Amateur Packet Radio Corp
West Coast Computer Faire. Newsletter ($ 15). William P. Pala, (TAPR), bimonthly Packet Status
WB4NFB, 5829 Parakeet Dr., Burke, Register ($ 12). TAPR, P.O. Box 22888,
More Information VA 22015. Tucson, AZ 85734.
The following organizations regularly ARRL, monthly, QEX — The ARRL St. Louis Amateur Packet Radio Club
publish newsletters with substantial packet- Experimenters' Exchange ($6members, (SLAPR), monthly SLAPR Protocol
radio information: $12 nonmembers). ARRL, 225 Main ($12), 1309 Gloucester Dr., Edwards-
Amateur Radio Research and Development St., Newington, CT 06111. ville, IL 62025.

Glossary of Digital Communications

sent with a transmission block to enable satellite with store-and- forward capability.
Terminology
the receiving station to check the integrity PAD — Packet Assembler/Disassembler, a
ACK — Acknowledgement, the control signal of the data. device which assembles and disassembles
sent to indicate the correct receipt of a CSMA — Carrier Sense Multiple Access, a packets ( frames). It is connected between
transmission block. channel access arbitration scheme in which a data terminal (or computer) and a modem
Address — A character or group of characters packet- radio stations listen on a channel for in a packet- radio station. (See also TNC.)
that identifies a source or destination. the presence of a carrier before transmitting Parity Check — Addition of noninformation
Alsk — Audio frequency-shift keying. a frame. bits to data, making the number of ones in
AMICON — AMSAT International Computer Datagram — A mode of packet networking in a group of bits always either even or odd.
Network — Packet- radio operation on SSC which each packet contains complete ad- Protocol — A formal set of rules and pro-
L1 of AMSAT-OSCAR 10 to provide net- dressing and control information. ( Opposite cedures for the exchange of information
working of ground stations acting as of Virtual Circuit.) within a network.
gateways to terrestrial packet- radio Data Set — Modem. Psk — Phase-Shift Keying.
networks. Destination — In packet radio, the station RAM — Random Access Memory.
AMRAD — Amateur Radio Research and which is the intended receiver of the frame Received Data — Physical- level signals gen-
Development Corporation, a non-profit sent over a radio link either directly or via erated by the DCE are sent to the DTE on
organization involved in packet- radio a repeater. this circuit. (Abbreviated RxD.)
development. ( P.O. Drawer 6148, McLean, DCE — Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment, Request to Send — Physical- level signal used
VA 22106.) the equipment ( for example, a modem) to control the direction of data transmission
AMTOR — Amateur Teleprinting Over Radio, which provides communication between the of the local DCE. (Abbreviated RTS.)
an amateur radioteletype transmission DTE and the line or radio equipment. RO — Receive-Only teletypewriter.
technique employing error correction as DTE — Data Terminal Equipment, for example ROM — Read-Only Memory.
specified in CCIR 476-2 or 476-3. a VDU or teleprinter. ROTR — Receive-Only Typing Reperforator
ANSI — American National Standards EIA — Electronic Industries Association. (2001 Set.
Institute. ( 1430 Broadway, New York, NY Eye St., N.W., Washington, DC 20006.) RS-232-C — An EIA standard physical- level
10018.) FCS — Frame Check Sequence. (See CRC.) interface between DTE (terminal) and DCE
ARO — Automatic Repeat Request, an error- FEC — Forward Error Control, an error-control (modem), using 25- pin connectors.
control technique in which a sending sta- technique in which the transmitted data is SOFTNET — An experimental packet- radio
tion, after transmitting a data block, awaits sufficiently redundant to permit the re- network at the University of Linkoping,
a reply (ACK or NAK) to determine whether ceiving station to correct some errors. Sweden.
to repeat the last block or proceed to the Flag — In packet switching, a link- level octet Source — In packet radio, the station trans-
next. (01111110) used to initiate and terminate a mitting the frame over a direct radio link or
ASCII — American Standard Code for Informa- frame. via a repeater.
tion Interchange, a code consisting of 7 in- Fsk — Frequency-Shift Keying. TAPR — Tucson Amateur Packet Radio
formation bits. Gateway — In packet radio, an interchange Corporation, a nonprofit organization in-
ASR — An Automatic Send- Receive teletype- point between dissimilar networks employ- volved in packet- radio development. ( P.O.
writer. ing different protocols. Box 22888, Tucson, AZ 85734.)
Baud — A unit of signaling speed equal to Host — As used in packet radio, a computer TD — Tape Transmitter- Distributor Set, a
the number of discrete conditions or events with applications programs accessible by paper tape reader.
per second. ( If the duration of a pulse is remote stations. Teleprinter — A printing a teletypewriter.
20 ms, the signaling rate is 50 bauds or the IA No. 5 — International Alphabet Number 5, a Teletype — Trademark of the Teletype Corpor-
reciprocal of 0.02.) (Abbreviated Bd.) 7-bit coded character set, CCITT version of ation, usually used to refer to teletype-
Baudot code — A coded character set in ASCII. writers.
which five bits represent one character. ISO — International Organization for Standard- Teletypewriter — Generic term for printing
Used in the U.S. to refer to ITA No. 2. ization. telegraph equipment. ( For specific types see
BER — Bit Error Rate. ITA No. 2 — International Telegraph Alphabet ASR, KSR, RO, ROTA and TD.)
Bit — Binary Digit, a single symbol, in Number 2, a CCITT 5- bit coded character set TNC — Terminal Node Controller, a device
binary terms either a one or zero. commonly called the Baudot or Murray that assembles and disassembles packets
Byte — A group of bits, usually eight. code. (frames). ( Used interchangeably with PAD.)
Carrier Detect — Formally, Received Line KSR — Keyboard Send- Receive teletypewriter. Transmitted Data — Physical- level data sig-
Signal Detector, a physical- level interface Mode A — In AMTOR, an Automatic Repeat nals transferred on a circuit from the DTE to
signal which indicates that the receiver Request transmission method. the DCE. (Abbreviated TxD.)
section of the modem is receiving tones Mode B — In AMTOR, a Forward Error Cor- TTY — Teletypewriter.
from the distant modem. rection transmission method. TU — Terminal Unit, a radioteletype modem or
CCIR — International Radio Consultative Modem — Modulator- Demodulator, a device demodulator.
Committee, an International Telecommuni- which connects between a data terminal Turnaround time — The time required to re-
cation Union agency. and communication line (or radio). Also verse the direction of a half-duplex circuit,
CCITT — International Telegraph and Tele- called Data Set. required by propagation, modem reversal
phone Consultative Committee, an Interna- Msk — Frequency- shift keying where the and transmit-receive switching time of a
tional Telecommunication Union agency. shift in Hz is equal to half the signaling rate transceiver.
Clear to Send — A physical- level interface in bits per second. VADCG — Vancouver Amateur Digital
circuit generated by the DCE which when NAK — Negative Acknowledge. (Opposite of Communications Group. (c/o Don Oliver,
ON indicates that the signals presented ACK.) VE7A0G, 818 Rondeau St., Coquitlam, BC
on the Transmitted Data circuit be trans- Node — A point within a network, usually V3J 5Z3, Canada.)
mitted. where two or more links come together, per- VDU — Video Display Unit, a device used to
Collision — A condition when two or more forming switching, routine and concen- display data, usually provided with a
transmissions occur at the same time and trating functions. keyboard for data entry.
cause interference to the intended re- Octet — A group of eight bits. Virtual Circuit — A mode of packet
ceivers. Ook — On-off keying. networking in which a logical connection
Contention — A condition on a communi- Packet Radio — A digital communications that emulates a point-to-point circuit is es-
cations channel that occurs when two or technique involving radio transmission of tablished. (Opposite of Datagram.)
more stations try to transmit at the same short bursts ( frames) of data containing V.24 — A CCITT standard defining physical-
time. addressing, control and error-checking in- level interface circuits between a DTE
CRC — Cyclic Redundancy Check, a mathe- formation in each transmission. (terminal) and DCE (modem), equivalent to
matit.al upeuelluii iii whiell the results are PACSAT — Proposed AiVIJA IPaCKet-radio EIA Rb - 2,12-U.

Specialized Communications Systems 14-53

 Standard Frequencies and Time Signals
WWV BROADCAST FORMAT The National Bureau of Standards maintains
VIA TELEPHONE 13031 499- flit STATION 10 two radio transmitting stations, WWV at Ft.
RIOT A TOLL- FREE NUMBER, 440 HI 1HOUR MARK
Collins, CO, and WWVH near Kekaha, Kanai,
,.—NBS RESERVED
HI, for broadcasting standard radio frequencies
of high accuracy. WWV and WWVH broadcasts
are on 2.5, 5, 10 and 15 MHz, and WWV on 20
STORM INFORMATION
MHz. The broadcasts of both stations are con-
tinuous, night and day. Standard audio fre-
LOCATION quencies of 440, 500 and 600 Hz are trans-
NO
40'40 41 0 N 108.02 27 0NY
mitted on each radio carrier frequency by
AUDIO STANDARD • ROADCAST FREQUENCIES WWV and WWVH. The duration of each tone is
TONE AND R•01•IFD POW,
NINE 2 • AVI FAI4e - 10 YIN approximately 45 seconds. A 500- Hz tone is
10.1. 10 kW IS NON - 10 kW broadcast during even alternate minutes
20 1414i - SkW
unless voice announcements or silent periods
UT ICORRECTIONS
OMEGA are scheduled. A 440- Hz tone is broadcast
FOR ADDITION•L INFORMATION CONT•CT REPORTS beginning one minute after the hour by WWVH
NOS RADIO STATION WS,
2000 FAST COUNTY RD and two minutes after the hour by WWV. The
GEO ALERTS
FT COLLINS CO 80,4 440- Hz tone period is omitted during the first
13011 484 2372
hour of the UTC day.
Transmitted frequencies from the two sta-
tions are accurate to ± 1part in 10 11 .Atomic
• BEGINNING OF EACH HOUR IS IDENTIFIED BY frequency standards are used to maintain this
OR SECOND LONG. 1500 At TONE
accuracy. Voice announcements of the time, in
• BEGINNING OF EACH MINUTE IS IDENTIFIED BY
STATION ID
English, are given every minute. WWV utilizes
08 SECOND LONG. 1000 111 TONE
a male voice, and WWVH features a female
• THE 29th & 59th SECOND PULSE OF EACH MINUTE IS OMITTED
voice to distinguish between the two stations.
WWVH BROADCAST FORMAT WWV time and frequency broadcasts can be
VIA TELEPHONE IBM 335-4363 heard by telephone also. The number to call is
INOT A TOLL FREE NUMBERI
—440 RI 1HOUR MARK 303-499-7111, Boulder, CO.
STATION ID—,
—NBS RESERVED All official announcements are made by
voice. Time announcements are in UTC ( Univer-
STORM INFORMATION sal Coordinated Time). One- second markers
RO AUDIO TONE are transmitted throughout all programs except
that the 29th and 59th markers of each minute
, are omitted. Detailed information on hourly
broadcast schedules is given in the accom-
OMEGA panying format chart. Complete information on
STANDARD • ROAD,ST FREOLI,CI,
REPORTS
•ND RADIATED POW, the services can be found in NBS Special
2To MM. to ION 10 1114. - 10 WI
0MI. 10 kW IS Table - 10 ION
Publication 432, NBS Frequency and Time
• , 415 Dissemination Services, available from the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern-
NO
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONTACT
AUDIO
ment Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
MIS RADIO STATION WWV14
•0 110i 41/ TONE Geophysical Alerts
ASSANA KAUAI NI tern
01I081 3311 4281 At the time of this writing, " Geoalerts" are
broadcast in voice during the 18th minute of
each hour from WWV. The messages are
•BEGINN1NG OF EACH HOUR IS IDENTIFIED BY changed each day at 0400 UT with provisions
o8SECOND LONG 1500 Hz TONE to schedule immediate alerts of outstanding
•BEGINNING OF EACH MINUTE IS IDENTIFIED BY occurring events. Geoalerts tell of geophysical
00 SECOND LONG. 1200 H TONE events affecting radio propagation,
STATION ID —
RUNE 29th 15 59th SECOND PULSE OF EACH MINUTE IS OMITTED stratospheric warming and related events.

CHU DATA TRANSMISSION SEQUENCE

59th MIN 60th MIN 1st MIN

48 49 50 60 I 2 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 40 41 50 60 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
I I I I 1 I 1 1 I I I I I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1'1 1 1 1 1 1 1

VOICE RECORDING VOICE RECORDINGli, I I , I I I I l I I I

"HOURS MIRS '>LIFIPAFF- 1- 111174 -
1÷4.HOURS—E XACTLY" e
t
(NOTE I (NOTE I Y
st TO 9th PULSES ( INCL )
300 CYCLES ( 0 3 SEC ) DUT I INDICATOR NRC FSK CODE OMITTED
OF 1000 HZ TONE (SPLIT PULSES)
(EXAMPLE ) 000 CYCL FS ( ISEC
10 CYCLES OF 1000 Hz TONE
OF 1000 Hz TONE
500 CYCLES
29th PULSE OMITTED
05 SEC ) OF
1000 HZ TONE

NRC ( ASCII ) FSK TIME CODE CHU

The time service of Canada, CHU, transmits

10 PERIODS OF 1 KHz 2225 Hz Time Code Ten. Code
• TIME ( SEC ) on three frequencies, 3330 kHz (power output 3
0 0 0,91-- 0 135 0 500 kW), 7335 kHz ( power output 10 kW) and 14,670
kHz (power output 3 kW). All signals are
(EXAMPLE )
6 transmitted with vertical antennas.
IDENTIFIER o 4 5 2 9 3 3 DAY 046 ( FEB-15 )
Transmitter frequencies and time signals are
derived from a cesium frequency standard
NOug s
15
which is referred daily to the Canadian primary
2025 2225 2025 22251 FS K CODE 9 M INS 33 SEC S standard.
2 4 8 Transmission mode is A3H, which is a form
BASE BAND CODE of single sideband. The lower sideband is at-
I______DC LEVEL tenuated but full carrier is transmitted.

14.54 Chapter 14
Chapter 15

Interference

R adio Frequency Interference ( RFI): It

is ajungle out there! Not ajungle of wildlife
ingly complex rf environment. Each new
gadget brings with it anew set of problems
whirrs and the microwave oven digital
timer counts down to the blinking of the
and tangled undergrowth, however. It is a to the residential community. police and fire scanner radio. The wireless
jungle of electrical and electronic equip- intercom emits amild protest to all the elec-
ment, each piece of which is potentially a The Electronic Home tronic activity. In the bathroom a family
source or victim of RFI. or both! Today, Let's look around a perhaps " not- so- member is usine ahair dryer and aportable
ahost of new devices is creating an increas- average" home. In the kitchen the blender radio. Both items are plugged into aground

Interference 15-1
 (A)
• (B)

(C) (D)

Fig. 1 — Time domain (oscilloscope) displays of a sine wave ( A) and a square wave ( B). Frequency domain or spectral ( spectrum analyzer) displays
of a sine wave (C) and a square wave ( D). Vertical divisions in the spectral displays are 10 dB. With second- harmonic energy down 67 dB, the sine
wave can be considered spectrally " clean." By contrast, the square wave shows considerable energy in odd-order harmonics.

fault interrupter outlet. Down in the basement, the water heater by an electronic security system. The
In a quiet room supplied with mood has turned on under control of the ther- system has amicrowave intrusion detector;
lighting from an electronically controlled mostat. Another thermostat, located alarms are electronically reported over the
lamp, acolor TV set is showing amovie upstairs, has called for hot air. The fuel oil telephone line.
that is delivered by cable. A video cassette gun is running in the furnace (as is the con- Every device mentioned in this account
recorder (VCR) records another program tinuous ignition system) — the air is just has the potential of being either asource
for later viewing. now hot enough that asensor operates and or victim of RFI — or both! Many other
One of the older children is in abedroom starts the circulation blower. Mounted on possibilities exist in the residential environ-
doing homework on a microcomputer. the wall next to the power distribution box ment these days. Even the plumbing and
Music is coming from the stereo record is the door bell transformer. wiring can conduct, radiate or rectify rf
player in the corner. In the next bedroom Out in the garage the power tools and emanations from whatever source. And
ayounger sibling finds amusement in the lawn mower silently wait for someone to every month some new electronic " whiz
video game connected to aportable TV set. use them. The garage door opener waits for bang" finds its way into our homes.
In the hall a pager sits in the battery asignal to be decoded by the receiver. Out-
charger just below a smoke detector. side a loud sound will activate a fixture, A Technical Problem
Someone has decided to place acall on the turning on an outdoor light. When the Interference is atechnical problem. The
cordless telephone from this secluded spot. family is away, the premises are guarded causes and cures are often straightforward,
15-2 Chapter 15
 but they can be mysterious and com- from being avictim of interference. These requirements help ensure that the
plicated. Interference side effects have device operator understands the nature of
What's Being Done About RFI?
economic and political impact. Experience the unit, and his or her obligations under
has shown that nearly all RFI problems ex- Along with the growth of new appliances
the rules. For applicable excerpts of Part
perienced with home-entertainment devices in the electronic home come new regula-
15, or Part 76 of the Commission's rules,
result from basic design deficiencies in these tions to deal with accompanying RFI
contact ARRL Headquarters.
devices. The few small components or troubles. In recent times we have seen the
Government regulation is not apanacea,
filters which would prevent RFI are often FCC add new rules to cope with such ser-
however. We are in aperiod of shrinking
left out of otherwise well-designed products vices and devices as CATV, computers,
government involvement in the life of the
as manufacturers attempt to reduce costs, cordless telephones and security devices.
society that it governs. Thus we have seen
and hence to reduce the prices of their Congress has addressed the issue as well:
deregulation on the part of an FCC deter-
products. Public Law 97-259 gives the FCC authori-
mined to let marketplace forces resolve
Interference is primarily a matter of ty to prescribe mandatory standards to
their differences. And, with the FCC
emanation (sending) and interception limit RFI susceptibility in TV sets, stereos
budget greatly reduced, we are witnessing
(receiving). Unwanted emanations occur by and so forth.
aCommission less able to enforce the rules.
radiation (as from an antenna) or conduc- Cable television (CATV) is regulated by
Government rules are ahelp, but not the
tion (as along awire). How and where to Part 76 of the FCC rules. The Commission
sole solution to RFI.
treat unwanted emanation or interception defines aCATV system as a " nonbroad-
Help is available from other quarters as
will depend on where and how it occurs. cast facility" — aplant consisting of cables
well. Manufacturers and trade and profes-
If interfering harmonics are generated in that carry television programming to
sional associations are aware of the RFI
atransmitter and are radiated by the sta- subscribers. In the field, however, signal
phenomenon. While these organizations
tion antenna, usually afilter in the feed line leakage seeps from these ostensibly
are not in positions to dictate policies to
will solve the problem. If aTV set responds "closed" systems, often in violation of
members, they can promote the need for
to rf conducted into it through the power FCC leakage specifications. Harmful in-
responsibility in manufacturing and opera-
cord, some form of rf choke or line filter terference to over-the-air services can
tions. Associations often publish pamphlets
in the ac line should provide the desired occur.
and manuals for their members explaining
cure. Section 76.605(a) ( 12) spells out the limits
how they can make products less suscepti-
The apparent source is not always the for allowable radiation from a CATV
ble to RFI problems. The same associations
cause of interference; the actual cause is system:
lobby the government on behalf of their
sometimes difficult to determine. Inter- Frequencies Radiation Distance respective memberships and industries.
fering harmonics of an Amateur or CB Limit The ARRL, as the principal membership
Radio signal may be generated in the (µV/m)
Up to and including
organization of the amateur community, is
transmitter, in abad (rectifying) connec- ready to assist. The League publishes Radio
54 MHz 15 100
tion in the antenna system, in the affected Over 54 up to and in- Frequency Interference: How to Identify
receiver rf amplifier (or preamplifier) or in cluding 216 MHz 20 10 and Cure It — aguide with practical ideas
any poor metallic connection in the vicinity Over 216 MHz 15 100
and tips to bring harmony back to a
of the transmitter antenna. For that reason, Section 76.613 regulates interference neighborhood troubled with RFI. ARRL
the cause is usually discovered through a from cable television systems. Paragraph Headquarters is home for the Technical In-
process of elimination. (a) defines harmful interference as " any formation Service (TIS). Members can call
The usual procedure for dealing with emission, radiation or induction which en- or write the TIS with their RFI questions.
harmonically related interference calls for dangers the functioning of aradionaviga- QST publishes articles with timely informa-
filters to be installed at the transmitter and tion service or of other safety services or tion on the evolving RFI picture.
the receiver. That treatment usually solves seriously degrades, obstructs or repeated- ARRL is also active on the legislative
the problem — if it doesn't, try using ly interrupts aradiocommunication service front. The League worked hard for passage
direction-finding techniques on aharmonic operating in accordance with this chapter" of the Goldwater-Wirth measure (P.L.
of the offending signal. (emphasis added). Paragraph (b) says "the 97-259). In January 1982, ARRL filed a
Radio amateurs have traditionally been operator of acable television system that petition for rulemaking with the FCC to
involved with the analog world — arealm causes harmful interference shall prompt- have CATV vacated from channels coin-
of sine waves and distinct frequencies. In ly take appropriate measures to eliminate ciding with amateur frequencies. This ac-
recent times digital equipment can increas- the harmful interference." tion was in response to membership con-
ingly be found in home and ham shack. Rf emanating from digital devices such cern over the problem of leakage and in-
The digital domain is a realm of square as computers, and other incidental radia- terference from " closed" cable TV
waves. tion devices such as power lines, industrial systems.
The frequency spectra of asine wave and machines and electrical fences are regulated An Official Observer (00) program has
asquare wave of the same fundamental fre- in Part 15 of the FCC Rules. Communica- been part of the ARRL field organization
quency are quite different, as shown in Fig. tion devices such as cordless telephones, fm for more than half acentury. The 00 pro-
I. The sine wave is ideally represented by microphones and other low-power ap- gram exists for the benefit of amateurs who
a single frequency. In contrast, an ideal pliances are also covered in Part 15. These want to be helped. Recent legislative and
square wave consists of afundamental fre- devices may not cause harmful interference organizational changes should result in an
quency plus an infinite series of odd har- to other radio service communications. In expanded role for 00s in interference
monics. It is these harmonics that require addition, specifications for limits on cases. Each Section Manager appoints an
proper treatment in digital circuits to pre- amounts of rf energy emanating from a 00/RFI Coordinator and a Technical
vent rf emanations. Treatment, which must given device are included. For example, Coordinator. For the name, address and
be applied to the digital circuit and cordless telephone signals may not exceed telephone number of your elected ARRL
enclosure, generally consists of proper certain field strengths. Radiation limits Section Manager, see page 8of QST.
shielding, filtering and bypassing. The apply to personal computers manufactured
measures that help minimize the after January 1, 1981. In many cases, label- What Can You Do?
possibilities that adigital device will be a ing, identification and FCC certification Be informed — read, experiment and
source of interference will also protect it are required for devices covered in Part 15. test. By joining ARRL, you will have ac-

Interference 15-3
 cess to publications that contain awealth
AMATEUR HARMONICS
of information about RFI. Further, a
35 7 101 14 18 068 21 24 89 28 50 144 220 skilled Headquarters staff stands ready to
SERVICE MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MM. MHz MHz MHz MHz
M H - assist you.
Experiment and test. RFI problems and
C TA T
,
, l, D solutions are not always " cut and dried."
MU, I 4 1 2iii
.
fuld0
IMICcai Try the usual; then try the unusual. This
..—

—
CAT, 4 7 o chapter and other publications will help
T 6 ////'

you with ideas.

, _ CATO 5 f/ "o
—
,..22....
, .
Be cooperative — the first step is to
/Y/7 '
._._
"
C‘A,1
0. 7, Le,), ma
fUND
assure that your station is assembled and
///,) operated according to " good engineering
LLLL'LL.z.rr.
re
3C — C.A1v
and amateur practice." Check your trans-
I
—
—
IMMOBILE
Z;Ó:V
mitter; try using a low-pass filter. Then,
CATV

a ' — FM MOBILE
a check your own TV set for problems. Keep
— CATV (///f---, your own shop in order before checking on
— 7 12 TV I.F
— FM MOBILE your neighbor's.
— IM MOBILE
50 ii/./Á
Fumo
When approaching your neighbor, bear
, a
in mind that he or she likely knows little
—
2 W/14
of radio or RFI. Proceed accordingly.
60
.— TV
Simply explain your interpretation of the
III
— 3
situation in simple terms. Then, politely
7C _
TO
make your recommendations. Neighbor-
4
pascce hood RFI disputes are settled when a
—
cooperative atmosphere exists. The best
— Tv
solution is found at the lowest possible

_
80-0

e level.
rzE
z , 3
— Tv

Be communicative — contact the manu-

90 — facturer of the offending equipment. Many
—
— FM responsible manufacturers have apolicy of
_ RROAD-
2
supplying filters for eliminating television

A
(fiili
interference when such cases are brought
to their attention. A list of those manufac-

_
—
—
A- M

AIRCRAFT
7/A
turers, and amore thorough treatment of
the RFI problem, can be obtained by
writing the ARRL. If agiven manufacturer
_
120 is not listed, it is still possible that he can
CATV A
AM
AIRCRAFT
be persuaded to supply afilter; this can be
—
—
CATV B determined by writing either directly to the
AM
30 — AIRCRAFT manufacturer or to the Electronic In-
CATV C.
AM
dustries Association (EIA).'
— AIRCRAFT
Similarly, if the problem lies with a
140 —
CATO D 77
›.0
CATV operator, public utility or other
i
facility, let the responsible party know
CATV E 7//

V////,-
., 6 about it. You will often find assistance in
— CATV F
FM your efforts to track down an RFI source.
'TT MOBILE
— — dATV G -
If an RFI problem appears to be aviola-
— MILE /' tion of FCC Rules, and there is no response
— .
CATO H to your requests for corrective action, con-
... MOBILE tact the FCC office in your radio district.
170 _ CA,TV
/ See The FCC Rule Book or the License
— MOBILE
Manual, both published by ARRL, or call
Headquarters, for the address of your
180

— TV 8
district FCC office.
Don't forget to communicate your RFI
190 —
problems and solutions to League Head-
10 1,
quarters. The ARRL RFI Task Group
y needs a complete and accurate picture of
the ever-changing RFI scene so that it can
make appropriate policy recommendations
to the ARRL Board of Directors.
—
• 12

'In

—
_
/
DEALING WITH INTERFERENCE
ow,
Many interference problems are caused
by harmonics. Fig. 2is achart showing the
frequency relationships between broadcast
channels and amateur harmonics.
The visible effects of interference vary

Fig. 2 — Relationship of hf and vhf amateur bands to frequencies used in consumer electronic 'Electronic Industries Association, 2001 Eye
devices. The CATV channels are used in " closed" systems, but experience has shown these St., N.W., Washington, DC 20006. Attention:
systems to have poor isolation from outside signals. Director of Consumer Affairs.

15-4 Chapter 15
 with the type and intensity of the in.
their strength, through circuit design and
terference. " Blackout," where the picture choice of operating conditions, by as large
and sound disappear completely, leaving
a factor as possible before attempting to
the screen dark, occurs only when the prevent them from being radiated. Har-
transmitter and receiver are quite close monic radiation from the transmitter itself
together. Strong interference ordinarily or from its associated wiring obviously
causes the picture to be broken up, leaving
will cause interference just as readily as
ajumble of light and dark lines, or turns radiation from the antenna, so measures
the picture " negative" — the normally taken to prevent harmonics from reaching
white parts of the picture turn black and the antenna will not reduce TVI if the
the normally black parts turn white. transmitter itself is radiating harmonics.
"Cross- hatching" — diagonal bars or But once it has been found that the
lines in the picture — accompanies the
transmitter itself is free from harmonic
latter, usually, and also represents the radiation, devices for preventing har-
(A)
most common type of less severe in- monics from reaching the antenna can be
terference. The bars are the result of the expected to produce results.
beat between the harmonic frequency and
the picture carrier frequency. They are Reducing Harmonic Generation
broad and relatively few in number if the Since reasonably efficient operation of
beat frequency is comparatively low — rf power amplifiers always is accompanied
near the picture carnet — and are by harmonic generation, good judgment
numerous and very fine if the beat fre- calls for operating all frequency- multiplier
quency is very high — toward the upper stages at avery low power level. When the
end of the channel. Typical cross-hatching final output frequency is reached, it is
is shown in Fig. 3A. desirable to use as few stages as possible in
Whether or not cross- hatching is visi- building up to the final output power level
ble, an amplitude-modulated transmitter and to use devices that require aminimum
may cause " sound bars" in the picture. of driving power.
These look about as shown in Fig. 3B. They
result from the variations in the intensity Circuit Design and Layout
of the interfering signal when modulated. Harmonic currents of considerable
(B)
Under most circumstances modulation amplitude flow in both the grid and plate
bars will not occur if the amateur trans- Fig. 3 — At A, cross- hatching caused by the circuits of rf power amplifiers, but they
mitter is frequency- or phase- modulated. beat between the picture carrier and an in-
terfering signal inside the TV channel. At B,
will do relatively little harm if they can be
With these types of modulation the cross- effectively bypassed to the tube cathode.
sound bars or modulation bars accompanying
hatching will " wiggle" from side to side amplitude modulation of an interfering signal. Fig. 4 shows the paths followed by har-
with the modulation. In this case the interfering carrier is strong monic currents in an amplifier circuit;
Except in the more severe cases, there is enough to destroy the picture, but in mild
cases the picture is visible through the
because of the high reactance of the tank
seldom any effect on the sound reception coil there is little harmonic current in it, so
horizontal bars. Sound bars may accompany
when interference shows in the picture, modulation even though the unmodulated car- the harmonic currents simply flow
unless the frequency is quite close to the rier gives no visible cross- hatching. through the tank capacitor, the plate ( or
sound carrier. In the latter event the grid) blocking capacitor, and the tube
sound may be interfered with even though capacitances. The lengths of the leads
the picture is clean. forming these paths is of great impor-
Reference to Fig. 2 will show whether tance, since the inductance in this circuit
or not harmonics of the frequency in use will resonate with the tube capacitance at
will fall in any television channels that can some frequency in the vhf range (the tank
be received in the locality. It should be and blocking capacitances usually are so
kept in mind that not only harmonics of large compared with the tube capacitance
the final frequency may interfere, but also CI that they have little effect on the resonant
harmonics of any frequencies that may be frequency). If such a resonance happens
present in mixer or frequency- multiplier to occur at or near the same frequency as
stages. In the case of 144- MHz transmit- one of the transmitter harmonics, the ef-
ters, frequency- multiplying combinations fect is just the same as though aharmonic
that require a doubler or tripler stage to tank circuit had been deliberately intro-
operate on a frequency in a low-band vhf Fig. 4 — A vhf resonant circuit is formed by duced; the harmonic at the frequency will
channel in use in the locality should be the tube capacitance and the lead inductances
be tremendously increased in amplitude.
through the tank and blocking capacitors.
avoided. Such resonances are unavoidable, but
Regular tank coils are not shown, since they
have little effect on such resonances. Cl is the by keeping the path from plate to cathode
Harmonic Suppression grid tuning capacitor and C2 is the plate tun- and from grid to cathode as short as is
Effective harmonic suppression has ing capacitor. C3 and C4 are the grid and plate
physically possible, the resonant fre-
blocking or bypass capacitors, respectively.
three separate phases: quency usually can be raised above 100
I) Reducing the amplitude of har- MHz in amplifiers of medium power. This
monics generated in the transmitter. This puts it between the two groups of vhf tele-
is amatter of circuit design and operating vision channels.
conditions. It is easier to place grid-circuit vhf
2) Preventing stray radiation from the 3) Preventing harmonics from being resonances where they will do no harm
transmitter and associated wiring. This re- fed into the antenna. when the amplifier is link-coupled to the
quires adequate shielding and filtering of It is impossible to build a transmitter driver stage, since this generally permits
all circuits and leads from which radiation that will not generate some harmonics, shorter leads and more favorable condi-
can take place. but it is obviously advantageous to reduce tions for bypassing the harmonics than is

Interference 15-5
the case with capacitive coupling. Link with a pi- network tank.
coupling also reduces the coupling be-
Suppression Practices
tween the driver and amplifier at har-
monic frequencies, thus preventing driver Complete elimination of TVI is often
harmonics from being amplified. not a simple process. It seldom happens
The inductance of leads from the tube that a single measure such as installing a 4-
to the tank capacitor can be reduced not high-pass filter at the TV set will cure the Fig. 5 — This coax shield decoupler is made
only by shortening but by using flat strip problem. Rather, a number of methods with steel wool stuffed into an IBM copier
tube. This size was selected for photographic
instead of wire conductors. It is also bet- must be applied simultaneously. The prin-
purposes, but to be truly effective, the device
ter to use the chassis as the return from cipal factor in any TVI situation is the should be about twice as long.
the blocking capacitor or tuned circuit to ratio of TV signal strength to interference
cathode, since chassis path will have less level. This includes interference of all
inductance than almost any other form of types such as ignition noise, random or
connection. thermal noise ( which isn't really in-
terference but sets the minimum signal Shielding
The vhf resonance points in amplifier
tank circuits can be found by coupling a that permits " snow- free" reception), and Effective shielding is perhaps the single
grid-dip meter covering the 50-250 MHz unwanted signals that fall within the TV most important measure in preventing or
range to the grid and plate leads. If a channel. A signal- to-interference ratio curing any RFI problem. However, un-
resonance is found in or near aTV chan- greater than approximately 35 to 40 dB is wanted rf energy must be dissipated. The
nel, methods such as those described required for good picture quality. task becomes harder to perform when the
above should be used to move it well out In this regard, an area frequently over- spacing between the source of energy and
of the TV range. The grid- dip meter also looked in TVI difficulties is the TV-set the boundaries of the shield diminish.
should be used to check for vhf reso- antenna. A poor antenna with little gain Consequently, the use of adouble shield is
nances in the tank coils, because coils in the direction of the TV station, old and one way of reducing residual radiation
made for 14 MHz and below usually will corroded wire and connections ( which can from the primary shielding surface.
show such resonances. In making the cause the harmonic generation by recti- In order to obtain maximum effective-
check, disconnect the coil entirely from fication of a " clean" signal generated in a ness of aparticular shielding measure, no
the transmitter and move the grid-dip nearby amateur transmitter), may result in breaks or points of entry should be per-
meter coil along it while exploring for a aTVI situation that is impossible to solve. mitted. Small holes for ventilation pur-
dip in the 54- to 88- MHz band. If a Generally speaking, if the picture quality poses usually do not degrade shielding ef-
resonance falls in aTV channel that is in on the TV set experiencing the in- fectiveness. But even here, a honeycomb
use in the locality, changing the number terference is poor to begin with, even type of duct is often employed when maxi-
of turns will move it to aless- troublesome sophisticated suppression measures are mum isolation is required. ( A parallel
frequency. likely to prove futile. bundle of small tubing has very high at-
tenuation since each tube by itself acts as a
Operating Conditions Grounds waveguide below cutoff.)
Grid bias and grid current have an im- Grounding of equipment has long been The isolation of a coaxial cable can be
portant effect on the harmonic content of considered to be afirst step in eliminating degraded considerably unless the ends of
the rf currents in both the grid and plate interference. While the method is very ef- the shield are terminated properly. A
circuits. In general, harmonic output in- fective in the mf range and below, for all braid should be soldered so that it com-
creases as the grid bias and grid current practical purposes it is useless in sup- pletely encloses the inner conductor(s) at
are increased, but this is not necessarily pressing vhf energy. This is because even the connector junction. For instance, the
true of a particular harmonic. The third short lengths of wire have considerable practice of twisting the braid and point
and higher harmonics, especially, will go reactance at vhf. For instance, suppose a soldering it to the base of aconnector may
through fluctuations in amplitude as the length of wire by itself has an inductance result in a20-dB degradation in isolation.
grid current is increased, and sometimes a of 1uFl. At 550 kHz, the reactance would Normally, this effect is not serious if the
rather high value of grid current will be about 3.46 ohms. On the other hand, cable is run through an area where sensi-
minimize one harmonic as compared with the same wire would have a reactance of tive circuits don't exist. However, the
a low value. This characteristic can be over 300 ohms at 56 MHz, which is the isolation afforded by a filter can be re-
used to advantage where aparticular har- frequency range of TV channel 2. ( Actual- duced considerably in circuits where such
monic is causing interference, remember- ly, the impedance of a wire becomes a cable breaks occur.
ing that the operating conditions that more complicated entity to define at vhf. One instance where a shield break
minimize one harmonic may greatly in- The delay effects along the wire are causes a serious problem is in the con-
crease another. For equal operating con- similar to those on the surface of an nection between the antenna terminals on
ditions, there is little or no difference be- antenna. Consequently, the wire might aTV set and the tuner. Newer sets have a
tween single-ended and push-pull ampli- even appear as an open circuit rather than 75- ohm coaxial input along with a balun
fiers in respect to harmonic generation. as a ground as the electrical length ap- for 300-ohm line. However, because many
Push-pull amplifiers are frequently proaches aquarter wavelength.) TV sets have direct connections to the ac
trouble- makers on even-order harmonics From a shock- hazard point of view, line, a decoupling network is used. The
because with such amplifiers the even- grounding is important. However, never shielded lead to the tuner is broken and a
harmonic voltages are in phase at the ends connect a ground for any reason to the capacitor is connected in series with the
of the tank circuit and hence appear with chassis of a TV set. This is because many braid. This provides a low- impedance
equal amplitude across the whole tank coil TV sets derive their operating voltages path for rf energy while presenting ahigh
if the center of the coil is not grounded. directly from the ac-service line. Although impedance at 60 Hz. Consequently,
Under such circumstances the even har- a schematic diagram of a TV set may in- because of the cable break, high-pass
monics can be coupled to the output cir- dicate a " power transformer" is being filters at the antenna input terminals are
cuit through stray capacitance between used, caution should be exercised to be not as effective as those built into the
the tank and coupling coils. This does not sure it is actually being employed for this tuner itself.
occur in a single-ended amplifier having purpose. Quite often, the only voltage the
an inductively coupled tank if the cou- transformer is supplying is for the TV pic- Coax Shield Chokes
pling coil is placed at the cold end or ture tube filament. As mentioned previously, vhf cur-

15-6 Chapter 15
 sheet of cardboard or Masonite® covered
with aluminum foil. The ideal placement
of any of these chokes will vary with the
standing wave pattern on the coax shield,
but in general they should be close to the
transmitter. Like all RFI remedies, the ef-
fectiveness of these devices varies widely
with each interference situation. There-
fore, one should not expect miracles. A
coax shield choke installed at a TV
receiver prevents signals picked up on the
coax braid from reaching the tuner.

Capacitors at RF
(A)
Capacitors are common elements found
in almost any piece of electronics gear.
Fig. 6 — Winding the cable on a ferrite toroid
However, some precautions are necessary
is a highly effective shield current suppressor
in some cases. Reversing the winding as pic-
when they are employed in RFI-preventive
tured allows more turns with less shunt purposes such as in filters and bypassing
capacitance. RC 58 will suffice for moderate applications. In particular, lead induc-
power applications. The most important proper-
tance may be sufficient to resonate with
ty of the cable is complete shielding — avoid
"bargain" cable having less than 95- percent the capacitor proper and cause the entire
braid coverage. combination to have a high inductive
reactance rather than the desired capaci-
tive reactance.
This effect is illustrated in the accom-
panying photographs. The response curve
shown in Fig. 8A is for a 10- MHz low-
ALUMINUM pass filter arranged in a " pi" configura-
PLATE tion. However, this particular circuit Fig. 8 — Stray lead inductance of a capacitor
realization required some large- valued can degrade filter performance.

capacitors. Using ordinary capacitor types

resulted in an unwanted resonance as evi
denced by the sharp dip in the response
curve at approximately 15 MHz. How-
ever, by going to the equivalent " T" con-
DOUBLE FEMALE figuration ( see the section on filters in the
COAXIAL BULKHEAD chapter on electrical laws and circuits), a
CONNECTOR circuit realization for the desired response
required much smaller capacitance values.
The curve shown in Fig. 8B approximated
this response quite closely and no effects
of parasitic inductance were noticeable.
When designing filters, it is advisable to
Fig. 7 — A large metallic baffle effectively in- compute the component values for as
hibits waves propagating on the outside of a many configurations as possible in order
coaxial cable. For vhf TV channel 2, the
to determine which one results in the most
smallest effective baffle is a 9- foot-diameter
circle, but the required size decreases linearly practical elements. If large capacitance
with frequency. values are unavoidable, either special low-
inductance types should be used or a
number of ordinary smaller-value capaci-
Fig. 9 — Additional lead filtering for harmonics
tors can be paralleled to reduce the effect
or other spurious frequencies in the high vhf
rents flowing on the outside of coaxial of lead inductance. TV band ( 174-216 MHz).
cables are frequently the cause of RFI. A very desirable capacitor ( C2) from an Cl — 0.001-pF disc ceramic
Figs. 5, 6 and 7 show techniques for RFI point of view is shown in Fig. 9. In- C2 — 500- or 1000 pF feed-through bypass
reducing or eliminating conducted chassis (Centrelab FT- 1000. Above 500 volts,
stead of having two or more plates ar- substitute Centrelab 858S-500.)
radiation from coaxial cables. The card- ranged in a parallel fashion, the conduc- RFC — 14 inches no. 26 enamel
board tube stuffed with steel wool in Fig. tors are coaxial and are separated by the close-wound on 3116- inch dia form
5 works on the absorption principle. The dielectric. Such feedthrough capacitors or composition resistor body.
steel wool is very lossy and dissipates the are highly recommended for conducting
uf energy on the shield. The tube pictured leads in and out of circuits where the
is 18 inches long. A longer tube would be radiation of harmonic energy is possible.
more effective. Fig. 6 shows a choke In addition, the rfc illustrated in Fig. 9 with modern transmitting equipment.
wound on aferrite toroidal core. Another could either consist of asmall coil wound However, currents induced on the anten-
coax radiation- suppression device is il- over acomposition resistor as shown or it na feed line may flow in the transmitter
lustrated in Fig. 7. If the plate is at least a could be a ferrite bead on astraight piece chassis and back into the ac line. A rig
half wavelength (at the harmonic frequen- of wire. "hot" with uf or even the presence of
cy to be suppressed) on its smallest dimen- "broadcast harmonics" while receiving
sion, it will provide a very effective bar- Decoupling from the AC Line
may mean a problem of this sort. In the
rier. Large pieces of sheet metal are ex- Direct feedback of rf energy into the ac case where an antenna is being used that
pensive, so the baffle can be made from a power service is usually not a problem requires a ground (such as an end-fed

Interference 15-7
wire), never use any part of the ac con-
70
duits, water systems, or other conductors
_____
in a building. It is always advisable to
have a separate ground system for the 60
antenna itself.
It is also good practice to use an
antenna-matching network with no direct

ATTENUATION OF SPURIOUS OUTPUTS, dB

50

connection between the transmitter and

antenna feed line. Any matching network
that uses mutual- magnetic coupling ex- 40
- -r
—
clusively will fulfill this requirement.
SPURIOUS ATTENUATION <30 MHz
Antenna pattern is another factor to con-
30 X = POWER ( WATTS)
sider and if possible, atype should be used
that directs the minimum possible signal POWER LEVEL ATTENUATION

into other dwellings. For instance, 20 X < 5WAT TS 30 dB

ground- mounted vertical antennas have 5 WATTS < X ≤ 500 WATTS 40 dB
considerable low-angle radiation, while a X > 500WATTS 13+10 LOG, o (X1dB

dipole directs energy at angles below the 10

horizontal plane. A vertical ground plane

or beam mounted on as high a tower as
practical will generally be better from an o
3 • 6 789 3 4 6 789 2 3 •
f
5 6 89

RFI and TVI standpoint than antennas 2 5 10 20 50 00 1000 10 000

closer to the ground. OUTPUT POWER ( WATTS)

FCC Rules Concerning RFI

Part 97.73 of the U.S. amateur regula- Fig. 10 — The FCC specifies that spurious signals generated by transmitting equipment must be
reduced well below the level of the fundamental. This graph illustrates exactly how far the
tions specifies the amateur's responsibility spurious components must be reduced. This applies to amateur transmitters operating below 30
for signal purity: MHz.
(a) Except for atransmitter or transceiver
built before April 15, 1977 or first marketed
before January 1, 1978, the mean power of any
spurious emission or radiation from an ama- 235 MHz shall be at least 60 decibels below the chassis or power line radiation, causes harmful
teur transmitter, transceiver, or external radio mean power of the fundamental. For a trans- interference to the reception of another radio
frequency power amplifier being operated with mitter having amean power of 25 watts or less, station, the licensee may be required to take
a carrier frequency below 30 MHz shall be at the mean power of any spurious radiation sup- steps to eliminate the interference in accor-
least 40 decibels below the mean power of the plied to the antenna transmission line shall be dance with good engineering practice.
-
,fundamental without exceeding the power of at least 40 decibels below the mean power of NOTE: For the purposes of this section, aspurious
50 milliwatts. For equipment of mean power the fundamental without exceeding the power emission or radiation means any emission or radiation
less than five watts, the attenuation shall be at of 25 microwatts, but need not be reduced from atransmitter, transceiver, or external radio fre-
quency power amplifier which is outside of the au-
least 30 decibels. below the power of 10 microwatts. thorized Amateur Radio Service frequency band being
(b) Except for atransmitter or transceiver (c) Paragraphs ( a) and ( b) of this section used.
built before April 15, 1977 or first marketed notwithstanding, all spurious emission or radi-
The numerical limits cited in 97.73 are
before January 1, 1978, the mean power of any ation from an amateur transmitter, transceiver,
interpreted graphically in Figs. 10 and 11.
spurious emission or radiation from an ama- or external radio frequency power amplifier
shall be reduced or eliminated in accordance Note, however, that paragraphs (c) and
teur transmitter, transceiver, or external radio
with good engineering practice. (d) go beyond absolute limits in defining
frequency power amplifier being operated with
a carrier frequency above 30 MHz but below (d) If any spurious radiation, including the amateur's obligation.

70 - _ _,--
— I
-
_ _ —
— _
, 60

— ---

o __ -,-- --
P-- 0 ..
o
_
'e _ __ _
<2 40 __
1
_ _ _

SPUR OUS ATTENUATION 30 235 MHz

P' 0
— — X . POWER ( WATTS)
—
z
POWER LEVEL ( OUTPUT) ATTENUATION
á
2 ° _ x < 0.1 WATT 50+10 LOGIo IX1dB
La ,--- — 0.1 WATT ≤ X .1 0.25 WATT 40 dB
, —
0.25 WATT ≤ X ≤ 25 WATTS 46+10 LOG.° ( % Ida
á
1 X > 25 WATTS 60dB

—
0 2 3 4 5 6791 2 3 • 5 6759 2 3 • 5 6769 2 1 • 5 6759
2 • 5 5769 2 5 • 56 89 2 3 • 67119 2 1 • S6749
001 01 10 100 1000
000001 0.0001 0001

OUTPUT POWER twaTTS)

Fig. 11 — This graph illustrates to what level spurious-output energy must be reduced for equipment designed to operate in the 30- to 235- MHz
range.

15-8 Chapter 15
 quency are not as severe (with a filter of
this type) and the transmitter is ter-
minated in a resistive load at the har-
monic.

Construction and Test Techniques

If good performance above 100 MHz is
not a necessity, this filter can be built
using conventional fixed capacitors.
Teflon-dielectric pc board can be pur-
chased from Alaska Microwave Labs,
listed in Chapter 17. Regular fiberglass-
Fig. 12 — Schematic diagram showing compo- insulated board is satisfactory for low
nent values of an experimental elliptic function
power. One such filter has been used with Fig. 13 — Response curve of the filter shown
filter.
an ssb transceiver running 100 watts. in Fig. 12. Vertical scale represents 10 dB/div.
Although the Q of the fiberglass and horizontal scale is 10 MHz/div.
capacitors will be lower than that of
Filters and Interference
Teflon e dielectric capacitors, this should
The judicious use of filters, along with not greatly affect the type of filter describ-
other suppression measures such as ed here.
shielding, has provided solutions to in- Test equipment needed to build this
terference problems in widely varying ap- filter at home includes a reasonably ac-
plications. As a consequence, con- curate grid- dip oscillator, an SWR bridge,
siderable attention has been given to the a reactance chart or the ARRL Lightning
subject over the years that has resulted in Calculator ( for L, C and f), a 50-ohm
some very esoteric designs. Perhaps the dummy load, and a transmitter.
most modern approach is the optimiza- Once the value of agiven capacitor has
tion and/or realization for aparticular ap- been calculated, the next step is to deter-
plication of a filter by means of a digital mine the capacitance per square inch of
computer. However, there are a number the double-clad circuit board you have.
of other types with component values This is done by connecting one end of a
cataloged in tabular form. Of these, the coil of known inductance to one side of
most important ones are the so-called the circuit board, and the other coil lead
Chebyshev and elliptic- function filters. to the other side of the circuit board. Use Fig. 14 — Schematic diagram of the absorptive
(Butterworth filters are often considered a the grid-dip oscillator, coupled lightly to filter. The pc-board used is MIL- P- 13949D, FL-
special case of Chebyshev types with arip- GT-062 in, C-2/2-11017, Class 1, Grade A.
the coil, to determine the resonant fre-
Polychem Bud Division. Capacitance between
ple factor of zero.) quency of the coil and the circuit- board copper surfaces is 10-pF per square inch.
Elliptic- function filters might be con- capacitor. When the frequency is known, Values are as follows for a design cutoff fre-
sidered optimum in the sense that they the total capacitance can be determined by quency of 40 MHz and rejection peak in chan-
provide the sharpest rolloff between the nel 2:
working the Lightning Calculator or by
Cl — 52 pF C4 — 15 pF L3 — 0.3
passband and stopband. Computed values looking the capacitance up on areactance C2 — 73 pF L1 — 0.125 iH L4 — 0.212 ski
for alow-pass filter with a0.1-dB ripple in chart. The total capacitance divided by C3 — 126 pF L2 — 0.52 pH L5 — 0.55 pH
the passband and a cutoff frequency of the number of square inches on one side
30.6 MHz are shown in Fig. 12. The filter of the circuit board gives the capacitance
is supposed to provide an attenuation of per square inch. Once this figure is deter- capacitors when construction in one plane
35 dB above 40 MHz. An experimental mined, capacitors of almost any value can would require too much area. Stray induc-
model was built and the response is shown be laid out with a ruler! tance must be minimized and sufficient
in Fig. 13. As can be seen, the filter came High voltages can be developed across clearance must be maintained for arc-over
quite close to the design goals. Unfor- capacitors in a series-tuned circuit, so the protection.
tunately, as with most of the designs in copper material should be trimmed back Capacitors with Teflon dielectric have
this section, alignment of the more at least 1/8 inch from all edges of aboard, been used in filters passing up to 2 kW
complicated filters requires some sort of except those that will be soldered to PEP. One further word of caution: No
sweep-generator setup. This is the only ground, to prevent arcing. This should low-pass filter will be fully effective until
practical way of " tweaking" afilter to the not be accomplished by filing, since the the transmitter with which it is used is
desired response. While building a sweep copper filings would become imbedded in properly shielded and all leads filtered.
setup is not beyond the talents of an ad- the board material and just compound the The terminating loads for the high-pass
vanced experimenter, the lack of one is an problem. The capacitor surfaces should section of the filter can be made from
obstacle in the home construction of be kept smooth and sharp corners should 2-watt, 10-percent tolerance composition
filters. be avoided. resistors. Almost any dissipation rating
If the filter box is made of double-clad can be obtained by suitable series-parallel
An Absorptive Filter
fiberglass board, both sides should be combinations. A 16-watt, 50-ohm load
The filter shown in Fig. 14 not only pro- bonded together with copper stripped should handle the harmonic energy of a
vides rejection by means of alow-pass sec- from another piece of board. Stripped signal with peak fundamental power of 2
tion, it also includes circuitry that absorbs copper foil may be cleaned with a razor kilowatts. With this load, the harmonic
harmonic energy. A high-pass section blade before soldering. To remove copper energy will see an SWR under 2:1 up to
consists of LI, L2, CI and C2 is ter- foil from aboard, use astraight edge and 400 MHz. For low power (under 300 watts
minated in a50- ohm " idler load" and this a sharp scribe to score the thin copper PEP), a pair of 2-watt, 100-ohm resistors
combination performs the latter function. foil. When the copper foil has been cut, is adequate.
The advantages of this technique are that use a razor blade to lift a corner. This This filter was originally described by
degradation of filter rejection caused by technique of bonding two pieces of board Weinrich and Carroll in November 1968
antenna mismatch at the harmonic fre- can also be used to interconnect two QST. The component values given here

Interference 15-9
 Fig. 17 — The 144- MHz filter has an inner con-
ductor of 1/2- inch copper tubing 10 inches Fig. 18 — A half-wave strip line is used in the
long, grounded to the left end of the case and 220- MHz filter. It is grounded at both ends and
supported at the right end by the tuning tuned at the center.
capacitor.

that fastens in place with self-tapping of the tuning capacitor. The latter is a
screws. An aluminum partition down Hammarlund HF -15-X, mounted slightly
the middle of the assembly is 14 inches off-center in the box, so that its stator
(356 mm) long, and the full height of the plates connect to the exact mid-point of
chassis, 3inches (76 mm). the line. The 5/16- inch mounting hole in
The inner conductor of the line is 32 the case is 5-1/2 inches from one end. The
inches (813-mm) long and 13/16- inch SO-239 coaxial fittings are Iinch ( 25- mm)
wide, of 1/16-inch brass, copper or in from opposite sides of the box, 2inches
aluminum. This was made from two (51- mm) from the ends. Their coupling
pieces of aluminum spliced together to links are no. 14 wire, 1/8 inch from the in-
Fig. 15 — Equivalent circuits for the strip- line provide the 32-inch length. Splicing seemed ner conductor of the line.
filters. At A, the circuit for the 6- and 2-meter to have no ill effect on the circuit Q. The The 420-MHz filter is similar in design,
filters are shown. L2 and L3 are the input and
sides of the " U" are 2-7/8 inches apart, using a 1-5/8 X 2 x 10-inch Minibox
output links. These filters are bilateral, permit-
ting interchanging of the input and output ter- with the partition at the center. The line is (Bud CT-2113-A). A half-wave line is
minals. At 8, the representative circuit for the supported on ceramic standoffs. These used, with the disc tuning at the center.
220- and 432- MHz filters. These filters are also were shimmed up with sections of hard The discs are 1/16- inch brass, 1- 1/4-inch
bilateral.
wood or bakelite rod, to give the required diameter. The fixed one is centered on
1- 1/2-inch height. the inner conductor, the other mounted
The tuning capacitor is adouble-spaced on a no.6 brass lead-screw. This passes
variable ( Hammarlund HF - 30-X) mount- through a threaded bushing, which can
ed 1-1/2 inches from the right end of the be taken from the end of a discarded
chassis. Input and output coupling loop slug-tuned form. An advantage of these
are of no. 10 or 12 wire, 10 inches long. is that usually a tension device is in-
Spacing away from the line is adjusted to cluded. If there is none, use a lock
about 1/4 inch ( 6-mm). nut.
The 144- MHz model is housed in a Type N coaxial connectors were used on
2-1/4 x 2-1/2 x 12-inch Minibox° ( Bud the 420- MHz model. They are 5/8 inch in
Fig. 16 — Interior of the 50- MHz strip- line filter. CU- 2114-A). from each side of the box, and 1-3/8
Inner conductor of aluminum strip is bent into One end of the tubing is slotted inches in from the ends. Their coupling
U shape, to fit inside a standard 17- inch 1/4- inch deep with a hacksaw. This slot links of no. 14 wire are 1/16 inch from the
(432-mm) chassis.
takes a brass angle bracket 1- 1/2- inches inner conductor.
wide, 1/4- inch high, with a 1/2- inch
mounting lip. This 1/4- inch lip is soldered Adjustment and Use
into the tubing slot, and the bracket is If you want the filter to work on both
were calculated by Keith Wilkinson, then bolted to the end of the box, so as to transmitting and receiving, connect the
ZL2BJR. be centered on the end plate. filter between antenna line and SWR in-
The tuning capacitor ( Hammarlund dicator. With this arrangement you need
Filters For VHF Transmitters HF-15-X) is mounted 1- 1/4- inches from merely adjust the filter for minimum re-
High rejection of unwanted frequencies the other end of the box, in such a posi- flected power reading on the SWR bridge.
is possible with the tuned-line filters of tion that the inner conductor can be This should be zero, or close to it, if the
Fig. 15. Examples are shown for each soldered to the two stator bars. antenna is well- matched. The bridge
band from 50 through 450 MHz. Con- The two coaxial fittings (S0-239) are should be used, as there is no way to ad-
struction is relatively simple, and the cost 11/16 inch in from each side of the box, just the filter properly without it. If you
is low. Standard boxes are used for ease of 3-1/2 inches from the left end. The cou- insist on trying, adjust for best reception
duplication. pling loops are no. 12 wire, bent so that of signals on frequencies close to the ones
The filter of Fig. 16 is selective enough each is parallel to the center line of the in- you expect to transmit on. This works
to pass 50- MHz energy and attenuate the ner conductor, and about 1/8 inch from only if the antenna is well matched.
seventh harmonic of an 8- MHz oscillator its surface. Their cold ends are soldered to When the filter is properly adjusted
that falls in TV channel 2. With an inser- the brass mounting bracket. (with the SWR bridge) you may find that
tion loss at 50 MHz of about 1dB, it can The 220- MHz filter uses the same size reception can be improved by retuning the
provide up to 40 dB of attenuation to box as the 144-MHz model. The inner filter. Don't do it if you want the filter to
energy at 57 MHz in the same line. conductor is 1/16- inch brass or copper, work best on the job it was intended to
The filter uses a folded line in order to 5/8-inch wide, just long enough to fold do: The rejection of unwanted energy,
keep it within the confines of a standard over at each end for bolting to the box. It transmitting or receiving. If you want to
chassis. The case is a 6 x 17 x 3-inch is positioned so that there will be 1/8 inch improve reception with the filter in the cir-
chassis ( Bud AC-433) with a cover plate clearance between it and the rotor plates cuit, work on the receiver input circuit. To

15-10 Chapter 15
get maximum power out of the transmit-
ter and into the line, adjust the transmitter
TO RCVR
output coupling, not the filter. If the ef-
fect of the filter on reception bothers you,
connect it in the line from the antenna ANT.

relay to the transmitter only. T R SWITCH

/OR RELAY

Summary TRANSMITTER

TRANSMATCH
The methods of harmonic elimination
outlined here have been proved beyond
in-ai D EE FILTER 3=C

doubt to be effective even under highly t,

Cc Ax

unfavorable conditions. It must be em-

phasized once more, however, that the
problem must be solved one step at atime,
and the procedure must be in logical Fig. 19 — The proper method of installing a low-pass filter between the transmitter and a
order. It cannot be done properly without Transmatch. If the antenna is fed through coax, the Transmatch can be eliminated, but the
two items of simple equipment: A grid-dip transmitter and filter must be completely shielded. If a TA switch is used, it should be installed
between the transmitter and low-pass filter. TA switches can generate harmonics themselves, so
meter and wavemeter covering the TV the low-pass filter should follow the TA switch.
bands, and adummy antenna.
To summarize:
1) Take acritical look at the transmit-
ter on the basis of the design considera-
tions outlined under " Reducing Har-
monic Generation." to assume that part of the interference even in cases where destructive in-
2) Check all circuits, particularly those may be caused by receiver overloading. terference results from 28-MHz operation
connected with the final amplifier, with Take steps to alleviate such a condition the interference is comparatively mild
the grid-dip meter to determine whether before trying highly elaborate filters and from 14 MHz, and is negligible at still
there are any resonances in the TV bands. traps on the transmitter. lower frequencies.
If so, rearrange the circuits so the Nothing can be done at either the
resonances are moved out of the critical Harmonics by Rectification transmitter or receiver when rectification
frequency region. Even though the transmitter is com- occurs. The remedy is to find the source
3) Connect the transmitter to the pletely free from harmonic output it is still and eliminate the poor contact either by
dummy antenna and check with the possible for interference to occur because separating the conductors or bonding
wavemeter for the presence of harmonics of harmonics generated outside the them together. A crystal wavemeter
on leads and around the transmitter transmitter. These result from rectifica- (tuned to the fundamental frequency) is
enclosure. Seal off the weak spots in the tion of fundamental- frequency currents useful for hunting the source by showing
shielding and filter the leads until the induced in conductors in the vicinity of which conductors are carrying rf and,
wavemeter shows no indication at any the transmitting antenna. Rectification comparatively, how much.
harmonic frequency. can take place at any point where two con- Interference of this kind is frequently
4) At this stage, check for interference ductors are in poor electrical contact, a intermittent since the rectification effi-
with aTV receiver. If there is interference, condition that frequently exists in plumb- ciency will vary with vibration, weather
determine the cause by the methods de- ing, downspouting, BX cables crossing and so on. The possibility of corroded
scribed previously and apply the recom- each other, and numerous other places in contacts in the TV receiving antenna
mended remedies until the interference the ordinary residence. It also can occur at should not be overlooked, especially if it
disappears. any exposed vacuum tubes in the station, has been up ayear or more.
5) When the transmitter is completely in power supplies, speech equipment, or
clean on the dummy antenna, connect it other items which may not be enclosed in TV Receiver Deficiencies
to the regular antenna and check for in- the shielding about the rf circuits. Poor When atelevision receiver is quite close
terference on the TV receiver. If the in- joints anywhere in the antenna system are to the transmitter, the intense rf signal
terference is not bad, a Transmatch or especially bad, and rectification also may from the transmitter's fundamental may
matching circuit installed as shown in Fig. take place in the contacts of antenna overload one or more of the receiver cir-
19 should clear it up. Alternatively, alow- changeover relays. Another common cuits to produce spurious responses which
pass filter may be used. If neither the cause is overloading the front end of the cause interference.
Transmatch nor filter makes any differ- communications receiver when it is used If the overload is moderate, the in-
ence in the interference, the evidence is with a separate antenna (which will terference is of the same nature as har-
strong that the interference, at least in radiate the harmonics generated in the monic interference; it is caused by har-
part, is being caused by receiver over- first stage) for break-in. monics generated in the early stages of the
loading because of the strong funda- Rectification of this sort will not only receiver and, since it occurs only on chan-
mental- frequency field about the TV cause harmonic interference but also is nels harmonically related to the transmit-
antenna and receiver. A Transmatch frequently responsible for cross- ting frequency, it is difficult to distinguish
and/or filter, installed as described above, modulation effects. It can be detected in from harmonics actually radiated by the
will invariably make adifference in the in- greater or less degree in most locations, transmitter. In such cases additional har-
tensity of the interference if the in- but fortunately the harmonics thus monic suppression at the transmitter will
terference is caused by transmitter har- generated are not usually of high do no good, but any means taken at the
monics alone. amplitude. However, they can cause con- receiver to reduce the strength of the
6) If there is still interference after in- siderable interference in the immediate amateur signal reaching the first stage will
stalling the Transmatch and/or filter, and vicinity in fringe areas, especially when effect an improvement. With very severe
the evidence shows that it is probably operation is in the 28- MHz band. The overloading, interference also will occur
caused by aharmonic, more attenuation is amplitude decreases rapidly with the order on channels not harmonically related to
needed. A more elaborate filter may be of the harmonic, the second and third be- the transmitting frequency, so such cases
necessary..However, it is well at this stage ing the worst. It is ordinarily found that are easily identified.

Interference 15-11
 Cross-Modulation tuner, a high-pass filter can improve the small the 144- MHz signal will be picked
situation significantly. Even so, the up directly on the receiver circuits and the
Under some circumstances overloading
amateur is responsible for keeping his or best solution is to readjust the strip
will result in cross-modulation or mixing
her radiation in the TV i -fregion within oscillator so that the first i-fis moved to a
of the amateur signal with that from a
the limits defined by FCC rules and good frequency not in the vicinity of the
local fm or TV station. For example, a
engineering practice. 144- MHz band. This has to be done by a
14- MHz signal can mix with a92- MHz fm
A form of i -finterference peculiar to competent technician.
station to produce a beat at 78 MHz and
50- MHz operation near the low edge of I- finterference is easily identified since
cause interference in channel 5, or with a
the band occurs with some receivers it occurs on all channels — although
TV station on channel 5 to cause in-
having the standard " 41- MHz" i -
f, which sometimes the intensity varies from chan-
terference in channel 3. Neither of the
has the sound carrier at 41.25 MHz and nel to channel — and the cross- hatch pat-
channels interfered with is in harmonic
the picture carrier at 45.75 MHz. A tern it causes will rotate when the
relationship to 14 MHz. Both signals have
50- MHz signal that forces its way into the receiver's fine-tuning control is varied.
to be on the air for the interference to oc-
i-fsystem of the receiver will beat with the When the interference is caused by ahar-
cur, and eliminating either at the TV
i-fpicture carrier to give aspurious signal monic, overloading or cross modulation,
receiver will eliminate the interference.
on or near the i -f sound carrier, even the structure of the interference pattern
There are many combinations of this
though the interfering signal is not actual- does not change ( its intensity may change)
type, depending on the band in use and
ly in the nominal passband of the i -
f as the fine-tuning control is varied.
the local frequency assignments to fm and
TV stations. The interfering frequency is amplifier.
There is atype of i -finterference unique High-Pass Filters
equal to the amateur fundamental fre-
to the 144- MHz band in localities where In all of the above cases the interference
quency either added to or subtracted from
certain uhf TV channels are in operation. can be eliminated if the fundamental
the frequency of some local station, and
It affects only those TV receivers in which signal strength is reduced to a level that
when interference occurs in aTV channel
double-conversion type plug-in uhf tuning the receiver can handle. To accomplish
that is not harmonically related to the
strips are used. The design of these strips this with signals on bands below 30 MHz,
amateur transmitting frequency, the
possibilities in such frequency combina- involves a first intermediate frequency the most satisfactory device is ahigh-pass
tions should be investigated. that varies with the TV channel to be filter having acutoff frequency just below
received and, depending on the particular 54 MHz installed at the tuner input
strip design, this first i-
fmay be in or close terminals of the receiver.
I-f Interference to the 144-MHz amateur band. Since Fig. 20 shows the schematic diagram of
Some TV receivers do not have suffi- there is comparatively little selectivity in afilter designed for use with 75-ohm coax-
cient selectivity to prevent strong signals the TV signal- frequency circuits ahead of ial cable. Double-sided 1/16 inch G 10
in the intermediate- frequency range from the first i -f, a signal from a 144- MHz epoxy-glass pc board is used as abase for
forcing their way through the front end transmitter will " ride into" the i -f, even the filter components. A section of copper
and getting into the i -f amplifier. The when the receiver is at a considerable on the top is stripped away on both sides
third harmonic of 14 MHz and second distance from the transmitter. The chan- of center to approximate a75- ohm micro-
harmonic of 21 MHz fall into the televi- nels that can be affected by this type of i -
f strip line about 3/32 inch wide ( see Fig.
sion i-f, as do some of the local-oscillator interference are 20-25, 51-58, 82 and 83. 21). Both sides of the top copper foil ( at
'
frequencies used in a heterodyne type of If the receiver is not close to the transmit- the edges) are connected to the ground
transmitter or transceiver. If these fre- ter, atrap of the type shown in Fig. 24 will plane foil underneath.
quencies are breaking through the TV be effective. However, if the separation is Slice off the extruded insulation around

47 22 22 47

(Al

4 r
LOSS ( dB )
INSERTION

40 80 120 160 200 240

FREQUENCY ( MHz)

(B)

CAPACITANCE IN pF
INDUCTANCE IN pH

Fig. 20 — The schematic diagram of a 75-ohm Chebyshev filter

assembled on pc board is shown at A. At B, the passband response of
the 75-ohm filter. Design inductances: 0.157 mH: 12 turns no. 24 wire on
744-0 core. 0.135 11 turns no. 24 wire on 144-0 core. Turns should
be evenly spaced, with approximately 1/4 inch between the ends of the
winding. If 137-0 cores are used, wind 14 and 12 turns, respectively. Fig. 21 — Photo showing construction of the 75-ohm unbalanced filter.

15-12 Chapter 15
the solder pins on two type F coaxial con- than etch copper to form the series of "50- MHz TVI — Its Causes and Cures,"
nectors ( Radio Shack 278-212). Butt the capacitive elements. Mark the edges by QST, June and July 1954). This article
connectors directly against the pc board. cutting with asharp knife; heating with a also contains other information useful in
Solder the connector shells to the bottom hot soldering iron will help lift the strips coping with the TVI problems peculiar to
ground plane and the center pins to the more easily. Top and bottom views of the 50- MHz operation. As an alternative to
micro- strip line. Cut the micro- strip line in filter are shown in Fig. 23. such a filter, ahigh-Q wave trap tuned to
four equally spaced places. The capacitors Neither of the above high-pass filters the transmitting frequency may be used,
should be mounted across the spaces; in- requires a shielded enclosure. For mount- suffering only the disadvantage that it is
ductors can be connected between the ing outside the receiver, some kind of pro- quite selective and therefore will protect a
capacitor junctions and the ground plane tective housing is desirable, however. receiver from overloading over only a
on the top of the board. Use NPO ceramic These filters were presented in " Practical small range of transmitting frequencies in
or silver mica capacitors. Inductors are 75- and 300- Ohm High- Pass Filters," the 50-MHz band. A trap of this type is
wound on toroidal powdered- iron cores; QST, February 1982 by Ed Wetherhold, shown in Fig. 24. These " suck-out" traps,
winding details are given in Fig. 21. W3NQN. while absorbing energy at the frequency to
Fig. 22 shows the schematic and pic- Simple high-pass filters cannot always which they are tuned, do not affect the
torial diagrams of a 300- ohm balanced be applied successfully in the case of receiver operation otherwise. The assem-
elliptical high-pass filter that uses pc- 50- MHz transmissions, because they do bly should be mounted near the input ter-
board capacitors. Use double-sided 1/32 not have sufficiently sharp cutoff minals of the TV tuner and its case should
inch G 10 epoxy- glass pc board. Thicker characteristics to give both good attenua- be rf grounded to the TV set chassis by
board will require more area for the tion at 50-54 MHz and no attenuation means of a small capacitor. The traps
desired capacitances. C2, C4 and C6 above 54 MHz. A more elaborate design should be tuned for minimum TVI at the
should be NPO ceramic or silver mica capable of giving the required sharp transmitter operating frequency. An in-
capacitors. It is easier to strip away rather cutoff has been described ( Ladd, sulated tuning tool should be used for ad-

CI C3

° o

300 300 n
IN T 02 OUT

o
CI C3

(Ai

- — —
26 mrn 28 mrn 32 rnm

3en, 2 rnm
(A)
(C )
CI C3 CS C7
SIDE VIEW

41 rnrn — — -all 47 nn rn — - 3.1.•

44 mrn 0

8 rnrn

18 rnrn
0 0

91 mrn

'rC , E5 . m6 • 0.039

Fig. 22 — Schematic and pictorial diagrams of the 300-ohm balanced

elliptical high-pass filter with pc-board capacitors. Shaded areas in-
dicate where copper has been removed. Dimensions are given in
millimeters for ease of measurement. L2-C2 connects between the
points marked®, L4-C4 connects between the points markedand
L6-C6 connects between the points markedZon the pictorial. Cl
28.0 pF, C3 = 14.0 pF, C5 = 14.8 pF, C7 = 34.2 pF, C2 = 162 pF, C4
= 36.0 pF, and C6 = 46.5 pF. Design inductances: L2 = 0.721 ja1-1: 14 (B)
turns no. 26 wire evenly wound on a T44-10 core. L4 = 0.76601: 14
turns no. 26 wire bunched as required on a T44-10 core. L6 = 0.855 pH: Fig. 23 — A top view of the 300-ohm elliptic filter using pc-board
15 turns evenly wound on a T44-10 core. These coils should be adjusted capacitors is at A. Twin- lead is tack soldered at the left and right ends
tor resonance at 14./, and 25.2 MHz. of the Ward. At B, bottom viow of the tutor.

Interference 15-13
 the " parallel" type, where the phase of
the current is the same in both conduc-
tors. The line simply acts like two wires
connected together to operate as one. If
the receiver antenna input circuit were
300- OHM I 300 - OHM
LINE TO TV +- -+ LINE TO
perfectly balanced it would reject these
SET I ANT "parallel" or common- mode signals and
respond only to the true transmission-line
("push-pull" or differential mode) cur-
rents. That is, only signals picked up on
the actual antenna would cause areceiver Fig. 25 — " Brute- force" ac line filter for
response. However, no receiver is perfect receivers. The values of Cl, C2 and C3 are not
in this respect, and many TV receivers will generally critical; capacitances from 0.001 to
respond strongly to such common mode 0.01 pF can be used. Li and L2 can be a 2- inch
Fig. 24 — Parallel-tuned traps for installation
winding of no. 18 enameled wire on a 1/2- inch
in the 300-ohm line to the TV set. The traps currents. The result is that the signals diameter form. In making up such a unit for
should be mounted in an aluminum Minibox
from a nearby amateur transmitter are use external to the receiver, make sure that
with a shield partition between them, as
shown. For 50 MHz, the coils should have nine much more intense at the first stage in the there are no exposed conductors to offer a
turns of no. 16 enamel wire, close-wound to a TV receiver than they would be if the shock hazard.
diameter of 1/2 inch. The total- MHz traps receiver response were confined entirely to
should contain coils with a total of six turns of
energy picked up on the TV antenna
the same type wire, close-wound to a diameter
of 1/4 inch (6 mm). Traps of this type can be alone.
used to combat fundamental-overload TVI on A simple common- mode choke can be vhf TV band with respect to transmitters
the lower-frequency bands as well. formed by winding several turns of TV operating below 30 MHz.
twin-lead through an FT- 114 ferrite core. There is one highly favorable factor in
Best results will be obtained if you use uhf TV that does not exist in most of the
twin- lead with an oval cross sectional vhf TV band: If harmonics are radiated, it
justment of the trimmer capacitors, since profile. is possible to move the transmitter fre-
they are at a " hot" point and will show The situation can also be improved by quency sufficiently ( within the amateur
considerable body-capacitance effect. using coaxial cable or shielded twin-lead. band being used) to avoid interfering with
High-pass filters are available commer- For best results, coax line should ter- a channel that may be in use in the
cially at moderate prices. In this connec- minate in acoaxial fitting on the receiver locality.
tion, it should be understood by all parties chassis. A balun can be used between the The harmonics from amateur bands
concerned that while an amateur is coax and the 300- ohm balanced input ter- above 50 MHz span the uhf channels as
responsible for harmonic radiation from minals of areceiver having no coaxial con- shown in Table 1. Since the assignment
his transmitter, it is no part of his respon- nector. The foil of shielded twin- lead plan calls for aminimum separation of six
sibility to pay for or install filters, wave should be connected to the chassis near channels between any two stations in one
traps or other devices that may be re- the antenna terminals through a small locality, there is ample opportunity to
quired at the receiver to prevent in- capacitor (470 pF). Rf currents on the out- choose a fundamental frequency that will
terference caused by his fundamental fre- side of the shield can be dealt with effec- move a harmonic out of range of a local
quency. Proper installation usually re- tively by using ashield choke as described TV frequency.
quires that the filter be installed right at earlier in this chapter.
the input terminals of the rf tuner of the In most receiving installations the
TV set and not merely at the external transmission line is very much longer than
antenna terminals, which may be at acon- the antenna itself, and is consequently far
siderable distance from the tuner. The more exposed to the harmonic fields from Table 1
question of cost is one to be settled be- the transmitter. Much of the harmonic
Harmonic Relationship — Amateur VHF
tween the set owner and the organization pickup, therefore, is on the receiving
Bands and the UHF TV Channels
with which he deals. Don't overlook the transmission line when the transmitter and
possibility that the manufacturer of the receiver are quite close together. Shielded
Amateur Fundamental Channel
TV receiver may supply a high-pass filter line, plus relocation of either the transmit- Band Harmonic Freq. Range Affected
free of charge. ting or receiving antenna to take advan- 144 MHz 4th 144.0-144.5 31
If the fundamental signal is getting into tage of directive effects, often will reduce 144.5-146.0 32
the receiver by way of the line cord, aline overloading, as well as harmonic pickup, 146.0-147.5 33
147.5-148.0 34
filter such as those shown in Fig. 25 may to a level that does not interfere with 5th 144.0-144.4 55
help. To be most effective it should be in- reception. 144.4-145.6 56
stalled inside the receiver chassis at the 145.6-146.8 57
point where the cord enters, making the UHF Television 146.8-148.0 58
6th 144.0-144.33 79
ground connections directly to the chassis Harmonic TVI in the uhf TV band is
144.33-145.33 80
at this point. It may not be so helpful if far less troublesome than in the vhf band. 145.33-147.33 81
placed between the line plug and the wall Harmonics from transmitters operating 147.33-148.0 82
socket unless the rf is actually picked up below 30 MHz are of such high order that 220 MHz 3rd 220-220.67 45
on the house wiring rather than on the line they would normally be expected to be 220.67-222.67 46
cord itself. quite weak; in addition, the components, 222.67-224.67 47
224.67-225 48
circuit conditions and construction of
4th 220-221 82
Antenna Installation low- frequency transmitters are such as to 221-222.5 83
Usually the transmission line between tend to prevent very strong harmonics 420-421 75
420 MHz 2nd
the TV receiver and the antenna will pick from being generated in this region. 421-424 76
up agreat deal more energy from anearby However, this is not true of amateur vhf 424-427 77
transmitters, particularly those working in 427-430 78
hf transmitter than the television receiving
430-433 79
antenna itself. The currents induced on the 144- MHz and higher bands. Here the 433-436 80
the TV transmission line in this case are of problem is quite similar to that of the low

15-14 Chapter 15
 I
CONNECT XMTR
TO SHIELDED
DUMMY LOAD

CHECK XMTR
OPERATING CONDITIONS.
SHIEL DING, GROUNDING;
INSTALL SHIELD CHOKE
RECONNECT XMTR ANT. AND AC LINE FILTER
VIA LOW-PASS OR
BAND-PASS FILTER

CHECK GROUNDING. SHIELDING

AND RF CONNECTORS
CHECK ANTENNA(S) FOR
POOR CONNECTIONS

DISCONNECT Tv ANTENNA
AT THE SET, TERMINATE
THE INPUT

N YES INSTALL AC
LINE FILTER

RECONNECT
Tv ANTENNA

NO YES

INSTALL
HIGH-PASS FILTER RECONNECT
TV ANTENNA

YES
NO TES

INSTALL COMMON- NODE CHOKE,

SHIELD CHOKE OR WAVE TRAP

POSSIBLE DIRECT PICKUP PROBLEM;

CONTACT SELLER OR MANUFACTURER
FOR ASSISTANCE

YES

POSSIBLE OVERLOAD PROBLEM;

YES
CONTACT SELLER OR MANUFACTURER
FOR ASSISTANCE

VOSS., L HARMONICS OR PARAS,TICS,

RECHECK XMTR. ALSO SUSPECT STRAY
SEE CONSUMER PRODUCTS RFI
RECTIFICATION OR OVERLOAD OF ASSISTANCE LIST, RFI BOOK
ANOTHER TV RCVR OR cooeTE. AMP CHAP 8 OR NAY 81 OST p 47

Fig. 26 — TVI troubleshooting flowchart.

Interference 15-15
TVI Troubleshooting observing any changes in the interference.
Not only disconnect the patch cords con-
Determination and experimentation are
necting the pieces together, but also
essential for success in tracking down and
unplug the ac line cord for each item as
eliminating troublesome TVI. The
you make the test. This will help you
variables involved are usually so com-
determine which section is the culprit.
plicated as to make the task more of an art
Patch cords are usually, but not always,
than a science. To ensure a logical and
made of shielded cable. The lines should
systematic approach, use the TVI
be shielded, which brings up another
troubleshooting flowchart found in Fig.
Fig. 27 — A method for removing rf current point. Many commercially available patch
26. The best place to begin is in your own from loudspeaker leads. The chokes should be cords have poor shields. Some have wire
home. Lessons learned there will assist near the output terminals, preferably within the
spirally wrapped around the insulation,
you when dealing with problems amplifier cabinet. The rf chokes can be 24
turns of no. 18 wire closewound on a pencil. covering the main lead, rather than braid.
elsewhere in the neighborhood.
This method provides poor shielding and
could be the reason for RFI problems.
Hi -
Fi Interference
Record-player tone-arm connections to
Since the introduction of stereo and the cartridge are usually made with small
RFC
high-fidelity receivers, interference to this clips. The existence of a loose clip, par-
0-rrrn--1-0
type of home- entertainment device has
001 ticularly if oxidation is present, offers an
become a severe problem for amateurs. AC T TO AC excellent invitation to RFI. Also, the leads
Aside from placing the amateur antenna LINE SWITCH
from the cartridge and those to the
001
as far as possible from any hi-fi installa- RFC amplifier are sometimes resonant at vhf,
tion, there is little else that can be done at providing an excellent receiving antenna
the amateur's ham shack. Most of the hi- for rf. One cure for unwanted rf pickup is
fi gear now being sold has little or no to install ferrite beads, one on each car-
filtering to prevent rf interference. In Fig. 28 — Ac line filter for audio amplifiers.
The chokes are the same as those described in tridge lead. Check all patch- cord connec-
other words, corrective measures must be Fig. 27, and the capacitors must be rated for tions for looseness or poor solder joints.
done at the hi-fi installation. ac service. Inferior connections can cause rectifica-
tion and subsequent RFI.
Hi-
Fi Gear Tape decks should be treated the same
Hi-fi gear can consist of a simple as turntables. Loose connections and bad
amplifier, with record or tape inputs and the amplifier side. Most solid-state audio solder joints all can cause trouble. Ferrite
speakers. The more elaborate installations amplifiers have high values of loop gain, beads can be slipped over the leads to the
may have a tape deck, record player, fm which makes them prone to supersonic recording and play-back pickup heads.
and a-m tuners, an amplifier and two or oscillation when working into capacitive Bypassing of the tone- arm or pickup-head
more speakers. These units are usually loads. Such oscillation can destroy the leads is also effective, but sometimes it is
connected together by means of shielded output transistors in short order. In par- difficult to install capacitors in the small
leads, and in most cases the speakers are ticularly stubborn cases, use shielded wire area available. Disc capacitors (0.001 pF)
positioned some distance from the for the speaker leads, grounding the should be used as close to the cartridge or
amplifier via long leads. When such a shields at the amplifier chassis and still us- pickup head as possible. Keep the
setup is operated near an amateur station, ing the bypasses on the terminals. When capacitor leads as short as possible.
say within a few hundred feet, there are grounding, all chassis used in the hi-fi in-
two important paths through which rf stallation should be bonded together and Preamplifiers
energy can reach the hi-fi installation to connected to agood earth ground if at all There are usually one or more
cause interference. possible. It has been found that grounding preamplifiers used in ahi-fi amplifier. The
Step number one is to try determining sometimes eliminates the interference. On inputs to these stages can be very suscepti-
how the interference is getting into the hi- the other hand, don't be discouraged if ble to RFI. Fig. 29 illustrates a typical
fi unit. If the volume control has no effect grounding doesn't appear to help. preamplifier circuit. In this case the leads
on the level of interference or very slight Fig. 28 shows amethod for filtering the to the bases of the transistors are treated
effect, the audio rectification of the ac line at the input of the amplifier for RFI with ferrite beads by the addition
amateur signal is taking place past the chassis. Be sure that the capacitors are of RFC2 and RFC4. This is a very effec-
volume control, or on the output end of rated for ac because the dc types have tive method for stopping RFI when vhf
the amplifier. This is by far the most com- been known to short out. energy is the source of the trouble.
mon type. It usually means that the Within the circuit of asolid-state audio
amateur signal is being picked up on the Antenna Pickup system, a common offender can be the
speaker leads, or possibly on the ac line, If the hi-fi setup includes an fm installa- emitter- base junction of atransistor. This
and is then being fed back into the tion, there is the possibility of rf getting junction operates as a forward- biased
amplifier. into the audio equipment by way of the diode, with the bias set so that achange of
Experience has shown that most of the fm antenna. Chances for this method of base current with signal will produce a
rf gets into the audio system via the entry are very good and precautions linear but amplified change in collector
speaker leads or the ac line, mostly the should be taken here to prevent the rf current. Should rf energy reach the junc-
speaker leads. If the speaker leads happen from getting to the equipment. A TV-type tion, the bias could increase, causing
to be resonant near an amateur band in high-pass filter can prove effective in nonlinear amplification and distortion as
use, there is likely to be an interference some cases. the result. If the rf level is high it can com-
problem. The speaker lead will act as a pletely block (saturate) a transistor, caus-
resonant antenna and pick up the rf. One Turntables and Tape Decks ing a complete loss of gain. Therefore, it
easy cure is illustrated in Fig. 27. Rf In the more elaborate hi-fi setups, there may be necessary to reduce the transmitter
chokes rated to carry the load current are may be several assemblies connected power output in order to pinpoint the par-
installed at the amplifier output terminals. together by means of patch cords. It is a ticular transistor stage that is affected.
Capacitors may be used on the load side good idea when checking for RFI to In addition to adding ferrite beads it
of the chokes, but should not be placed on disconnect the units, one at a time, may be necessary to bypass the base of the

15-16 Chapter 15
transistor to chassis ground, Cl and C2,
Fig. 29. A suitable value is 100 pr, and PREAMPLIFIER
RFC5
keep the leads short! As ageneral rule, the +
capacitor value should be as large as possi-
ble without degrading the high- frequency
response of the amplifier. Values up to
0.001 pF can be used. In severe cases, a
series inductor ( RFC1 and RFC3) may be
required, such as the Ohmite Z-50 or
Z-144, or their equivalents ( 7and 1.8 µH,
respectively). Fig. 29 shows the correct INPUT

placement for an inductor, bypass

capacitor, and ferrite bead. Also, it might
help to use aferrite bead in the plus- B lead
to the preamplifier stages ( RFC5 in Fig.
29). Keep in mind that Fig. 29 represents
only one preamplifier of astereo set. Both
channels may require treatment.

FM Tuners
There is often an fm tuner used in ahi-
fi installation. Much of the interference to
tuners is caused by fundamental
overloading of the first stage (or stages) of Fig. 29 — Typical circuit of a solid-state preamplifier.
the tuner, effected by the amateur's
signal. The cure is the installation of a
high-pass filter, the same type used for
TVI. The filter should be installed as close BCI is frequently made worse by radia- casionally cases where the noise is heard
as possible to the antenna input of the tion from the power wiring or the rf whenever the broadcast receiver is tuned
tuner. The high-pass filter will attenuate transmission line. This is because the to abc station, but there is no interference
the amateur fundamental signal, thus signal causing the interference, in such when tuning between stations. This is
preventing overloading of the front end. cases, is radiated from wiring that is cross- modulation, a result of rectification
nearer the broadcast receiver than the in one of the early stages of the receiver.
Shielding
antenna itself. Much depends on the Receivers that are susceptible to this
Lack of shielding on the various com- method used to couple the transmitter to trouble usually also get a similar type of
ponents in ahi-fi installation can permit rf the antenna, a subject that is discussed in interference from regular broadcasting if
to get into the equipment. Many units the chapters on transmission lines and there is a strong local bc station and the
have no bottom plates, or are installed in antennas. If it is at all possible the antenna receiver is tuned to some other station.
plastic cases. One easy method of pro- itself should be placed so that it is not in The remedy for cross modulation in the
viding shielding is to use aluminum foil. close proximity to house wiring, telephone receiver is the same as for images and
Make sure the foil doesn't short circuit the and power lines, and similar conductors. oscillator- harmonic response — reduce
components, and connect it to chassis the strength of the amateur signal at the
ground. The BC Set receiver by means of a line filter.
Most present day receivers use solid- The trouble is not always in the
Interference with Standard Broadcasting state active components, rather than receiver, since cross modulation can occur
tubes. A large number of the receivers in in any nearby rectifying circuit — such as
Transmitter Defects
use are battery powered. This is to the a poor contact in water or steam piping,
Out-of- band radiation is something amateur's advantage because much of the gutter pipes, and other conductors in the
that must be cured at the transmitter. bc interference an amateur encounters is strong field of the transmitting antenna —
Parasitic oscillations are a frequently un- due to ac line pickup. In the case where external to both receiver and transmitter.
suspected source of such radiations, and the bc receiver is powered from the ac Locating the cause may be difficult, and is
no transmitter can be considered satisfac- line, whether using tube or solid-state best attempted with a battery-operated
tory until it has been thoroughly checked components, the amount of rf pickup portable broadcast receiver used as a
for both low- and high- frequency must be reduced or eliminated. A line "probe" to find the spot where the in-
parasitics. Very often parasitics show up filter such as is shown in Fig. 25 often will terference is most intense. When such a
only as transients, causing key clicks in cw help accomplish this. The values used for spot is located, inspection of the metal
transmitters and " splashes" or burps" on the coils and capacitors are in general not structures in the vicinity should indicate
modulation peaks in a- m transmitters. critical. The effectiveness of the filter may the cause. The remedy is to make agood
Methods for detecting and eliminating depend considerably on the ground con- electrical bond between the two
parasitics are discussed in the transmitter nection used, and it is advisable to use a conductors having the poor contact.
chapter. short ground lead to a cold-water pipe if
In cw transmitters the sharp make and at all possible. The line cord from the set Handling BC! Cases
break that occurs with unfiltered keying should be bunched up to minimize the Tune the receiver through the broadcast
causes transients that, in theory, contain possibility of pickup on the cord. It may band to see whether the interference tunes
frequency components through the entire be necessary to install the filter inside the like a regular bc station. If so, image or
radio spectrum. Practically, they are often receiver, so that the filter is connected be- oscillator-harmonic response is the cause.
strong enough in the immediate vicinity of tween the line cord and the set wiring, in If there is interference only when abc sta-
the transmitter to cause serious in- order to get satisfactory operation. tion is tuned in, but not between stations,
terference to broadcast reception. Key the cause is cross-modulation. If the in-
clicks can be eliminated by the methods Crass-Modulation tei ference is heard at all settings of the
detailed in the chapter on keying. With phone transmitters, there are oc- tuning dial, the trouble is pickup in the

Interference 15-17
audio circuits. In the latter case, the can come from corroded connections, ordering guide for special components
receiver's volume control may or may not unterminated loops, and other sources. It and sets, as follows:
affect the strength of the interference, correctly points out that the rf can be pick- Ordering Guide
depending on the means by which your ed up on the drop wire coming into the Capacitor, 40BA
signal is being rectified. house, and also on the wiring within the Inductor, 1542A
house, but the rf detection usually occurs -49 Gray, - 50 Ivory
Organs inside the phone. The detection usually Set, Telephone, -rf Modified
The electronic organ is an RFI problem takes place at the varistors in the compen- Set, Telephone Hand, 220A, - rf
area. All of the techniques outlined for sation networks, and/or at the receiver Modified
hi-fi gear hold true in getting rid of RFI in noise suppressor and the carbon Set, Telephone Hand, 2220B, -rf
an organ. Two points should be checked microphone. But interference suppression Modified
— the speaker leads and the ac line. Many should be handled two ways: Prevent the Set, Hand G, - rf Modified
organ manufacturers have special ser- rf from getting to the phone, and prevent Dial — (Touch-Tone dial only), - rf
vicemen's guides for taking care of RFI. it from being rectified. Modified.
However, to get this information you or The telephone companies ( Bell System) The type " G" handset is the one used
the organ owner must contact the have two devices for this purpose. The with the 500 and Touch-Tone series
manufacturer, not the dealer or first is a40BA capacitor, which is installed phones. Also, Mountain Bell has put out
distributor. Don't accept the statement at the service entrance protector, and the an " Addendum 500-150-100MS, Issue A,
from a dealer or serviceman that there is second is the 1542A inductor, which is in- January 1971" to the practices manual,
nothing that can be done about the stalled at the connector block. According which states that items for rf modified
interference. to the practices manual, the 40BA phones should be ordered on nonstock
bypasses rf picked up on the drop wire form 3218, as follows:
P-A Systems coming into the house from the phone, (Telephone Set type)
The cure for RFI in p-a systems is and the I542A suppresses rf picked up on Modified for BSP 500-150-100
almost the same as that for hi-fi gear. The the inside wiring. These are mentioned for Radio Signal Suppression
one thing to watch for is rf on the leads because in very stubborn cases they may
that connect the various stations in a p-a be necessary. But the telephone should be Additional Information
system. These leads should be treated the modified first. In response to the many hundreds of
same as speaker leads and filtering should Since there are several different series of thousands of RFI-related complaints it
be done at both ends of the lines. Also, phones, they will be discussed separately: has received in recent years, the FCC has
watch for ac- line pickup of rf. 500 series — These are the desk and wall produced abooklet designed to show how
phones most commonly in use. They come to solve common RFI problems before
Telephone Interference in several different configurations, but all they become serious. Entitled How to
Because of a change in FCC rules, use 425-series compensation network. The Identify and Resolve Radio- TV In-
subscribers increasingly own their tele- letter designation can be A, B, C, D, E, F, terference Problems, it is available for
phone instruments, leasing only the lines G or K, and all these networks contain $5 from Consumer Information Center,
from the telephone company. Interference- varistors. The network should be replaced Dept. 051F, Pueblo, CO 81009. Make
prevention measures to the instrument are with a 4228D, in which the varistors are check payable to Superintendent of
the owner's responsibility. If afault occurs replaced by resistors. Also, 0.01-µF disc- Documents. The ARRL publication Radio
in the line, the telephone company must ceramic capacitors should be placed Frequency Interference, which sells for $ 3,
make the necessary repairs. Responsible in- across the receiver suppressor. The sup- covers all aspects of RFI and includes the
strument manufacturers should provide pressor is a diode across the receiver ter- complete FCC booklet.
necessary modifications to minimize RFI. minals. The carbon microphone in the Additional information can be found in
Telephone interference may be cured by handset should be bypassed with a the sources listed below.
connecting a bypass capacitor (about 0.01-µF ceramic capacitor.
0.001 µF) across the microphone unit in Series 1500, 1600, 1700 — These are the
the telephone handset. The telephone "Touch-Tone" phones, and the cure is Consumer Electronics Service Technician Interference
Handbook — Audio Rectification ( Washington,
companies have capacitors for this pur- similar to that for the 500 series, except
D.C.: CES, n.d.)*
pose. When such a case occurs, get in that the network is a 4010B or - D, and Consumer Electronics Service Technician Interference
touch with the repair department of the should be replaced with a4010E. Handbook — Television Interference ( Washington,
D.C.:CES, n.d.)*
phone company, giving the particulars. Trimline series — These are the Giving Two- Way Radio Its Voice ( Toledo, OH:
Section 500-150-100 of the Bell System "Princess" series phones. The practice Champion Spark Plug Company, 1978).
Nelson, W. R., Interference Handbook ( Wilton, CT:
Practices Plant Series gives detailed in- manual says that these should be modified Publications, 1981).
structions; for the General Telephone by installing bypass capacitors across all
System, refer to General System Practices components in the set which may act as
'Single copies of the interference handbooks for audio
Engineering — Plant Series Section demodulators. This statement is rather rectification and television interference may be ob-
471-150-200. This section discusses causes vague, but evidently the telephone com- tained by writing to: Director of Consumer Affairs,
Consumer Electronics Group, Electronic Industries
and cures of telephone interference from pany is aware of a solution.
Association, 2001 Eye Street, N.W., Washington, DC
radio signals. It points out that interference At the end of section 500-150-100 is an 20006.

15-18 Chapter 15
Chapter 16

Test Equipment and

Measurements

M easurement and testing seemingly go

hand in hand, but it is useful to make a
for simple test apparatus.
Certain items of measuring equipment
it far preferable to purchase such equipment
than to attempt to build one's own.
distinction between "measuring" and that are useful to amateurs are readily However, some test gear is either not
"test" equipment. Measurement is com- available in kit form, at prices that represent available or can easily be built. This chapter
monly considered to be capable of giving a agenuine saving over the cost of identical considers the principles of the more useful
meaningful quantitative result, while testing, parts. Included are volt-ohm-milliammeter types of measuring equipment and con-
a simple indication of "satisfactory" or combinations, vacuum-tube and transistor cludes with the descriptions of several pieces
"unsatisfactory" may suffice. In any event, voltmeters, oscilloscopes and the like. The not not only can be built satisfactorily at
the accurate calibration associated with real coordination of electrical and mechanical home but also will facilitate operation of the
measuring equipment is seldom necessary design, components, and appearance make amateur station.

The Direct- Current Instrument

In measuring instruments and test equip- usually expressed in terms of the current part of the scale. There are very few cases
ment suitable for amateur purposes, the required for full-scale deflection of the in amateur work where accuracy greater
ultimate " readout" is generally based on pointer. Although a very wide variety of than this is needed. However, when the
ameasurement of direct current. A meter ranges is available, the meters of interest instrument is part of a more complex
for measuring dc uses electromagnetic in amateur work have basic " movements" measuring circuit, the design and com-
means to deflect a pointer over a cali- that will give maximum deflection with ponents of which all can cause error, the
brated scale in proportion to the current currents measured in microamperes or overall accuracy of the complete device is
flowing through the instrument. milliamperes. They are called microam- always less.
In the D'A rsonval type acoil of wire, to meters and milliammeters, respectively.
which the pointer is attached, is pivoted Thanks to the relationships between Extending the Current Range
between the poles of apermanent magnet. current, voltage and resistance expressed Because of the way current divides
When current flows through the coil it by Ohm's Law, it becomes possible to use between two resistances in parallel, it is
sets up amagnetic field that interacts with a single low-range instrument — e.g., I possible to increase the range (more
the field of the magnet to cause the coil to milliampere or less full-scale pointer specifically, to decrease the sensitivity) of
turn. The design of the instrument is deflection — for a variety of direct- a dc micro- or milliammeter to any
usually such as to make the pointer current measurements. Through its ability desired extent. The meter itself has an
deflection directly proportional to the to measure current, the instrument can inherent resistance — its internal resis-
current. also be used indirectly to measure voltage. tance— which determines the full-scale
A less expensive type of instrument is Likewise, a measurement of both current current through it when its rated voltage is
the moving-vane type, in which a pivoted and voltage will obviously yield avalue of applied. (This rated voltage is of the order
soft-iron vane is pulled into acoil of wire resistance. These measurement functions of a few millivolts.) By connecting an
by the magnetic field set up when current are often combined in asingle instrument external resistance in parallel with the
flows through the coil. The farther the — the volt-Ohm-milliammeter or " VOM," internal resistance, as in Fig. 1, the current
vane extends into the coil the greater the amultirange meter that is one of the most will divide between the two, with the
magnetic pull on it, for agiven change in useful pieces of measuring and test meter responding only to that part of the
current. This type of instrument thus equipment an amateur can possess. current which flows through the internal
does not have " linear" deflection — the resistance of its movement. Thus it reads
intervals of equal current are crowded Accuracy only part of the total current; the effect is
together at the low-current end and The accuracy of a dc meter of the to make more total current necessary for a
spread out at the high-current end of the D'Arsonval type is specified by the full-scale meter reading. The added
scale. manufacturer. A common specification is resistance is called a shunt.
"2 percent of full scale," meaning that a It is necessary to know the meter's
Current Ranges 0-100 microammeter, for example, will be internal resistance before the required
The sensitivity of an instrument is correct to within 2 microamperes at any value for ashunt can be calculated. It may

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-1

 Unfortunately, the internal resistance of series with acurrent-reading meter, as in
the meter can not be directly measured Fig. 3, the current multiplied by the
with a VOM or VTVM without risk of resistance will be the voltage drop across
damage to the meter movement. In most the resistance. This is known as a
cases, the currents in the measuring equip- multiplier. An instrument used in this way
ment are high enough to impair the is calibrated in terms of the voltage drop
delicate meter movement. across the multiplier resistor and is called
Fig. 2illustrates amethod that can be a voltmeter.
used to safely determine the internal
resistance of ameter. A calibrated meter Sensitivity
capable of measuring the same current as Voltmeter sensitivity is usually ex-
the unknown meter is required. The pressed in ohms per volt, meaning that the
system works as follows: SI is placed in meter full-scale reading multiplied by the
the open position and R2 is set for sensitivity will give the total resistance of
Fig. 1 — Use of a shunt to extend the calibra- maximum resistance. A supply of con- the voltmeter. For example, the resistance
tion range of acurrent- reading instrument. stant voltage is connected to the terminals of a 1-kfl-per-volt voltmeter is 1000 times
+ and — ( abattery will work fine) and R2 the full-scale calibration voltage, and by
is adjusted so that the unknown meter Ohm's Law the current required for full-
reads exactly full scale. Note the current scale deflection is 1milliampere. A sensi-
shown on M2. Close Si and alternately tivity of 20 kfl per volt, acommonly used
adjust RI and R2 so that the unknown value, means that the instrument is a
meter ( M1) reads exactly half scale and 50-microampere meter.
the known meter ( M2) reads the same The higher the resistance of the
value as in the step above. At this point voltmeter, the more accurate the meas-
the current in the circuit is divided in half. urements, especially in high- resistance
Half of the current flows through MI and circuits. Current flowing through the
half through RI. To determine the voltmeter will cause a change in the
internal resistance of the meter simply voltage between the points where the
open SI and read the resistance of R1with meter is connected, compared with the
aVTVM, VOM or digital volt-ohmmeter. voltage with the meter absent. This is
The values of RI and R2 will depend on illustrated in Fig. 4.
Fig. 2 — A safe method for determining the in- the meter sensitivity and the voltage of the
ternal resistance of a meter.
supply. The maximum resistance value for Multipliers
RI should be approximately twice the ex- The required multiplier resistance is
pected internal resistance of the meter. found by dividing the desired full-scale
For highly sensitive meters ( 100 µA and voltage by the current, in amperes,
less) 1 kilohm should be adequate. For required for full-scale deflection of the
less sensitive meters 100 ohms should meter alone. Strictly, the internal re-
suffice. sistance of the meter should be subtracted
The value for minimum resistance at R2 from the calculated value but this is
can be calculated using Ohm's Law. For seldom necessary (except perhaps for very
example, if the meter is a0-1 mA type and low ranges), since the meter resistance will
the supply is a 1.5-volt battery, the be negligibly small compared with the
minimum resistance required at R2 will be multiplier resistance. An exception is
when the instrument is already a volt-
1.5 meter and is provided with an internal
Fig. 3 — A voltmeter is a current-indicating in- R2 = 0.001 multiplier, in which case the multiplier
strument in series with a high resistance, the
resistance required to extend the range is
"multiplier." R2( m i
n) = 1500 ohms
R = it n,(
n — I)
in practice a 2- or 2.5-kfl potentiometer
would be used. where
Rif, = total resistance of the
vary from a few ohms to a few hundred, Making Shunts instrument
with the higher resistance values as- Homemade shunts can be constructed n = factor by which the scale is to
' sociated with higher sensitivity. When from any of various special kinds of be multiplied
known, it can be used in the formula resistance wire, or from ordinary copper For example, if a 1-kfl-per-volt voltmeter
below to determine the required shunt for wire if no resistance wire is available. The having acalibrated range of 0-10 volts is
agiven current multiplication: copper wire table in this handbook gives to be extended to 1000 volts, Rm is 1000
the resistance per 1000 feet ( 305 m) for X 10 = 10 kO, nis 1000/10 = 100, and
Rm various sizes of copper wire. After R = 10,000 ( 100 — 1) = 990 ku.
R =
n — 1 computing the resistance required, deter- When extending the range of a volt-
where mine the smallest wire size that will meter or converting a low-range meter
R = the shunt carry the full-scale current ( 250 circular into avoltmeter, the rated accuracy of the
Rm = internal resistance mils per ampere is asatisfactory figure for instrument is retained only when the
n = the factor by which the original this purpose). Measure off enough wire to multiplier resistance is precise. Precision
meter scale is to be multiplied provide the required resistance. A 1- or wire-wound resistors are used in the
Quite often the internal resistance of a 2-watt carbon resistor makes an excellent multipliers of high-quality instruments.
particular meter will be unknown. This is form on which to wind the wire. These are relatively expensive, but the
usually the case when the meter is pur- home constructor can do quite well with
chased at a flea market or is obtained The Voltmeter 1-percent tolerance composition resistors.
from a commercial piece of equipment. If a large resistance is connected in They should be "derated" when used for

16-2 Chapter 16
this purpose — that is, the actual power
dissipated in the resistor should not be
more than 1/4 to 1/2 the rated dissipation 100V
rnA
— and care should be used to avoid 250V
150k
overheating the body of the resistor when lrnA
DC
VOLTAGE
soldering to the leads. These precautions 1000Ci/V METER READS APP 81v

will help prevent permanent change in the 201,0/V METER READS APP 98v
11 MEG METER READS APP 99V
resistance of the unit. 250V FULL
SCALE
Ordinary composition resistors are
generally furnished in 10- or 5- percent
tolerance ratings. If possible errors of this Fig. 4 — Effect of voltmeter resistance on ac-
Fig. 6 — Measurement of power requires both
order can be accepted, resistors of this curacy of readings. It is assumed that the dc
current and voltage measurements; once these
type may be used as multipliers. They resistance of the screen circuit is constant at
values are known the power is equal to the pro-
100 kilohms. The actual current and voltage
should be operated below the rated power without the voltmeter connected are 1mA and
duct P = El. The same circuit can be used for
dissipation figure, in the interests of measurement of an unknown resistance.
100 volts. The voltmeter readings will differ
long-time stability. because the different types of meters draw dd.
ferent amounts of current tnrough the
DC Measurement Circuits: the Voltmeter 150-kilohm resistor.

A current-measuring instrument should

have very low resistance compared with
the resistance of the circuit being measured;
otherwise, inserting the instrument will
cause the current to differ from its
value with the instrument out of the
circuit. The resistance of many circuits in
radio equipment is high and the circuit
operation is affected little, if at all, by
adding as much as afew hundred ohms in
series. In such cases the voltmeter method
of measuring current, shown in Fig. 5, is
frequently convenient. A voltmeter ( or
low- range milliammeter provided with a
multiplier and operating as a voltmeter)
having a full-scale voltage range of afew Fig. 5 — Voltmeter method of measuring cur-
rent. This method permits using relatively large
volts is used to measure the voltage drop
values of resistance in the shunt, standard
across asuitable value of resistance acting values of fixed resistors frequently being
as a shunt. usable. If the multiplier resistance is 20 (or
The value of shunt resistance must be more) times the shunt resistance, the error in
assuming that all the current flows through the
calculated from the known or estimated shunt will not be of consequence in most prac-
maximum current expected in the circuit tical applications.
(allowing a safe margin) and the voltage
required for full-scale deflection of the
meter with its multiplier.

Power the percentage error is less in this region.

Power in direct- current circuits is
determined by measuring the current and The Ohmmeter
voltage. When these are known, the power Although Fig. 6suffices for occasional Fig. 7 — Ohmmeter circuits. Values are
is equal to the voltage in volts multiplied resistance measurements, it is incon- discussed in the text.
by the current in amperes. If the current is venient when frequent measurements over
measured with a milliammeter, the read- awide range of resistance are to be made.
ing of the instrument must be divided by The device generally used for this purpose where
1000 to convert it to amperes. is the ohmmeter. This consists fund-
R = resistance to be found
The setup for measuring power is amentally of a voltmeter ( or milliam- e = voltage applied ( A-B shorted)
shown in Fig. 6, where R is any dc meter, depending on the circuit used)
E = voltmeter reading with R con-
"load," not necessarily an actual resistor. and a small battery, the meter being
nected, and
calibrated so the value of an unknown
Resistance Rn,= resistance of the voltmeter.
resistance can be read directly from the
Obviously, if both voltage and current scale. Typical ohmmeter circuits are The circuit of Fig. 7A is not suited to
are measured in a circuit such as that in shown in Fig. 7. In the simplest type, measuring low values of resistance ( below
Fig. 6the value of resistance R (in case it is shown in Fig. 7A, the meter and battery a hundred ohms or so) with a high-
unknown) can be calculated from Ohm's are connected in series with the unknown resistance voltmeter. For such measure-
Law. For accurate results the internal resistance. If agiven deflection is obtained ments the circuit of Fig. 7B can be
resistance of the ammeter or milliam- with terminals A- B shorted, inserting the used. The unknown resistance is
meter, mA, should be very low compared resistance to be measured will cause the I
2Rm
with the resistance, R, being measured, meter reading to decrease. When the R =
— 1
2
since the voltage read by the voltmeter, V, resistance of the voltmeter is known, the
is the voltage across mA and R in series. following formula can be applied: where
The instruments and the dc voltage should R = the unknown resistance
eR ti, Rm = internal resistance of the
be chosen so that the readings are in the R =
upper half of the scale, if possible, since E milliammeter

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-3

 = current with R disconnected from amounts of unbalance about the null
terminals A-B point; the "sharper" the null the more
12 = current with R connected accurate the setting of R, at balance.
The formula is based on the assumption The Wheatstone bridge is rarely used by
that the current in the complete circuit will amateurs for resistance measurement, the
be essentially constant whether or not the ohmmeter being the favorite instrument
"unknown" terminals are short-circuited. for that purpose. However, it is wor-
This requires that RI be very large com- thwhile to understand its operation
pared with R,„ e.g., 3000 ohms for a because it is the basis of more complex
1-mA meter having an internal resistance bridges.
of perhaps 50 ohms. A 3-volt battery
would be necessary in this case in order to Electronic Voltmeters
obtain a full-scale deflection with the It has been pointed out that for many
"unknown" terminals open. RI can be an purposes the resistance of a voltmeter
adjustable resistor, to permit setting the must be extremely high in order to avoid
open-terminals current to exact full scale. "loading" errors caused by the current
A third circuit for measuring resistance that necessarily flows through the meter.
is shown in Fig. 7C. In this case a high- This tends to cause difficulty in measuring
resistance voltmeter is used to measure the relatively low voltages ( under perhaps
voltage drop across a reference resistor, 1000 volts) because ameter movement of
R2, when the unknown resistor is con- given sensitivity takes a progressively
nected so that current flows through it, R2 smaller multiplier resistance as the voltage
and the battery in series. By suitable range is lowered.
choice of R2 (low values for low-resist- Fig. 8 — The Wheatstone bridge circuit. It is The voltmeter resistance can be made
ance, high values for high-resistance un- frequently drawn as at (
B) for emphasizing its independent of the voltage range by using
special function.
knowns) this circuit will give equally good vacuum tubes or field-effect transistors as
results on all resistance values in the range electronic dc amplifiers between the
from one ohm to several megohms, pro- circuit being measured and the indicator,
vided that the voltmeter resistance, 12,„ is operation are most easily introduced in which may be aconventional meter move-
always very high ( 50 times or more) com- terms of dc, where the bridge takes its ment or a digital display. As the input
pared with the resistance of R2. A simplest form. resistance of the electronic devices is ex-
20-kg-per-volt instrument ( 50-µA move- tremely high — hundreds of megohms —
ment) is generally used. Assuming that the The Wheatstone Bridge they have essentially no loading effect on
current through the voltmeter is negligible The simple resistance bridge, known as the circuit to which they are connected.
compared with the current through R2, the Wheatstone bridge, is shown in Fig. 8. They do, however, require a closed dc
the formula for the unknown is All other bridge circuits — some of which path in their input circuits (although this
are rather elaborate, especially those path can have very high resistance) and
designed for ac — derive from this. The are limited in the amplitude of voltage
eR2
R = R2 four resistors, RI, R2, R3 and R4 shown that their input circuits can handle.
E Because of this, the device actually
in A, are known as the bridge arms. For
the voltmeter reading to be zero, the measures asmall voltage across aportion
where voltages across R3 and R4 in series must of a high-resistance voltage divider con-
R and R2 are as shown in Fig. 7C add algebraically to zero; that is, El must nected to the circuit being measured.
e = the voltmeter reading with A- B equal E2. R1-R3 and R2- R4 form voltage Various voltage ranges are obtained by
open circuited dividers across the dc source, so that if appropriate taps on the voltage divider.
E = voltmeter reading with R con- In the design of electronic voltmeters it
nected. RI R2 has become practically standard to use a
The " zero adjuster," RI, is used to set = Tz-
i then
voltage divider having a resistance of 10
the voltmeter reading exactly to full scale megohms, tapped as required, in series
when the meter is calibrated in ohms. A El = E2 with a 1-megohm resistor incorporated in
l0-kfl variable resistor is suitable with a aprobe that makes the actual contact with
20-kfl-per-volt meter. The battery voltage The circuit is customarily drawn as the " hot" side of the circuit under
is usually 3volts for ranges up to 100 kfl shown at 8B when used for resistance measurement. The total voltmeter re-
or so and 6volts for higher ranges. measurement. The equation above can be sistance, including probe, is therefore II
rewritten megohms. The probe resistor serves to
Bridge Circuits isolate the voltmeter circuit from the
R2
An important class of measurement "active" circuit.
Rx = Rs TT
circuits is the bridge. A desired result is
obtained by balancing the voltages at two to find R,, the unknown resistance. RI AN IC VOLTMETER
different points in the circuit against each and R2 are frequently made equal; then One of the fundamental trouble-
other so that there is zero potential the calibrated adjustable resistance ( the shooting techniques is to check the voltage
difference between them. A voltmeter standard), R,, will have the same value as present at various points in the circuit.
bridged between the two points will read R, when R, is set to show a null on the The measured voltage is compared with
zero ( null) when this balance exists, but voltmeter. the voltage we expect to find at that point.
will indicate some definite value of voltage Note that the resistance ratios, rather Knowing what to expect is important. If
when the bridge is not balanced. than the actual resistance values, de- we don't have some idea of what the
Bridge circuits are useful both on direct termine the voltage balance. However, the voltage should be, measuring it won't tell
current and on ac of all frequencies. The values do have important practical effects us very much. Often the voltages we
majority of amateur applications are at on the sensitivity and power consumption. measure in acircuit will not agree exactly
radio frequencies, as shown later in this The bridge sensitivity is the readiness with with our expected values. Small variations
chapter. However, the principles of bridge which the meter responds to small are normal and do not mean that the cir-

16-4 Chapter 16
Fig. 9 — The IC voltmeter mounted in a small
plastic case. This basic instrument measures
only dc voltages, but with an rf probe as
described later in this chapter, it can be used
for rf measurements as well. It may also be
used for resistance measurements, by using
techniques described in the previous section.
DS1, mounted between the binding posts, is a
power-on indicator.

cuit is not operating as it should. Compo-

nent tolerance and meter errors are the
primary causes for these variations.
Shown in Figs. 9through 12 is an easy- Fig. 11 — Inside view of the IC voltmeter. This version was built from an available parts kit. Other
to-build, high-impedance dc voltmeter, components and construction styles can be used as well.
first described by George Collins, KC1V,
in January 1982 QST. All of the parts for
the voltmeter are readily available. voltage measurements at frequencies up to have been selected to provide the desired
Calibration is simple and the cost is low. 30 MHz. full-scale voltage ranges and a total re-
Construction of this meter can be con- sistance of 11 MO. Some of the resistance
sidered as an easy weekend project. The Circuit Details values needed for the divider are not
input-impedance is 11 MO, and accuracy The input impedance of the meter is found in the standard series of
is better than 10 07o. With the rf probe determined by the total resistance of the 5%-tolerance resistor values. To avoid
shown later in this chapter, this meter can range-selector voltage divider ( R1 through having to buy expensive (and hard to find)
be used to make reasonably accurate rf R8). The values of the individual resistors 1% resistors, two 5% units are used in

EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS UF I ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS IDF OR uyX);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
1,000. IA• 000 000

Fig. 10 — A high- impedance dc voltmeter need not be complex. This circuit uses a single IC.
BT1, BT2 — 2 AAA (or AA) cells in holder or R8 — 10-kO, 1/4-W, 5% resistor.
9-V transistor radio battery (see text). in series. R9 — 10-ktl, 1/4-W PC-mount potentiometer,
DS1 — LED, 5-V, 20 mA; Radio Shack 276-041 R3 — 3.9-M0 and 100-kt1, 114-W, 5% resistors RS 271-218 or equiv.
or equiv. in series. R10 — 10- kt), panel- mount potentiometer, RS
J1, J2 — Banana jacks, 500-V insulation ( see R4 — 470-k0 and 30-k0, 1/4-W, 5% resistors 271-1722.
text), RS 274-662 or equiv. in series. All — Current- limiting resistor; 6800 for 3-V
M1 — 50-SA dc meter movement, RS 270-1751 R5 — 390-k0 and 10-kf), 114-W, 5% resistors batteries at BT1 and BT2, or 1.8 kt) for
or equiv. in series. 9-V batteries.
U1 — LF353N dual JFET op amp, RS 276- R6 — 47-kt1 and 3-kO, 114-W, 5% resistors Si — 1- pole, 7-position rotary switch (see text),
1715 or equiv. in series. RS 275-1385 or equiv.
R1 — 1.0- MO, 1/2-W, 5% resistor. R7 — 39-kO and 1- kt), 114-W, 5% resistors S2 — 2-pole, 2- position toggle swtich, RS
R2 — 4.7-M0 and 300-k(1, 1/4-W, 5% resistors in series. 275-614 or equiv.

Chapter 16 16-5
 be mounted on a small printed-circuit
- MI
•DS1 board,* although any method of wiring
RIO
can be used. A quick and simple way of
wiring the IC is to use ageneral-purpose

t0teijl-iD
(47K!! t(l
f e IC-prototyping board, such as the Radio
00 Shack 276-159.

s'ecreie
rinng The builder should be aware that very
minute leakage currents between pins of
S2A ()
the op-amp IC can cause improper opera-
t

SI
uU LIU tion of the instrument. If acircuit board is
- BTI used, be sure to clean the rosin flux from
+ BT2 r ri79L I
(COMMON)
around these pins after soldering is com-
pleted. Use a suitable solvent, such as
MI denatured alcohol. Further, the circuit
board should not be allowed to rest on
any type of supporting material; even
Fig. 12 — At A, a suitable etching pattern for the FET voltmeter. The board is single sided, shown
at actual size from the foil side, with black representing copper. At B is a parts- placement guide.
"nonconducting" foam may yield unex-
Parts are placed or the nonfoil side of the board; the shaded area represents an X-ray view of the pected results.
copper pattern. With the resistor values shown in Fig.
10, the highest full-scale range is 500 V. If
this range is included, be sure that the in-
put connectors (J1 and J2) and the range
series for each of the nonstandard values. tween 3 and 9 V can be used without switch (S1) are rated for 500 V or more. J1
To keep the meter movement from changes in the circuit. In the unit shown, and J2 should be of the type with plastic
loading the 11-11411 divider, an operational four AAA penlight cells are used. These insulation that passes through the panel.
amplifier (op amp) with JFET inputs is give the needed 3 V and have long life. Only thin, fiber washers are used to in-
used to drive the meter. The LF353N IC Two 9-V transistor radio batteries will sulate some types of jacks from the panel.
(U1) contains two of these op amps in the also be suitable. These are fine for up to 100 V, but are not
same package. U1B drives the meter recommended for higher voltages. If the
movement, while U1 A serves as an ad- Construction 500-V range is not needed, R7 and R8 can
justable voltage reference point. Both of Almost any type of case can be used to be connected in series or replaced by a
the op amps are connected as voltage house the voltmeter. The exact size needed 50-k0 resistor (the same as R6).
followers. This means that the input and will depend on the dimensions of the bat-
output voltages are the same (again of 1). teries, meter movement and switches Calibration
What makes the voltage follower useful is used. A plastic case, only 2-7/8- x 4- x Only the sensitivity control, R9, needs
that the output carp supply several milli- 1-5/8-inches houses the meter shown in to be adjusted before the meter can be
amperes of current while the input draws the photographs. If alarger meter move- used. A good method of calibration is to
a very small current (the input is high ment is used ( such as the Radio Shack use two fresh carbon-zinc batteries in
impedance). 270-1751), an enclosure measuring series to form a source of known poten-
By varying the voltage at pin 3 of U 1 2-5/8- x 5-1/6- x 1-5/8-inches will be tial. Each cell, when new, should produce
with R10, the zero setting of the meter can more satisfactory. When using acase with 1.54 V. To adjust R9, turn the meter on,
be adjusted to compensate for cha-ges in ametal panel, it is best if the negative jack and set it to the 5-V range. With the meter
battery voltage and room temperature. (J2) is not connected to the panel. This leads shorted together, adjust the ZERO
The fact that both op amps are in the allows us to measure voltages below control (R10) so the meter shows zero.
same package helps reduce drift caused by ground without having apotential on the Connect the two cells to the meter, and
temperature changes. RIO is mounted on voltmeter case. adjust R9 so that the meter reads 3.1 V.
the front panel so that the operator can The voltage-divider resistors are This completes the voltmeter, and it is
adjust it easily. R9 is the calibration con- mounted on the range selector switch SI, ready to use in your experiments or to
trol; it adjusts the meter sensitivity. Once as shown in Fig. 11. If the switch has any troubleshoot your rig the next time it
the meter has been calibrated, R9 does not spare lugs, they can be used as tie points develops aproblem.
require further adjustment, so it is for the series-connected resistors. If no
mounted inside the case. lugs are available, simply solder the leads 'A printed-circuit board and parts for the voltmeter
Two batteries are used to power the together; the remaining leads will support are available from Circuit Board Specialists, P.O. Box
969, Pueblo, CO 81002, including a small circuit
meter circuit. Any battery voltage be- the resistors. The other components can board for an rf probe.

16-6 Chapter 16
AC Instruments and Circuits
Although purely electromagnetic in-
struments which operate directly from
alternating current are available, they are
seen infrequently in present-day amateur
equipment. For one thing, their use is not
feasible above power- line frequencies.
Practical instruments for audio and
radio frequencies generally use adc meter
movement in conjunction with arectifier.
Voltage measurements suffice for nearly
all test purposes. Current, as such, is
seldom measured in the af range. When rf
current is measured the instrument used is
a thermocouple milliammeter or am-
meter.

The Thermocouple Meter

In athermocouple meter the alternating
current flows through a low- resistance Fig. 14 — Sine-wave alternating current or
heating element. The power lost in the voltage (A), with half-wave rectification of the
resistance generates heat that warms a positive half cycle (B) and negative half cycle
Fig. 13 — Rf ammeter mounted in a Minibox, (C). D — full-wave rectification. Average values
"thermocouple," a junction of certain
with connectors for placing the meter in series are shown with relation to a peak value of 1.
dissimilar metals which has the property
with a coaxial line. A bakelite-case meter
of developing a small dc voltage when should be used to minimize shunt capacitance
heated. This voltage is applied to a dc (which introduces error) although a metal-case
milliammeter calibrated in suitable ac meter can be used if mounted on bakelite
sheet with a large cut-out in the case around
units. The heater-thermocouple-dc meter
the rim. The meter can be used for rf power
combination is usually housed in aregular measurements ( P = l'A) when connected be-
meter case. tween the transmitter and a nonreactive load
Thermocouple meters can be obtained of known resistance.
in ranges from about 100 mA to many
amperes. Their useful upper frequency
limit is in the neighborhood of 100 MHz.
Their principal value in amateur work is in or the negative half (C) gives exactly the
measuring current into a known load same result. With full-wave rectification
0 5 -- -- PEAK
resistance for calculating the rf power (D) the peak is still the same, but the --AVERAGE

delivered to the load. A suitable mounting average is doubled, since there are twice as 4 o

for this is shown in Fig. 13, for use in many half cycles per unit of time. -
coaxial lines.
Unsymmetrical Wave Forms 0.5 -
+

Rectifier Instruments A nonsinusoidal waveform is shown in -

The response of arectifier-type meter is Fig. 15A. When the positive half cycles of
proportional (depending on the design) to this wave are rectified the peak and
either the peak amplitude or average average values are as shown at B. If the Fig. 15 — Same as Fig. 14 for an unsym-
amplitude of the rectified ac wave, and polarity is reversed and the negative half metrical waveform. The peak values are dif-
ferent with positive and negative half-cycle
never directly responsive to the rms value. cycles are rectified, the peak value is dif-
rectification.
The meter therefore cannot be calibrated ferent but the average value is unchanged.
in rms without preknowledge of the rela- The fact that the average of the positive
tionship that happens to exist between the side is equal to the average of the negative
"real" reading and the rms value. This side is true of all ac waveforms, but dif- be considerable when the waveform is not
relationship, in general, is not known, ex- ferent waveforms have different averages. pure.
cept in the case of single- frequency ac (a Full-wave rectification of such a " lop-
sided" wave doubles the average value, Turn-Over
sine wave). Very many practical measure-
ments involve nonsinusoidal wave forms, but the peak reading is always the same as From Fig. 15 it is apparent that the
so it is necessary to know what kind of in- it is with the half cycle that produces the calibration of an average-reading meter
strument you have, and what it is actually highest peak in half-wave rectification. will be the same whether the positive or
reading, in order to make measurements negative sides are rectified. A half-wave
intelligently. Effective-Value Calibration peak-reading instrument, however, will
The actual scale calibration of commer- indicate different values when its connec-
Peak and Average with Sine-Wave cially made rectifier- type voltmeters is tions to the circuit are reversed (
turn-over
Rectification very often ( almost always, in fact) in terms effect). Very often readings are taken
Fig. 14 shows the relative peak and of rms values. For sine waves this is both ways, in which case the sum of the
average values in the outputs of half- and satisfactory, and useful since rms is the two is the peak-to-peak ( pk-pk) value, a
full-wave rectifiers (see power-supply standard measure at power- line frequen- useful figure in much audio and video
chapter for further details). As the posi- cy. It is also useful for many rf work.
tive and negative half cycles of the sine applications where the waveform is often
closely sinusoidal. But in other cases, Average- and Peak-Reading Circuits
wave have the same shape ( A), half-wave
rectification of either the positive half ( B) particularly in the af range, the ei or may The basic difference between average-

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-7

 FORWARD rnA

nt— REVERSE VCLTS FORWARD VOLTS—rb-

HALF— WAVE
SERIES \
A-:--
BREAKDOWN
Cl R1
REVERSE pA

Fig. 17 — Typical semiconductor diode

PARALLEL characteristic. Actual current and voltage
(B) values vary with the type of diode, but the
FULL- WAVE BRIDGE (A) forward-current curve would be in its steep part
with only avolt or so applied. Note change in
current scale for reverse current. Breakdown
Fig. 16 — At A, half-wave and full-wave rectification for an instrument intended to operate on voltage, again depending on diode type, may
average values. At B, half-wave circuits for a peak-reading meter. range from 15 or 20 volts to several hundred.

and peak-reading rectifier circuits is that mum, and then must hold the charge (so it resistance, which is generally quite low
in the former the output is not filtered can register on adc meter) until the next compared with the multiplier resistance
while in the latter a filter capacitor is maximum of the same polarity. If the time RI, to the total resistance will be about
charged up to the peak value of the output constant is 20 times the ac period the the same as the multiplier resistance. The
voltage. Fig. 16A shows typical average- charge will have decreased by about five capacitance depends on the components
reading circuits, one half-wave and the percent by the time the next charge oc- and construction, test lead length and
other full-wave. In the absence of dc curs. The average drop will be smaller, so disposition, and other such factors. In
filtering the meter responds to wave forms the error is appreciably less. The error will general, it has little or no effect at lower-
such as are shown at B, C and D in Figs. decrease rapidly with increasing frequen- line and low audio frequencies, but the or-
14 and 15, and since the inertia of the cy, assuming no change in the circuit dinary VOM loses accuracy at the high
pointer system makes it unable to follow values, but will increase at lower frequen- audio frequencies and is of little use at rf.
the rapid variations in current, it averages cies. For radio frequencies it is necessary to use
them out mechanically. In Fig. 16B, RI and R2 form avoltage a rectifier having very low inherent
In Fig. 16A, D1 actuates the meter; D2 divider which reduces the peak dc voltage capacitance.
provides alow-resistance dc return in the to 71 percent of its actual value. This con- Similar limitations apply to the peak-
meter circuit on the negative half cycles. verts the peak reading to rms on sine-wave reading circuits. In the parallel circuit the
RI is the voltmeter multiplier resistance. ac. Since the peak-reading circuits are in- resistive component of the impedance is
R2 forms a voltage divider with RI capable of delivering appreciable current smaller than in the series circuit, since the
(through D1) which prevents more than a without considerable error, R2 is usually dc load resistance, R1 /R2, is directly
few ac volts from appearing across the the 11-megohm input resistance of an across the circuit being measured, and is
rectifier-meter combination. A electronic voltmeter. RI is therefore ap- therefore in parallel with the diode ac load
corresponding resistor can be used across proximately 4.7 megohms, making the resistance. In both peak-reading circuits
the full-wave bridge circuit. total resistance approach 16 megohms. A the effective capacitance may range from
In these two circuits no provision is capacitance of 0.05 µF is sufficient for low 1or 2to afew hundred pF. Values of the
made for isolating the meter from any dc audio frequencies under these conditions. order of 100 pF are to be expected in elec-
voltage that may be on the circuit under Much smaller values of capacitance suf- tronic voltmeters of customary design and
measurement. The error caused by this fice for radio frequencies, obviously. construction.
can be avoided by connecting a large
capacitance in series with the " hot" lead. Voltmeter Impedance Linearity
The reactance must be low compared with The impedance of the voltmeter at the Fig. 17, atypical current/voltage char-
the meter impedance (see next section) in frequency being measured may have an acteristic of a small semiconductor recti-
order for the full ac voltage to be applied effect on the accuracy similar to the error fier, indicates that the forward dynamic
to the meter circuit. As much as 1µF may caused by the resistance of adc voltmeter, resistance of the diode is not constant, but
be required at line frequencies with some as discussed earlier. The ac meter acts like rapidly decreases as the forward voltage is
meters. The capacitor is not usually in- aresistance in parallel with acapacitance, increased from zero. The transition from
cluded in aVOM. and since the capacitive reactance de- high to low resistance occurs at con-
Series and shunt peak-reading circuits creases with increasing frequency, the siderably less than 1 volt, but is in the
are shown in Fig. 16B. Capacitor Cl impedance also decreases with frequency. range of voltage required by the
isolates the rectifier from dc voltage on The resistance is subject to some variation associated dc meter. With an average-
the circuit under measurement. In the with voltage level, particularly at very low reading circuit the current tends to be pro-
series circuit (which is seldom used) the voltages (of the order of 10 volts or less) portional to the square of the applied
time constant of the C2-R1-R2 combina- depending upon the sensitivity of the voltage. This crowds the calibration
tion must be very large compared with the meter movement and the kind of rectifier points at the low end of the meter scale.
period of the lowest ac frequency to be used. For most measurement purposes,
measured; similarly with CI- RI- R2 in the The ac load resistance represented by a however, it is far more desirable for the
shunt circuit. The reason is that the diode rectifier is approximately equal to output to be " linear;" that is, for the
capacitor is charged to the peak value of one-half its dc load resistance. In Fig. 16A reading to be directly proportional to the
voltage when the ac wave reaches its maxi- the dc load is essentially the meter applied voltage.

16-8 Chapter 16
 To achieve linearity it is necessary to voltage is only about 50-75 volts, which
use a relatively large load resistance for limits the rms applied voltage to 15 or 20
the diode — large enough so that this volts, approximately. Diodes can be
resistance, rather than the diode's own connected in series to raise the overall
resistance, will govern the current flow. A rating.
linear or equally spaced scale is thus
gained at the expense of sensitivity. The An RF Probe for Electronic Voltmeters
amount of resistance needed depends on The isolation capacitor, Cl, crystal
the type of diode; 5000 to 50.000 ohms diode, and filter/divider resistor are
usually suffices for agermanium rectifier, mounted on a bakelite five-lug terminal
depending on the dc meter sensitivity, but strip, as shown in Fig. 21. One end lug
several times as much may be needed for should be rotated 90 degrees so that it ex-
silicon. The higher the resistance, the tends off the end of the strip. All other
greater the meter sensitivity required; i.e., lugs should be cut off flush with the edge Fig. 18 — Rf probe for use with an electronic
the basic meter must be a microammeter of the strip. Where the inner conductor voltmeter. The case of the probe is consttekted
rather than a low- range milliammeter. connects to the terminal lug, unravel the from a seven-pin ceramic tube socket and a
2- 1/4-inch (57-mm) tube shield. A half-inch
shield three-quarters of an inch, slip a (13-mm) grommet at the top of the tube shield
Reverse Current piece of spaghetti over it, and then solder prevents the output lead from chafing. A flexi-
When voltage is applied in the reverse the braid to the ground lug on the ter- ble copper-braid grounding leed and alligator
direction there is asmall leakage current minal strip. Remove the spring from the clip provide a low-inductance return path from
the test circuit.
in semiconductor diodes. This is equiva- tube shield, slide it over the cable, and
lent to a resistance connected across the crimp it to the remaining quarter inch of
rectifier, allowing current to flow during shield braid. Solder both the spring and a
the half cycle which should be completely 12-inch (305-mm) length of flexible
nonconducting, and causing an error in copper braid to the shield.
the dc meter reading. This "back re- Next, cut off the pins on a seven-pin
sistance" is so high as to be practically miniature shield-base tube socket. Use a
unimportant with silicon, but may be less socket with a cylindrical center post.
than 100 kilohms with germanium. Crimp the terminal lug previously bent
The practical effect of back resistance is out at the end of the strip and insert it into
to limit the amount of resistance that can the center post of the tube socket from the
be used in the dc load resistance. This in top. Insert the end of a phone tip or a
turn affects the linearity of the meter pointed piece of heavy wire into the
scale. bottom of the tube socket center post, and
Fig. 19 — The rf probe circuit.
The back resistance of vacuum-tube solder the lug and tip to the center post.
diodes is infinite, for practical purposes. Insert a half- inch grommet at the top of
the tube shield, and slide the shield over
RF Voltage the cable and flexible braid down onto the
Special precautions must be taken to tube socket. The spring should make good
minimize the capacitive component of the contact with the tube shield to insure that
voltmeter impedance at radio frequencies. the tube shield (probe case) is grounded.
If possible, the rectifier circuit should be Solder an alligator clip to the other end of
installed permanently at the point where the flexible braid and mount aphone plug
the rf voltage to be measured exists, using on the free end of the shielded wire.
the shortest possible rf connections. The Mount components close to the term-
dc meter can be remotely located, inal strip, to keep lead lengths as short
however. as possible and minimize stray capaci-
For general rf measurements an rf tance. Use spaghetti over all wires to
Fig. 20 — Inside the probe. The 1N34A diode,
probe is used in conjunction with an elec- prevent accidental shorts. calibrating resistor and input capacitor are
tronic voltmeter, substituted for the dc The phone plug on the probe cable mounted tight to the terminal strip with
probe mentioned earlier. The circuit of plugs into the dc input jack of the shortest leads possible. Spaghetti tubing is
placed on the diode leads to prevent acci-
Fig. 19, essentially the peak-reading shunt electronic voltmeter and rms voltages are
dental short circuits. The tube-shield spring
circuit of Fig. 16B, is generally used. The read on the voltmeter's negative dc scale. and flexible-copper grounding lead are
series resistor, installed in the probe close The accuracy of the probe is within soldered to the cable braid (the cable Is RG-
to the rectifier, prevents rf from being fed ±10 percent from 50 kHz to 250 MHz. 58/U coax). The tip can be either a phone tip or
The approximate input impedance is 6000 a short pointed piece of heavy wire.
through the probe cable to the electronic
voltmeter, being helped in this by the ohms shunted by 1.75 pF (at 200 MHz).
cable capacitance. This resistor, in con-
junction with the 10-MO divider resistance RF Power
of the electronic voltmeter, also reduces Power at radio frequencies can be
the peak rectified voltage to a dc value measured by means of an accuratel)„
equivalent to the rms of the rf signal, to calibrated rf voltmeter connected across
make the rf readings consistent with the the load in which the power is being
regular ac calibration. dissipated. If the load is a known pure
Of the diodes readily available to resistance the power, by Ohm's Law, is
amateurs, the germanium point-contact equal to E2/R, where E is the rms value of
type is preferred for rf applications. It has the voltage.
low capacitance (of the order of 1pF) and The method only indicates apparent
in the high-back-resistance types the power if the load is not apure resistance.
reverse current is not serious. The The load can be aterminated transmission
principal limitation is that its safe reverse line tuned, with the aid of bridge circuits Fig. 21 — Component mounting details.

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-9

 Fig. 22B is useful for measuring both so by bridge adjustment) the voltmeter
transmission lines and " lumped con- will read zero. Any other value of
R2
(22) stant" components. Combinations of resistance or impedance connected to the
resistance and capacitance are often used "RF Out" terminals will result in afinite
AC in one or more arms; this may be required voltmeter reading. When used in a
SOURCE
(A) for eliminating the effects of stray transmission line this reading is propor-
Rx
(ZX)
capacitance. tional to the reflected voltage. To measure
Fig. 22C is used only on transmission the incident voltage the secondary ter-
lines, and only on those lines having the minals of T1 must be very large compared
characteristic impedance for which the to the resistance of RI.
R1 bridge is designed. Instruments of this type are usually
designed for convenient switching be-
SWR Measurement — the Reflectometer tween forward and reflected, and are
(B ) often calibrated to read power in the
In measuring standing-wave ratio ad-
R2
vantage is taken of the fact that the voltage specified characteristic impedance. As the
on transmission line consists of two power calibration is made at an SWR of
components traveling in opposite di- 1:1, the actual power transmitted to the
rections. The power going from the load must be calculated from the dif-
transmitter to the load is represented by ference between the forward and reflected
one voltage (designated "incident" or readings when the SWR is other than 1:1.
"forward") and the power reflected from A reading of 400 watts forward and 300
the load is represented by the other. watts reflected means that 400 W — 300
Because the relative amplitudes and phase W = 100 W has been delivered to the
relationships are definitely established by load. The SWR can be determined from
the line's characteristic impedance, its the VSWR nomograph in chapter 19 or
length and the load impedance in which it calculated from the formula
is terminated, abridge circuit can separate
Fig. 22 — (A) Generalized form of bridge circuit the incident and reflected voltages for /reflected power
1 + /
for either ac or dc. (B) One form of ac bridge measurement. This is sufficient for de- V forward power
frequently used for rf measurements. (C) SWR SWR —
termining the SWR. Bridges designed for
bridge for use in transmission lines. This cir-
this purpose are frequently called reflec- /reflected power
cuit is often calibrated in power rather than 1
voltage. tometers. V forward power
Referring to Fig. 22A, if RI and R2 are
made equal, the bridge will be balanced 1 300
1 +
such as are described in the next section, when Rx = Rs.This is true whether Rx is 400
to act as a known resistance. An an actual resistor or the input resistance of — 13.9
alternative load is a " dummy" antenna, a a perfectly matched transmission line, 1 / 300
known pure resistance capable of dis- provided Rs is chosen to equal the V 400
sipating the rf power safely. characteristic impedance of the line. Even
if the line is not properly matched, the Both of these calculations assume that the
AC Bridges
bridge will still be balanced for power loss in the transmission line is very small;
In its simplest form, the ac bridge is ex- traveling outward on the line, since information on correcting for line loss is
actly the same as the Wheatstone bridge outward-going power sees only the Zo of given in chapter 19.
discussed earlier. However, complex im- the line until it reaches the load. However,
pedances can be subsituted for power reflected back from the load does Sensitivity vs. Frequency
resistances, as suggested by Fig. 22A. The not " see" a bridge circuit, and the In all of the circuits in Fig. 22 the sen-
same bridge equation holds if Z is reflected voltage registers on the sitivity is independent of the applied fre-
substituted for R in each arm. For the voltmeter. From the known relationship quency, within practical limits. Stray
equation to be true, however, the phase between the incident and reflected capacitances and couplings generally limit
angles as well as the numerical values of voltages the SWR is easily calculated: the performance of all three at the high-
the impedances must balance; otherwise, frequency end of the useful range. Fig.
atrue null voltage is impossible to obtain. 22A will work right down to dc, but the
Vo + V,
This means that abridge with all " pure" SWR = low-frequency performance of Fig. 22B is
arms (pure resistance or reactance) cannot Vo — V,
degraded when the capacitive reactances
measure complex impedances; acombina- become so large that voltmeter impedance
tion of R and X must be present in at least The "Reflected Power Meter"
becomes low in comparison (in all these
one arm besides the unknown. Fig. 22C makes use of mutual induc- bridge circuits, it is assumed that the
The actual circuits of ac bridges take tance between the primary and secondary voltmeter impedance is high compared
many forms, depending on the type of of T1to establish abalancing circuit. Cl with the impedance of the bridge arms).
measurement intended and on the fre- and C2 form avoltage divider in which the In Fig. 22C the performance is limited at
quency range to be covered. As the fre- voltage across C2 is in the same phase as low frequencies by the fact that the
quency is raised, stray effects (unwanted the voltage at that point on the transmis- transformer reactance decreases with fre-
capacitances and inductances, principally) sion line. The relative phase of the voltage quency, so that eventually the reactance is
become more pronounced. At radio fre- across RI is determined by the phase of not very high in comparison with the
quencies special attention must be paid to the current in the line. If apure resistance resistance of RI.
minimizing them. equal to the design impedance of the
Most amateur-built bridges are used for bridge is connected to the " RF Out" ter- The "Monimatch"
rf measurements, especially SWR minals, the voltages across RI and C2 will A type of bridge which is quite simple
measurements on transmission lines. The be out of phase and the voltmeter reading to make, but in which the sensitivity rises
circuits at B and C, Fig. 22, are favorites will be minimum; if the amplitudes of the directly with frequency, is the Monimatch
for this purpose. two voltages are also equal (they are made and its various offspring. The circuit can-

16- 10 Chapter 16
not be described in terms of lumped con- tween the center conductor of atransmis- proximating the characteristic impedance
stants, as it makes use of the distributed sion line and awire placed parallel to it. of the transmission line at, one end and
mutual inductance and capacitance be- The wire is terminated in aresistance ap- feeds adiode rectifier at the other.

Frequency Measurements
The regulations governing amateur opera- makes the beat tone progressively .lower.
tion require that the transmitted signal be Exact zero beat can be determineçl by a
maintained inside the limits of certain very slow rise and fall of backgikaad
bands of frequencies.' The exact frequen- noise, caused by abeat of acycle& lèss
cy need not be known, so long as it is not per second.
outside the limits. On this last point there
are no tolerances: It is up to the individual Frequency-Marker Circuits
amateur to see that he stays safely " in- The basic frequency-determining ele-
side." ment in most amateur frequency markers
This is not difficult to do, but requires Fig. 23 — Setup for using a frequency stan- is a100-kHz crystal. Although the marker
some simple apparatus and the exercise of dard. It is necessary that the transmitter signal generator should produce harmonics at
be weak in the receiver — of the same order of
some care. The apparatus commonly used strength as the marker signal from the stan-
25-kHz and 50-kHz intervals, crystals (or
is the frequency-marker generator, and dard. This requirement can usually be met by other high-stability devices) for frequen-
the method involves use of the station turning on just the transmitter oscillator, leav- cies lower than 100 kHz are expensive
receiver, as in Fig. 23. ing all power off any succeeding stages. In and difficult to obtain. However, there is
some cases it may also be necessary to
really no need for them, since it is easy to
disconnect the antenna from the receiver.
The Frequency Marker divide the basic frequency down to any
figure one desires; 50 and 25 kHz require
The marker generator in its simplest
the nearest marker frequencies above and only two successive divisions, each by
form is ahigh-stability oscillator generat-
below the transmitter signal are tuned in two. In the division process, the harmonic
ing a series of signals which, when
and identified. The transmitter frequency output of the generator is greatly en-
detected in the receiver, mark the exact
is obviously between these two known hanced, making the generator useful at
edges of the amateur assignments. It does
frequencies. frequencies well into the vhf range.
this by oscillating at alow frequency that
has harmonics falling on the desired If the marker frequencies are accurate,
this is all that needs to be known — except Simple Crystal Oscillators
frequencies.
U.S. amateur band limits are exact that the transmitter frequency must not be Fig. 24 illustrates two of the simpler cir-
multiples of 25 kHz, whether at the so close to aband (or subband) edge that cuits. CI in both circuits is used for exact
extremes of aband or at points marking sideband frequencies, especially in phone adjustment of the oscillating frequency to
the subdivisions between types of emis- transmission, will extend over the edge. 100 kHz, which is done by using the re-
sion, license privileges, and so on. A If the transmitter signal is "inside" a ceiver for comparing one of the oscil-
25-kHz fundamental frequency therefore marker at the edge of an assignment, to lator's harmonics with a standard fre-
will produce the desired marker signals if the extent that there is an audible beat quency transmitted by WWV, WWVH or
its harmonics at the higher frequencies are note with the receiver's BFO turned off, asimilar station.
strong enough. But since harmonics normal cw sidebands are safely inside the Fig. 24A is a field-effect transistor
appear at 25-kHz intervals throughout the edge. (This statement does not take into analog of a vacuum-tube circuit. How-
spectrum, along with the desired markers, account abnormal sidebands such as are ever, it requires a 10-mH coil to operate
the problem of identifying a particu- caused by clicks and chirps.) For phone well, and since the harmonic output is not
lar marker arises. This is easily solved if the "safety" allowance is usually taken to strong at the higher frequencies the circuit
the receiver has a reasonably good be about 3kHz, the nominal width of one is given principally as an example of asim-
calibration. If not, most marker circuits sideband. A frequency difference of this ple transistor arrangement. A much better
provide for a choice of fundamental order can be estimated by noting the oscillator is shown at B. This is across-
outputs of 100 and 50 kHz as well as 25 receiver dial settings for the two 25-kHz connected pair of transistors forming a
kHz, so the question can be narrowed markers which bracket the signal and multivibrator of the "free-running" or
down to initial identification of 100-kHz dividing 25 by the number of dial "asynchronous" type, locked at 100 kHz
intervals. From these, the desired 25-kHz divisions between them. This will give the by using the crystal as one of the coupling
(or 50-kHz) points can easily be spotted. number of kHz per dial division. elements. While it can use two separate
Coarser frequency intervals are rarely bipolar transistors as shown, it is much
required; there are usually signals avail- Transceivers simpler to use an integrated-circuit dual
able from stations of known frequency, The method described above is ap- gate, which will contain all the necessary
and the 100-kHz points can be counted off plicable when the receiver and transmitter parts except the crystal and capacitors and
from them. are separate pieces of equipment. When a is considerably less expensive, as well as
transceiver is used and the transmitting more compact, than the separate com-
Transmitter Checking frequency is automatically the same as ponents.
In checking one's own transmitter that to which the receiver is tuned, setting
the tuning dial to a spot between two Frequency Dividers
frequency the signal from the transmitter
is first tuned in on the receiver and the dial known marker frequencies is all that is Electronic division is accomplished by a
setting at which it is heard is noted. Then required. "bistable" flip-flop or cross-coupled cir-
The proper dial settings for the markers cuit which produces one output change
'These limits depuid on the type of emission and are those at which, with the BFO on, the for every two impulses applied to its input
class of license held, as well as on international circuit, thus dividing the applied frequen-
agreements. See the latest edition of The Radio
signal is tutted to zero beat — the spot
Amateur's License Manual for current status. where the beat disappears as the tuning cy by two. All division therefore must

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-11

 100 kHz C3

OUTPUT

L1
1OrnH

C2
0001

+VDS

(B)

Fig. 25 — The 100, 50 and 25 kHz marker

generator is housed in a 4-1/2 x 3 x 2-1/2 inch
(114 x 76 x 64 mm) aluminum cabinet. A
9-volt battery makes the instrument completely
self-contained.

wafer rotary switch and a trimmer

capacitor are the only controls. The
complete schematic diagram is drawn in
Fig. 26.

Construction
A component- placement guide and
Fig 24 — Two simple 100- kHz oscillator circuits. B is the most suitable of available transistor cir- etching pattern are given in Figs. 27 and
cuits ( for marker generators) and is recommended where solid-state is to be used. In both circuits
28. The layout is not critical, but the rotor
C1 is for fine frequency adjustment. The output coupling capacitor, C3 is generally small — 20 to
50 pF — a compromise to avoid loading the oscillator by the receiver antenna input while main- and/or adjustment screw of the trimmer
taining adequate coupling for good harmonic strength. capacitor should be grounded so that con-
tact with a screwdriver won't affect the
frequency. Similarly, the crystal should be
be in terms of some power of two. In becomes a " crystal calibrator." positioned so that a screwdriver won't
practice this is no handicap since with Three integrated circuits are used in the come too near it during frequency adjust-
modern integrated-circuit flip-flops, cir- generator. A 100- kHz crystal oscillator is ment. Fig. 27 shows asuccessful arrange-
cuit arrangements can be worked out for designed around a dual JFET-input ment. Give due respect to the CMOS ICs
division by any desired number. operational amplifier. Crystals in this fre- during assembly — they can be damaged
As flip-flops and gates in integrated cir- quency range show considerable variation by static charges. Keep them in their pro-
cuits come in compatible series — mean- in their characteristics as compared to hf tective material and don't insert them un-
ing that they work at the same supply ones. A characteristic they all share, til the other components have been in-
voltage and can be directly connected however, is their high expense — for this stalled. The output coupling capacitor
together — a combination of a dual-gate reason builders often purchase " bargain" isn't critical — the value shown allows
version of Fig. 24B and a dual flip-flop crystals, sometimes with disappointing fairly constant-amplitude harmonics up to
make an attractively simple combination results. When the crystal characteristics 30 MHz into a50-ohm load. If the unit is
for the marker generator. (resonance mode, load capacitance and installed in areceiver, asmall twisted-wire
There are several different basic types equivalent series resistance) are known, "gimmick" capacitor should be used.
of flip-flops, the variations having to do it's a fairly simple matter to design an ap- This capacitor should be adjusted for
with methods of driving ( dc or pulse propriate oscillator circuit. Instruments of minimal loading of the input circuit,
operation) and control of the counting this type usually have oscillators made consistent with adequate marker strength.
function. Information on the operating from one or two digital gates. These cir-
principles and ratings of a specific type cuits are attractive for their simplicity, but Adjustment and Operation
usually can be obtained from the manu- they sometimes fail to oscillate with some The unit can be set to precisely 100 kHz
facturer. The counting- control functions crystals. The op-amp circuit in this by zero- beating aharmonic against WWV
are not needed in using the flip-flop in a generator is designed to start and oscillate or a known broadcast station. A small
simple marker generator, although they reliably with practically any crystal having fixed- value capacitor can be shunted
come into play when dividing by some an equivalent series resistance up to 20 across the trimmer if necessary. Use a
number other than a power of two. kilohms. Oscillation is in the series mode, silver mica or NPO ceramic component
regardless of the cut of the crystal. The for this purpose. The dissipation in the
Marker Generator for 100, 50 and 25 kHz start-up time depends on the crystal activi- crystal and op amp is minimal, so the
The signal source in the accompanying ty — 100 milliseconds is typical. The sec- generator is stable with time. As atest in-
illustrations will deliver usable calibration ond op-amp section serves as abuffer and strument, the marker generator should be
markers throughout the hf spectrum. comparator to provide a waveform set before beginning an alignment job. As
When built into an enclosure and powered suitable for driving the frequency divider a crystal calibrator, it should be located
from a battery or regulated dc supply, the stages. A CMOS dual D flip-flop IC pro- away from the heat- generating com-
unit is atest instrument that is very helpful vides two divide-by-two stages for the ponents of the receiver. After the receiver
in aligning receivers. Alternatively, the pc 50- and 25- kHz outputs. Signal routing has reached operating temperature, the
assembly can be incorporated into acom- and divisor selection is handled by aquad marker frequency should be checked
munications receiver; in this service it NOR gate and a diode matrix. A single- against WWV from time to time. The

16-12 Chapter 16
generator can be powered from any 9- to
12- volt dc source. The frequency varies
with the applied voltage, so aZener diode +V
regulator should be used where the o
voltage varies, such as in mobile service.

Other Methods of Frequency Checking 2 4

47pF JI

6
The simplest possible frequency-measur-
ing device is aparallel LC circuit, tunable 100 kHz

over adesired frequency range of having J2

its tuning dial calibrated in terms of +d' Cl 20pF

frequency. It can be used only for +V

12 3

checking circuits in which at least asmall

amount of rf power is present, because the 14

energy required to give a detectable I

indication is not available in the LC 10

circuit itself; it has to be extracted from 434

the circuit being measured; hence the o 12

name absorption frequency meter. It will 0"

be observed that what is actually meas- OF F
025

ured is the frequency of the rf energy, not

the frequency to which the circuit in which 9V

the energy is present may be tuned.

The measurement accuracy of such an
instrument is low, compared with the ac- 100k 100k

curacy of amarker generator, because the /--)7 P7

Q of a practicable LC circuit is not high
enough to make precise reading of the dial Fig. 26 — Schematic diagram of the 100, 50 and 25 kHz marker generator. Resistors are 1/4- watt
possible. Also, any two circuits coupled composition types. Diodes are 1N914 or similar switching types.
together react on each others' tuning. Cl — 20-pF trimmer, Johnson 189-508-5 or Si — Rotary, 1pole, 4 position.
(This can be minimized by using the equiv. U1 — LF-353N.
J1 — Coaxial connector, builder's choice. U2 — 4001.
loosest coupling that will give an adequate J2 — Miniature binding post. U3 — 4013.
indication.)
The absorption frequency meter has one GND OUTPUT

useful advantage over the marker generator

— it will respond only to the frequency to
which it is tuned, or to ahand of frequencies
very close to it. Thus there is no harmonic
ambiguity, as there sometimes is when using a

CID
marker generator.

Absorption Circuit
A typical absorption frequency-meter
circuit is shown in Fig. 29. In addition to
the adjustable tuned circuit, LI-CI, it in-
cludes apickup coil, L2, wound over LI,
a high- frequency semiconductor diode,
DI, and a microammeter or low-range 50k Hz

(usually not more than 0-1 mA) milliam- 100kHz 250'

J = JUMPER
meter. A phone jack is included so the 1----rro SI
device can be used for listening to the
Fig. 27 — Parts- placement guide for the 100, 50 and 25 kHz marker generator. The component
signal.
side of the board is shown. Shaded areas represent an X-ray view of the copper foil.
The sensitivity of the frequency meter
depends on the sensitivity of the dc meter
movement and the size of L2 in relation to
LI. There is an optimum size for this coil
which has to be found by experiment. An
alternative is to make the rectifier
connection to an adjustable tap on LI, in
which case there is an optimum tap point.
In general, the rectifier coupling should be
alittle below (that is, less tight) the point
that gives maximum response, since this
will make the indications sharper.

Calibration
The absorption frequency meter must
be calibrated by taking aseries of readings
on various frequencies from circuits Fig. 28 — Etching pattern for the 100, 50 and 25 kH7 marker generator pc board. Black areas
carrying rf power, the frequency of the rf indicate copper.

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-13

 Fig. 29 — Absorption frequency-meter circuit.
The closed-circuit phone jack may be omitted
if listening is not wanted, in which case the
positive terminal of M1 goes to common
ground.

Fig. 30 — Exterior view of the 600- MHz fre-

quency counter. The last digit is not blanked in
order to provide an on-off indicator.

o V CC

0I

DIRECT mP F102
240
6800
390
o
IN
• - 01 1000

02 03

194152 Ài 1r I 10,F
2N35 63 15 V 2N3563
4700
1000

390
01

12

+vcc
o
PRESCALE
PRESCALE
IN
001
o
16 SI
04
15 INPUT
o
4 5 1 2 13

•-•1(.
DIRECT/J .7
• •

01

+ VcC

14 11
14 16
13
12 12 12
26 07 08 29
250
12 10 10

5 2 3 6 7 5 2 3 6 7 2 3 6 7 2 14 e 15
U DC vcc
• • • 0- 0- • • • • —0
10
/- 7-7

GATE
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
10 Hz
CAPACITANCE ARE IN M1CROFARADS I .pF ) ;
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS 1pF OR ye);
S2
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ; 100 Hz
k • I000, 1A• I000 000. Vcc o 0 0

O
1Hz

220
DECIMAL POINT
LOCATOR
220
68/SM

100 + Vcc

6-i\AA/- 0 14 11 14 11 14
1MHz 100K HZ
1.110E Li1OF U10 A 10KHz 1KHz

12 12
011 012 U13

10 10
T1 20 FF 5 2 3 6 7 0 11 21 31 61 71 5 2 3 6 7

-CI •"IL • 0- • • 0— • • • •
V cc +vcc + vec
/
-1-7 /- 77
10000 MHz 20pF/SAI

Fig. 31 — Schematic diagram of the 600 MHz counter. All resistors are 1/4-watt, 5-percent types. Nonpolarized capacitors are miniature ceramic
unless noted otherwise. Polarized capacitors are tantalum types.
J1, J2 — Coaxial connector, BNC type. U1, U5 — 74S00.
Si — Toggle, spdt. U2, U15 — 74S10. U4 — 11C90.
S2 — Toggle, spdt, center off. U3 — 74LS196. U6, U7, U8, U11, U12, U13 — 74LS90.

18-14 Chapter 16
energy first being determined by some circuit being measured. possible in the face of variations in
other means such as a marker generator temperature, humidity, line voltage, and
and receiver. The setting of the dial that Frequency Standards
other factors which could cause a small
gives the highest meter indication is the The difference between amarker genera- change in frequency.
calibration point for that frequency. This tor and afrequency standard is that in While there are no definite criteria that
point should be determined by tuning the latter special pains are taken to make distinguish the two in this respect, a
through it with loose coupling to the the oscillator frequency as stable as circuit designated as a " standard" for

"cc o
+V„
i14
(
6 7 15
e
7 15
16
15
81 16
7 15
16 e 16
15
8t 7 15
e
7

6,5 15 T1L 9 T1L 9 T1L

9
T1L
• 9 9 9
T1L T1L T1L TIL
306 10 /_E11
306 0-- 306 306 306 306 306
23 2116
3 8 U17 1.118 U19
/- 7- 7 U20 U21 /- 77 U22 /- 7- 7 U23
12 • 6 6 11 6
13 LSD 11 13
It 3 14 13 14
2 13 14
MSD

7 5 12 5 12 5 12 717 12 5 12 2 5 12
•

CLEAR

--

10
BLANK

4
LATCH

BLANK

21-711---- 9
10
U10 C
5
U14

CARRY
OUT
i'vcc
vcc
OVERFLOW
DETECTOR

10
LEADING ZERO
1
1, 11

1 SUPPRESSION

U1OD 224 U24

A
9 8 12 o

BLANK ENABLE 13 12
CL' CIA 10
9
13 7

FLASH STROBE

FLASH DATA
SELECTOR 12

U14 — 74LS93. U24 — 74LS74.

U9 — 74LS153. U16 — TIL308. U25, U26 — 74LSO2
U10 — 7404. 1117-U23. incl. — TIL306. Y1 — 1000- MHz crystal

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-15

amateur purposes should be capable of
maintaining frequency within at least a
few parts per million under normal
variations in ambient conditions, without
adjustment. A simple marker generator
using a100-kHz crystal can be expected to
have frequency variations 10 times ( or
more) greater under similar conditions. It
can of course be adjusted to exact
frequency at any time the WWV (or
equivalent) signal is available.
The design considerations of high-
precision frequency standards are outside
Fig. 32 — Schematic diagram of the supply used to power the 600-MHz frequency counter. The
the scPpé of this chapter, but information
0.01-e capacitors are disc ceramic and the 1000-e unit is an electrolytic type.
is earlable from time to time in S3 — Toggle, spst.
periodicals. Ti — Transformer, 117-volt primary, 12.6-volt U28 — 5-volt regulator, LM-309K or equiv.
c.t. secondary, c.t. not used in this circuit. U27 — Bridge rectifier assembly, 5-ampere, 50
Frequency Counters Stancor P-8384 or equiv. PRV or greater.

One of the most accurate means of

measuring frequency is the frequency TIMEBASE INPUT

counter. This instrument is capable of U14 ___ 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12

PIN
displaying numerically the frequency of 14

the signal supplied to its input. For

example, if an oscillator operating at PIN

8.244 MHz is connected to the counter 12

input, 8.244 would be displayed. At

present, there are counters that are usable
well up into the GHz range. Most PIN
9
counters that are to be used at high
frequencies make use of aprescaler ahead
of abasic low-frequency counter. Basically, PIN
the prescaler divides the high- frequency 8 - 1

signal by 10, 100, 1000 or some other

amount so that the low- frequency counter
can display the operating frequency. PIN
II "
The accuracy of the counter depends on
an internal crystal reference. The more
accurate the crystal reference, the more COUNTING INPUT PULSES
accurate will be the readings. Crystals for U15
PIN
frequency counters are manufactured to 8
close tolerances. Most counters have a
trimmer capacitor so that the crystal can
be set exactly on frequency. A crystal PIN
2 CLEAR

frequency of 1MHz has become more or

less standard. The 10th harmonic of the
crystal can be compared to the 10- MHz
LATCH
PIN
6
signal of WWV or WWVH and adjusted
for zero beat.
Fig. 33 — Timing diagram for the 600- MHz counter as it should appear at key points in the circuit.

A 600-MHZ FREQUENCY COUNTER

A frequency counter is one of the most
versatile instruments aradio amateur can
placement and positive overflow indica-
tion minimize readout ambiguity and
IRMO
own. To align or troubleshoot a synthe- enhance the usefulness of the instrument.
sized transceiver, a counter is practically
mandatory. The unit described here Technical Details
should satisfy the most demanding Fig. 31 is the schematic diagram. The
amateur requirements. While it can't be counter is designed almost entirely with
considered low in cost, it is inexpensive TTL integrated circuits. At the heart of
compared to commercially manufactured the circuit is a 1-MHz crystal-controlled
units of similar sophistication. A cash ex- time base or clock oscillator. No special
penditure in the neighborhood of $ 100 temperature compensation is used, but the
(1980 prices) will secure the parts. stability is adequate for the usual indoor
Two input connectors are provided. environment. If operation over a wide
The one marked " direct" has afrequency temperature range is contemplated, the
range of 20 Hz to over 40 MHz, with an builder should consider an oven or
ultimate resolution of 1Hz. The sensitivi- TCXO. A string of decade counters, Ull
ty on this range is 100 mV. For frequen- to U13 and U6 to U8, divides the clock
cies up to 600 MHz, the " prescale" input frequency down to 100, 10 or 1 Hz,
Fig. 34 — Interior view of the 600 MHz frequency
is used. On this input the sensitivity is 100 depending on the frequency range and
counter. Cable ties are used on the wiring
mV, and the resolution is 10 Hz. Leading- resolution selected. The divider chain is harness for a neat appearance. A large heat sink
zero suppression, automatic decimal point interrupted by U5, which gates a 1-kHz is visible at the upper-left corner of the counter.

16-16 Chapter 16
 (A)

600 MHZ COUNTER

(B)

Fig. 35 — Full-scale etching pattern for the 600- MHz counter pc board. The component side of the board is shown in A, and the bottom side in B.

signal to U6 when the prescale input is (with U25D) also positions the decimal number of ICs and connections. Each
selected via SI, or 10 kHz for the direct in- point in the display. counter/display IC has provisions for
put. The final clock frequency is deter- U17 to U23 are counters with integral leading-zero suppression and complete
mined by the gating interval, which is con- displays. Use of these LSI devices blanking in addition to a decimal point.
trolled by U9 in conjunction with S2. S2 simplifies the design and reduces the Leading- zero suppi ession makes the

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-17

display easier to read by eliminating selected.) If the input frequency increased the output of U24B. (The propagation
superfluous figures while preventing un- by two counts per gate interval, the proper delay of U1OD prevents loss of data
necessary energy consumption. The com- reading would be 100000001. However, before it can be transferred by the rising
plete blanking feature is used in - the the instrument can only display the eight edge of the clock.) The rising edge of the
overflow indicator circuit. The counting least significant digits, so the leading " 1" U24B output clocks the U24A Q output
and display functions are separated in the would be lost. Since the first seven digits HIGH, ( which disables the leading-zero
LSD to allow greater speed. in the register are zeros, the leading-zero suppression) and the U24A Q output Low
The timing diagram is given in Fig. 33. suppression circuitry within the (which enables U25C, the blanking gate.)
The count sequence begins when the counter/display ICs would normally cause The HIGH U24B output also locks out
CLEAR line (output of U15A) goes Low for all the digits except the last " 1" to be U25A and B, preventing U24A from
one clock interval. This CLEAR pulse resets blanked. Thus, one could be misled into being reset by the LATCH signal. U26
all the counters to zero in preparation for thinking he is measuring a very low fre- selects an output from U8 or U9
receiving input signals. U10, U14 and U15 quency when the actual value is eight (whichever happens to be toggling at the
perform the " bookkeeping" chores. In- orders of magnitude higher! The positive proper frequency) and flashes the digits,
put pulses are gated into the counter chain overflow indicator circuitry overcomes including all leading zeros, at a10 Hz rate.
through U2 when the output of U15C is this ambiguity. Under ordinary conditions The display will continue to flash until the
HIGH. The input gate is enabled for 10 the Q output of U24B is Low because it is input frequency no longer overflows the
clock pulses. The eleventh clock pulse periodically reset by the =ckii line. The display. There is no delay between an in-
triggers the LATCH line (output of U15B) Low output of U24B enables U25A and B put overflow and a flashing display.
LOW for one clock interval, which causes so that U24A is periodically reset by the Because the readout displays the number
the number of input pulses accumulated LATCH line. With U24A in the reset state of pulses accumulated by the register dur-
in the counter during the gate period (in the leading-zero suppression function ing the previous gate interval, the digits
other words, the input frequency) to be operates normally and the blanking may begin to flash before the reading
displayed. When the LATCH line returns to function is locked out. changes to leading zeros.
its HIGH state, the display remains fixed If the display overflows, U23 delivers a A simple signal conditioner is used at
throughout the next gate period. CARRY our pulse to U1OD and U24B, the " direct" input. Q1, asource follower,
The counter can display readings up to which sets the data input of U24B HIGH. presents a 1MO input resistance to signals
99999999. (The decimal point position The end of the Fis,-ffl Tiff pulse ( Low tO having amplitudes less than 1.2 V pk-pk.
depends on the range and resolution HIGH transition) transfers the HIGH data to Above this level the input rcm,i due drops

TO U16 PIN 15
TO U17 PIN 12

TO U16 PIN 10

TO U16 PIN 6
TO U17 PIN 5
TO U23 PIN 6

TO U16 PIN 7
TO U23 PIN 7

iz
DO
<I-
0 Lei
Z UD
O.
Z L1J z
I- o -
O 0-

01

10000 IN4152

IN4152
MPF102
,..
B E .M2E NG
351
!3
6
11-2
G
) - 4700 ,.... 1

0.01
70 U16 PIN 11 e
,, e-VABLe. -THROUGH CONNECTION
-39011-
-100 SI- 241 St
TO U17 PIN 14

20 1pn
I 110 wF/15V

TO U16 PIN 7 & 68 pF

-10000.

y -6800 ft- B
TO U17 PIN 15 2N3563
E
TO U19 PIN 13 THROUGH
CONNECTION ---"")
1:3909-
-2400 We
TO U21 PIN 13

TO U20 PIN 13

TO SI

Fig. 36 — Parts- placement diagram for the 600- MHz counter pc board as seen from the component side of the board.

16-18 Chapter 16
to about 1-kfl, determined by the current- no bypass capacitors on the power bus on/off power function, resolution and the
limiting resistor for the silicon protective were required for glitch- free counter selection of either the direct or prescale in-
diodes. A two-stage RC-coupled amplifier operation. Circuit-board etching patterns put. Separate BNC-type connectors are
consisting of Q2 and Q3 provides broad- and parts-placement guide information is provided for the direct and prescale input.
band gain and wave squaring. UlA and B given in Figs. 35 and 36. Cambion ter- Two connectors are convenient if the
convert the signal to TTL levels compati- minals are used for each of the connection builder desires to install an amplifier
ble with the remainder of the circuit. The points to the board. This provides for easy ahead of the prescaler.
positive feedback around UlA and B removal of the board should that be The front panel escutcheon was made
causes Schmitt trigger action, which necessary. from 3M Scotchcal material. This involves
discourages oscillation. Any oscillations The readouts are contained in an IEE- a photographic process similar to circuit
on the logic transitions would be counted Atlas 1750 bezel assembly that is attached board production. These materials can be
as input pulses, causing erroneous to the front panel. Each of the readouts obtained from many artist supply houses.
readings. plugs into this assembly and a red filter, Alternatively, the panel can be labeled
U4 divides the " prescale" input fre- supplied with the bezel, mounts over with press-on lettering.
quency by 10. This IC is an ECL divider them. Wire wrap pins are provided for
with a built-in ECL-to-TTL translator. connection to the readouts. Connection Adjustment
The input is internally biased, so no exter- from the display section to the circuit Adjustment is limited to that of the
nal conditioning circuitry is necessary ex- board is accomplished by means of a time base oscillator. This can be ac-
cept the coupling capacitor. wiring harness as can be seen in the complished by receiving WWV or a
photograph of the counter interior. Tie similar frequency-standard station. Cou-
Construction wraps impart aprofessional appearance. ple a small amount of power from the
All of the integrated circuits (with the The power supply components are time base oscillator, along with the WWV
exception of the readouts), prescaler and located against the rear wall of the signal into the station receiver. A small
the input signal-conditioning circuit are counter. A simple power supply, shown in coupling loop of wire connected to the
contained on adouble-sided circuit board Fig. 32 provides the required 5-volts dc. A receiver by a length of miniature coaxial
that measures 4 x 5-1/2 inches ( 102 x hefty heat sink is used on the regulator cable should work fine. Place the loop in
140 mm). The bottom pattern of the and the two remain only perceptibly warm the vicinity of the oscillator but do not
board contains most of the connections even after long periods of use. It is agood allow it to touch any of the circuit com-
between ICs. The power bus and afew IC idea to use as large aheat sink as is prac- ponents, as a slight frequency " pulling"
interconnections are on the top side of the tical so that the chassis does not become may occur. While listening to the two
board. Large amounts of foil were left on unreasonably warm. Chassis heating may signals adjust the oscillator trimmer for
the top of the board to provide aground affect the frequency stability of the time zero beat. That completes the adjustment
plane. This appears to be effective since base oscillator. procedure.
Three front-panel switches control the

Other Instruments and Measurements

Many measurements require a source of wave-meter procedure in that it supplies and the oscillator are tuned to the same
ac power of adjustable frequency (and the rf power by incorporating a tunable frequency and coupled together. In the
sometimes adjustable amplitude as well) oscillator from which the circuit being vacuum-tube version the energy absorp- -
in addition to what is already available checked absorbs energy when this circuit tion causes a decrease or " dip" in the
from the transmitter to receiver. Rf and af rr
test oscillators, for example, provide
signals for purposes such as receiver
alignment, testing of phone transmitters,
and so on. Another valuable adjunct to
the station is the oscilloscope, especially
useful for checking phone modulation.

RF Oscillators for Circuit Alignment

Receiver testing and alignment, covered
in an earlier chapter, uses equipment
common to ordinary radio service work.
Inexpensive rf signal generators are
available, both complete and in kit form.
However, any source of signal that is
weak enough to avoid overloading the
receiver usually will serve for alignment
work. The frequency marker generator is
a satisfactory signal source. In addition,
its frequencies, although not continuously
adjustable, are known far more precisely,
since the usual signal-generator calibra-
tion is not highly accurate. For rough
work the dip meter described in the next
section will serve.

A DUAL-GATE MOSFET DIP METER

1 he dip meter reverses the absorption- Fig. 37 Exterior view of the dual- gate MOSFE1 clip meter with plug-in coils.

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-19

 RI R2 R3
Table 1
Coll•WIndIng Information
0005 9V
All coils are close-wound with no. 24 enam. wire.
Freq. Range, CI C2 LI
/
(MHz) (pF) (pF) (Turns)
3.5- 5.4 33 10 46
5.0- 8.3 10 33 28
8.0-13.5 10 33 14
13.0-21.8 10 33 7
0 = DC VOLTAGE WITH BOTH
21.0-34.9 10 33 4.5
POTENTIOMETERS SET
AT MID ROTATION 31.0-54.0 10 33 2.5

* = SEE TEXT

R13 S.M.= SILVER MICA

1000
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL fine with a 9-volt transistor- radio type of
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN MICROFARADS IpFI; OTHERS
battery if the drain resistor ( RD ) is
ARE IN PICOFARA DS 1pF OR pie); shorted. In either case the unit draws ap-
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
proximately 20 mA.
It * 000, M=1,000,000

Construction

Fig. 38 — Schematic diagram of the dual-gate MOSFET dip meter. All resistors are 1/2-watt com- Most of the components that comprise
position type. Capacitors are disc ceramic unless noted otherwise. the oscillator and meter-driver circuits are
Cl, C2 — See Table 1. M1 — Edgewise panel meter, 0-1 mA, mounted on acircuit board that measures
C3 — Variable capacitor, 35 pF, Millen 20035 Calectro D1-905 or equiv. approximately 1-1/4 x 2-1/2 inches. The
or equiv. 01 — Dual-gate MOSFET, RCA 40673.
D1 — 1N34A or equiv. Q2 — Npn transistor, 2N2222A.
foil pattern is shown in Fig. 39. A
J1 — Socket, Amphenol type S4. R2 — Potentiometer, 50 MI. Minibox that measures 5-1/2 x 3 x
L1 — See Table 1for values. All coils R7 — Potentiometer, 5000 ohms. 2-1/2 inches contains the circuit board,
wound on Millen 45004 coil forms. Si — Spst on-off switch mounted on R7. variable capacitor, meter, controls and
four-pin coil socket. Nine plug-in coils are
used to cover the frequency range from
2.3 to 200 MHz. The coils are wound on
oscillator's rectified grid current, mea- by a diode and amplified by a 2N2222A Millen 45004 coil forms to which L
sured by a dc microammeter. transistor, is displayed on a 0- to 1-mA brackets are mounted for the dial scale.
Described here and shown in Figs. 37 meter. Transconductance of the Winding information is given in Table I.
through 40 is a simple- to-build dip meter MOSFET, and hence the output signal, is Epoxy cement holds the aluminum
that covers 3.5 to 54 MHz. By opening controlled by potentiometer R2 and brackets to the forms. The use of six
switch S2 the circuit will function as a reaches a maximum of 10-volts pk-pk at separate coils instead of three or
wavemeter, eliminating the need for two the source when VG2 ( voltage from gate 2 four greatly expands the calibration scales
separate test instruments. The layout is to source) is set to + 5volts. The meter is so more accurate frequency measurements
not especially critical; however, you adjusted for the desired deflection by R7. may be made. To reduce the fast tuning
should try to keep the leads from the coil R8 must be selected according to the rate of the variable capacitor, areduction
socket to the remainder of the circuitry as meter used and should be 1MI for a 1-mA vernier is used. It was removed from a
short as possible. This will help prevent meter movement. Frequency of oscillation Japanese vernier dial assembly. An
unwanted resonances in the higher fre- depends on Cl, C2, C3 and LI, and may aluminum bracket supports the variable
quency ranges. Such parasitic resonances reach 250 MHz or so when LI is reduced capacitor inside the box. A rectangular
can cause false dips and erratic operation. to a hairpin. piece of thin Plexiglas is used for the dial.
Higher frequencies may be obtainable A thin line is scribed down the center of
Circuit Details by using a uhf D-MOSFET, such as a the dial and is colored with a permanent-
The circuit shown in Fig. 38 is a Signetics SD300, or by placing C3 and LI marking felt pen.
grounded- drain Colpitts oscillator in series in a Clapp- oscillator configura-
employing an RCA n- channel, dual-gate tion. The circuit is designed to operate Alignment
MOSFET. The oscillation level, detected from a 12-volt supply, but it also works A general-coverage receiver or another

Fig. 40 — Parts-placement guide for the MOSFET dip meter shown

Fig. 39 — Full-scale circuit-board pattern for the MOSFET dip meter — from the component side of the board. Gray areas represent an X-ray
foil side of board. Black areas represent unetched copper. view of the unetched copper.

16-20 Chapter 16
 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE
IN micRopApAps ( pF); OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS Ipi OR VUE);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;

k * 1000, M.I 000 000

SM SILVER MICA

Fig. 42 — At A, the diagram cf the Slipper Dipper and at B, the probe assembly. Button mica
bypass capacitors were used in the instrument shown in Fig. 41, but disc ceramic capacitors may
be used. Cl, C2 and C3 are formed by the capacitance between circuit- board foils. See text.
Cl — Approx. 7 pF.
C2 — Approx. 11 pF. 01 — Npn, silicon, bipolar, high- frequency
C3 — Approx. 140 pF. transistor, 15 V, 375 mW; Motorola MRF 901
Fig. 41 — The Slipper Dipper, designed and DI — Schottky barrier diode, RS 276-1124 or or equiv.
built by Phil Accardl, AJ1N, uses printed equiv. W1 — Sliding transmission line; see text and
circuit- board material as a foundation for its
Li — Pickup loop. See text and Fig. 43G. Fig. 41.
construction, but no etching is required. 01,
the active element, may be seen on edge at the
top of the parallel line in this view, with base
and collector leads soldered directly to the line
conductors. Hookup wire, twisted into pairs,
provides for connection to the power source dial. Continue this procedure until the coupled to acoil (the same coupling rules
and the external monitor meter, a 50-RA dc complete range of the particular coil has that apply to any two coils are operative
instrument. been marked. Do the same for each of the here) in the tuned circuit being checked,
other coils. If another dip meter is used or to ahigh-current point in alinear cir-
for the calibration process, it should be cuit.
Because of distributed capacitance ( and
dip meter (calibrated) will be required to Operating the Dip Meter sometimes inductance) most circuits re-
align the instrument. Plug in the ap- The dip meter will check only resonant sonant at the lower amateur frequencies
propriate coil for the range to be placed in the DETECTOR mode and used in will show quasi- linear- type resonances at
calibrated and turn the power switch to a similar fashion as that of the receiver or close to the vhf region. A vhf dip meter
the ON position and advance R7 to ap- outlined above. will uncover these, often with beneficial
proximately one-third scale. If a receiver circuits, since nonresonant circuits or results since such " parasitic" resonances
is being used to calibrate the instrument, components will not absorb energy at a can cause unwanted responses at har-
tune it to the lowest frequency covered by specific frequency. The circuit may be monics of the intended frequency, or be
the particular coil in use. With the coil of either lumped or linear ( a transmission- responsible for parasitic oscillations in
the dip meter in close proximity to the line type circuit) provided only that it has amplifiers. Caution must be used in
receiver antenna terminal and the variable enough Q to give sufficient coupling to the checking transmission lines or antennas
capacitor fully meshed, the dip-meter dip- meter coil for detectable absorption of — and, especially, combinations of anten-
oscillator should be heard somewhere rf energy. Generally the coupling is na and line — on this account, because
close to that frequency. Start by marking principally inductive, although at times these linear circuits have well-defined
this frequency on the paper of thin card- there may be sufficient capacitive coup- series of harmonic responses, based on the
board dial attached to the plate. Next tune ling between the meter and acircuit point lowest resonant frequency, which may
the receiver higher in frequency (approxi- that is at relatively high potential with lead to false conclusions respecting the
mately 100 kHz on the lower range coils respect to ground to permit areading. For behavior of the system.
and 1 MHz on the higher frequency inductive coupling, maximum energy Measurements with the dip meter are
ranges) and mark this frequency on the absorption will nrrur when the meter Is essentially frequency measurements, and

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-21

for best accuracy the coupling between the
meter and circuit under checking must be 146" 093"

as loose as will allow aperceptible dip. In 0 25"

this respect the dip meter is similar to the

absorption wavemeter. 0.77"

THE SLIPPER DIPPER 086"

00
The instrument shown in Figs. 41 048 - 022"

through 43 is designed for use as a dip

2.4"
meter in the frequency range from ap-
proximately 380 to 500 MHz. It can be a DOUBLE SIDED G- I0
useful tool for the uhf experimenter. The LUCITE STANDOFFS
CAPACITOR TERMINATION PL ATE
instrument uses readily available parts, 2 REQUIRED

and construction is noncritical. The ver- (A) (B)

sion shown here was inspired by adesign
contributed by John Reed, W610J.
The circuit of the dipper is shown in
Fig. 42. There is no hard-to- find
miniature variable capacitor in the
frequency-determining section of the
oscillator. Instead, afixed capacitor value 3.5"

is placed at the end of a variable-length

transmission line, WI. WI is less than a
quarter wavelength long at the desired fre- —.4
quency. An inductance is seen at the input DOUBLE SIDED
end of the line. This inductance, in FINGER PADDLE
parallel with the inevitable junction
4 25" (D)
capacitance of the active device, Q1,
creates atank circuit. The equivalent cir- SINGLE SIDED G- I0
PLATFORM
cuit of the Slipper Dipper is a tuned- (C)

collector tuned-based oscillator. The fre-

quency is varied by adjusting the length of

°14- 4
WI, which is constructed in part on a 0275"

sliding platform. Brass rod and copper 2.5" 25"

tubing form the sliding elements.
The sense or probe assembly, Fig. 42B, SPACERS ( SINGLE SIDED G-10) KEEPERS ( SINGLE SIDED G-10)

is coupled to the oscillator through ashort 2 REQUIRED REQUIRED

length of RG-58/U coaxial cable, a foot (E) (F)

or so in length. LI is coupled to the circuit
having unknown resonance. As the 0225 075'
oscillator is tuned through the resonant
frequency of the unknown circuit, D1 mrn. 254 X IN (") \ I

detects changes in reactance. These

changes are indicated on an external
4 -1 in - 4
STEEL CLIPS
2 REQUIRED
monitor meter. A Simpson 260 VOM on PROBE LOOP
the 50-µA range or other 50-µA meter (H)

movement makes asuitable indicator. (G)

CAPACITOR
LUCITE TERMINATION
Construction STANDOFFS PLATE FINGER
BRASS PADDLE
The Slipper Dipper is constructed TUBING

primarily from circuit-board material,

although no etching is required. A 4 X
9-inch piece of 1/16-in. thick G-10 epoxy
board is used for abase plate. This plate
may be of either single- or double-sided 4-40 3/8
CALIBRATION
board. The sliding platform base should SCALE
4 PLACES

be of single-sided material. The only

KEEPERS
double-sided G-10 board required is that 2PLACES a
for the capacitor termination plate, 3.5 X SPACERS (1 )
‘`, 2 PLACES--4 •
4.25 in. These and other pieces of material •‘• •
used in the construction are shown in Fig. '1 \1

43. Close examination of Figs. 41 and 43

will reveal most details of mechanical
assembly. All components of the sliding

Fig. 43 — At A through H, various parts used

in the mechanical assembly of the Slipper Dip-
per. Parts shown at B through G are made from
circuit-board material. At I, a pictorial diagram
of the parts assembly.

16-22 Chapter 16
platform assembly are soldered together. per wire, no. 12 or larger, if of the same
The dimensions foi the captwitur let- app.( oAiindte size, should work equally
mination plate are shown at B in Fig. 43, well.
and assume 1/16-in. G-10 epoxy board
Calibration and Use
material is used. This plate must be of
double-sided board material, as Cl and A well-regulated source of power
C2 are formed by the capacitance be- should be used, as the output frequency
tween the large rectangles shown in the depends somewhat on the applied voltage.
figure and the solid copper cladding on Calibration may be performed in a
the reverse side of this piece. The small number of different ways. A frequency
rectangular strip at the bottom of this counter usable to 500 MHz offers perhaps
plate allows for soldering the plate to the most direct method. A simple method
the sliding platform base, both front and would be to use the uhf TV receiver having
back. The spaces in the plate may be detent tuning. The second harmonic of the
etched or they may be cut with a sharp Slipper Dipper at the low end of its range
knife. The dimensions are not critical, and will fall in the TV receiver channels 62 to
aslight slip of the knife will not affect cir- 83. At the high end of the dipper range the
cuit performance. fundamental will fall in TV channels 14 to
The side keepers for the sliding plat- 18. When using this method, there will be a
form are made from single-sided board. gap in TV receiver coverage for the dipper
As C3 is formed by the capacitance be- range of 445 to 470 MHz. The lower fre-
tween the foil of the platform base and the quency edge of TV channel 14 is at 470
Fig. 44 — Twin-T audio oscillator circuit.
foil of the base-plate circuit board, the MHz, and the channels are contiguous,
Representative values for R1- R2 and Cl range
keeper assembly must be constructed to occupy 6MHz each. A simple equation to from 18 kt1 and 0.05 1.4F for 750 Hz to 15 ktt and
avoid shorting out C3. Clearance holes for determine the lower edge of the uhf TV 0.02 $
AF for 1800 Hz. For the same frequency
no. 4-40 screws should be drilled in each channel is range, R3 and C2-C3 vary from 1800 ohms and
0.02 pF to 1500 ohms and 0.01 e. R4 should
of the spacer strips. Be sure to deburr the f = 6C + 386
be approximately 3300 ohms. C4, the output
holes with an oversized drill bit or a where coupling capacitor, can be 0.05 mF for high-
countersink, cutting away enough copper f = the frequency in megahertz impedance loads.
material so the green fiberboard material C = the uhf television channel number
is visible about the entire hole. This will The lower frequency edge of channel 83 is
prevent shorts from copper edges at 884 MHz. The picture carrier is 1.25
touching the screws. MHz up, and the sound carrier is 5.75
The lines are made of 1/4-in, copper MHz up from the lower frequency edge of are readily available at prices that com-
tubing, 2- 11/16-in, long, and of brass rod each channel. pare very favorably with the cost of parts.
3/16 in. dia and 4 in. long. The overall Because the parallel conductors are an For most phone- transmitter testing,
line length is calculated from the equation integral part of the feedback arrangement and for simple trouble shooting in af
in the oscillator, output variations over amplifiers, an oscillator generating one or
the tuning range are minimized. Variation two frequencies with good wave form is
11 '
803 — 11 '
803 = 7.38 in. is further minimized by the values selected adequate. A " two-tone" (dual) oscillator
4fMI-L 4 x 400 for the resistive voltage divider at the out- is particularly useful for testing sideband
put to the probe. In the instrument photo- transmitters, and adjusting them for on-
Remember that in operation we must have graphed, the variations were smooth, and the-air use.
a line length of less than a quarter dropped by less than 3dB from 380 to 500 The circuit of a simple RC oscillator
wavelength at the oscillation frequency. MHz. Inherent dips in an instrument of useful for general test purposes is given in
The rods are spaced 3/8 in. on centers and this type tend to compromise its useful- Fig. 44. This " Twin-T" arrangement
at about the same height from the base ness in adip-meter application. gives a waveform that is satisfactory for
plate. Lucite or Plexiglas blocks, as shown Although the resistive divider at the most purposes, and by choice of circuit
in Fig. 43A, should be drilled to just clear ouput to the probe offers some isolation constants the oscillator can be operated at
the brass rods. Keep these holes parallel so between the probe and the oscillator, any frequency in the usual audio range.
the slide moves easily when assembled. coupling to external circuits should be as R1, R2 and Cl form alow-pass type net-
After the blocks are placed on the base light as possible when the instrument is work, while C2C3R3 is high-pass. As the
plate and the copper tubing is slid over the being used. As with any dip meter, this phase shifts are opposite, there is only one
rods, the capacitor termination plate may reduces pulling of the oscillator frequency frequency at which the total phase shift
be soldered to the tubing and the platform by the components of the external circuit from collector to base is 180 degrees, and
at the same time. The exact height of the being measured. oscillation will occur at this frequency.
line above the base plate is not critical. Optimum operation results when Cl is ap-
Electrical connection between the fixed AUDIO- FREQUENCY proximately twice the capacitance of C2
rods and the sliding tubes is made with OSCILLATORS or C3, and R3 has a resistance about 0.1
hairpin-like clips from a carburetor Tests requiring an audio- frequency that of RI or R2 (C2 = C3 and RI =
rebuilding kit, Fig. 43H. Cut aslot in the signal generally call for one that is a R2). Output is taken across Cl, where the
tubing with a hacksaw having a wide reasonably good sine wave, and best harmonic distortion is least. A relatively
enough kerf to allow the straight part of oscillator circuits for this are RC-coupled, high-impedance load should be used —
the clip to pass through the slot and make operating as close to aClass A amplifier as 0.1 megohm or more.
contact with the rod. The curved side of possible. Variable frequency covering the A small-signal af transistor is suitable
the clip makes contact with the opposite entire audio range is needed for determin- for (,) 1 . Either npn or pnp types can be
side of the tubing. ing frequency response of audio used, with due regard for supply polarity.
The sense loop shown in Fig. 41 is made amplifiers, but this is a relatively unim- R4, the collector load resistor, must be
from three strips of circuit-board portant type of test in amateur equip- large enough for normal amplification,
material, Fig. 43G. The 45 °-angle seams ment. The variable- frequency af signal and may be varied somewhat to adjust the
are soldered. A loop of heavy tinned cop- generator is best purchased complete; kits operating conditions for best waveform.

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-23

 output of this oscillator is direct coupled.
If you are connecting this unit into circuits
where dc voltage is present, use acoupling
capacitor. As with any solid-state equip-
ment, be cautious around plate circuits of
tube- type equipment, as the voltage spike
caused by charging a coupling capacitor
may destroy the IC. This unit was
originally described by Schultz in
November 1974 QST.

A TWO-TONE AUDIO GENERATOR

The audio frequency generator shown
in Figs. 46 and 47 makes avery convenient
signal source for testing the linearity of a
single-sideband transmitter. To be
suitable for transmitter evaluation, a
generator of this type must produce two
nonharmonically related tones of equal Fig. 46 — Exterior view of the two-tone audio
amplitude. The level of harmonic and in- generator.
termodulation distortion must be suf-
ficently low so as not to confuse the
measurement. The frequencies used in this
generator are 700 and 1900 Hz, both well
inside the normal audio passband of an most transmitters using either high or low
ssb transmitter. Spectral analysis and impedance microphones.
practical application with many different
transmitters has shown this generator to Construction and Adjustment
meet all of the requirements mentioned Component layout and wiring are not
above. While designed specifically for critical and any type of construction can
transmitter testing, it is also useful be used with good results. For those who
anytime a fixed- frequency, low-level wish to use a printed circuit board, the
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS IyF I ; audio tone is needed. Details on distortion layout shown in Fig. 48 is recommended.
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( DF OR yyFr,
measurement and the two-tone test can be Parts placement for this layout is shown in
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
It • 1000, M•I000 000, found in Chapter 12. Fig. 49. Because the generator will nor-
mally be used near atransmitter, it should
Circuit Details
be enclosed in some type of metal case for
Fig. 45 — A simple audio oscillator that pro- Each of the two tones is generated by a shielding. Battery power was chosen to
vides a selectable frequency range. R2 and R3
separate Wein bridge oscillator, U1B and reduce the possibility of rf entering the
control the frequency and R1 varies the output
level. U2B. The oscillators are followed by RC unit through the ac line. With careful
active low-pass filters, U 1 A and U2A. shielding and filtering, the builder should
Because the filters require nonstandard be able to use an ac power supply in place
capacitor values, provisions have been of the batteries.
made on the circuit board for placing two The only adjustment required before
A WIDE- RANGE AUDIO OSCILLATOR capacitors in parallel in those cases where use is the setting of the oscillator feedback
A wide- range audio oscillator that will standard values cannot be used. The trimmers, RIand R2. These should be set
provide a moderate output level can be oscillator and filter capacitors should be so that the output of each oscillator,
built from a single 741 operational polystyrene or Mylar film types if measured at pin 7of Ul and U2, is about
amplifier ( Fig. 45). Power is supplied by available. The two tones are combined at 0.5 volts rms. A VTVM or oscilloscope
two 9-volt batteries, from which the cir- the summing junction of op amp U3A. can be used for this measurement. If
cuit draws 4 mA. The frequency range is This amplifier has avariable resistor, R4, neither of these is available, the feedback
selectable from 15 Hz to 150 kHz, in its feedback loop which serves as the should be adjusted to the minimum level
although a 1.5-to 15- Hz range can be in- output LEVEL control. While R4 varies that allows the oscillators to start reliably
cluded with the addition of two 5- MF non- both tones together, R3, the BALANCE and stabilize quickly. When the oscillators
polarized capacitors and an extra switch control, allows the level of tone A to be are first turned on, they take a few
position. Distortion is approximately one changed without affecting the level of seconds before they will have astable out-
percent. The output level under a light tone B. This is necessary because some put amplitude. This is caused by the
load ( 10 k ohms) is 4 to 5volts. This can transmitters do not have equal audio lamps, DS1 and DS2, used in the
be increased by using higher battery response at both frequencies. Following oscillator feedback circuit. This is normal
voltages, up to a maximum of plus and the summing amplifier is a step at- and should cause no difficulty. The con-
minus 18 volts, with a corresponding ad- tenuator, S3, which controls the output nection to the transmitter should be
justment of Rf. level in 10-dB steps. The use of two output through a shielded cable.
Pin connections shown are for the IO- S level controls, R4 and S3, allows the out-
case. If another package configuration is put to cover awide range and still be easy RESISTORS AT RADIO
used, the pin connections may be dif- to set to aspecific level. The remaining op FREQUENCIES
ferent. R1 ( 220 ohms) is trimmed for an amp, U3B, is connected as a voltage Measuring equipment, in some part of
output level about five percent below follower and serves to buffer the output its circuit, often requires essentially pure
clipping. This should be done for the while providing ahigh impedance load for resistance — that is, resistance exhibiting
temperature at which the oscillator will the step attenuator. Either a high- or a only negligible reactive effects on the
normally operate, as the lamp is sensitive low-output impedance can be selected by frequencies at which measurement is
to ambient temperature. Note that the S4. The values shown are suitable for intended. Of the resistors available to

16-24 Chapter 16
 RI
LEVEL SET
TONE A
700 Hz

93
D51
BALANCE

100k 100h 100k

A
0

140

2000 2700 2700 022 012

POLY
TONE A CIA TOIB C2B
2A
SI ON
//
- /- 7 /

100k 2000
POLY

* SELECT VALUE FOR

Ilk
EXACT FREQUENCY

R2
LEVEL SET

TONE El

1900 Hz
D52 +V

—6—
7
2
1,0
0 CC
moo 1000 .01 2000
— —
TONE B 7 -7
C3A C3B
TC-4A14B
52 ON 470k 43k
/- 77 T/

i _Z--(30FF

43h — 2000
POLY

470

R4
750 240 LEVEL

lk

ATTENUATOR
560

OdB LOW- Z
o
SELECT VALUE FOR 510
EXACT FREQUENCY OUTPUT
6 8k -v HI- Z

104B
Il

Fig. 47 — Schematic diagram of the two-tone 2 2k

audio generator. All resistors are 1/4-W com- -204B o

position type.
BT1, BT2 — Four AA cells.
680
C1A,B — Total capacitance of 0.054 HF, ± 5%. BT1 POWER +V
S5
C2A,B — Total capacitance of 0.034 HF, ± 5%. -30 6V

C3A.B — Total capacitance of 0.002 HF, ± 5%.

1
1111 * 100yF
C4A,B — Total capacitance of 0.012 HF, ± 5%. 220
25 V
DS1, DS2 — 12 V, 25 mA lamp ( RS272-1141). -40d /
R1, R2 — 5000, 10-turn trim potentiometer.
+ 11111 o
R3 — 5000, panel mount potentiometer.
100yF
R4 — 10000, panel mount potentiometer. 68
G
6v Li-
BT 2
r_ 25 V
Si, S2, S4 — Spst toggle switch ( RS275-613). 5
S3 — DPdt toggle switch ( RS275-614).
S5 — Single-pole, 5- position rotary switch
33
(RS275-1385).
01, U2, 03 — LF353N dual JFET op amp
(RS276-1714).

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-25

 amateurs, this requirement is met only by
small composition (carbon) resistors. The
inductance of wire- wound resistors makes
them useless for amateur frequencies.
The reactances to be considered arise
from the inherent inductance of the
resistor itself and its leads, and from small
stray capacitances from one part of the
resistor to another and to surrounding
conductors. Although both the induc-
tance and capacitance are small, their
reactances become increasingly important
as the frequency is raised. Small com-
position resistors, properly mounted,
show negligible capacitive reactance up to
100 MHz or so in resistance values up to a
few hundred ohms; similarly, the in-
ductive reactance is negligible in values
higher than a few hundred ohms. The
optimum resistance region in this respect
is in the 50 to 200- ohm range, ap- Fig. 48 — Full-scale pc-board etching pattern for the two-tone audio generator. Foil-side view with
black areas representing unetched copper. To aid in wiring those components that are not
proximately.
mounted on the pc board, some pc-board pads have been labeled with letters corresponding to
Proper mounting includes reducing lead points marked on the diagram in Fig. 47.
length as much as possible, and keeping
the resistor separated from other resistors
and conductors. Care must also be taken
R3 R4 02
S3
in some applications to ensure that the R4

resistor, with its associated components, 100

does not form aclosed loop into which a
rn 4700 43 kf?
11 10!
voltage could be induced magnetically. 2400\ /
750013_ \
So installed, the resistance is essentially ji
ict )(îxp4701!
pure. In composition resistors the skin ef-
5101/ 1kit 100 k12
fect is very small, and the rf resistance up G--
R2 R1

to vhf is very nearly the same as the dc T •

- e2000

resistance. S3
SI
2000
Dummy Antennas CO
7C1-
- )
A dummy antenna is simply a resistor
54
CO.0 I) CD (670-2
-2)
that, in impedance characteristics, can be 60011 100 k!! c 2-00c)

substituted for an antenna or transmission -1100kliF R3

line for test purposes. It permits leisurely
S4 47 k12
transmitter testing without radiating a
signal. (The amateur regulations strictly
limit the amount of " on-the-air" testing
that may be done.) It is useful in testing
TO TO
receivers, in that electrically it resembles
- BT 1 + BT 2
an antenna, but does not pick up external TO BT 1AND BT 2

noise and signals, a desirable feature in COMMON

some tests.
For transmitter tests the dummy anten- Fig. 49 — Parts- placement diagram for the two-tone audio generator, shown from the component.
side of the board.
na must be capable of dissipating safely
the entire power output of the transmitter.
Since for most testing it is desirable that
the dummy simulate a perfectly matched made in this way have good characteristics the maximum power dissipated can be
transmission line, it should be a pure through the vhf bands as well as at all increased in proportion to the reduction
resistance, usually of approximately 52 or lower frequencies. in duty cycle. Thus with keying, which has
73 ohms. This is a severe limitation in a duty cycle of about one half, the rating
home construction, because nonreactive Increasing Power Ratings
resistors of more than a few watts rated More power can be handled by using a
safe dissipation are very difficult to ob- number of 2-watt resistors in parallel, or
tain. (There are, however, dummy anten- series- parallel, but at the expense of in-
na kits available that can handle up to a troducing some reactance. Nevertheless, if
kilowatt.) some departure from the ideal impedance
For receiver and minipower transmitter characteristics can be tolerated this is a
testing an excellent dummy antenna can practical method for getting increased
be made by installing a 51- or 75- ohm dissipations. The principal problem is
composition resistor in aPL- 259 fitting as stray inductance which can be minimized
shown in Fig. 50. Sizes from one half to by mounting the resistors on flat copper Fig. 50 — Dummy antenna made by mounting
two watts are satisfactory. The disc at the strips or sheets, as suggested in Fig. 51. a composition resistor in a PL-259 coaxial
plug. Only the inner portion of the plug is
end helps reduce lead inductance and The power rating on resistors is a shown; the cap screws on after the assembly
completes the shielding. Dummy antennas continuous rating in free air. In practice, is completed.

16-26 Chapter 16
 ture tube is not at all suitable for
measurement purposes.) In the usual
display presentation, the fluorescent spot
moves across the screen horizontally at R1
IN
some known rate ( horizontal deflection or CI NOR.
3300 CENT.
horizontal sweep) and simultaneously is
moved vertically by the signal voltage
being examined ( vertical deflection). Be-
cause of the retentivity of the screen and C3

the eye, arapidly deflected spot appears as 3300

a continuous line. Thus a varying signal

voltage causes apattern to appear on the
screen. /

Conventionally, oscilloscope circuits s

/
c)_)

are designed so that in vertical deflection C4

3300
the spot moves upward as the signal
voltage becomes more positive with s '- SIS NAL

Fig. 51 — Using resistors in series- parallel to INPUT

increase the power rating of a small dummy respect to ground, and vice versa ( there
antenna. Mounted in this way on pieces of flat are exceptions, however). Also, the
copper, inductance is reduced to a minimum. horizontal deflection is such that with an
Eight 100-ohm 2-watt composition resistors in ac sweep voltage — the simplest form —
two groups, each four resistors in parallel, can
be connected in series to form a 50-ohm dum-
positive is to the right; with alinear sweep
my. The open construction shown permits free — one which moves the spot at auniform
air circulation. rate across the screen and then at the end
of its travel snaps it back very quickly to
the starting point — time progresses to the
Fig. 53 — Oscilloscope circuit for modulation
right.
monitoring. Constants are for 1500- to 2500-volt
Most cathode-ray tubes for oscilloscope high-voltage supply. For 1000 to 1500 volts,
work require a deflection amplitude of omit R8 and connect the bottom end of R7 to
about 50 volts per inch. For displaying the top end of R9.
small signals, therefore, considerable amp- C1-05, incl. — 1000-volt disc ceramic.
Al, R2, R9, All — Volume-control type, linear
lification is needed. Also, special circuits taper. R9 and All must be well insulated
have to be used for linear deflection. The from chassis.
design of amplifiers and linear deflection R3, R4, R5, R6, R10 — 1/2 watt.
circuits is complicated, and extensive texts R7, R8 — 1watt.
V1 — Electrostatic-deflection cathode-ray tube,
are available. For checking modulation of
2- to 5- inch (51- to 127- mm). Base connec•
transmitters, a principal amateur use of tions and heater ratings vary with type
the scope, quite simple circuits suffice. A chosen.

Fig. 52 — 100-watt dummy antenna made up of 60- Hz voltage from the power line makes
66 2-watt carbon resistors. a satisfactory horizontal sweep, and the
voltage required for vertical deflection can
easily be obtained from transmitter rf to 2500. Either set of deflecting electrodes
can be doubled. With sideband the duty circuits without amplification. (D1- D2, or D3- D4) may be used for either
cycle is usually not over about one-third. For general measurement purposes horizontal or vertical deflection, de-
The best way of judging is to feel the amplifiers and linear deflection circuits pending on how the tube is mounted.
resistors occasionally ( with power off); if are needed. The most economical and In Fig. 53, the centering controls are
too hot to touch, they may be dissipating satisfactory way to obtain ascope having not too high above electrical ground, so
more power than they are rated for. these features is to assemble one of the they do not need special insulation.
The dummy load shown in Fig. 52 was many kits available. However, the focusing and intensity con-
constructed to test the feasibility of using When using any oscilloscope, care must trols are at a high voltage above ground
alarge number of 2-watt resistors to form be taken not to damage the screen of the and therefore should be carefully in-
a high- power load. This example uses 66 CRT. Too high beam intensity, a sta- sulated. Insulated couplings or extension
3300-ohm carbon resistors. The load will tionary focused spot, or even astationary shafts should be used.
handle power levels up to 100 watts for pattern left on the screen can cause The tube should be protected from
reasonable lengths of time, and the SWR overheating that may desensitize, burn or stray magnetic fields, either by enclosing it
is less than 1.3 to 1at frequencies up to 30 actually pierce the internal coating of in an iron or steel box or by using one of
MHz. Because variations in construction phosphor. the special CR tube shields available. If
may affect the stray reactances, it is the heater transformer ( or other trans-
recommended that the builder follow the Simple Oscilloscope Circuit former) is mounted in the same cabinet,
general layout shown in the photograph. Fig. 53 is an oscilloscope circuit that has care must be used to place it so the stray
Complete details can be found in January all the essentials for modulation monitor- field around it does not deflect the spot.
1981 QST. ing: controls for centering, focusing, and The spot cannot be focused to afine point
adjusting the brightness of the fluorescent when influenced by a transformer field.
The Oscilloscope spot; voltage dividers to supply proper The heater transformer must be well
*I he electrostatically deflected cathode- electrode potentials to the cathode-ray insulated, and one side of the heater
ray tube, with appropriate associated tube; and means for coupling the vertical should be connected to the cathode. The
equipment, is capable of displaying both and horizontal signals to the deflection high-voltage dc can be taken from the
low- and radio- frequency signals on its plates. transmitter plate supply; the current
fluorescent screen, in aform which lends The circuit can be used with electro- required is negligible.
itself to ready interpretation. ( In contrast, static-deflection tubes from two to five Methods for connecting the oscil-
the magnetically defleeted television piL.- ii -
ichcs in face diameter, with voltages up loscope to a transmittei for checking or

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-27

monitoring modulation are given in
earlier chapters.

Quasi-Linear Sweep
For wave-envelope patterns that require
a fairly linear horizontal sweep, Fig. 54
shows amethod of using the substantially
linear portion of the 60- Hz sine wave —
the " center" portion where the wave goes
HOP
through zero and reverses polarity. A CENT

60- Hz transformer with a center-tapped INTENSi TY

secondary winding is required. The

voltage should be sufficient to deflect the
spot well off the screen on both sides — Fig. 54 — A quasi-linear time base for an
oscilloscope can be obtained from the
250 to 350 volts, usually. With such
"center" portion of asine-wave. Coupling the
"over-deflection" the sweep is fairly ac to the grid gives intensity modulation that
linear, but it is as 'bright on retrace as on blanks the retrace.
left-to-right. To blank it in one direction, C1 — Ceramic capacitor of adequate voltage
Fig. 55 — Lissajous figures and corresponding
rating.
it is necessary to couple the ac to the no. I frequency ratios for a90-degree phase relation-
Ti — 250- to 350-volt center-tapped secondary.
grid of the CR tube as shown. ship between the voltages applied to the two
If voltage is too high, use dropping resistor
sets of deflecting plates.
in primary side.
Lissajous Figures
When sinusoidal ac voltages are applied
to both sets of deflecting plates in the
oscilloscope the resultant pattern depends thus cover the audio range useful for voice
on the relative amplitudes, frequencies communication.
and phases of the two voltages. If the An oscilloscope having both horizontal
and vertical amplifiers is desirable, since it
ratio between the two frequencies is con-
is convenient to have a means for
stant and can be expressed in integers, a
adjusting the voltages applied to the
stationary pattern will be produced.
deflection plates to secure a suitable
The stationary patterns obtained in this
pattern size.
way are called Lissajous figures. Ex-
amples of some of the simpler Lissajous
A Tester for FET and Bipolar Transistors
figures are given in Fig. 55. The frequency
ratio is found by counting the number of The circuit shown is intended solely as a
loops along two adjacent edges. Thus in tester for npn and pnp transistors, junc-
the second figure on the left there are tion FETs and dual-gate MOSETs. This
three loops along a horizontal edge and equipment is not for use in checking audio
only one along the vertical, so the ratio of or high-power rf transistors.
the vertical frequency to the horizontal The circuit of Fig. 57 is an oscillator
frequency is 3:1. Similarly, in the bottom which is wired so that it will test various
figure there are four loops along the small-signal transistors by switching the
horizontal edge and three along the ver- battery polarity and bias voltage. A
tical edge, giving aratio of 4:3. Assuming crystal for the upper range of the hf spec-
that the known frequency is applied to the trum is wired into the circuit permanently,
horizontal plates, the unknown frequency but could be installed in acrystal socket if
is the builder so desires. A 20- MHz crystal
n2 was chosen for this model. Any hf crystal
f2 = — fi cut for fundamental mode operation can
n1 Fig. 56 — Exterior view of the transistor/FET
be used. tester.
where
When testing FETs the bias switch, S3,
fl = known frequency applied to hori-
is placed in the FET position, thus re-
zontal plates
moving R2 from the circuit. However,
f2 = unknown frequency applied to
when testing bipolar transistors the switch Components R3 and R4 are used as a
vertical plates
position must be changed to B1POL so voltage divider to provide bias for
n1 = number of loops along a verti-
that forward bias can be applied to the dual-gate MOSFETs. C2 is kept small in
cal edge
base of the bipolar transistor under test. value to minimize loading of the oscillator
n2 = number of loops along a hori-
RI is always in the circuit, and serves as a by the low-impedance voltage doubler,
zontal edge.
gate-leak resistor for FETs being D1 and D2. Rectified rf from the
An important application of Lissajous evaluated. It becomes part of the bias net- oscillator is monitored on MI. Meter
figures is in the calibration of audio- work when bipolars are under test. Cl is deflection is regulated manually by means
frequency signal generators. For very low used for feedback in combination with the of control R5. SI is used to select the
frequencies the 60-Hz power-line frequency internal capacitances of the transistors be- desired supply voltage polarity — nega-
is held accurately enough to be used ing checked. Its value may have to be tive ground for testing n-channel FETs
as a standard in most localities. The changed experimentally if crystals for and npn bipolars, and apositive ground
medium audio-frequency range can be lower frequencies are utilized in the cir- when working with p-channel and pnp
covered by comparison with the 440- and cuit. Generally speaking, the lower the devices.
600-Hz modulation on the WWV trans- crystal frequency, the greater the amount When testing MOSFETs which are not
missions. It is possible to calibrate over a of capacitance needed to assure oscilla- gate protected ( 3N 140 for one), make
10:1 range, both upward and downward tion. Use only that amount necessary to certain that the transistor leads are
from each of the latter frequencies and provide quick starting of the oscillator. shorted together until the device is seated

16-28 Chapter 16
 ground connected to the case of the tester
/
YPI 2 DI when decking unprotected FETs.) Put
the shorting wire back on the FET leads
before removing the unit from the tester.
R4
0.001
100k
The meter indication is significant in
checking any type of transistor. If the
device is open, shorted, or extremely
leaky, no oscillation will take place, and
the meter will not deflect. The higher the
meter reading, the greater the vigor of the
transistor at the operating frequency.
High meter readings suggest that the
R3
330k transistor is made for vhf or uhf service,
and that its beta is medium to high. Lower
readings may indicate that the transistor is
22 designed for hf use, or that it has very low
RFC1 gain. Transistors that are known to be
2.5mH
good but will not cause the circuit to
oscillate are most likely made for low-
FET
frequency or audio applications.
R2 001
220k
T/ A Gated Noise Source
This circuit (Fig. 58) provides asimple
low-cost method to optimize a converter
52
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
ON or receiver for best noise figure. The
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE simplicity of this system makes effective
IN MICROFARADS ( JJF); OTHERS tune-up possible without a lot of test
ARE IN PICOFARADS tpF OR .k.PF);
equipment.
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
Numerous articles have described units
k .1000. M•1,000,000.
where noise- figure tests may be made.
With the exception of certain thermal-
limited diodes ( 5722, for example), an
absolute value of noise figure is not
Fig. 57 — Schematic diagram of the transistor te ster. Capacitors are disc ceramic or mica. obtainable with these units; this device is
Resistors are 1/2- or 1/4-watt composition except for R5. Numbered components not appearing in no exception.
parts list are so designated for text discussion. Anyone using a classic noise- figure
BT1 — Small 9-V transistor- radio battery. with switch.
meter soon learns that the tune-up of a
D1, D2 — 1N34A germanium diode or equiv. RFC1 — 2.5-mH rf choke.
J1 — Four-terminal transistor socket.
system is a cut-and- try procedure where
Si — Two-pole double-throw miniature toggle.
M1 — Microammeter. Caleetro D1-910 used S2 — Part of R5. an adjustment is made and its influence is
here. S3 — Spst miniature toggle. observed by calibrating the system. Then
R5 — 25 MI linear-taper composition control Y1 — Surplus crystal (see text). the excess- noise source is applied and the
effect evaluated. This is basically an
after-the- fact method of testing after an
adjustment is made, and is consequently
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE time consuming.
ONQ
IN MICROFARADS ( 1,F); OTHERS The gated noise source doesn't require a
13T2 ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR ,p,PF I:
9V RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS;
special detector or any detector at all,
k.
1000, M • 1,000,00 O. other than your ear. By turning the noise
source on and off at an audio rate, the
ALL RESISTORS 1/2 WATT CARBON
COMPOSITION TYPE ratio of noise contributed by the system to
noise of the system plus excess noise
appears as an audio note. The louder the
note, the greater the differential in levels
OPTIONAL
CONTROL and hence the greater the influence of the
-I SEE TEXT OUTPUT excess noise or the better the noise figure.
SHIELD ( OPTIONAL)
If greater precision is desired than
2000
/.> subjectively listening to the signal, an
DI
oscilloscope may be used. Hook the scope
51
vertical input to any point in the audio
system of the receiver, such as the speaker
terminals. Adjust the scope for adisplay
of several multiples of the train of square
pulses. Proceed by adjusting the device(s)
Fig 58 — Schematic diagram of the gated noise source.
B1, B2 — 9-volt battery, Eveready 216 or equiv. S1 — Double- pole, single-throw miniature
being tested for greatest vertical de-
C5 — 0.001-NF feedthrough capacitor, toggle. flection.
Sprague BH-340. The result of an adjustment is instantly
visible as an increase or decrease in the
in the test socket. Static charges on one's or three times around the pigtails of the recovered audio. This method of noise
hands can be sufficiently great to damage FET as close to the transistor body as evaluation is by no means new. Most
the insulation within the transistor. Use a possible. After the FET is plugged into the modern automatic noise-figure meters
single strand of wire from some no. 22 or socket, unwrap the wire and perform the turn the excess- noise source on and off
24 stiandcd hookup win:, wrapping it two tests. ( It's not abad idea to have an earth and then, through rather sophisticated

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-29

 Fig. 59 — A simple detector which can be
used when aligning ssb and fm receivers (see
text for details).

methods, evaluate the results. This tech- 4

nique is sometimes called " Y" - parameter
testing.
While the method and circuit described
here are not exceptional, they represent a
fresh approach to noise evaluation. This
approach does not require long-term
integrating detectors and tedious " twice-
power" measurements which, without Fig. 60 — An RCL bridge for measuring unknown values of complex impedances. A plug-in coil is
absolute calibration, can result in no more used for each frequency band. The bridge operates at an rf input level of about 5 volts; pickup-link
assemblies for use with a grid-dip oscillator are shown. Before measurements are made, the
than simply optimizing the system. bridge must be balanced with a nonreactive load connected at its measurement terminals. This
In some cases the available noise load consists of a resistor mounted inside a coxial plug, shown in front of the instrument at the
generated by this unit may be too great. left. The aluminum box measures 4-1/4 x 10-3/4 x 6-1/8 inches ( 108 x 273 x 156 mm) and is
fitted with a carrying handle on the left end and self-sticking rubber feet on the right end and bot-
The output may be reduced by inserting tom. Dials are Millen no. 10009 with skirts reversed and calibrations added.
attenuators between the generator output
and the device under test or by adding a
2000- ohm potentiometer at the point
marked in the circuit ( see Fig. 58). The use
of an attenuator is preferred because it interest increases. for literally hundreds of applications and
reduces the apparent output VSWR of the has proved to be apowerful yet simple ad-
Addendum
generator by increasing the return loss. If dition to the test bench. While no
acontrol is used it must be returned to its The gated noise source was first guarantee of duplication may be made,
minimum insertion-loss position when developed in November 1975. Subse- these units develop approximately 18 dB
starting a test or no signal may be heard. quently, some interesting things have been of excess noise in the region of 50-300
This circuit uses readily available learned regarding its application. Some MHz. This unit was originally described
junk- box parts and may be easily du- contemporary receivers and transceivers by Hartsen in January 1977 QST.
plicated. The lead placement ir and cannot be operated in the a-m mode, and
around the diode itself should follow good consequently the noise source seems not RF IMPEDANCE BRIDGE FOR
vhf practices with short leads and direct to operate. The detection of noise is the COAX LINES
placement. process by which the noise source The bridge shown in Figs. 60 through
operates; therefore, it will not work 63 may be used to measure unknown com-
Theory of Operation through an fm detector, nor will it work plex impedances at frequencies below 30
QI and Q2 are used in across- coupled through a product detector since one of MHz. Measured values are of equivalent
multivibrator circuit, operating at ap- the terms of the detection (the noise) is not series form, R + jX. The useful range of
proximately 700 Hz. The value of Cl is coherent. the instrument is from about 5 to 400
greater than C2 to cause the duty cycle to The " scope" jack on most receivers is ohms if the unknown load is purely
favor the conduction of Q2 slightly. When loosely coupled to the i -f amplifier, resistive, or 10 to 150 ohms resistive com-
Q2 conducts, the pulse is coupled to Q3 preceding the detector. A wide- band ponent in the presence of reactance. The
via C3, turning on Q3 and causing current scope connected to this point will show reactance range is from 0to approximate-
flow through R7, CR Iand R8. the train of pulses and eliminate the need ly 100 ohms for either inductive or
The diode generates broadband noise for aural detection. The alignment of the capacitive loads. Although the instrument
which is passed through R9 to the output. later i
-fstages of asystem should have the cannot indicate impedances with the ac-
R7, C4 and C5 form a low-pass filter to least impact on the noise performance, curacy of a laboratory type of bridge, its
prevent high- order harmonics of the and maximum signal response will always readings are quite adequate for the
switching pulses from appearing in the occur at the same setting. With this measurement and adjustment of antenna
output. thought in mind, the simple prototype systems for amateur use, including the
The influence of stray rf signals entering detector of Fig. 59 will generally work for taking of line lengths into account with a
the device under test through the genera- aural a-m detection. Connect point A to Smith chart or Smith transmission-line
tor may be minimized by shielding the the last i-f amplifier plate or collector. calculator.
components shown. A simple box may be Connect point B to the audio amplifier, at The bridge incorporates a differential
built by using pc- board scraps. For best or near the volume control and ground capacitor, Cl, to obtain an adjustable
match, this source should be connected point C. With this arrangement the nor- ratio for measurement of the resistive
directly to the input of the device under mal detector output is turned down with component of the load. The capacitor
test; therefore, the unit is equipped with a the volume control, and the temporary consists of two identical sections on the
male connector. This matching becomes a detector provides a- m detection. same frame, arranged so that when the
greater consideration as the frequency of The gated noise source has been used shaft is rotated to increase the capacitance

16-30 Chapter 16
Fig. 61 — Schematic diagram of the im-
pedance bridge. Capacitance is in microfarads;
resistances are in ohms. Resistors are 1/2-W,
10-percent tolerance unless otherwise in-
dicated.
Cl — Differential capacitor, 5.6 to 150 pF per
section, Jackson Bros. C709 ( see text).
C2 — 17.5-327 pF with straight-line
capacitance characteristic, Hammarlund
RMC-325-S.
D1, D2 — Germanium diode, high back re-
sistance.
J1, J3 — Coaxial connectors, chassis type.
J2 — To mate plug of Li, ceramic.
J4 — Phone jack, disconnecting type. Fig. 62 — All components except the meter are mounted on the top of the box. Cl is visible in-
Li — See text and Table 1. side the shield at the left, with C2 at the right and J2 mounted between them. J1 is hidden
M1 — 0-50 A dc, Simpson Model 1223 Bold - beneath Cl in this view; a part of J3 may be seen in the lower right corner of the box. Com-
Vue, Cat. No. 15560 or equiv. ponents for the dc metering circuit are mounted on a tie- point strip which is affixed to the shield
R1 — For text reference. wall for Cl; all other components are interconnected with very short leads. The 4700-ohm input
RFC1 — Subminiature rf choke, Miller resistor is connected across J1.
70F103A1 or equiv.

Table 2
of one section, the capacitance of the
Coll Data for RF Impedance Bridge
other section decreases. The capacitor is
adjusted for anull reading on MI, and its Nom,na/ Frequency
settings are calibrated in terms of Inductance Coverage
Band Range ( uH) (MHz) Coil Type or Data
resistance at J3 so the unknown value can
80 6.5 - 13.8 3.2 - 4.8 28 turns no. 30 enam wire close-wound on Miller
be read off the calibration. A coil-and- form 42A000CBI.
capacitor combination is used to deter- 40 2.0 - 4.4 5.8 - 8.5 Miller 42A336CBI or 16 turns no. 22 enam. wire
mine the amount and type of reactance, close-wound on Miller form 42A000CBI.
20 0.6 - 11 11.5 - 16.6 8turns no 18 enam wire close-wound on Miller
inductive or capacitive. LI and C2 in the form 42A000C131.
bridge circuit are connected in series with 15 0.3 - 0.48 18.5 - 235 4-12 turns no. 18 enam wire close-wound on
the load. The instrument is initially Miller form 424000C131.
balanced at the frequency of measurement 10 0.18 - 028 25.8 - 32.0 3 turns no. 16 or 18 enam or tinned bus wire
spaced over 1.4- inch ( 63- mm) winding length on
with a purely resistive load connected at
Miller form 42A000C131.
J3, so that the reactances of LI and of C2
at its midsetting arc equal. Thus, these
reactances cancel each other in this arm of
the bridge. With an unknown complex-
impedance load then connected at J3, the for equivalent reactances at 1 MHz, as "standard" resistor for the bridge. In the
setting of C2 is varied either to increase or shown in Fig. 63. Frequency corrections unit photographed, the body of this
decrease the capacitive reactance, as re- may then be made simply by dividing the resistor just fits between the terminals of
quired, to cancel any reactance present in reactance dial reading by the measure- Cl and J2 where it is connected. Cl
the load. If the load is inductive more ment frequency in megahertz. should be enclosed in shield and connec-
reactance is needed from C2 to obtain a tions made with leads passing through
balance, indicated by a null on MI, with Construction holes drilled through the shield wall. The
less reactance needed from C2 if the load In any rf-bridge type of instrument, the frames of both variable capacitors, CI
is capacitive. The settings of C2 are leads must be kept as short as possible to and C2, must be insulated from the
calibrated in terms of the value and type reduce stray reactances. Placement of chassis, with insulated couplings used on
of reactance at J3. Because of the rela- component parts, while not critical, must the shafts. C2 is mounted on 1-inch ( 25
tionship of capacitive reactance to fre- be such that lead lengths greater than mm) ceramic insulating pillars.
quency, the calibration for the dial of C2 about 1/2 inch ( 13 mm) ( except in the dc Band- switching arrangements for LI
is valid at only one frequency. It is metering circuit) are avoided. Shorter complicate the construction and con-
therefore convenient to calibrate this dial leads are desirable, especially for RI, the tribute to stray reactances in the bridge

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-31

 should be done in the 3.5-MHz band
where stray inductance and capacitance
will have the least effect.
If the constructional layout of the
bridge closely follows that shown in the
photographs, the calibration scale of Fig.
63 may be used for the reactance dial.
This calibration was obtained by connect-
ing various reactances, measured on a
laboratory bridge, in series with a47-ohm
1-W resistor connected at J3. The scale is
applied so that maximum capacitive reac-
tance is indicated with C2 fully meshed. If
it is desired to obtain an individual
calibration for C2, known values of in-
ductance and capacitance may be used in
series with afixed resistor of the same ap-
proximate value as RI. For this calibra-
Fig. 64 — Front view of the 2-30 MHz rf watt-
Fig. 63 — Calibration scale for the reactance
tion it is very important to keep the leads meter/VSWR indicator.
dial associated with C2. See text. to the test components as short as possi-
ble, and calibration should be performed
in the 3.5-MHz range to minimize the ef-
fects of stray reactances. Begin the anced after any appreciable change is
circuit. For these reasons plug-in coils are calibration by setting C2 at half mesh, made in the measurement frequency. A
used at LI, one coil for each band over marking this point as 0 ohms reactance. 51-ohm, 1-W resistor mounted inside a
which the instrument is used. The coils With a purely resistive load connected at PL-259 plug, as shown in Fig. 60, makes a
must be adjustable, to permit initial J3, adjust LI and Cl for the best null on load which is essentially nonreactive.
balancing of the bridge with C2 set at the MI. From this point on during calibra- After the bridge is balanced, connect the
zero- reactance calibration point. Coil tion, do not adjust LI except to rebalance unknown load to J3, and alternately ad-
data are given in Table 2. Millen 45004 the bridge for a new calibration frequen- just CI and C2 for the best null.
coil forms with the coils supported inside cy. The ohmic value of the known reac- The calibration of the reactance dial is
provide a convenient method of con- tance for the frequency of calibration is shown in Fig. 63. The measurement range
structing these slug-tuned plug-in coils. A multiplied by the frequency in MHz to ob- for capacitive loads may be extended by
phenolic washer cut to the proper tain the calibration value for the dial. "zeroing" the reactance dial at some
diameter is epoxied to the top or open end value other than 0. For example, if the
Using the Impedance Bridge
of each form, giving a rigid support for bridge is initially balanced with the reac-
mounting of the coil by its bushing. Small This instrument is a low-input-power tance dial set at 500 in the XL range, the 0
knobs for 1/8- inch (3.2-mm) shafts, device, and is not of the type to be excited dial indication is now equivalent to an Xc
threaded with ano. 6-32 tap, are screwed from a transmitter or left in the antenna reading of 500, and the total range of
onto the coil slug-tuning screws to permit line during station operation. Sufficient measurement for Xc has been extended to
ease of adjustment without atuning tool. sensitivity for all measurements results 1000.
Knobs with setscrews should be used to when a5-V rms rf signal is applied at J1.
prevent slipping. A ceramic socket to This amount of voltage can be delivered A VSWR INDICATOR AND POWER
mate with the pins of the coil form is used by most grid-dip oscillators. In no case METER FOR 2-30 MHz
for J2. should the power applied to J1 exceed 1 The wattmeter/VSWR indicator illus-
The capacitor used for the resistance watt or calibration inaccuracy may result trated in Figs. 64-67 will allow the user to
dial, Cl, in the original unit (and shown in from a permanent change in the value of measure rf power and VSWR in the hf fre-
Fig. 62) was a Millen 28801. This RI . The input impedance of the bridge at quency range. This unit makes use of two
capacitor is no longer available, but the J1 is low, in the order of 50 to 100 ohms, meters which serve as an aid for adjusting
Jackson Brothers capacitor specified in so it is convenient to excite the bridge Transmatches by making it possible to
the parts list is a suitable substitute. through a length of 52- or 75-ohm line simultaneously monitor forward and
Jackson Brothers capacitors are sold by such as RG-58A/U or RG-59/U. If agrid- reflected power. A dual-meter power in-
Leeds Radio. (See parts supplier list in dip oscillator is used, a link coupling ar- dicator is much more convenient than a
chapter 17.) rangement to the oscillator coil may be single-meter type that must be switched
used. Fig. 60 shows two pick-up link manually for a FORWARD or REFLECTED
Calibration assemblies. The larger coil, 10 turns of reading. One other feature of this meter is
The resistance dial of the bridge may be 1- 1/4-inch -dia stock with turns spaced at its ability to indicate transmitter peak
calibrated by using a number of 1/2- or 8 turns per inch, is used for the 80-, power during an ssb transmission. This
I-watt 5-percent-tolerance composition 40- and 20-meter bands. The smaller coil, feature can be selected with the panel con-
resistors of different values in the 5- to 5turns of 1-inch (25-mm) dia stock with trol labelled NORM and PEAK.
400-ohm range as loads. For this cali- turns spaced at 4 turns per inch, is used
bration, the appropriate frequency coil for the 15- and 10-meter bands. Coupling The Circuit
must be inserted at J2 and its inductance to the oscillator should be as light as possi- The circuit for the wattmeter/VSWR
adjusted for the best null reading on the ble, while obtaining sufficient sensitivity, indicator is shown in Fig. 65 and is
meter when C2 is set with its plates half to prevent severe " pulling" of the relatively straightforward. The sampling
meshed. For each test resistor, C Iis then oscillator frequency. section is made up of atoroid coil through
adjusted for a null reading. Alternate Before measurements are made, it is which a short length of RG-8/U coaxial
adjustment of L1and CIshould be made necessary to balançe the bridge. Set the cable is passed. This circuit is shown in
for acomplete null. The leads between the reactance dial at zero and adjust LI and Fig. 66. Symmetry is maintained in order
test resistor and J3 should be as short as CI for anull with anonreactive load con- to prevent measurement inaccuracies at
possible, and the calibration preferably nected at J3. The bridge must be rebal- the higher frequencies. The braid of the
16-32 Chapter 16
 INPUT OUTPUT
JI J2
Ti PR,

5 ),

RFC 1 '••••• li.RFC 2

SAMPLING UNIT
-
METERING UNIT Fig. 66 — This is a photograph of the Sampling
unit with the shield removed. The braid of the
000, _L 0001
coaxial cable is grounded at only one end.
T,
NORM ° Si A NORM 0 S1 8

PEAK PEAK

6 8pF 4 ?
6 8pr
10v r j 7 10V

R38
R4
RI 50K 50K
25K
25 K

Fig. 67 — Interior view of the wattmeter. Cable

LOW LOW
POWER POWER ties are used to provide a neat appearance.
EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL Three interconnecting wires are run from the
VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE sampling unit to the meter circuit.
S2A
IN MICROFARADS IpFI ; OTHERS
ARE IN PICOFARADS pF OR A,PF) .
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS; 10 K
kv1000. M•1000 000
Table 3
Power Calibration Chart
Wattmeter Watts Watts
reading (low-power (high-power
scale) scale)

14 20 200
20 40 400
25 60 600
Fig. 65 — Schematic diagram of the wattmeterNSWR indicator. Parts designations called out in 30 80 800
the diagram, but not appearing in the parts list, are for text reference only. 35 100 1000
C1, C2 — 5 pF, silver mica. RFC1, RFC2 — 4 turns no. 22 enameled wire 38 120 1200
C3, C4 — 170-780 pF trimmer capacitor , on a 3/8- in. OD ferrite bead (950). 41 140 1400
Elmenco 469 or equiv. Si — Rotary switch, two pole, two position. 44 160 1600
J1, J2 — Coaxial connectors. Builder's choice. S2 — Rotary switch, two pole, three position. 47 180 1800
M2 — 50 mA dc meter. Ti — Primary: see text; secondary: 40 turns no. 50 200 2000
R3 — Dual 50-k0 potentiometer, panel mount. 22 enameled wire on T80-2 core.

Table 4
RG-8/U cable is grounded at only one end that of the sampling unit, which must be SWR Calibration Chart
(either end may be grounded) thereby pro- shielded. Additionally, all leads within the Reflected
sampling circuit should be kept as short as reading VSWR
viding an effective electrostatic shield over
the primary of T1. possible. The shield is made from scraps 4 t5: 1
of single- sided, printed- circuit board 9 2.0 : 1
The lower capacitors in the voltage
14 2.5 : 1
dividers (C I / C3 and C2/C4) are made material cut to size and soldered along the 3.0 : 1
18
variable since this will allow for easy ad- edges. Solder lugs attached to the shield
justment, especially if the rotors of these are bolted to the case at several locations
capacitors are connected to ground. This thus providing agood ground connection. miner to the input and a 50-ohm, non-
will eliminate the " hand capacitance" ef- The remainder of the circuit is not reactive load to the output. Set S2 to the
fects during the adjustment procedure. critical. Once the FORWARD and SWR position and R3 for maximum sen-
The value of 6.8 14F for the peak detec- REFLECTED leads leave the shielded sitivity. Gradually increase the transmitter
tor capacitors is not especially critical. enclosure they carry only dc voltages and power until the FORWARD meter reads full
Any values in the 5- to 10-µF range should can be made any length. The builder may scale. Adjust C4 for a null on the
work fine. Both capacitors should be of wish to locate the sampling unit in a REFLECTED meter. Next, reverse the input
the same value. The low- and high-power separate enclosure from the meter circuit. and output connections and adjust C3 for
potentiometers are circuit-board types This will allow the sampling unit to be anull as indicated on the FORWARD meter.
and will be adjusted and left at that set- placed at a more convenient location in This completes alignment of the sampling
ting. The SWR CAL potentiometer is adual the shack. Only three leads are needed unit.
50-k9, panel-mount type. between the sampling unit and the meter In order to calibrate the power scales,
circuitry ( the FORWARD and REFLECTED an accurate wattmeter or rf ammeter is re-
Construction leads and aground lead). quired. Alignment is a simple matter of
The unit is housed in a homemade adjusting potentiometers RI, R2, R4 and
aluminum enclosure that measures 5-1/4 Adjustment R5 to make the meter readings conform
x 7 x 3 inches ( 133 x 178 x 76 mm). with the readings obtained with the
The only critical portion of the circuitry is For initial adjustment connect a trans- calibrated wattmeter or ammeter. This

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-33

 EXCEPT AS INDICATED, DECIMAL VALUES OF

I
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFARADS le 1 ;
Bit SI OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS IDF OR » Fr,
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
r-111110-à •1000, M•1000 000,

6 Elk
, , 9v
* NOTE NUMBERS AND LETTERS
SHOWN WITH TI ARE POINTS
INDICATED ON FOIL SIDE OF
PC BOARD.

CI
6
02 .1 001
E555P
IN914
DI
../17
1200 690

22k 001 10k 001

— 0 01

1800
/ rT
- 7

0 Of

Ie•—•
03 6 8V 2922225
1w
JI
r77 RCvR

Fig. 89 — Schematic diagram of the noise bridge. Resistors are 114-watt com-
position types. Capacitors are miniature ceramic units unless indicated other-
wise. Component designations indicated in the schematic but not called out in
the parte list are for text and parts- placement reference only.
BT1 — 9-volt battery, NEDA 1604A or equiv.
Cl — Variable, 250 pF maximum. Use a good grade of capacitor. J2
C2 — Approximately 112 of Cl value. Selection may be necessary — see text. UNKNOWN
JI, J2 — Coaxial connector, BNC type.
R1 — Linear, 250 ohm, AB type. Use a good grade of resistor.
Si — Toggle, spst.
Ti — Broadband transformer, 8-trifilar turns of no. 28 enameled wire on an
Amidon FT-37-43 torold core.
Fig. 68 — Interior and exterior views of the UI — Timer, NE555 or equiv.
noise bridge. The unit is finished in red
enamel. Press-on lettering is used for the
calibration marks. Note that the potentiometer
must be isolated from ground.

unit was calibrated for afull-scale reading

of 200 watts on the low- power range and
2000 watts on the high- power range.
There is no reason why other power levels
could not be used as full-scale readings.
Table 3is apower calibration chart for
the wattmeter described here. Table 4 is
an SWR calibration chart. The values
given here assume a full-scale reading for
the FORWARD meter.

A NOISE BRIDGE FOR 160

THROUGH 10 METERS
The noise bridge, sometimes referred to
as an antenna ( RX) noise bridge, is an in-
strument that will allow the user to
measure the impedance of an antenna or
other electrical circuits. The unit de-
scribed here, designed for use in the
160- through 10-meter range, provides
adequate accuracy for most
Fig. 70 — Graph for determining actual inductance from the calibration marks on the negative
measurements. Battery operation and portion of the dial. These curves are accurate only for bridges having 120 pF at C2.
small physical size make this unit ideal for
remote-location use. Tone modulation is
applied to the wide- band noise generator plied to the cathode of the Zener diode. is drawn from the 9-volt battery, thus
as an aid for obtaining anull indication. A The 1000- Hz modulation appears on the assuring long battery life — as long as the
detector, such as the station receiver, is re- noise signal and provides a useful null power is switched off after use!
quired for operation of the unit. detection enhancement effect when used The bridge portion of the circuit con-
with an a-m receiver. The broadband- sists of T1, CI, C2 and RI. T1 is atrifilar-
The Circuit
noise signal is amplified by QI, Q2 and wound transformer with one of the wind-
The noise bridge consists of two parts associated components to a level which ings used to couple noise energy into the
— the noise generator and the bridge cir- produces an approximate S-9 signal in the bridge circuit. The remaining two wind-
cuitry. See Fig. 69. A 6.8-volt Zener diode receiver. Slightly more noise is available at ings are arranged so that each one is in an
serves as the noise source. Ul generates an the lower end of the frequency range, as arm of the bridge. CI and RI complete
approximate 50-per- cent duty cycle, no frequency compensation is applied to one arm and the UNKNOWN circuit along
1000- Hz, square wave signal which is ap- the amplifier. Roughly 20 mA of current with C2 comprise the remainder of the

16-34 Chapter 16
bridge The terminal labeled RCVR is for TO RCVR
connection to the detectoi 12V CONNECTOR
(AG 174/U)

Construction
The noise bridge is contained in a
homemade aluminum enclosure that - MOUNT
IN914'S
measures 5 X 23/8 x 3-3/4 inches ( 127
X 60 x 95 mm). Many of the circuit
components are mounted on a circuit
board that is fastened to the rear wall of
the cabinet. The circuit-board layout is
such that the lead lengths to the board
from the bridge and coaxial connectors
are at a minimum. Etching pattern and
parts-placement-guide information for
the circuit board are shown in Figs. 71 and
72.
Care must be taken when mounting the
potentiometer. For accurate readings the TO R1 C2

potentiometer must be well insulated from MOUNT

ground. In the unit shown this was ac

complished by mounting the control to a Fig. 71 — Parts-placement guide for the noise bridge as viewed from the component side of the
piece of Plexiglas, which in turn was board.
fastened to the chassis with a piece of
aluminum angle stock. Additionally, a
1/4 inch (6.4- mm), control-shaft coupling
and alength of phenolic rod were used to
further isolate the control from ground
where the shaft passes through the front
panel. A high-quality potentiometer is a
must if good measurement results are to
be obtained.
Mounting the variable capacitor is not a
problem since the rotor is grounded. As
with the potentiometer, a good grade of
capacitor is important. If you must cut
corners to save money, look elsewhere in
the circuit. Two BNC-type female coaxial
fittings are provided on the rear panel for
connection to adetector ( receiver) and to Fig. 72 — Etching pattern for the noise bridge pc board. This is the pattern for the bottom side of
the UNKNOWN circuit. There is no reason the board. The top side of the board is a complete ground plane with a small amount of copper
removed from around the component holes. Mounting holes are located in two corners of the
why other types of connectors can't be
board.
used. One should avoid the use of plastic
insulated phono connectors, however, as
these might influence the accuracy at the
higher frequencies. As can be seen from
the photograph, a length of miniature or parallel connected units). Adjust the natively, other values can be connected in
coaxial cable ( RG-174/U) is used between capacitance and resistance dials for anull series or parallel and tried in place of the
the acvR connector and the appropriate of the signal as heard in the receiver. Place 120-pF capacitor. The idea is to have the
circuit board foils. Also, C2 has one lead a calibration mark on the front panel at capacitance dial null as close as possible to
attached to the circuit board and the other that location of the resistance dial. the half-meshed position of Cl.
connected directly to the UNKNOWN circuit Remove the 25-ohm resistor and insert a Once the final value of C2 has been
connector. 50-ohm resistor, 100-ohm unit and so on determined and the appropriate compo-
until the dial is completely calibrated. nent installed in the circuit, the bridge
Calibration and Use The capacitance dial is calibrated in a should be adjusted for anull. The 0reac-
Calibration of the bridge is straightfor- similar manner. Initially, this dial is set so tance point can be marked on the face of
ward and requires no special instruments. that the plates of Cl are exactly half the unit. The next step is to place a20-pF
A receiver tuned to any portion of the meshed. If acapacitor having no stops is capacitor in series with the 50-ohm load
15-meter band is connected to the RCVR used, orient the knob so as to unmesh the resistor. Use a good grade of capacitor,
terminal of the bridge. The power is plates when the knob is rotated into the such as a silver-mica type and keep the
switched on and abroadband noise with a positive-capacitance region of the dial. A leads as short as possible. Null with the
1000- Hz note should be heard in the 50-ohm resistor is connected to the capacitance dial and make a calibration
receiver. Calibration of the resistance dial UNKNOWN terminal and the resistance mark at that point. Remove the 20-pF
should be performed first. This is ac- control is adjusted for a null. Next, the capacitor and insert a40-pF unit in series
complished by inserting small composi- reactance dial is adjusted for anull and its with the 50-ohm resistor. Again null the
tion resistors of appropriate values across position is noted. If this setting is bridge and make acalibration mark for 40
the UNKNOWN connector of the bridge. significantly different than the half- pF. Continue on in asimilar manner until
The resistors should have the shortest lead meshed position the value of C2 will need that half of the dial is completely
lengths possible in order to mate with the to be changed. Unit-to-unit value varia- calibrated.
connector. Start with 25 ohms of tions of 120-pF capacitors may be suffi- To calibrate the negative half of the
resistance (this may be made up of scrics cient to provide a coitable unit. Alter- scale, the same capacitors may be used,

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-35

 This time they must be placed temporarily point along the coaxial line, the load
in parallel with C2. Connect the 50-ohm (antenna) may be adjusted until a null is
resistor to the UNKNOWN terminal and the obtained. If the length of line is known to
20-pF capacitor in parallel with C2. Null be an even multiple of a half-wavelength
the bridge and place acalibration mark on at the frequency of interest, the readings
the panel. Remove the 20-pF unit and obtained from the bridge will be accurate.
temporarily install the 40-pF capacitor.
Again null the bridge and make acalibra- Interpreting the Readings
tion mark at that point. Continue this A couple of words on how to interpret
procedure until the capacitance dial is the measurements may be in order. For
complete!), calibrated. It should be
pointed out that the exact resistance and
example, assume that the impedance of a I 11.1%.

40- meter inverted- V antenna fed with a

capacitance values used for calibration half- wavelength of cable was measured.
can be determined by the builder. If The antenna had been cut for roughly the
resistance values of 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 center of the band (7.150 MHz) and the
ohms and so on are more in line with the bridge was nulled with the aid of areceiver
builder's needs, the scale may be cali- tuned to that frequency. The results were
brated in terms. The same is true for the 45-ohms resistive and 70 picofarads of
capacitance dial. The accuracy of the capacitance. The 45-ohm resistance
bridge is determined by the components reading is close to 50 ohms as would be ex-
that are used in the calibration process. pected for this type of antenna. The
Many amateurs use anoise bridge simp- capacitive reactance calculates to be 318 Fig. 73 — The 016 is enclosed in a 7 x 5 x
ly to find the resonant ( nonreactive) im- ohms from the equation: 3- in. ( 178 x 127 x 76-mm) aluminum chassis.
Tinnerman Speed Nuts and machine screws
pedance of an antenna system. For this
X = 1 are used to secure the front panel to the
service it is necessary only to calibrate the chassis flange. Rectangular holes with cover
zero-reactance point of the capacitance 2n(7.15 x 10 6)(70 x 10( - 12 )
plates in the rear panel permit alignment of the
dial. This simplification relaxes the unit while it is fastened to the chassis.
stringent quality requirement for the = 318
bridge capacitors, CI and C2. When an antenna is adjusted for
proved and simplified version of his 01B
resonance the capacitive or inductance
published in November 1979 () ST.
Operation reactance will be zero and the antenna in
Significant features of this instrument in-
The resistance dial is calibrated directly question is a long way from that mark.
clude areactance measurement range of 0
in ohms, but the capacitance dial is cali- Since the antenna looks capacitive it is too to 350 ohms ( inductive or capacitive) at 10
brated in picofarads of capacitance. The short and wire should be added to each
MHz, aresistance range of 0to 300 ohms,
+ C half of the dial indicates that the load side of the antenna. An approximation of
auseful frequency range of at least 1to 54
is capacitive, and the — C portion is for how much wire to add can be made by
MHz, and the ability to withstand any
inductive loads. To find the reactance of tuning the receiver higher in frequency un-
legal amateur power level. The 01B has
the load when the capacitance reading is til a point is reached where the bridge
very little insertion effect, so it can be per-
positive, the dial setting must be applied nulls with the capacitance dial at zero.
manently installed in a transmission line
to the standard capacitive reactance The percentage difference between this
for continuous monitoring. The total cost
formula: new frequency and the desired frequency
of components ( all new) for this project
indicates the approximate amount that the was under 540 in 1980.
X = antenna should be lengthened. The same
2nfC system will work if the antenna has been Design Information
cut too long. In this case the capacitance
The standing- wave pattern on the
The result will be acapacitive reactance. dial would have nulled in the — C region,
"through" transmission line of the direc-
Inductance values corresponding to indicating an inductive reactance. This
tional coupler appears at reduced
negative capacitance dial readings may be procedure will work for most any
amplitude on the " pickup" line. If the
taken from the graph of Fig. 70. The reac- antenna.
coupler is symmetrical, the voltage and
tance is then found from the formula
current on the pickup line exhibit the same
AN OPERATING IMPEDANCE
phase relationship as those on the through
X = 2nfL BRIDGE FOR 160 TO 6 METERS
line. " Box constant" tabs allow the
The instrument described in this section coupling coefficient at each end of the line
When using the bridge remember that is an rf bridge combined with adirectional to be adjusted for symmetry. Setting the
the instrument measures the impedance of coupler. Loose coupling ( approximately reactance and resistance in the bridge cir-
loads as connected at the UNKNOWN ter- 100 dB) allows the load impedance to be cuit equal to the load values ( at the OIB
minal. This means that the actual load to characterized at high power levels. output connector) causes the voltage at
be measured must be directly at the con- Another advantage of this scheme is the midpoint of the pickup line to null.
nector rather than being attached to the relative immunity to erroneous readings One end of the pickup line has a fixed
bridge by alength of coaxial cable. Even a caused by external fields, such as those "standard" capacitor. The variable
short length of cable will transform the generated by local broadcast stations. An capacitor is adjusted so that it, in com-
load impedance to some other value. operating impedance bridge ( 01B) is par- bination with the reactance coupled from
Unless the electrical length of line is ticularly useful for analyzing impedances the load, balances the reactance of the
known and taken into account, it is that vary with the applied power. Many standard. Since capacitive and inductive
necessary to place the bridge at the load. amateur power amplifiers exhibit this reactances of equal magnitude simply
An exception to this would be if the anten- characteristic. The 01B principle is cause opposite phase shifts, the bridge can
na were to be matched to the patented by Delta Electronics, Inc., but measure either type of reactance by inter-
characteristic impedance of the cable. In that company has granted amateurs per- changing the fixed and variable
this case the bridge controls may be preset mission to duplicate this unit for private capacitors.
for 50-ohms resistance and 0-pF use. The bridge pictured in Fig. 73, built Because of the low coupling coefficient,
capacitance. With the bridge placed at any by Robert Luetzow, K9ZLU, is an im- the signal must be amplified to provide a

16-36 Chapter 16
 PICK UP BOX
EXCEPT PS INDICATED. DECIMAL VALUES or
CAPACITANCE ARE IN MICROFANAD6 Ipr 1 ;
JI INPUT 1
OTHERS ARE IN PICOFARADS ( pF OR ,p.pF);
RESISTANCES ARE IN OHMS ;
k I000, M.I 000 000,

SM. SILVER MICA

EXTERNAL DETECTOR

10k It:1k

R14
100k
RF GAIN
R6 75k
•
C6 R10
R3 330 RFC 1
C4 2.5mH

62 Pr
1N82 • R12 1k
ECG112
SM RSET

500 )1
f R2 0 001 D1
1 C9
eVV\i, /- 77 R9

500
10k 0.01 Rn 27k
R5
NOTES:

1. POTENTIOMETER HOUSING IS NOT GROUNDED

/ / /
C7
(SEE TEXT)
0.01 C13
2. BOX CONSTANT TAB ( 2 PLACES) 4.7yF
}tA
Pe'« 16 V
0.01
'Hi
ECG222
3N211 / / +C1I • 0-50 +
40673 Cl2

01) o
Fig. 74 - Schematic diagram of the operating impedance bridge.
3N187
Cl - 0 to 14-pF air trimmer.
C2 - 6 to 60-pF mica trimmer.
C3 - 365-pF broadcast- radio tuning capacitor ( Calectro A1-227 OFF
or equiv.) with 6 rotor plates removed.
J1, J2 - Uhf female coaxial connector - SO- 239.
J3 - BNC or RCA phono ( female) connector, as available.
M1 - O to 50 ufii dc microammeter ( Radio Shack 270-1751).
RA - Hot- molded carbon potentiometer, 500 0, 2 W, log taper. BT1 9V 872 9V
R1, R2, RSET, R13 - Tc - mount trimmer potentiometers.
R14 - Potentiometer, 100 ke with dpdt switch ( Radio Shack 271-216).

useful meter indication. Q I serves as a minute" epoxy. Rough the unclad sur-
broadband preamplifier. The rf is rec- faces with sandpaper before joining them.
tified by DI, which is followed by a dc A view of the 01B, with the pickup box
amplifier, UI . An agc loop ( augmented by elements exposed, is presented in Fig. 75.
a manual gain control) from the op-amp The components are soldered directly to
the front panel. Line drawings for the
output to gate 2or Q Iallows sensitive low
power null indications while keeping the pickup box are given in Fig. 76. Careful
readings on the meter scale during high- work on this assembly will be rewarded by
power operation. This null-detector cir- an accurate, well-performing instrument.
cuit functions well with as little as two The copper and brass stock can be ob-
watts of drive. The amplifier has no selec- tained at ahobby or model-airplane shop.
tivity, so the driving signal must be spec- The rear of the panel can be seen in
trally pure if true sharp nulls are to be ob- Fig. 77. Connections from the pickup line
tained. Fig. 74 contains the complete to the bridge and detector circuits are
schematic diagram for the operating im- made via solder lugs under the pickup line
pedance bridge. More comprehensive 01B supporting screws. These screws are in-
theory is presented in the QST article and sulated from the front panel with nylon
by Wright in " Unique Bridge Measures shoulder washers. To retain simplicity
Antenna Operating Impedance," Elec- with high performance, the aesthetics of
tronics, February 23, 1963. the bridge circuit must be compromised in
favor of minimum stray capacitance. For
Fig. 75 — The 01B with the pickup- box cover
Construction this reason, an open-air construction
removed. Brass 6-32 nuts soldered into the
technique is employed here. Short, stiff
Three major assemblies comprise the pickup box side flanges allow the cover to be
attached with machine screws. leads prevent mechanical (and attendant
01B: The directional coupler or " pickup
box," the impedance bridge and the null electrical) instability. The RI, R2, RA and
It set control should be good quality hot-
detector. Copper-clad pc board is the
inch ( 1.5 mm) single-clad pc board molded or ceramic-metal potentiometers
principal building material. All of the
measuring 5 x 7inches ( 127 x 178 mm). to ensure low contact noise. The C„,
components are fastened to the front
panel, which is adouble thickness of 1/16 The two pieces are bonded with " five- capacitor is a mica trimmer, and the XA

Test Equipment and Measurements 16.37

 0.140
II
- 1
41 0.375

0.937

t
0 375
0.140

0 750

0.375

0.750
Fig. 77 — Rear view of the 01B front- panel
0.750 -4.1 0.375 assembly. Mechanical rigidity and symmetry in
the bridge circuit is essential to proper
1.50 0 •••. performance.

(B) (
4 REQUIRED)

(A) ( 2 REQUIRED)
to zero. Connect a dummy load to the
PICKUP BOX SIDE SUPPORT
output port. Next, apply some rf power
PICKUP BOX END PLATE MATERIAL: SAME AS ( A)
and balance the bridge with the XA
MATERIAL: DOUBLE SIDED
capacitor set to approximately 20 pF,
COPPER CLAD CIRCUIT BOARD
which corresponds to the zero mark on
the reactance dial. A reduced dial escut-
0.375
cheon is shown in Fig. 80. A full-scale
0.375
template that can be pasted on the front
2.625
panel is available from ARRL. The bridge
1.500
is in abalanced condition when aresistive
(D) (2 REQUIRED) load of 20 to 50 ohms is measured, and
(C) ( 2 REQUIRED) PICKUP BOX SIDE FLANGE the L/C switch can be toggled without dis-
MATERIAL: SAME AS ( A) turbing the null reading. This null condi-
PICKUP BOX TOP FLANGE
MATERIAL: SAME AS ( Al
tion is found by adjusting the Xset
capacitor and CI while toggling the L/C
C- 0.062 DIA BRASS
FRONT PANEL switch. When the bridge is balanced this
D-0.031 DM BRASS
way, the zero- reactance reading is valid
only for the particular connector or leads
used to connect the load. If the connect-
ing arrangement is changed, the bridge
must be rebalanced. Furthermore, when
measuring a high resistive load, the
capacitive reactance is much more ap-
parant. A reactance reading of zero is
0.250 SLOT./ A > ,
frequency-independent, so this adjust-
TO CLEAR
NYLON
BOX ment can be made using the station
6-32 SCREW CONSTANT
transmitter to supply power. Non- zero
1250
WASHERS
TAB
(6 PLACES)
reactances are calibrated at 10 MHz. A
(2 PLACES)
(E) (2 REQUIRED)
well- filtered crystal oscillator as the signal
6-32 X 3/4 FLAT HD ( 3PLACES)
BOX CONSTANT TAB source, and areceiver as the indicator pro-
A.0 450 B.0.450
MATERIAL , BRASS OR COPPER
vides agood calibration set-up.
(F) PICKUP BOX After the zero adjustment is completed,
LAYOUT connect a capacitive reactance of 200
ohms to the bridge output and adjust the
box- constant tabs over the ends of the
Fig. 76 — Mechanical drawings for the 016 pickup box. Dimensions are in inches ( mm = in. x pickup line so the zero and 200-ohms set-
25.4).
tings match the dial calibration. Both tabs
must be adjusted. If the tabs aren't
located symmetrically with respect to the
transmission lines, the instrument will
capacitor is a broadcast- band- receiver used to secure the insulated shaft to the display unequal readings for inductive and
replacement unit having semicircular potentiometer. capacitive reactances of equal magnitude.
plates. Six plates must be removed. If Figs. 78 and 79 are the parts-placement A capacitive reactance other than 200
other plate profiles are used, the dial guide and etching pattern for the null ohms can be used, but remember that the
escutcheon must be calibrated empirical- detector pc board. The board can be at- capacitances of the connectors and leads
ly. The RA potentiometer housing is tached to the front panel with lugs must be included. A good check on the
floated above ground to reduce the stray soldered to the ground foil. proper setting of the tabs is to obtain a
capacitance. Mounting the component on
null, transpose the input and output con-
an insulating plate, spaced from the Calibration and Operation
nections and set the L/C switch to induc-
panel, accomplishes this objective. To The first step in calibrating the 01B is tance. The instrument should stay nulled.
avoid hand-capacitance effects, the con- to zero the null-detector circuit with no The resistance dial is easier to calibrate.
trol shaft must be insulated. Epoxy was signal applied. Adjust R13 to set the meter First, adjust the RA potentiometer so that

16-38 Chapter 16
 9V

9V
Fig. 80 — Reduced dial escutcheon for the
0113. Send s.a.s.e. to ARRL for full-scale
template.

INPUT Ml

Fig. 78 — Parts- placement guide for the 0113 null detector pc board. The component side is shown
with an X-ray view of the copper foil. R10 is mounted with short leads on the foil side.

1 00 ram00 Fig. 81 — Exterior view of the signal

e
generators suitable for use in receiver perfor-
mance measurements. Each uses an 0E-10
oscillator available from International Crystal
Mfg. Co., Inc.

Fig. 79 — Full-scale etching pattern for the OIB null detector pc board. The foil side is shown;
black represents copper.

.1•111

urea.

about 85 percent of its resistance is be- velocity factor of the cable. As the
tween R1and the wiper of RA .Terminate operating frequency is increased, the ef-
the pickup box with a shorted connector, fect of the pickup box becomes greater.
and with RI set to midrange, adjust the One must add half the length of the
12„ 1control for anull indication. This null pickup box to the total length of the
transmission line used between the bridge Fig. 82 — Interior view of one of the signal
indication locates the zero mark for the
generators. To the right of the oscillator
resistance dial. Now adjust the R control and the load. module is the 7-element Chebyshev low-pass
to 200 ohms ( as indicated by the dial), and When this operating impedance bridge filter network. Notice the use of the feed-
with a 200-ohm resistive load terminating is used in an rf power transmission line, through capacitor with additional low-
high voltages may appear on the unit if frequency bypassing for the dc lead.
the pickup box, adjust RI for null indica-
tion. The X A control will need to be re- the coax shield is broken, disconnected or
adjusted to balance the load capacitance. improperly grounded to the total
R2 is used to readjust the zero setting of transmitting system. Antenna currents on
the R dial at higher frequencies. the shield, caused by an unbalanced con- measuring receiver intermodulation per-
The controls will have to be readjusted dition at the load, are another possible formance. A spectral photograph of the
several times to secure accurate readings source of high voltage on the case. Always output of the oscillator and 7-element
from the R and X dials. There is alittle in- be alert to these situations to avoid rf low-pass filter is shown in Fig. 84.
teraction between the R and X calibrating burns. The oscillator assemblies are housed in
controls, but the box constant tabs are the chassis made from double-sided circuit-
SIGNAL GENERATORS FOR board material. The circuit- board panels
only controls that greatly affect both the
RECEIVER TESTING are soldered along each seam to construct
resistance and reactance settings. After
the calibration is completed, the box- Here are two simple signal generators an " rf-tight" enclosure. This reduces the
constant tabs should be soldered in place. that can be used for receiver performance amount of leakage from the box, which is
Since the 01B is calibrated at 10 MHz, a measurements. Since many receiver tests important when measuring the receiver
correction must be made to the reactance can be carried out at a fixed frequency or noise floor. A feedthrough type of
dial reading when operating at other fre- frequencies, two International Crystal capacitor with additional low- frequency
Mfg. Co., Inc. 0E-10 oscillators make bypassing is used to feed dc to the
quencies. All one need do is express the
operating frequency as a multiple of 10 simple yet effective generators. The units oscillator. This is shown in the schematic
MHz and multiply the dial reading by that described here were designed for 14.040 diagram and accompanying photographs.
and 14.060 MHz and each provides an Reactance values for the filter are shown
number.
When alength of cable is used between output power of — 5 dBm. A 7-pole in Table 5 so that filters may be con-
the OIB and the load, the cable will act as Chebyshev low-pass filter is contained in structed for any frequency range. The
an impedance transformer unless it is each oscillator assembly since the har- nearest standard-value capacitor is suffi-
perfectly matched to the load. Therefore, monics of the oscillator alone are down cient.
graphical or analytical methods must be only 10 to 30 dB up through the 9th har- Since the output of these generators is
monic. This magnitude of harmonic at a fixed level, it is assumed the user will
used to determine the actual load im
eneigy will cause significant errors when use a step attenuator to lower the output
pedance. Don't forget to consider the
Test Equipment and Measurements 16 39
 Fig. 84 — Spectral display of the output from
one of the signal generators. Each vertical divi-
sion represents 10 dB and each horizontal divi-
sion is 10 MHz. The second harmonic is 55 dB
below the main signal and the third harmonic
is some 68 dB down. Higher-order harmonics
are not visible in this photograph.
Fig. 83 — Schematic diagram of the signal generator assembly. Reactance values for the filter
components are given in Table 5. From this information, filters can be built for any frequency
range which the user may need.

level to appropriate values. Construc- precision resistors ( or matched units from

tional information on step attenuators the junk box) should be used. The circuit
can be found elsewhere in this chapter. diagram for the combiners is shown in
Fig. 86. Fig. 85 — Exterior view of two hybrid com-
A Hybrid Combiner for Signal Generators
biners. The one on the left is designed to cover
Many receiver performance measure- A Low-Power Step Attenuator the 1to 50 MHz range; the one on the right 50
ments require two signal generators to be to 500 MHz.
Described here is a simple low- power
attached simultaneously to a receiver. A step attenuator suitable for receiver front-
combiner that isolates the two signal end protection, and as a calibrated at- GENERATOR " A"

generators is necessary to keep one tenuator for receiver performance evalua-

50A
50

generator from being frequency- or phase- tion. This attenuator uses double-pole,
modulated by the other. The combiners double-throw toggle switches to select dif-
described here provide 40 to 50 dB of ferent amounts of attenuation. Coaxial
isolation between ports while attenuating fittings are used at each end of the at- 50

the desired signal paths ( each input to out- tenuator.

OUTPUT
put) by 6 dB. A second feature of these This unit provides 0-147 dB of attenua- 50A

combiners is that of maintaining the tion in 1- dB steps. Careful attention must

50-ohm impedance of the system — very be paid to circuit layout, with good
important if accurate measurements are to shielding between each of the attenuator
50
GENERATOR " B"

be made. sections being essential. A suitable

50A

The combiners are constructed in small enclosure can be made from double-sided,
boxes made from double-sized, circuit- printed- circuit board material with in-
board material. Each piece is soldered to dividual compartments for each section. HYBRID COMBINER
the adjacent one along the entire length of The resistances shown in Fig. 87 are the
the seam. This makes for an " rf-tight" nearest standard values to those
enclosure. BNC coaxial fittings are used Fig. 86 — Schematic diagram of the hybrid
resistances appearing in Tables 6 and 7. combiners. For the 1to 50 MHz model. Ti is 10
on the units shown. However, any type of Although some of the values are a few turns no. 30 bifilar wound on an FT-23-72 ferrite
coaxial connector can be used. Leads ohms off, they should be more than ac- core. For the 50 to 500 MHz model, Ti consists
must be kept as short as possible and ceptable for amateur work. of 10 turns no. 30 bilfilar wire wound on an
FT-23-63 ferrite core. Keep all leads as short as
possible when constructing these units.

10B 2d9 4 dB 8 dB 12 dB 20dB 00aB 60 dB

— T T

F - 1 F — U F - 1) OUTPUT
.12
\D \D--
54

22

51

Fig. 87 — Schematic diagram of the 0 to 147 dB step attenuator. Resistance values for other amounts of attenuation are given in Tables 6 and 7.
St-S8 are dpdt toggle switches.

16-40 Chapter 16
 hybrid coupler of this kind is an
Table 5 HP- 8721A.
Filter Reactance Values The signal generators used in the test
Inductance and capacitance values normalized to 1MHz for the 7-element Chebyshev low-pass filter. setup must be calibrated accurately in
Values for 0.1 and 1dB ripple are given. For filters at other cut-off frequencies, simply divide the nor- dBm or microvolts. The generators should
malized values by the desired frequency in MHz. ha% eextremely low leakage. That is, when
the output of the generator is discon-
Ll L2 L3 L4 Cl C2 C3 nected, no signal should be detected at the
(0.1 dB ripple) 9.4 16 68 16.68 9.4 4529 5008 4529 operating frequency with a sensitive
(1 dB ripple) 17.24 24.62 24.62 17.24 252.7 266.8 252.7 receiver. Ideally, at least one of the signal
Inductance values are in baH and capacitance values are in pF.
generators should be capable of amplitude
modulation. A suitable lab-quality piece
would be the HP-8640B.
While most signal generators are
Table 6 Table 7 calibrated in terms of microvolts, the real
concern is not with the voltage from the
Pi- Network Resistive Attenuator T- Network Resistive Attenuator
generator but with the power available.
dB Atten. R1 (Ohms) R2 (Ohms) dB Atten. R1 (Ohms) R2 (Ohms) The fundamental unit of power is the
1 870.0 5.8 1 2.9 433.3 watt. However, the unit which is used for
2 436.0 11.6 2 5.7 215.2 most low-level rf work is the milliwatt,
3 292.0 17.6 3 8.5 141.9 and power is often specified in dB with
4 221.0 23.8 4 11.3 104.8
respect to one milliwatt ( dBm). Hence, a0
5 178.6 30.4 5 14.0 82.2
6 150.5 37.3 6 16.6 66.9 dBm would be one milliwatt. The dBM
7 130.7 44.8 7 19.0 55.8 level, in a50 ohm load, can be calculated
8 116.0 52.8 8 21.5 47.3 with the aid of the following equation
9 105.0 61.6 9 23.8 40.6
10 96.2 71.2 10 26.0 35.0
11 89.2 81.6 11 28.0 30.6 dBm = 10 Log io [ 20(V Rms )
11

12 83.5 93.2 12 30.0 26.8

13 78.8 106.0 13 31.7 23.5 where dBm is the power with respect to
14 74.9 120.3 14 33.3 20.8
15 71.6 136.1 15 35.0 18.4
one milliwatt and V is the rms voltage
16 68.8 153.8 16 36.3 16.2 available at the output of the signal
17 66.4 173.4 17 37.6 14.4 generator.
18 64.4 195.4 18 38.8 12.8
The convenience of alogarithmic power
19 62.6 220.0 19 40.0 11.4
20 61.0 247.5 20 41.0 10.0
unit like the dBm becomes apparent when
21 59.7 278.2 21 41.8 9.0 signals are amplified or attenuated. For
22 58.6 312.7 22 42.6 8.0 example, a - 107-dBm signal that is ap-
23 57.6 351.9 23 43.4 7.1 plied to an amplifier with again of 20 dB
24 56.7 394.6 24 44.0 6.3
25 56.0 443.1 25 44.7 5.6
will result in an output of - 107 dBm +
30 53.2 789.7 30 47.0 3.2 20 dB, or - 87 dBm. Similarly, a - 107-
35 51.8 1405.4 35 48.2 1.8 dBm signal which is applied to an at-
40 51.0 2500.0 40 49.0 1.0 tenuator with aloss of 10 dB will result in
45 50.5 4446.0 45 49.4 0.56
50 50.3 7905.6 50 49.7 0.32
an output of - 107 dBm - 10 dB, or
55 50.2 14,058.0 55 49.8 0.18 - 117 dBm.
60 50.1 25,000.0 60 49.9 0.10
Noise-Floor Measurement
R2
A generator that is tuned to the same
frequency as the receiver is used for this
RI RI test. Output from the generator is in-
creased until the ac voltmeter at the audio-
output jack of the receiver shows a 3-dB
increase. This measurement indicates the
minimum discernable signal ( NIDS) which
could be detected with the receiver. This
Measuring Receiver Performance required, along with ahybrid combiner, a level is defined as that which will produce
step attenuator and an ac voltmeter. A the same audio-output power as the interfl
Comparing the performance of one hybrid combiner is essentially a unit with nally generated receiver noise. Hence, the
receiver to another is difficult at best. The three ports. The device is used to combine term " noise floor." As ahypothetical ex-
features of one receiver may outweigh a the signals from apair of generators. This ample, say the output of the signal genera-
second, even though its performance box has the characteristic that signals ap- tor is - 127 dBm, the loss through the
under strong- signal conditions is not as plied at ports 1or 2appear at port 3, and combiner is fixed at 6dB and the step at-
good as it should be. Although the final are attenuated by 6dB. However, asignal tenuator is set to 4 dB. The equivalent
decision on which receiver to own will from port I is attenuated 30 or 40 dB noise floor can then be calculated as
more than likely be based on personal when sampled at port 2. Similarly, signals follows:
pi eference, there: arc ways to compare applied at port 2 are isolated from port 1
Noise floor = - 127 dBin - 6dB - 4dD
receiver performance characteristics. The some 30 to 40 dB. The isolating properties
= - 137 dBm
most important parameters are noise of the box prevent one signal generator
floor, intermodulation distortion, block- from being frequency- or phase- where noise floor is the power available at
ing ( gain compression) and cross modula- modulated by the other. A second feature the receiver antenna terminal, the - 6dB
tion. of ahybrid combiner is that a50-ohm im- is the loss through the coupler and - 4dB
The general test setup is mown in rig. pedance level is maintained throughout is the loss through the attenuator. Refer to
88. Two calibrated signal generators are the system. A commercial example of a Fig. 89.

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-41

 (!
50",

SIGNAL
GENERATOR
),5Ort
•
et1

t- 7 - 7

3 5on.
RECEIVER
HYBRID STEP AUDIO
COMBINER ) ATTENUATOR
UNDER
VOLTMETER
TEST

SOIL

SIGNAL Fig. 88 — General test setup used for

GENERATOR
evaluating receiver performance. Two signal
generators (calibrated), a hybrid combiner, a
step attenuator and an audio voltmeter are re-
quired for the measurements.

Blocking
This measurement concerns gain com-
pression. Both signal generators are used.
GENERATOR
One is set for a weak signal of roughly Al

— 110 dBm and the receiver is tuned to - 127 dBrn

- 137 013.A
AT RECEIVER
- dB
this frequency. The other generator is set -6 dB INPUT

to a frequency 20 kHz away and is in- HYBRID RECEIVER

STEP AUDIO
creased in amplitude until the receiver COMBINER ATTENuATOR
UNDER
TEST VOLTMETER

output drops by 1dB, as measured with

the ac voltmeter. A blocking measurement NO OUTPUT

is indicative of the signal level that can be GENERATOR

tolerated at the receiver antenna terminal

.72

before desensitization will occur.

As an example, say that the output of
the generator is — 27 dBm, the loss
Fig. 89 — General test setup for measuring receiver noise floor Signal levels for a hypothetical
through the combiner is fixed at 6dB and measurement are indicated. See text for a detailed discussion.
there is 0-dB attenuation through the at-
tenuator (effectively switched out of the
line). See Fig. 90. The signal level at the
receiver terminal that will cause gain com- GENERATOR
NO
pression is calculated as follows:
-110 dB ," -33 dBrn
OAR AT RECEIVER

Blocking level = — 27 dBm — 6dB INPUT

= — 33 dBm RECEIVER
HYBRID STEP AUDIO
COMBINER UNDER
AT TENUATOR VOLTMETER
TEST
This can be expressed as dynamic range 6 B

when this level is referenced to the receiver

-27 den,
noise floor that was calculated earlier.
GENERATOR
This term can be called " receiver blocking NO 2

dynamic range," Calculate as follows:

Blocking dynamic range
= noise floor — blocking level Fig. 90 — Test setup for measuring receiver blocking performance. Again, signal levels for a
hypothetical measurement are included on the drawing.
= — 137 dBm — ( — 33 dBm)
= — 104 dB
receiver. It is a measure of the range of Two signals of equal level spaced 20
This value is usually taken in terms of ab- signals that can be tolerated while pro- kHz apart are injected into the input of
solute value and would be referred to as ducing essentially no undesired spurious the receiver. Call the frequencies Fl and
104 dB. responses. It is generally a conservative F2. The so-called third-order intermodu-
evaluation for other effects, such as lation-distortion products will appear at
Two- Tone ¡MD Test
blocking, which will occur only for signals frequencies of ( 2F 1- F2) and ( 2F 2-F1).
This figure is one of the most significant well outside the IMD dynamic range of Assume that the two input frequencies are
parameters that can be specified for a the receiver. 14.040 and 14.060 MHz. The third-order

16-42 Chapter 16
 GENERA , GR

-10 dB.

- 56 dB.

-6 dB - -40 dB - - AT RECEIVER
INPUT ( PER TONE)

Fig. 91 — Receiver IMD performance test

RECEIVER
RYBF,D STEP
UNDER
AUDIO setup. Signal levels for a hypothetical
COMB'NE_R ATTENUATOR VOLTMETER
'ES ,
measurement are given. A detailed discussion
of this measurement is given in the text.
- 6dB

-10 dB.
GENERATCR

•••(
DYNAMIC RANGE

Fig. 92 — This graph displays the performance

of a hypothetical (though typical) receiver
81 dB under test. The noise floor is — 137 dBm,
IMD ---
DYNAMIC RANGE blocking level is — 33 dBm and the IMD level is
— 56 dBm. This corresponds to a receiver
blocking dynamic range of 104 dB and an IMD
dynamic range of 81 dB.

- 174 cœrn - 137d9 - 56 clEirn - 33 dEirn OdBm

(NOISE FLOOR) (IMO LEVEL) (BLOCKING
LEVEL)

products will be at 14.020 and 14.080 when this level is referenced to the noise The noise floor of the hypothetical
MHz. floor. This term is referred to as " IMD receiver is drawn in at — 137 dBm, the
The step attenuator will be useful in this dynamic range" and can be calculated IMD level ( the level at which signals will
experiment. Adjust the two generators for begin to create spurious responses) at
an output of — 10 dBm each at fre- IMD dynamic range — 56 dBm and the blocking level (the leyel
quencies spaced 20 kHz. Tune the receiver noise floor — IM level at which signals will begin to desense the
to either of the third-order IMD products. — 137 dBm — ( — 56 dBm) receiver) at — 33 dBm. As can be seen, the
Adjust the step attenuator until the IMD = — 81 dB IMD dynamic range is some 23 dB smaller
product produces an output 3 dB above Therefore, the IMD dynamic range of this than the blocking dynamic range. This
the noise level as read on the ac voltmeter. receiver would be 81 dB. means that IMD products will be heard
For an example, say the output of the across the band long before the receiver
generator is — 10 dBm, the loss through Evaluating the Data will begin to desense — some 23 dB
the combiner is 6 dB and the amount of Thus far afair amount of data has been sooner.
attenuation used is 40 dB. See Fig. 91. The gathered with no mention of what the The figures for the hypothetical receiver
signal level at the receiver antenna ter- numbers really mean. It is somewhat represent those which would be expected
minal that just begins to cause IMD prob- easier to understand exactly what is hap- from a typical communications receiver
lems is calculated as: pening by arranging the data in a form on the market today. It is interesting to
something like that in Fig. 92. The base note that it is possible for the home con-
IMD level = — 10 dBm — 6dB — 40 dB structor to build a receiver that will
line is just a power line with a very small
= — 56 dBm outperform commercially available units
level of power at the left and a high level
This can be expressed as adynamic range (0 dBm) at the right. (even the high-priced ones).

Test Equipment and Measurements 16-43

 Chapter 17

Construction Practices
and Data Tables

W hile abetter job can be done with a

variety of tools, by taking alittle care it is
Tapered reamer, T-handlc,
maximum width
1/2- inch will save a lot of time, they arc not essen-
tial.
...- possible to turn out a fine piece of equip- Bench vise, 4- inch jaws or larger
ment with only afew common hand tools. Medium-weight machine oil Twist Drills
A list of tools which are indispensable in Tin shears, 10-inch size Twist drills arc made of either high-
the consjruction of electronic equipment Motor-driven emery wheel for grinding speed steel or carbon steel. The latter type
is found on this page. To convert English Solder, rosin core only is more common and will usually be sup-
dimensions in the list to millimeters, Contact cleaner, liquid or spray can plied unless specific request is made for
multiply inches X 25.4. With these tools Duco cement or equivalent high-speed drills. The carbon drill will suf-
it should be possible to prepare panels and. Electrical tape, vinyl plastic fice for most ordinary equipment con-
metal chassis for assembly and wiring. It Radio-supply houses, mail-order retail struction work and costs less than the
is an excellent idea for the amateur who stores and most hardware stores carry the high-speed type.
builds gear to add to his supply of tools various tools required for building or ser- While twist drills are available in a
from time to time as finances permit. vicing amateur radio equipment. While number of sizes, those listed in bold type
power tools (electric drill or drill press, in Table Iwill be most commonly used in
Recommended Tools and Materials grinding wheel, etc.) are very useful and construction of amateur equipment. It is
Long- nose pliers, 6- and 4- inch
Diagonal cutters, 6- and 4-inch
Combination pliers, 6-inch
Screwdriver, 6- to 7-inch, I/4-inch blade Table 1
Screwdriver, 4- to 5- inch, 1/8- inch blade Numbered Drill Sizes
Phillips screwdriver, 6- to 7-inch
Phillips screwdriver, 3- to 4- inch
Drilled for Drilled for
Long-shank screwdriver with holding clip Diameter Will Clear Tapping from Diameter Will Clear Tapping from
on blade No. (Mils) Screw Steel or Brass No. (Mils) Screw Steel or Brass
Scratch awl or scriber for marking metal 1 228.0 12-24 28 140.0 6-32
Combination square, 12-inch, for layout 2 221.0 29 136.0 8-32
work 3 213.0 14-24 30 128.5
4 209.0 12:20 31 120.0
hand drill, 1/4-inch chuck or larger 5 205.0 32 116.0
Soldering pencil, 30- watt, I/8-inch tip 6 204.0 33 113.0 4:40
Soldering iron, 200-watt, 5/8- inch tip 7 201.0 34 111.0
8 199.0 35 110.0
Hacksaw and 12-inch blades
9 196.0 36 106.5 6-32
Hand nibbling tool, for chassis-hole 10 193.5 37 104.0
cutting 11 191.0 10-24, 10-32 38 101.5
Hammer, ball- peen 1-1b. head 12 189.0 39 099.5 3-48
Heavy-duty jackknife 13 185.0 40 098.0
14 182.0 41 096.0
File set, flat, round, half-round, and 15 180.0 42 093.5
triangular. Large and miniature types 16 '177.0 12:24 43 089.0 4-40
recommended. 17 173.0 44 086.0 2-56
18 169.5 45 082.0
High-speed drill bits, no. 60 through 3/8-
19 166.0 8-32 12-20 46 081.0
inch diameter. 20 161.0 • 47 078.5 3-48
Set of " Spintite" socket wrenches for hex 21 159.0 10-32 48 076.0
nuts 22 157.0 49 073.0
Adjustable wrenches, 6- and 10-inch 23 154.0 • 50 070.0 2-56
24 152.0 51 067.0
Machine-screw taps, 4-40 through 10-32 25 149.5 10 24 52 063.5
thread 26 147.0 • 53 059.5
Socket punches, 1/2", 5/8", 3/4", 27 144.0 54 055.0
l-1/8", 1-1/4", and 1-1/2"

17-1 Chapter 17
 Fig. 2 — View of the chassis underside with
Fig. 1 — A compact assembly of commonly available items, this, soldering station sanitizes the the bottom plate removed. No. 24 hookup wire
electronics assembly process. Miniature toggle switches are used because of the minimal force is adequate for all connections. Use sleeving
required to manipulate them. The force required to operate standard-size switches could wherever the possibility of a short circuit ex-
destabilize the unit. ists. The diode may be installed in either direction.

usually desirable to purchase several of should be filed until smooth and bright, chased in quantities of agross. Many of
each of the commonly used sizes rather and then tinned immediately by dipping it the radio-supply stores sell small quan-
than astandard set, most of which will be in solder. Most modern soldering iron tips tities and assortments that come in handy.
used infrequently, if at all. are iron-clad and cannot be filed.
Although Table 1 lists drills down to A Deluxe Soldering Station
no. 54, the series extends to no. 80. No. 68 Useful Materials The simple device shown on this page
and no. 70 are useful for drilling printed- Small stocks of various miscellaneous can enhance the versatility and longevity
circuit boards for component leads. materials will be required in constructing of a soldering iron as well as make elec-
radio apparatus. Most of these are tronic assembly more convenient. Fig. 1
Care of Tools available from hardware or radio-supply depicts the obvious convenience features
The proper care of tools is not only a stores. A representative list follows: — aprotective heat sink and cage, and a
matter of pride to agood worker. He also Sheet aluminum, solid and perforated, tip-cleaning sponge rigidly attached to a
recognizes the energy saved and the an- 16 or 18 gauge, for brackets and shielding. sturdy base for efficient one-handed
noyance avoided by possessing afull kit of 1/2 x 1/2-inch ( 12 x 13-mm) alumi- operation. Inside the chassis are some
well-kept, sharp-edged tools. num angle stock. electrical refinements that justify the
Drills should be sharpened at frequent 1/4-inch (6-mm) diameter round brass sophisticated name " soldering station."
intervals so that grinding is kept at a or aluminum rod for shaft extensions. Soldering iron tips and heating elements
minimum each time. This makes it easier Machine screws: Round-head and flat last longer if operated at lower-than-
to maintain the rather critical surface head, with nuts to fit. Most useful sizes: maximum temperature when idling. Many
angles required for best cutting with least 4-40, 6-32 and 8-32, in lengths from solder connections can be made satisfac-
wear. Occasional oilstoning of the cutting 1/4-inch (6-mm) to 1-1/2 inches (38 mm). torily with reduced heat, and some small
edges of adrill or reamer will extend the (Nickel-plated iron will be found satisfac- semiconductor devices require lower
time between grindings. tory except in strong rf fields, where brass temperatures to avoid junction damage.
The soldering iron can be kept in good should be used.) In the unit described here temperature
condition by keeping the tip well tinned Bakelite, Lucite, polystyrene and reduction is accomplished by halving the
with solder and not allowing it to run at copper-clad pc-board scraps. duty cycle of the applied ac voltage. DI in
full voltage for long periods when it is not Soldering lugs, panel bearings, rubber Fig. 3conducts only when the "hot" ac
being used. After each period of use, the grommets, terminal-lug wiring strips, line is positive with respect to neutral. If
tip should be removed and cleaned of any varnished-cambric insulating tubing, heat- the diode were reversed, the soldering iron
scale which may have accumulated. An shrinkable tubing. would be heated only on the negative half
oxidized tip may be cleaned by dipping it Shielded and unshielded wire. cycles, but the result would be the same.
in sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) Tinned bare wire, nos. 22, 14 and 12. (This is one of the rare applications of rec-
while hot and then wiping it clean with a Machine screws, nuts, washers, solder- tifier diodes where the polarity is not im-
rag. If a copper tip becomes pitted it ing lugs, etc., are most reasonably pur - portant.) With current flowing only in one

Construction Practices and Data Tables 17-2

 the job. When all details are worked out
beforehand the actual construction is
greatly simplified.
Cover the top of the chassis with apiece
of wrapping paper, or, preferably, cross-
section paper, folding the edges down
over the sides of the chassis and fastening
with adhesive tape. Then assemble the
parts to be mounted on top of the chassis
and move them about until asatisfactory
arrangement has been found, keeping in
mind any parts which are to be mounted
underneath, so interference in mounting
can be avoided. Place capacitors and
other parts with shafts extending through
the panel first, and arrange them so that
the controls will form the desired pattern
of the panel. Be sure to line up the shafts
Fig. 3 — Schematic diagram of the soldering station. D1 is a silicon power rectifier, 1-A, 400-PRV.
squarely with the chassis front. Locate
Si and S2 are miniature spst toggle switches rated 3A at 125 V. This circuit is satisfactory for
use with irons having power ratings up to 100 W. any partition shields and panel brackets
next, and then the tube sockets and any
other parts, marking the mounting-hole
direction, only one electrode of the neon into the electrical components below the centers of each accurately on the paper.
bulb will appear to glow. Closing SI chassis. RTV compound was used for this Watch out for capacitors whose shafts are
short-circuits the diode and applies full purpose in the unit pictured. off center and do not line up with the
power to the soldering iron, igniting both Purchase aseparate 3-wire cord for the mounting holes. Do not forget to mark
bulb electrodes brightly. power input. Merely splicing the soldering the centers of socket holes and holes for
CMOS ICs are prone to damage by station into the existing soldering iron wiring leads. The small holes for socket-
static charges, so they should be soldered cord will shorten the operating radius of mounting screws are best located and
with an iron having agrounded tip. This the iron and make it awkward to use. center-punched, using the socket itself as
requirement is fulfilled by most irons Heyco bushings were used to anchor both atemplate, after the main center hole has
having 3-wire power cords. Unfortu- cords in the unit described, but if these been cut.
nately, agrounded tip precludes using the aren't available, grommets and cable By means of the square, lines indicating
iron on alive circuit. If the potentials are clamps will work as well. Knotting the accurately the centers of shafts should be
low (less than about 25 volts) and the cords inside the chassis is a simple expe- extended to the chassis front and marked
operator is thoroughly familiar with the dient that sometimes provides adequate on the panel ai the chassis line, the panel
circuit, asoldering iron may facilitate ex- strain relief. being fastened on temporarily. The hole
perimentation or trouble-shooting. This The underchassis assembly is shown in centers may then be punched in the chassis
technique should be used only when com- Fig. 2. The neon bulb is forced through a with the center punch. After drilling, the
plete safety is assured. The simplest way 3/16-inch (5-mm) ID grommet. The leads parts which require mounting underneath
to increase the usefulness of a 3-wire are sleeved to prevent short circuits. If may be located and the mounting holes
soldering iron is to install aswitch in the you mount the bulb in afixture or socket, drilled, making sure by trial that no in-
ground lead. S2 in Fig. 3serves this pur- use a clear lens to ensure that the elec- terferences exist with parts mounted on
pose. Before clipping the cord on your trodes are distinctly visible. Fit acover to top. Mounting holes along the front edge
soldering iron, be certain that the tip is the bottom of the chassis to prevent ac- of the chassis should be transferred to the
common to the ground prong and isolated cidental contact with the live ac wiring. panel by once again fastening the panel to
from the other ac prongs. Stick-on rubber feet will ensure askid- free the chassis and marking it from the rear.
The base for the unit is a 2 x 6 x unit that won't mar your work surface. Next, mount on the chassis the
4-inch (51 x 152 X 102 mm) ( HWD) The total cost of this project with all capacitors and any other parts with shafts
aluminum chassis ( Bud AC-431 or new parts (including sardines) was $28. extending to the panel, and measure ac-
equivalent). An Ungar model 8000 solder- One could trim that figure considerably curately the height of the center of each
ing iron holder fits neatly on the chassis with even a modest junkbox. The solder- shaft above the chassis, as illustrated in
top. The holder has two mounting holes in ing iron, an Ungar model 127, represents Fig. 4. The horizontal displacement of
each foot. A sponge tray nests between half of the investment.
the feet and the cage. In this model asar-
dine tin is used for the sponge tray, Chassis Working
although a suitable watertight enclosure With a few essential tools and proper
can also be fabricated from strips of procedure, building radio gear on ametal
copper-clad circuit-board material. The chassis is a relatively simple matter.
tray and iron holder are secured to the Aluminum is preferred to steel, not only
chassis by 6-32 x 1/2-inch pan head because it is asuperior shielding material,
machine screws and nuts, with flat but because it is much easier to work and
washers under the screw heads (sponge provides good chassis contacts.
tray) and lock washers under the nuts The placement of components on the
(chassis underside). One of these nuts chassis is shown quite clearly in the
fastens a6-lug tie point strip to the chassis photographs in this Handbook. Aside
bottom. Use the soldering iron holder from certain essential dimensions, which
base as atemplate for drilling the chassis usually are given in the text, exact duplica-
and sponge tray. The floor of the sponge tion is not necessary. Fig. 4 — Method of measuring the heights of
capacitor shafts. If the square is adjustable, the
tray must be sealed around the screw Much trouble and energy can be saved end of the scale should be set flush with the face
heads to prevent moisture from leaking by spending sufficient time in planning of the head.

17-3 Chapter 17
 Fig. 6 — Details for forming channel-type heat sinks.

Fig. 5— To cut rectangular holes in achassis

corner, holes may be filed out as shown in the
shaded portion of B, making it possible to start
the hacksaw blade along the cutting line. A
shows how asingle-ended handle may be
constructed for a hacksaw blade.

shafts having already been marked on the

chassis line on the panel, the vertical
displacement can be measured from this
line. The shaft centers may now be marked
on the back of the panel, and the holes
drilled. Holes for any other panel equip-
ment coming above the chassis line tria),,
then be marked and drilled, and the re-
mainder of the apparatus mounted. Holes
for terminals and other parts of the rear
edge of the chassis should be marked and
drilled at the same time that they arc done
for the top.

Drilling and Cutting Holes Fig. 7 — Layout and assembly details of another homemade heat sunk. The completed assembly
can be insulated from the main chassis of the transmitter by using insulating washers.
When drilling holes in metal with a
hand drill it is important that the centers
first be located with a center punch, so
that the drill point will not " walk" away turned to squeeze the punch through the Semiconductor Heat Sinks
from the center when starting the hole. chassis. The threads of the bolt should be Homemade heat sinks can be fashioned
When the drill starts to break through, oiled occasionally. from brass, copper or aluminum stock by
special care must be used. Often it is an Large holes in steel panels or chassis are employing ordinary workshop tools. The
advantage to shift atwo-speed drill to low best cut with an adjustable circle cutter. dimensions of the heat sink will depend
gear at this point. Holes more than Occasional application of machine oil in upon the type of transistor used and the
I/4-inch (6-mm) in diameter should be the cutting groove will help. The cutter amount of heat that must be conducted
started with asmaller drill and reamed out first should be tried out on a block of away from the body of the semiconduc-
with the larger drill. wood, to make sure that it is set for the tor.
The chuck on the usual type of hand right diameter. Fig. 6 shows the order of progression
drill is limited to 1/4-inch (6-mm) drills. The burrs or rough edges which usually for forming a large heat sink from
The 1/4-inch (6-mm) hole may be filed result after drilling or cutting holes may be aluminum or brass channels of near-equal
out to larger diameters with round files. removed with a file, or sometimes more height and depth. The width is lessened in
Another method possible with limited conveniently with asharp knife or chisel. parts B and C so that each channel will fit
tools is to drill aseries of small holes with It is a good idea to keep an old wood into the preceding one as shown in the
the hand drill along the inside of the cir- chisel sharpened and available for this completed model at D. The three pieces
cumference of the large hole, placing the purpose. are bolted together with 8-32 screws and
holes as close together as possible. The nuts. Dimensions given are for illustrative
Rectangular Holes
center may then be knocked out with a purposes only.
cold chisel and the edges smoothed with a Square or rectangular holes may be cut Heat sinks for smaller transistors can be
file. Taper reamers which fit into the out by making a row of small holes as fabricated as shown in Fig. 8. Select adrill
carpenter's brace will make the job easier. previously described, but is more easily bit that is one size smaller than the
A large rat-tail file clamped in the brace done by drilling a 1/2-inch ( 13-mm) hole diameter of the transistor case and form
makes avery good reamer for holes up to inside each corner, as illustrated in Fig. 5, the heat sink from I/16-inch ( 1.6-mm)
the diameter of the file. and using these holes for starting and thick brass, copper or aluminum stock as
For socket holes and other large holes turning the hacksaw. The socket-hole shown in steps A, B and C. Form the
in an aluminum chassis, socket-hole punch and the square punches which are stock around the drill bit by compressing
punches should be used. They require first now available also may be of considerable it in avise (A). The completed heat sink is
drilling aguide hole to pass the bolt that is assistance in cutting out large openings. press- fitted over the body of the semicon-

Construction Practices and Data Tables 17-4

 here. In the example given in Fig. 6, the
grease should be applied between the three
channels before they are bolted together,
as well as between the transistor and the
channel it contacts.

Construction Notes
If a control shaft must be extended or
insulated, a flexible shaft coupling with
adequate insulation should be used.
Satisfactory support for the shaft exten-
sion, as well as electrical contact for
safety, can be provided by means of a
metal panel bearing made for the purpose.
These can be obtained singly for use with
existing shafts, or they can be bought with
a captive extension shaft included. In
either case the panel bearing gives a
"solid" feel to the control. The use of
fiber washers between ceramic insulation
and metal brackets, screws or nuts will
prevent the ceramic parts from breaking.

Cutting and Bending Sheet Metal

If a metal sheet is too large to be cut
Fig. 8 --• Steps used in constructing heat sinks for small transistors.
conveniently with a hacksaw, it may be
marked with scratches as deep as possible
along the line of the cut on both sides of
the sheet, and then clamped in avise and
Table 2 worked back and forth until the sheet
breaks at the line. Do not carry the
Standard Metal Gauges
bending too far until the break begins to
weaken; otherwise the edge of the sheet
Gauge American U.S. Birmingham Gauge American U.S. Birmingham
No. or BS' Standard' or Stubs' No. or BS' Standard' or Stubs'
may become bent. A pair of iron bars or
pieces of heavy angle stock, as long or
1 0.2893 0.28125 0.300 24 0.02010 0.025 0.022
longer than the width of the sheet, to hold
2 0.2576 0.265625 0.284 25 0.01790 0.021875 0.020
3 0.2294 0.25 0.259 26 0.01594 0.01875 0.018 it in the vise, will make the job easier. C
4 0.2043 0.234375 0.238 27 0.01420 0.0171875 0.016 clamps may be used to keep the bars from
5 0.1819 0.21875 0.220 28 0.01264 0.015625 0.014 spreading at the ends. The rough edges
6 0.1620 0.203125 0.203 29 0.01126 0.0140625 0.013
7 0.1443 0.1875 0.180 30 0.01003 0.0125 0.012
may be smoothed with afile or by placing
8 0.1285 0.171875 0.165 31 0.008928 0.0109375 0.010 alarge piece of emery cloth or sandpaper
9 0.1144 0.15625 0.148 32 0.007950 0.01015625 0.009 on aflat surface and running the edge of
10 0.1019 0.140625 0.134 33 0.007080 0.009375 0.008 the metal back and forth over the sheet.
11 0.09074 0.125 0.120 34 0.006350 0.00859375 0.007
Bends may be made similarly.
12 0.08081 0.109375 0.109 35 0.005615 0.0078125 0.005
13 0.07196 0.09375 0.095 36 0.005000 0.00703125 0.004 Today much of the tedium of sheet
14 0.06408 0.078125 0.083 37 0.004453 0.006640626 metal work can be relieved by using
15 0.05707 0.0703125 0.072 38 0.003965 0.00625 copper-clad printed-circuit board material
16 0.05082 0.0625 0.065 39 0.003531
17 0.04526 0.05625 0.058 40 0.003145
wherever possible. Copper-clad stock is
18 0.04030 0.05 0.049 manufactured with phenolic, G-10
19 0.03589 0.04375 0.042 'Used for aluminum, copper, brass and nonfer- fiberglass and Teflon base materials in
20 0.03196 0.0375 0.035 rous alloy sheets, wire and rods.
'Used for iron, steel, nickel and ferrous alloy
thicknesses up to 1/8 inch (3mm). While
21 0.02846 0.034375 0.032
22 0.02535 0.03125 0.028 sheets, wire and rods. it is manufactured in large sheets for in-
23 0.02257 0.028125 0.025 'Used for seamless tubes; also by some dustrial use, some hobby electronics
manufacturers for copper and brass.
stores and surplus outlets market usable
scraps at reasonable prices. Pc-board
stock is easily cut with a small hacksaw.
cluctor as illustrated at D. The larger the most hardware stores. A hole is bored in Because the nonmetallic base material
heat sink area, the greater will be the the angle stock to allow the transistor case isn't malleable, it can't be bent in the
amount of heat conducted away from the to fit snugly into it. The transistor is held usual way. However, corners are easily
transistor body. In some applications, the in place by a small metal plate whose formed by holding two pieces at right
heat sinks shown in Fig. 8may be two or center hole is slightly smaller in diameter angles and soldering the seam. Excellent
three inches in height (power transistor than the case of the transistor. Details are rf-tight enclosures can be fabricated in
stages). given in Fig. 7. this manner. Many projects in this Hand-
Another technique for making heat A thin coating of silicone grease, book were constructed using this tech-
sinks for TO-5type transistors and larger available from most electronics supply nique. If mechanical rigidity is required of
models is shown in Fig. 7. This style of houses, can be applied between the case of alarge copper-clad surface, stiffening ribs
heat sink will dissipate considerably more the transistor and the part of the heat sink may be soldered at right angles to the
heat than will the type shown in Fig. 8. with which it comes in contact. The sheet.
The main body of the sink is fashioned silicone grease will aid the transfer of heat
from a piece of I/8-inch (3-mm) thick from the transistor to the sink. This prac- Finishing Aluminum
aluminum angle bracket - available from tice can be applied to all models shown Aluminum chassis, panels and parts

17-5 Chapter 17
may be given a sheen finish by treating soldering to the pins of coil forms or male should be made as inaccessible as possible
them in a caustic bath. An enameled or cable plugs. If helps if the pins are first to accidental contact or short-circuit.
plastic container, such as adishpan or in- cleaned on the inside with asuitable twist Where shielded wire is called for and
fant's bathtub, should be used for the drill and then tinned by flowing rosin-core capacitance to ground is not a factor,
solution. Dissolve ordinary household lye solder into them. Immediately clear the Belden type 8885 shielded grid wire may
in cold water in a proportion of one. surplus solder from each hot pin by a be used. If capacitance must be mini-
quarter to one-half can of lye per gallon whipping motion or by blowing through mized, it may be necessary to use apiece
of water. The stronger solution will do the the pin from the inside of the form or of car-radio low-capacitance lead-in wire
job more rapidly. Stir the solution with a plug. Before inserting the wire in the pin, or coaxial cable.
stick of wood until the lye crystals are file the nickel plate from the tip. After For wiring high-frequency circuits, rigid
completely dissolved. Be very careful to soldering, round the solder tip off with a wire is often used. Bare soft-drawn tinned
avoid skin contact with the solution. It is file. wire, size 22 to 12 (depending on
also harmful to clothing. Sufficient solu- When soldering to the pins of polysty- mechanical requirements) is suitable.
tion should be prepared to cover the piece rene coil forms, hold the pin to be Kinks can be removed by stretching a
completely. When the aluminum is im- soldered with a pair of heavy pliers to piece of 10 or 15 feet (3or 4.5 m) long and
mersed, avery pronounced bubbling takes form a " heat sink" and insure that the pin then cutting it into short lengths that can
place and ventilation should be provided does not heat enough in the coil form to be handled conveniently. Rf wiring should
to disperse the escaping gas. A half hour loosen and become misaligned. be run directly from point to point with a
to two hours in the solution should be suf- Some connections carrying very high minimum of sharp bends and the wire
ficient, depending upon the strength of current can't be made with ordinary tin- kept well spaced from the chassis or other
the solution and the desired surface. lead solder because the heat generated by grounded metal surfaces. Where the
Remove the aluminum from the solu- the joint resistance would melt the solder. wiring must pass through the chassis or a
tion with sticks and rinse thoroughly in Automotive starter brushes and uhf partition, a clearance hole should be cut
cold water while swabbing with a rag to transmitter tank circuits are two cases in and lined with arubber grommet. In case
remove the black deposit. When dry, which this situation can occur. Silver insulation becomes necessary, varnished
finish by spraying on alight coat of clear solder prevents this condition in two cambric tubing (spaghetti) can be slipped
lacquer. ways: It melts at a significantly higher over the wire.
Raw aluminum can be prepared for temperature than tin-lead solder (about In transmitters where the peak voltage
painting by abrading the surface with 600° For 315° C) and generates less heat does not exceed 2500, the shielded grid
medium-grade sandpaper, making certain because of its superior conductivity. A wire mentioned above should be satisfac-
the strokes are applied in the same direc- propane torch may be necessary for large tory for power circuits. For higher
tion ( not circular or random). This pro- silver soldering jobs. The special flux used voltages, Belden type 8656, Birnbach type
cess will create tiny grooves on the other- with silver solder releases toxic fumes, so 1820, or shielded ignition cable can be
wise smooth surface. As aresult, paint or follow the manufacturer's instructions used. In the case of filament circuits carry-
lacquer will adhere well. Before painting, carefully and work only in a well- ing heavy current, it may be necessary to
wash the abraded aluminum with soap ventilated area. use no. 10 or 12 bare or enameled wire,
and hot water, dry thoroughly: Avoid slipped through spaghetti, and then
touching the prepared surface before Wiring covered with copper braid pulled tightly
painting it. The wire used in connecting amateur over the spaghetti. If the shielding is
equipment should be selected by con- simply slid back over the insulation and
Soldering sidering both the maximum current it will solder flowed into the end of the braid,
The secret of good soldering is to use be called upon to handle and the voltage the braid usually will stay in place without
the right amount of heat. Too little heat its insulation must stand without break- the necessity for cutting it back or binding
will produce a " cold-soldered joiiit"; too down. Also, from the consideration of it in place. The braid should be cleaned
much may injure acomponent. The iron TVI, the power wiring of all transmitters first so that solder will take with a
and the solder should be applied simulta- should be done with wire that has abraid- minimum of heat. Rf wiring in transmit-
neously to the joint. Keep the iron clean ed shielding cover. Receiver and audio cir- ters usually follows the method described
by brushing the hot tip with apaper towel cuits may also require the use of shielded above for receivers, with due respect to
or a moist sponge, as illustrated in the wire at some points for stability or the the voltages involved.
soldering station described earlier in this elimination of hum.
chapter. Always use rosin-core solder; No. 20 stranded wire is commonly used
never acid-core. Solders have different for most receiver wiring (except for the
melting points, depending upon the ratio high-frequency circuits) where the current
of tin to lead. A 50-50 solder melts at 425° does not exceed 2 or 3 amperes. For
F (218° C), while 60-40 melts at 371° F higher-current heater circuits, no. 18 is
(188° C). When it is desirable to protect available. Wire with cellulose acetate in- (A) WRONG

from excessive heat the components being sulation is good for voltages up to about '54,955W,994,,

soldered, the 60-40 solder is preferable to 500. For higher voltages, Teflon-insulated
the 50-50. ( A less-common solder, 63-37, or other special HV wire should be used.
melts at 361° F or 182° C.) Inexpensive wire strippers that make the
When soldering transistors, crystal removal of insulation from hookup wire (9) RIGHT

diodes or small resistors, the lead should an easy job are available on the market. • . •
be gripped with apair of pliers up close to When power leads have several
the unit so that the heat will be conducted branches in the chassis, it is convenient to
away. Overheating of atransistor or diode use fiber-insulated multiple tie points as
(C) RIGHT

while soldering Can cause permanent anchorages or junction points. Strips of

damage. Also, mechanical stress will have
••••••111W
this type are also useful as insulated sup-
a similar effect. Therefore, a small unit ports for resistors, rf chokes and Fig. 9 — Methods of lacing cables. The
method shown at C is more secure, but takes
should be mounted so that there is no ap- capacitors. Exposed points of high-
more time than the method of B. The latter is
preciable mechanical strain on the leads. voltage wiring should be held to a usually adequate for most amateur re-
Trouble is sometimes experienced in' minimum; those which cannot be avoided quirements.

Construction Practices and Data Tables 17-6

 Where power or control leads run
together for more than afew inches, they
will present a better appearance when
bound together in asingle cable. The cor-
rect technique is illustrated in Fig. 9; both
plastic and waxed-linen lacing cords are (
available. Plastic cable clamps are
Fig. 11 — Bifilar filament choke wound on a ferrite rod. Heat- shrink tubing will help anchor the
available to hold the laced cable. winding. If enameled wire is used the form should be insulated before winding.
To give a "commercial look" to the
wiring of any unit, run any cabled leads
along the edge of the chassis. 1f this isn't
possible, the cabled leads should then run
parallel to an edge of the chassis. Further,
the generous use of tie points mounted
parallel to an edge of the chassis, for the
support of one or both ends of aresistor
or fixed capacitor, will add to the ap-
pearance of the finished unit. In asimilar
manner, " dress" the small components so
that they are parallel to the panel or sides
of the chassis.

Winding Coils
Close-wound coils are readily wound on
the specified form by anchoring one end
of the length of wire (in a vise or to a Fig. 13 — The view at A shows how the turns
Fig. 12 — The suggested winding method for a
doorknob) and the other end to the coil single- layer toroid as shown at A. A 30° gap is on a toroid should be counted. The large black
form. Straighten any kinks in the wire and recommended (see text). Wrong methods are dots in the diagram at B are used to indicate
shown at B and C. At D is a method for placing the polarity of the windings ( phasing).
then pull to keep the wire under slight ten-
a tap on the coil.
sion. Wind the coil to the required
number of turns while walking toward the
anchor, always maintaining a slight ten-
sion on the wire.
To space-wind the coil, wind the coil space-wound coil by judicious applica- theoretical and practical aspects of
simultaneously with a suitable spacing tions of Duco cement to hold the turns in toroids. Figs. 12 and 13 illustrate the
medium (heavy thread, string or wire) in place. proper way to wind and count the turns
the manner described above. When the The "cold" end of acoil is the end at or on atoroidal core.
winding is complete, secure the end of the close to chassis or ground potential. A bifilar winding is one which has two
coil to the coil-form terminal and then Coupling links should be wound on the identical lengths of wire, which when
carefully unwind the spacing material. If cold end of acoil to minimize capacitive placed on the core result in the same
the coil is wound under suitable tension, coupling. number of turns for each wire. The two
the spacing material can be easily removed Rf chokes must often present ahigh im- wires can be put on the core side by side at
without disturbing the winding. Finish the pedance over a broad frequency range. the same time, just as if asingle winding
This requirement calls for the avoidance were being applied. An easier and more
of series resonances within the range. popular method is to twist the two wires (8
Such resonances can be avoided in single- to 15 times per inch or 1-1/2 to 3mm per
layer solenoids by separating the winding "twist" will suffice), then wind the pair
into progressively shorter sections. A on the core. The wires can be twisted han-
practical choke suitable for hf amateur dily by placing one end of the length of
service at plate impedances up to 5ka and two wires in abench vise. The remaining
currents up to 600 mA is shown in Fig. 10. wire-pair ends are tightened into the
Another way to build a broad-band chuck of a small hand drill, and the
choke is to wind asmall number of turns twisting is done.
on ahigh-permeability ferrite rod (such as A trear winding has three wires and a
used for antennas in some portable quadrifilar winding has four. The pro-
radios). The magnetic core supplies alarge cedure for preparation and winding is
inductance with asmall winding. Keeping otherwise the same as for a bifilar
the number of turns small reduces the winding. Fig. 14 shows a bifilar type of
distributed capacitance and raises the self-
resonant frequency of the choke. Ferrite
chokes are best suited to low-impedance
applications. A bifilar (this term is ex-
plained in the following paragraphs) fila-
ment choke for grounded-grid kilowatt hf
amplifiers appears in Fig. 11.
Toroidal inductors and transformers
are specified for many projects in this
Handbook. The advantages of this type of
Fig. 10 — Pictorial diagram of a heavy-duty
winding include compactness and a self-
plate choke for the hf bands. No. 26 enameled
wire is used for the windings. Low- loss shielding property. June 1979 QST con- Fig. 14 — Schematic and pictorial presentation
material should be used for the form. tains a comprehensive treatment of the of a bifilar-wound toroidal transformer.

17-7 Chapter 17
 toroid in schematic and pictorial form. paper. The job can be made abit easier by
The wires have been twisted together prior tracing over the original layout with a
to placing them on the core. It is helpful, ballpoint pen and carbon paper while the
though by no means essential, to use wires pattern is taped to the copper side of the
of different color when multifilar-winding unetched circuit board. The carbon paper
a core. The more wires used, the more is placed between the pattern and the cir-
perplexing it is to identify the end of the cuit board. After the paint has been ap-
windings correctly once the core has been plied, it should be allowed to dry for at
wound. There arc various colors of least 24 hours prior to the etching process.
enamel insulation available, but it is not The Vector Company produces a rub-on
easy for amateurs to find this wire locally transfer material that can also be used as
or in small-quantity lots. This problem etch-resist when laying out circuit-board
can be solved by taking lengths of wire patterns. Thin strips of ordinary masking
(enameled magnet wire), cleaning them to tape, cut to size and firmly applied, serve
remove dirt and grease, then spray- nicely as etch-resist material too.
painting them. Ordinary aerosol-can When making " one-shot" pc hoards it
spray enamel works fine. Spray lacquer is is convenient to cover the copper surface
not as satisfactory because it is brittle with masking tape, transfer the circuit
when dry and tends to flake off the wire. pattern by means of carbon paper, then
The winding sense of a multifilar cut out and remove the sections of mask-
toroidal transformer is important in most ing tape where the copper is to be etched
circuits. Fig. 13B illustrates this principle. away. An X- acto hobby knife is excellent
Fig. 15 — A homemade stand for processing
The black dots (called phasing dots) at the for the purpose. Masking tape, securely etched-circuit boards. The heat lamp maintains
top of the TI windings indicate polarity. applied, serves as a fine etch-resist the etchant-bath temperature between 90 and
That is, points a and care both start or material. 115° F (32 and 46° C) and is mounted on an
finish ends of their respective windings. In adjustable arm. The tray for the bath is raised
Many magazine articles feature printed-
and lowered at one end by the action of a
this example, points a and d are of op- circuit layouts. The more-complex pat- motor-driven eccentric disc, providing the
posite phase ( 180° phase difference) to terns (those containing ICs and high com- necessary agitation of the chemical solution. A
provide push-pull voltage feed to Q1 and Q2. ponent densities) are difficult to duplicate darkroom thermometer monitors the
temperature of the bath.
accurately by hand. A photographic pro-
Circuit-Board Fabrication
cess is the most efficient way to transfer a
Modern-day builders prefer the layout from a magazine page to acircuit
neatness and miniaturization made possi- board. A Thermofax transparency- quired with this bath. Ready-made solu-
ble by the use of etched or printed circuit producing machine (most schools have tions (one-pint and one-gallon sizes) are
boards. There are additional benefits to these) will copy the circuit on a clear available through some mail-order houses
be realized from the use of circuit boards: plastic sheet for use as anegative. Pressing at low cost. They are manufactured by
Low lead inductances, excellent physical this negative against a photosensitive Kepro Company and carry stock numbers
stability of the components and intercon- copper-clad board with a piece of glass E- IPT and E- 1G, respectively.
necting leads, and good repeatability of and exposing the assembly to sunlight for Etchant solutions become exhausted
the basic layout of a given project. The about 90 seconds will deactivate the after acertain amount of copper has been
latter attribute makes the use of circuit etchant resist on the exposed part of the processed. Therefore, it is wise to keep a
boards ideal for group projects. board. The portion of the copper that is quantity of the bath on hand if frequent
shielded from the light by the negative will use is anticipated. With either chemical
Planning and Layout bath, the working solution should be
resist etching. This process is described in
The constructor should first plan the detail by Taylor, W4POS, in August 1979 maintained at a temperature between 90
physical layout of the circuit by sketching QST. Photosensitive pc-board material is and 115° F (32 and 46° C). A heat lamp
apictorial diagram on paper, drawing it to manufactured by Kepro Company. can be directed toward the bath during the
scale. Once this has been donc, the inter- etching period, its distance set to maintain
connecting leads can be inked in to repre- The Etching Process the required temperature. A darkroom
sent the copper strips that will remain on Almost any strong acid bath will serve thermometer is handy for monitoring the
the etched board. The Vector Company as an etchant, but the two chemical temperature of the bath.
sells layout paper for this purpose. It is preparations recommended here are the While the circuit board is immersed in
marked with the same patterns that are safest to use. A bath can be prepared by the solution, it should be agitated con-
used on their perforated boards. mixing one part ammonium persulphate tinuously to permit uniform reaction to
After the basic etched-circuit design has crystals with two parts clear water. A nor- the chemicals. This action will also speed
been completed the designer should go mal quantity of working solution for most up the etching process somewhat. Nor-
over the proposed layout several times to amateur radio applications is composed of mally, the circuit board should be placed
insure against errors. When the foregoing one cup of crystals and two cups of water. in the bath with the copper side facing
has been done, the pattern can be painted To this mixture add 1/4 teaspoon of mer- down, toward the bottom of the tray. The
on the copper surface of the board to be curic chloride crystals. The latter serves as tray should be non-metallic preferably a
etched. Etch-resistant solutions are an activator for the bath. Ready-made Pyrex dish or a photographic darkroom
available from commercial suppliers and etchant kits which use these chemicals are tray.
can be selected from their catalogs. Some available from Vector. Complete kits The photograph, Fig. 15, shows a
builders prefer to use India ink for this which contain circuit boards, etchant homemade etching stand made up from a
purpose. Perhaps the most readily powders, etch-resist -transfers, layout heat lamp, some lumber, and an 8-rpm
available material for use in etch-resist ap- paper, and plastic etchant bags are also motor. An eccentric disc has been
plications is ordinary exterior enamel available from Vector at moderate prices. mounted on the motor shaft and butts
paint. The portions of the board to be re- Another chemical bath that works against the bottom of the etchant tray. As
tained are covered with a layer of paint, satisfactorily for copper etching is made the motor turns, the eccentric disc raises
applied with an artist's brush, duplicating up from one part ferric chloride crystals and lowers one end of the tray, thus pro-
the pattern that was drawn on the layout and two parts water. No activator is re- viding continuous agitation of The

Construction Practices and Data Tables 17-8

solution. The heat lamp is mounted on an Table 4
adjustable, slotted wooden arm. Its height
Resistor- Capacitor Color Code and Standard Values
above the solution tray is adjusted to pro-
vide the desired bath temperature. Color Significant Figure Decimal Multiplier Tolerance (%) Voltage Rating'

Because the etching process takes between Black

Brown 1 10 100
15 minutes and one hour - dependent
Red 2 100 2 200
upon the strength and temperature of the 1,000 3' 300
Orange 3
bath - such an accessory is convenient. Yellow 4 10,000 4. 400
After the etching process is completed, Green 5 100,000 5' 500
Blue 6 1,000,000 6' 600
the board is removed from the tray and
Violet 7 10,000,000 7' 700
washed thoroughly with fresh, clear 100.000.000 8' 800
Gray 8
wamr: The etch-resist material can then be White 9 1.000.000,000 9' 900
rubbed off by applying afew brisk strokes Gold 0.1 5 1000
Silver 0.01 10 2000
with medium-grade steel wool. WARN-
No color 20 500
ING: Always use rubber gloves when
'Applies to capacitors only.
working with etchant powders and solu-
tions. Should the acid bath come in con-
Standard valuest
tact with the body, immediately wash the
*1.0 * 2.2 * 4.7
affected area with clear water. Protect the 1.1 2.4 5.1
eyes when using acid baths. *1.2 * 2.7 * 5.6
1.3 3.0 6.2 sidered satisfactory. For example, the ac-
Alternative Construction Methods *1.5. * 3.3 * 6.8 tual resistance of a "4700-ohm"
1.6 3.6 7.5
Some would-be builders express revul- 20-percent resistor can lie anywhere be-
*1.8 * 3.9 * 8.2
sion at the prospect of pc-board fabrica- 2.0 4.3 9.1 tween 3700 and 5600 ohms, approximate-
tion. The distaste for chemical processes tAll values available in 2 5%
ly. The permissible variation in the same
should not deter a person, however, for 'Available in ± 10% resistance value with 5-percent tolerance
several alternatives exist. would be in the range from 4500 to 4900
Practically all designs are " bread- ohms, approximately.
boarded" before being committed to a In the component specifications in this
printed circuit. The fact that these proto- Handbook, it is to be understood that
types work proves that etched circuit circuitry is excavating acopper-clad board when no tolerance is specified the largest
boards aren't an absolute necessity. with a hand-held grinding tool, such as tolerance available in that value will be
Where aground plane is required, Teflon the Moto-tool manufactured by the satisfactory.
terminals pushed through holes in a Dremel Company. The simpler circuits Values that do not easily fit into the
copper-clad board allow neat and rigid can be cut out of the board with an X- acto preferred-number system (such as 500,
component mounting. High-value resis- knife. 25,000) can be substituted. It is obvious,
tors with one end soldered to the ground Perhaps the least complicated approach for example, that a5000-ohm resistor falls
plane can also be used for standoff ter- to circuit-board fabrication is the use of well within the tolerance range of the
minals. unclad perforated board into which a 4700-ohm 20-percent resistor used in the
Low- and medium-speed digital circuits number of push-in terminals have been in- example above. It would not, however, be
are often assembled on awire wrap board. stalled. The perforated board can be ob- usable if the tolerance were specified as 5
The IC sockets have long pins around tained with one of many hole patterns, percent.
which small solid wires are wrapped. An dependent upon the needs of the builder.
Perforated terminal boards are manufac- Color Codes
electric or pneumatic "gun" is used to
make the connections in industry, but a tured by several companies. Their pro- Standardized color codes are used to
manual wrapping tool can be used when ducts are available from most mail-order mark values on small components such as
time is not of the essence. houses. composition resistors and mica
Radio Shack and the Vector Company Once the builder plots the layout of his capacitors, and to identify leads from
produce a variety of breadboarding fix- circuit on paper, push-in terminals can be transformers and other large components.
tures that can also be used in permanent installed in the " perf" board to match the The resistor-capacitor number color code
assemblies. The deluxe models feature layout which was done on paper. The ter- is given in Table 4.
several power and ground buses, as well as minals serve as tie points and provide
secure mounting-post anchors for the Fixed- Value Capacitors
IC hole patterns.
A construction technique that is prac- various components. Selected terminals The methods of marking " postage-
tically indistinguishable from true printed can be wired together to provide ground stamp" mica capacitors, molded paper
and B + lines. Although this technique is capacitors and tubular ceramic capacitors
the most basic of the methods, it is entire- are shown in Fig. 16.
Table 3
ly practical. Capacitors made to American War
Standards ( AWS) or Joint Army- Navy
Approximate Series- Resonant Fre• Component Values (JAN) specifications are marked with the
quencies of Disc Ceramic Bypass
Values of composition resistors and six-dot code shown at the top. Practically
Capacitors
small capacitors (mica and ceramic) are all surplus capacitors are in this category.
Capacitance Freq Freq.' specified throughout this Handbook in The three-dot EIA code is used for
0.01 i4F 13 MHz 15 MHz terms of " preferred values." In the capacitors having arating of 500 volts and
0.0047 18 22 preferred-number system, all values repre- ± 20 percent tolerance only; other ratings
0.002 31 38
sent (approximately) a constant-per- and tolerances are covered by the six-dot
0.001 46 55
0.0005 65 80 centage increase over the next lower value. El A code.
0.0001 135 165 The base of the system is the number 10. Example: A capacitor with a six-dot
'Total lead length of 1 inch (25 mm) Only two significant figures are used. code has the following markings: Top
'Total lead length of 1/2 inch ( 13 mm) "Tolerance" means that avariation of row, left to right, black, yellow, violet;
plus or minus the percentage given is con- bottom row, right to left, brown, silver,

17-9 Chapter 17
 FIRST
SIGNIFICANT FIGURE SECOND SIGNIFICANT FIGURE Table 5

7
MICA CAPACITORS BLACK
FIRST Color Code for Ceramic Capacitors
7 THIRD
SIGNIFICANT FIGURE 'SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
(AWS PAPER
CAPACITORS r V Capacitance
,
-
SECOND
SILVER) N, Tolerance
i SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
..--
i e Temp.
/. I A
P 00 Signi-
Deci
mal
More
than
Less
than
Coeff.
ppm/
ficant Multi- 10 pF 10 pF deg.
Color Figure plier (in %) (in pF) C.
0 0 ON, VOLTAGE RATING DECIMAL MULTIPLIER
Black 0 1 ± 20 2.0 0
TOLERANCE Brown 1 10 ± 1 — 30
"
Red 2 100 ± 2 7 80
Orange 3 1000 — 150
ST IC
DECIMAL MULTIPLIER
CHARACTFG
Yellow 4 — 220
TOLERANCE
Green 5 — 330
AWS AND JAN FIXED CAPACITORS Blue 6 ± 5 0.5 — 470
A - FIRST SIGNIFICANT FIGURE Violet 7 — 750
NNB- SECOND SIGNIFICANT
FIGURE
Gray
White
8
9
0.01
0.1 ± 10
0.25
1.0
30
500

CL>
C - DECIMAL MULTIPLIER

TEMPERATURE
/ 0 - CAPACITANCE
COEFFICIENT --,
TOLERANCE
Table 6

FIRST SIGNIFICANT
FIGORE
DECIMAL MULTIPLIER M11 u Capacitor Characteristic Code
Color Temperature
Sixth Coefficient Capacitance
SECOND SIGNIFICANT FIGURE FIXED CERAMIC CAPACITORS
Dot ppm/deg. C. Drift

Black ± 1000 ±5% + 1 pF

Fig. 16 — Color coding of fixed mica, molded paper and tubular ceramic capacitors. The color Brown ± 500 ±3% + 1 pF
code for mica and molded paper capacitors is given in Table 4. Table 5 gives the color code for Red ± 200 ± 0.5%
tubular ceramic capacitors.
Orange ± 100 ± 0.3%
Yellow — 20 to + 100 ±0.1% + 0.1 pF
red. Since the first color in the top row is Green 0 to + 70 ± 0.05% + 0.1 pF
black ( significant figure zero) this is the
AWS code and the capacitor has mica di- FIXED

electric. The significant figures are 4 and COMPOSITION coefficient is — 750 parts per million per
7, the decimal multiplier 10 ( brown, at ‘1, RESISTORS degree celsius, as given by the broad band,
right of second row), so the capacitance is the capacitance tolerance is ± 5 percent.
470 pF. The tolerance is ± 10 percent. C A Table 7 illustrates the temperature
The final color, the characteristic, deals characteristic code for disc ceramic
with ternperature coefficients and capacitors. A capacitor marked Z5U would
methods of testing ( see Table 6). be suitable for use between + 10° and
4 k
A capacitor with a three- dot code has + 850 C with a maximum capacitance
/

the following colors, left to right: brown, A BCD E change of - 56% or + 22%.
0.25 ra-
black, red. The significant figures are 1, 0
(10) and the multiplier is 100. The capaci- 1/4 W 1 0.1

tance is therefore 100 pF.

A capacitor with asix-dot code has the o39 -11 MIL SPEC. IDENT. TOLERANCE
(SILVER) 07 . ( SILVER)
following markings: Top row, left to 1/2 W 0125
right, brown, black, black; bottom row,
right to left, black, gold, blue. Since the
1
.11- 0.575 -al
first color in the top row is neither black
nor silver, this is the EIA code. The t
1W 0225 FIRST FIG. ( GRAY) DECIMAL SECOND FIG.
significant figures are 1, 0, 0 ( 100) and the (GOLD) ( RED)

decimal multiplier is I ( black). The

8.2pH «1'10%
capacitance is therefore 100 pF. The gold
dot shows that the tolerance is ± 5percent t "—°708
(A)
and the blue dot indicates 600-volt rating.
MIL SPEC. IDENT. TOLERANCE
(SILVER) (SILVER)
Ceramic Capacitors 2 W 031

Conventional markings for ceramic

capacitors are shown in the lower drawing III
Fig. 17 — Color coding and body size for
of Fig. 16. The colors have the meanings fixed resistors. The color code is given in FIRST FIG. ( ORANGE
//
MULT.
indicated in Table 4. In practice, dots may Table 4. The colored areas have the following SECOND FIG. ( BROWN'

significance. (ORANGE)
be used instead of the narrow bands in-
A — First significant figure of resistance in 330pH ± 5%
dicated in Fig. 16.
ohms.
Example: A ceramic capacitor has the B — Second significant figure. (B)
following markings: Broad band, violet; C — Decimal multiplier.
narrow bands or dots, green, brown, D — Resistance tolerance in percent. If no Fig. 18 — Color coding for tubular encap-
color is shown the tolerance is ± 20%. sulated rf chokes. At A, an example of the
black, green. The significant figures are 5,
E — Relative ripmprit chance in value per 1000 coding for an 8.21.4H choke is given. At B, the
1 ( 51) and the decimal multiplier is 1, so hours of operation; Brown, 1%; Red, 0.1%; color bands for a 33014H inductor are it-
the capacitance is 51 pF. The temperature Orange, 0.01%; Yellow, 0.001%. lustrated. The color code is given in Table 4.

Construction Practices and Data Tables 17-10

 FIRST FIG.(WHITE) SUFFIX LETTER ( RED)
Table 7
EIA Temperature Characteristic Code for Disc Ceramic Capacitors

Minimum Maximum Max. Cap. Change

1N914B
Temperature Temperature Over Temp. Range
SECOND FIG.
— 55 ° C 2 + 45°C A ± 1.0% THIRD FIG
(BROWN)
Y — 30 ° C 4 + 65°C • ± 1.5% (YELLOW)

+ 10 °C 5 + 85°C C ± 2.2%
D ± 3.3% (Al
6 + 105°C
7 + 125°C E ± 4.7% THIRD FIG. ( VIOLET)
FIRST FIG. ( BLACK)
F ± 7.5%
P ± 10%
R ± 15%
S ± 22%
T — 33 °/o , + 22%
U — 56%, + 22%
SECOND FIG.
✓ — 82% , + 22% (BLUE)

(B)

Capacitors with highly predictable the composition type) are color-coded as Fig. 19 — Color coding for semiconductor
temperature coefficients of capacitance are shown in Fig. 17. Colored bands are used diodes. At A, the cathode is identified by the
on resistors having axial leads; on radial- double- width first band. At Et, the bands are
sometimes used in oscillators that must be
grouped toward the cathode. Two- figure
frequency stable with temperature. If an lead resistors the colors are placed as shown designations are signified by a black first
application called for atemperature coef- in the drawing. When bands are used for band. The color code is given in Table 4. The
ficient of — 750 parts per million per degree color coding the body color has no suffix- letter code is: A — brown, 8 — red, C —
significance. orange, D — yellow, E — green, F — blue. The
Celsius ( N750), a capacitor marked U2J
1N prefix is understood.
would be suitable. These codes are listed Examples: A resistor of the type shown
in Table 8. in the lower drawing of Fig. 17 has the
Some capacitors, such as dipped silver following color bands: A, red; B, red; C, colors: Body ( A), blue; end ( B), gray; dot,
mica units, have a letter designating the orange; D, no color. The significant figures red; end ( D), gold. The significant figures
capacitance tolerance. These letters are are 2, 2 ( 22) and the decimal multiplier is are 6, 8 ( 68) and the decimal multiplier is
deciphered in Table 9. 1000. The value of resistance is therefore 100, so the resistance is 6800 ohms. The
22,000 ohms and the tolerance is ± 20 tolerance is ± 5 percent.
Fixed- Value Resistors percent. The preferred values over one decade are
Composition resistors (and small wire- A resistor of the type shown in the up- given in Table 4. All resistance values ( from
wound units molded in cases identical to per drawing of Fig. 17 has the following less than 1ohm to about 22 megohms) are

83-58FCP
1111 -iefoi 4-
COUPLING RING CENTER
.BA Re , CONTACT
.
FERRULE — ,„.
, 2. Screw body on cable. Solder braid through solder holes Solder
e' conductor to center contact.
FLANGE TIP
1658*./ BRAID AFTER FLARING BODY

1. Strip cable — don't nick braid, dielectric or conductor. Slide fer- amermymismI ffliÉal
rule, then coupling ring on cable. Flare braid slightly by rotating
conductor and dielectric in circular motion.
3. Screw coupling ring on body.

= e 1/EIIRAI041 TRIM CONDUCTOR AFTER ASSEMBLY

83-1SP PLUG WITH ADAPTERS

2. Slide body on dielectric, barb going under braid until flange is
against outer jacket. Braid will fan out against body flange.
e.outte;
711,.4àjitir.AA:A
* ADAPTER ••-'

1. Strip jacket. Don't nick braid. Slide coupling ring and adapter on
cable. Note — use 83-168 adapter for RG-58/U and 83-185 for AG-
3. Slide nut over body. Grasp cable with hand and push ferrule over 59/U.
barb until braid is captured between ferrule and body flange.
Squeeze crimp tip only of center contact with pliers; alternate-solder
tip. .

e
83-1SP PLUG ( PL-259)

2. Fan braid slightly, fold back over adapter and trim to 3/8". Strip
dielectric and tin exposed conductor. Don't nick conductor.

1. Strip cable, don't nick braid, dielectric or conductor. Tin exposed

braid and conductor. Slide coupling ring on cable. 3. Screw body on adapter. Follow 2 and 3 under 83-1SP plug.

Fig. 20 — Cable stripping dimensions and assembly instructions for several popular coaxial cable connectors. This material courtesy of Amphenol.
Electronic Components, RF Division, Bunker Ramo Corp. ( Dimensions on this drawing are in English inches. Multiply inches x 25.4 to obtain mm).

17-11 Chapter 17
 available in 2% metal film and ± 5% Center- 1ap: red and yellow striped
Table 8 carbon-composition units. Values marked 3) Rectifier Filament Winding: yellow
EIA Designations for Capacitor with an asterisk are also available in the less Center-Tap: yellow and blue striped
Temperature Coefficient expensive ± 10% series. 4) Filament Winding no. 1: green
Industry EIA Carbon composition and metal film Center-Tap: green and yellow striped
NPO COG resistors have standard power ratings of 5) Filament Winding no. 2: brown
NO33 S1G 1/10, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 1 and 2 watts. The Center-Tap: brown and yellow
NO75 U1G
1/10- and 1/8- watt sizes are expensive and striped
N150 P2G
N220 R2G difficult to purchase in small quantity. They 6) Filament Winding no. 3: slate
N330 S2H are used only where miniaturization is essen- Center-Tap: slate and yellow striped
N470 T2H tial. The 1/4-, 1/2-, 1- and 2-watt composi-
N750 U2J
tion resistors are drawn to scale in Fig. 17. Finding Parts
N1500 P3K
N2200 R3L Metal film resistors are usually slightly No chapter on construction would .be
smaller than carbon units of the same power complete without information on where to
rating. Film resistors can often be buy parts. Amateurs, on adwarfed scale,
distinguished by a glossy vitreous enamel must function as purchasing agents in these
coating and an hourglass profile as opposed perplexing times. A properly equipped
to a right circular cylinder. They are the buyer maintains as complete acatalog file
Table 9
most commonly available type today, but as possible. Many of the companies listed
EIA Capacitance Tolerance Codes the resistive film is often deposited in the in Table 11 will provide free catalogs upon
• /
14 pF form of asolenoid. Thus, they can be highly written request. Others may charge asmall
D ± 1/2 pF
inductive and therefore less desirable than fee for catalogs. Mail ordering, especially
• ± 1 pF or ± 1%
carbon-composition resistors in rf circuits. for those distant from metropolitan areas,
G ± 2 pF or ± 2%
±5% is today's means to the desired end when
• ± 10% Power Transformers collecting component parts for an amateur
• ± 15% 1) Primary Leads: black project. Prices are, to some extent, com-
• ±20%
If tapped: petitive. A wise buyer will study the
N ± 30%
• —0%, + 100% or GMV Common: black catalogs and select his merchandise
• —20%, + 40% Tap: black and yellow striped accordingly.
Y — 20%, + 50% Finish: black and red striped Delays in shipment can be lessened by
• —20%, + 80%
2) High- Voltage Plate Winding; red avoiding the use of personal checks when

PLUG BODY
BNC CONNECTORS ( STANDARD CLAMP)

IOW

HIG•58 Ul
IfIG .59/1.11
JACK BODY ,

3 32

IIMMOMIN

1. Strip jacket. Fray braid and strip dielectric. Don't nick braid or 5. Push assembly into body. Screw nut into body with wrench until
conductor. Tin conductor.
tight. Don't rotate body on cable to tighten.

WASHER
r
tildxgil â MAP
me

BNC CONNECTORS ( IMPROVED CLAMP)

'NUT ' GASKET

2. Taper braid. Slide nut, washer, gasket and clamp over braid.
Clamp inner shoulder should fit squarely against end of jacket. 19/ 64

3 3, 3/ 16
111

ide-ittied-411
333 32

3. With clamp in place, comb out braid, fold back smooth as shown. GASKET CLAMP
Trim 3/32" from end.

SOLDER HOLE

4. Solder contact on conductor through solder hole. Contact should 1. Follow 1, 2, 3 and 4 in BNC connectors (standard clamp) except
butt against dielectric. Remove excess solder from outside of con- as noted. Strip cable as shown. Slide gasket on cable with groove
tact. Avoid excess heat to prevent swollen dielectric which would facing clamp. Slide clamp on cable with sharp edge facing gasket.
interfere with connector body. Clamp should cut gasket to seal properly.

Construction Practices and Data Tables 17-12

ordering, especially for those distant from frustrating delays in the order reaching tion of this Handbook. Suppliers wishing
metropolitan areas. Personal checks often you. to be listed in the table are urged to con-
take a week to clear, thereby causing Table 1lis updated with each new edi- tact the editors.

Table 10
Copper-Wire Table
Cont.-duty Current
Cont.-duty current Feet Carrying
Wire current' wires or per Ohms Capacity Nearest
Size Diem. Circular Turns per Linear inch (25.4 mm)' single wire cables in Pound per at Diam. British
A. W. G. in Mil in conduits (0.45 kg) 1000 ft. 700 C.M. in S.W.G.
(B&S) Mils' Area Enamel S.C.E. D.C.C. open air or bundles Bare 25° C per Amp. mm. No.

1 289.3 83690 - - - _ - 3.47 . 1264 119 .7348

6 1
2 257.6 66370 - - - _ _ 4.9
9 77 . 1593 94.8 6 3
3 229.4 52640 - - - - - 6.276 . 2009 75 .5
2 4
4 204.3 41740 - - - - - 7.914 . 2533 59.6 51'8518
24 49
7 5
5 181.9 33100 - - - - 9.980
12.58 . 3195 47.3
4. 6
4 121 7
6 162.0 26250 - - - - - . 4028 37.5 15 8
7 144.3 20820 - - - - 15.87 . 5080 29.7 3.665 9
8 128.5 16510 7.6 - 7.1 73 46 . 6405 23.6 3.264 10
9 114.4 13090 8.6 - 7.8 - - 25
2 9,231
9 . 8077 18.7 2.906 11
10 101.9 10380 9.6 9.1 8.9 55 33 31.82 1.018 14.8 2.588 12
11 90.7 8234 10.7 - 9.8 - - 40.12 1.284 11.8 2.305 13
12 80.8 6530 12.0 11.3 10.9 41 23 50.59 1.619 9.33 2.053 14
13 72.0 5178 13.5 - 12.8 - - 63.80 2.042 7.40 1.828 15
14 64.1 4107 15.0 14.0 13.8 32 17 8044 2.575 5.87 1.628 16
15 57.1 3257 16.8 - 14.7 - - .
101 .
1 .4
9 3. 4.65 1.450 17
16 50.8 2583 18.9 17.3 16.4 22 13 27 4.029
447 3.69 1.291 18
17 45.3 2048 21.2 - 18.1 - -
161.3 .5163 2.93 1.150 18
18 40.3 1624 23.6 21.2 19.8 16 10 6.510
8.210 2.32 1.024 19
19 35.9 1288 26.4 - 21.8 - - 203.4
256.5 1.84 . 912 20
20 32.0 1022 29.4 25.8 23.8 11 7.5 23 1.46 . 812 21
21 28.5 810 33.1 - 26.0 - - 407..8
3 4 13.05
10.35 1.16 . 723 22
22 25.3 642 37.0 31.3 30.0 -
16.46
20.76 5
. 918 . 644 514.2 23
23 22.6 510 41.3 - - 37.6
- . 728 . 573 24
24 20.1 404 46.3 37.6 648.435.6 -
26.17 . 577 . 511 25
25 17.9 320 51.7 - 817.7
1031 38.6 - -
1300 33.00 . 458 . 455 26
26 15.9 254 58.0 46.1 41.8 - - 41.62 . 363 . 405 27
27 14.2 202 64.9 - 45.0 - - 1639 52.48 . 288 . 361 29
28 12.6 160 72.7 54.6 48.5 - - 2067 . 228 . 321 30
29 11.3 127 81.6 - 51.8 - - 2607 66.17
44. 181 . 286 31
30 10.0 101 90.5 64.1 55.5 - - 42187
3 85
10 3.
.
2 .144 . 255 33
31 8.9 80 101 - 59.2 - - 45 132.7
. . 114 . 227 34
32 8.1673
0 63 113 74.1 61.6 -5227 - . 090 . 202 36
33 7.1 50 127 - 66.3 - 211.0 . 072 . 180 37
34 6.3 40 143 86.2 70.0 - - 6591
8310 266.0 . 057 . 160 38
35 5.6 32 158 - 73.5 - - 10480 335 . 045 . 143 38-39
36 5.0 25 175 103.1 77.0 - - 13210 423 . 036 . 127 39-40
37 4.5 20 198 - 80.3 - 16660 533
116.3 21010 . 028 . 113 41
38 4.0 16 224 83.6 - 673 . 022 . 101 42
39 3.5 12 248 - 86.6 - - 26500 848
1070 . 018 . 090 43
40 3.1 10 282 131.6 89.7 - - 33410 . 014 . 080 44

'A mil Is 0.001 inch. A circular mil is a square mil x 114. The circular mil (cm.) area of a wire is the square of the mil diameter.
'Figures given are approximate only; insulation thickness varies with manufacturer.
'Max. wire temp. of 212° F ( 100° C) and max. ambient temp. of 135° F (57° C).
'700 circular mils per ampere is a satisfactory design figure for small transformers, but values from 500 to 1000 cm. are commonly used.

c
NUT WASHER GASKET CLAMP FEMALE JACK BODY MALE PLUG BODY
SPREAD CONTACT CONTACT

Fig. 21 - Assembly instructions for Type N connectors ( standard clamp). Dimensions are given in inches. To convert to millimeters, multiply by 25.4.
These instructions courtesy of Amphenol Division of Bunker Ramo.

17-13 Chapter 17
 Table 11
ARRL Parts Suppliers List

A, D, E, H, I, L, M Adva Electronics J.W Fox-Tango Corp. T, U, W P. C. Electronics

•35st Box 4181 •saxe. (modification kits for amateur •s.a.s.e 2522 Paxson Lane
•• $ 10 Woodside, CA 94062 equipment Arcadia, CA 91006
A, C, D. E, H Alaska Microwave Labs Box 15944 A, B, D, E, F, G, Radiokit
P.O. Box 2049 W. Palm Beach, FL 33416 H, J, K, L. W P.O. Box 411
Palmer, AK 99645 D Gregory Electronics •50sz Greenville, NH 03048
A, B, C, E, I, K, L, X Alpha Electronic Laboratories •free 249 Route 46
D, J, Y Sentry Mfg. Co.
2302 Oakland Gravel Road •* I $25 Saddle Brook, NJ 07662
Crystal Park
Columbia, MO 65202 I, K Hammond Mfg., Ltd. Chickasha, OK 73108
Attn. Don Manson, KOTvo 394 Edinburg Rd, N. D, J Sherwood Engineering, Inc.
B, C Amidon Associates Guelph, ON N1H 1E5
1268 S. Ogden St.
12033 Otsego St. I, K Hammond Mfg. Co, Inc. ( U.S.) Denver, CO 80210
N. Hollywood, CA 91607 1690 Walden Ave.
F, V Skylane Products
A, B, C, D, E, H Applied Invention Buffalo, NY 14225
•50c (quad info) 406 Bon Air Ave. ls .
RD 2, Rte. 21, Box 390 A, B, I, K, M, N, T Herbach & Rademan, Inc. • $ 1 (quads & Temple Terrace, FL 33617 •
Hillsdale, NY 12529 401 E. Erie Ave. towers)
N, 0 Atlantic Surplus Sales Philadelphia, PA 19134
•• Small Parts, Inc.
(facsimile equipment) Hi Manuals (mechanical components &
3730 Nautilus Ave. •al P.O. Box 802 metal stock)
Brooklyn, NY 11224 Council Bluffs, IA 51502 P.O. Box 381736
A, E, I, T, U ATV Research, Inc. A, E, H, I, K, L, M, Jameco Electronics Miami, FL 33138
13th & Broadway U, W, X, Y 1355 Shoreway Rd. A, D, J, Y Spectrum International
Dakota City, NE 68731 • $ 1; •• $ 10 Belmont, CA 94002 P.O. Box 1084
Avatar Magnetics Y JAN Crystals Concord, MA 01742
1147 N. Emerson 2400 Crystal Dr. A, M, N Star Tronics
Indianapolis, IN 46219 P.O. Box 06017 •• $4 P.O. Box 683
A, D, H Barker & Williamson, Inc. Ft. Meyers, FL 33906 McMinnville, OR 97128
10 Canal St. A,B, C, D, E, F, G, Marlin P. Jones Associates Ten-Tec, Inc.
Bristol, PA 19007 H, I, J, K, L, M, N P.O. Box 12685 Highway 411, E.
A, E, G, H, I, K, BCD Radio Parts Co. Lake Park, FL 33403 Sevierville, TN 37862
L, M, U, Y P.O. Box 119 •free; •• $ 10 B, TypetroniCS
Richardson, TX 75080 X Jug Wire Co. (Surplus Dept.) •s.a.s.e. Box 8873
2234 36th St. Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33310
Caddell Coil Corp.
•s.a.s.e. (coils for ARRL projects) Woolsey, NY 11105 Western Nebraska Electronics
35 Main St. Kepro Circuit Systems, Inc. Rte. 1 Box 1
Poultney, VT 05764 630 Axminister Drive Potter, NE 69156
A, B, C, G, I, L, W Cambridge Thermionic Corp. Fenton, MO 63026 A, E, L Workman Electronic Products,
•free (catalog lists local distributors) A, E, M Key Electronics Inc. (will refer customer to
445 Concord Ave. P.O. Box 3506 nearest dealer)
Cambridge, MA 02138 Schenectady, NY 12303 Box 3828
Sarasota, FL 33578
H Caywood Electronics, Inc. Kirk Electronics
(Millen Capacitors) •• $ 10 73 Ferry Rd.
P.O. Box U Chester, CT 06412
Malden, MA 02148-0921 Chart Coding
K, L MFJ Enterprises
A, C, W Circuit Board Specialists P.O. Box 494 A — New Components
(circuit boards for ARRL Mississippi State, MS 39762 B — Toroids and Ferrites
projects, kits) B, G, L MILLEN Components C — Etched Circuit Board Materials
P.O. Box 969 D — Transmitting and Receiving Materials
E. I. & S. Corp.
Pueblo, CO 81002 E — Solid-State Devices
42 Pleasant St.
D, O. W Communications Design, Inc. F — Antenna Hardware
Stoneham, MA 02180
1504 E. Thompson Street G — Dials and Knobs
A, B, H, J J. W. Miller Div., Bell Industries H — Variable Capacitors
West Memphis, AR 72301
19070 Reyes Ave. I — Transformers
D, I, M, H, X Peter. W. Dahl Co., Inc. P.O. Box 5825 J — 1-f filters
4007 Fort Blvd. Rancho Dominiguez, CA 90224 K — Cabinets and Boxes
El Paso, TX 79930 L — General Supplier
E, F, G, H, L, X, Y Modern Radio Laboratories
A, D, E, F, H, I, L, Diamondback Electronics Co. • $1 P.O. Box 1477-0 M — Surplus Parts
M, N, U, X, Y P. 0. Box 12095 Garden Grove, CA 92642 N — Surplus Assemblies
•• $7 Sarasota, FL 33578 O — RTTY Equipment and Parts
A, El, C, E, F, G, Mouser Electronics
Dynaclad Industries H, I, J, K, L, U, X 11433 Woodside Ave. P — Surplus FM Gear and Parts
• $ 150 (project and custom boards) 0 — Equipment Manuals
Santee, CA 92071
P.O. Box 296 R — Service of Collins Equipment
Palomar Engineers T — Amateur TV Cameras and Components
Meadowlands, PA 15347 Box 455 U — Microcomputer Peripheral Equipment
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, Electro Sonic, Inc. Escondido, CA 92025 V — Towers
H, I, K 1100 Gordon Baker Rd. W — Ready-made Printed Circuit Boards
A, C, E, F, K, L, U Partstore
•• $25 Willowdale, ON M2H 3B3 X — Wire
999 44th St.
G,H, I, M, N, 0 Fair Radio Sales Marion, IA 52302 Y — Crystals
•• $ 10 Box 1105 • Catalog Price
Lima, OH 45802 •• Minimum Order

To the best of our knowledge the suppliers shown are willing to sell components to amateurs in small quantities by mail. This listing does not necessarily indicate that
these firms have the approval of ARRL.

of dielectric is clean. Contact must be flush

against dielectric. Outside of contact must be
free of solder. Female contact is shown; pro-
cedure is similar for male contact.
3) Taper braid as shown. Slide nut, washer and
gasket over vinyl jacket. Slide clamp over braid
1) Remove 9/16" of vinyl jacket. When using
with internal shoulder of clamp flush against
double-shie(ded cable remove 5/8".
end of vinyl jacket. When assembling connec-
tors with gland, be sure knife-edge is toward
end of cable and groove in gasket is toward
the g(and.

5) Slide body Into place carefully so that con•

tact enters hole in insulator (male contact
shown). Face of dielectric must be flush
against insulator. Slide completed assembly
into body by pushing nut. When nut is in place,
4) Smooth braid back over clamp and trim. tighten with wrenches. In connectors with

--I
2) C.nmh nut copper braid as shown. Cut off Sott-solder contact to center conductor. Avoid gland, knife edge should cut gasket in half by
dielectric 7/32" from end. Tin center conductor. use of excessive heat and solder. See that oíd tightening sufficiently.

Construction Practices and Data Tables 17-14

Chapter 18

Wave Propagation

T hough great advances have been made

in recent years in understanding the many
Sunspot Cycles
Even before their correlation with radio
any appreciable period, while others have
had several months of little or no activity.
modes of propagation of radio waves, Sunspot cycles do not have a sine-wave
propagation variations was well-known,
variables affecting long-distance com- shape. The rise is shorter than the decay,
the periodic rise and fall of sunspot
munication are very complex, and not but neither is clearly defined. October
numbers had been studied for many years.
entirely predictable. Amateur attempts to These cycles average roughly 11 years in 1974 had a solar flux range of 73 to 144.
schedule operating time and frequencies June 1976, the last month of Cycle 20, had
length, but have been as short as 9and as
for optimum results may not always several quiet-sun days ( solar flux 66), but
long as 13 years. The highs and lows of the
succeed, but familiarity with the nature of cycles also vary greatly. Cycle 19 peaked April and August had readings in the 80s.
radio propagation can reduce the margin in 1958 with a sunspot number of over November 1979, peak month of Cycle 21,
of failure and add greatly to one's 200. Cycle 20, of nearer average intensity, had 383 ( equalling the Cycle 19 record
enjoyment of the pursuit of any kind of reached 120 in 1969. By contrast, one of high) and 154, within 18 days.
DX. the lowest, Cycle 14, peaked at only 60 in Solar Radiation
The sun, ultimate source of life and 1907. Several cycle lows have not reached
energy on earth, influences all radio Insofar as it affects most radio pro-
zero levels on the International scale for
communication beyond the local range. pagation, solar radiation is of two
Conditions vary with such obvious sun- principal kinds: ultraviolet light and
'Tilton, " The DXer's Crystal Ball," QST. June, charged particles. The first travels at just
related earthly cycles as time of day and August and September 1975. The WWV bulletin
season of the year. Since these differ for form changed in 1976, but basic principles apply. under 300,000,000 meters ( 186,000 miles)
appreciable changes in latitude and
longitude, almost every communications
250
circuit is unique in some respects. There
are also short- and long-term solar cycles 240
which influence propagation in less
230 e
obvious ways. Furthermore, the state of
the sun at a given moment is critical to 220
long-distance communication, so it is
210
understandable that propagation fore-
casting is still a rather inexact science. 200
With every part of the radio spectrum
190
open to our use differing in its response to
solar phenomena, amateurs have been, 180
and still are, in aposition to contribute to 170
advancement of the art, both by accident
x
and by careful investigation. n 160
-I
L1.
cc 150
SOLAR PHENOMENA 4
-1
0
Man's interest in the sun is older than 0 140

recorded history. Records of sunspot 130

.-
observations translatable into modern
I

2 120
terms go back nearly 300 years. Current z
a
observations are statistically " smoothed" w
2
110
to maintain a continuous record, in the o
100
form of the International sunspot number, 1-
o
on which propagation predictions are based. o 90
2
A useful modern indication of overall to
80
solar activity is the solar flux index. A
2800-MHz measurement made at 1700 UTC 70

daily in Ottawa is transmitted hourly by 60

WWV. Because it is essentially current in- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
formation, directly related to the sunspot SMOOTHED MEAN INTERNATIONAL SUNSPOT NUMBER
number (see Fig. 1) and more immediately
Fig. 1 — Relationship between the smoothed mean sunspot number and the 2800- MHz solar flux.
useful, it tends to displace the latter as
In the low months of a solar cycle flux values run between about 66 and 86. Intermediate years
a means of predicting propagation may see 85 to 150. The peak years of Cycle 21 have brought readings between 140 and 380,
conditions.' through 1979 and the first half of 1980.

18-1 Chapter 18
 on the projection surface. Put abaffle on tween about 60 and 200 miles above the
the scope to enlarge the shaded area and earth's surface where free ions and
adjust the focus to give asharp-edged im- electrons exist in sufficient quantity to
age of the solar disc. If there are any affect the direction of wave travel.
sunspots you will see them now. Draw a Ionization of the upper atmosphere is
rough sketch of what you see, every time attributed to ultraviolet radiation from the
an observation is made, and keep it with sun. The result is not asingle region, but
your record of propagation observations. several layers of varying densities at
Spots move across the image from left various heights surrounding the earth.
to right, on the projected image, as it is Each layer has a central region of
viewed with the sun at the observer's relatively dense ionization that tapers off
back. The line of movement is parallel to both above and below.
the solar equator. Not all activity capable Ionospheric Layers
of affecting propagation can be seen, but
The lowest useful region of the iono-
any spots seen have significance. Active
areas may develop before spots are visible sphere is called the E layer. Its average
and may persist after spots associated height of maximum ionization is about 70
miles. The atmosphere here is still dense
with them are gone, but once identified by
enough so that ions and electrons set free
date they are likely to recur about 27 days
by solar radiation do not have to travel far
later, emphasizing the worth of detailed
Fig. 2 — A simple sunspot projection system, before they meet and recombine to form
records.
demonstrated by ARRL staffer AC1Y. The card- neutral particles: The layer can maintain
board baffle at the top provides a shaded area Vhf or uhf arrays capable of movement
its ability to bend radio waves only when
for viewing the sun's image. Never look at the in elevation as well as azimuth are useful
continuously in sunlight. Ionization is
sun with the naked eye, binoculars or for solar noise monitoring. With agood
telescope, except through aknown safe solar thus greatest around local noon, and it
system, the " quiet sun" can be " heard" at
filter. See page 18-9 for additional cautions. practically disappears after sundown.
alow level.' Bursts that can be many dB
In the daylight hours there is a still
higher indicate the start of amajor event,
lower area called the D region where
such as asolar flare capable of producing
per second, as does all electromagnetic ionization is proportional to the height of
an hf blackout and possibly vhf auroral
radiation, so UV effects on wave pro- the sun. Wave energy in the two lowest
propagation.
pagation develop simultaneously with frequency amateur bands, 1.8 and 3.5
increases in observed solar noise, ap- TYPES OF PROPAGATION MHz, is almost completely absorbed by
proximately eight minutes after the actual this layer. Only the highest-angle radia-
Depending on the means of pro-
solar event. Particle radiation moves more tion passes through it and is reflected to
pagation, radio waves can be classified as
slowly, and by varying routes, so it may earth by the E layer. Communication on
ionospheric, tropospheric, or ground waves.
take up to 40 hours to affect radio these bands in daylight is thus limited to
The ionospheric or skywave is that main
propagation. Its principal effects are high short distances, as the lower-angle radia-
portion of the total radiation leaving the
absorption of radio energy and the tion needed for longer distances travels
antenna at angles somewhat above the
production of auroras, both visual and the farther in the D region and is absorbed.
horizontal. Except for the reflecting
radio variety. qualities of the ionosphere, it would be The region of ionization mainly respon-
Variations in the level of solar radiation lost in space. The tropospheric wave is sible for long-distance communication is
can be gradual, as with the passage of that portion of the radiation kept close to called the F layer. At its altitude, about
some sunspot groups and other long-lived the earth's surface as the result of bending 175 miles at night, the air is so thin that
activity centers across the solar disc, or in the lower atmosphere. The ground recombination takes place very slowly.
sudden, as with solar flares. An important wave is that portion of the radiation Ionization decreases slowly after sun-
clue for anticipating variations in solar directly affected by the surface of the down, reaching a minimum just before
radiation levels and radio propagation sunrise. The obvious effect of this change
earth. It has two components, an earth-
changes resulting from them is the guided surface wave, and the space wave. is the early disappearance of long-distance
rotational period of the sun, approxi- The latter is the resultant of two signals on the highest frequency that was
mately 27 days. Sudden events ( flares) components, direct and ground-reflected. usable that day, followed by loss of
may be short-lived, but active areas The terms " tropospheric wave" and communication on progressively lower
capable of influencing radio propagation "ground wave" are often used inter- frequencies during the night. In the
may recur at four-week intervals for four daytime the F layer splits into two parts,
changeably, though this is not strictly
or five solar rotations. Evidence of the correct. F1 and F2, having heights of about 140
"27-day cycle" is most marked during and 200 miles, respectively. They merge
years of low solar activity. THE IONOSPHERE again at sunset.
Solar activity can be observed quite Long-distance communication and much Scattered patches of relatively dense
easily. Simple projection of the sun's over shorter distances, on frequencies ionization develop seasonally at E-layer
image, as in Fig. 2, is most useful in the below 30 MHz, is the result of bending of height. Such sporadic E is most prevalent
low years of the " 11-year" cycle. In times the wave in the ionosphere, a region be- in the equatorial regions, but it is common
of high activity the visible evidence may be in the temperate latitudes in late spring
difficult to sort out, unless observations and early summer, and to alesser degree
are made daily and the results are record- in early winter. Its effects become
ed with care. Enough definition for our confused with those of other ionization on
purposes is possible with the simplest the lower amateur frequencies, but they
'Projection of the sun and interpretation of results stand out above 21 MHz, especially in the
telescopes. Low-cost instruments, 10- to are discussed in reference I, and in QST. December
30-power, are adequate. A principal re- 1974, P. 83: January 1975, P. 84 and October 1976, low-activity years of the solar cycle, when
p. II. A black-box viewing device (Tomcik, other forms of DX are not consistently
quirement is provision for mounting on a K4OU) for sun projection is shown in July 1964.
tripod having apan-tilt head.' QST. ( Photocopy from ARRL, 75 cents and available.
Adjust the aiming to give a circular stamped envelope.) Duration of openings decreases and the
'Bray and Kirchner, "Antenna Patterns front the length of skip increases with progressively
shadow of' the scope body, then move the Sun," ST, July 1960. Wilson, "432- MHz Solar
scope slowly until a bright spot appears Patrol," QST, August 1967. higher frequencies. Skip distance is corn-

Wave Propagation 18-2

monly a few hundred miles on 21 or 28 Virtual Height explanatory purposes. But an under-
MHz, but multiple hop propagation can standing of long-distance propagation
An ionospheric layer is a region of
extend the range to 2500 miles or more. must take the earth's magnetic field into
considerable depth, but for practical
June and July are the peak months in the purposes it is convenient to think of it as account. Because of it, the ionosphere is a
northern hemisphere. E, propagation is having finite height, from which asimple birefringent medium (double refracting)
most common in midmorning and early which breaks up plane-polarized waves
reflection would give the same effects
evening, but may extend almost around (observed from the ground) as result from into what are known as the ordinary and
the clock at times. The highest frequency extraordinary waves, foF2 and f„F2 in the
the .gradual bending that actually takes
for E s is not known, but the number of place. It is given several names, such as
ionogram. This helps to explain the
opportunities for using the mode drops group height, equivalent height, and virtual dispersal of plane polarization encoun-
off rapidly between the amateur 50- and tered in most ionospheric communica-
height.
144- MHz bands, whereas 28 and 50 MHz The virtual height of an ionospheric tion.'
are quite similar. Sudden marked increases in solar
layer for various frequencies and vertical
The greater the intensity of ionization incidence is determined with a variable- radiation, such as with solar flares, trigger
in alayer, the more the wavepath is bent. instantaneous effects in the F, E and D
frequency sounding device that directs
The bending also depends on wavelength; regions; slightly delayed effects, mainly in
pulses of energy vertically and measures
the longer the wave the more its path is the polar areas; and geomagnetic effects,
the time required for the round-trip path
modified for agiven degree of ionization. shown in Fig. 3. As the frequency delayed up to 40 hours.
Thus, for agiven level of solar radiation, rises, a point is reached where no Onset of the D-region absorption is
ionospheric communication is available energy is returned vertically. This is usually sudden, lasting a few minutes to
for a longer period of time on the known as the critical frequency for the several hours, leading to use of the term
lower-frequency amateur bands than on layer under consideration. A representa- SID (sudden ionospheric disturbance).
those near the upper limit of hf spectrum. tion of atypical ionogram is shown in Fig. Shortwave fadeouts ( SWFs) and SIDs
The intensity and character of solar 4. 4 In this sounding the virtual height for exhibit wide variations in intensity, dura-
radiation are subject to many short-term 3.5 to 4 MHz was 400 km. Because the tion and number of events, all tending to
and long-term variables, the former still ionogram is a graphical presentation of be greater in periods of high solar activity.
predictable with only partial success. wave travel time, double-hop propagation
Radiation Angle and Skip Distance
appears as an 800-km return for the same
Absorption The lower the angle above the horizon
frequency. The critical frequency was just
In traveling through the ionosphere, a over 5MHz on this occasion. Such aclear at which a wave leaves the antenna, the
radio wave gives up some of its energy by F-layer ionogram is possible only under less refraction in the ionosphere or
setting the ionized particles in motion. magnetically quiet conditions, and at troposphere is required to bring it back,
When moving particles collide with night, when little or no E- and D-layer or to maintain useful signal levels in the
others, this energy is lost. Such absorption ionization is present. case of tropospheric bending. This results
is greater at lower frequencies. It also in the emphasis on low radiation angles in
increases with the intensity of ionization, Effects of the Earth's Magnetic Field the pursuit of DX, on the hf or vhf bands.
and with the density of the atmosphere. The ionosphere has been discussed thus Some of the effects of radiation angle
This leads to a propagation factor often far in terms of simple bending, or are illustrated in Fig. 3. The high-angle
not fully appreciated: Signal levels and refraction, a concept useful for some wave at the left is bent only slightly in the
quality tend to be best when the operating ionosphere, and so goes through it. The
'Davies, " Ionospheric Radio Propagation," NBS
frequency is near the maximum that is Monograph 80, out of print. Available in some wave at the somewhat lower angle is just
reflected back to earth at the time. technical libraries. capable of being returned by the iono-
sphere. In daylight it might be returned
via the E layer. Its area of return from the
F layer, R2, is closer to the transmittting
point, T, than is that of the lowest-angle
wave. If R2 is at the shortest distance
where returned energy is usable, the area
between R1and the outer reaches of the
ground wave, near the transmitter, is
called the skip zone. The distance between
R2 and T is called the skip distance. The
distances to both RI and R2 depend on
the ionization density, the radiation angle
at T, and the frequency in use. The
maximum distance for single-hop propa-
gation via the F layer is about 2500 miles
(4000 kilometers). The maximum E-layer
single hop is about 1250 miles (2000
kilometers).
The maximum usable frequency (muf)
for E-layer communication is about three
times the critical frequency for vertical
return, as in Fig. 3. For F-layer propaga-
tion it is about five times.

Fig. 3 — Three types of ionospheric propagation. Sounder, left measures virtual height and
Multiple-Hop Propagation
critical frequency of F2 layer. Transmitter T is shown radiating at three different angles. Highest On its return to earth, the ionospherical-
passes through the ionosphere after slight refraction. Lower-angle wave is returned to earth by
the E layer, if frequency is low enough, at a maximum distance of 2000 km. The F- layer reflection
returns at a maximum distance of about 4000 km, depending on the radiation angle. It is shown
traversing a second path (double hop) from R2 to R4, the latter beyond single- hop range. The
lowest- angle wave reaches the maximum practical single-hop distance at R3. 'See reference 4.

18-3 Chapter 18
 columns of ionization formed around
FORT BELVOIR
meteors entering the earth% atmosphere.
APRIL 18,1962 0115 LST This can be anything from very short
bursts of little communications value to
sustained periods of usable signal level,
800 lasting up to a minute or more. Meteor
2 - hop
scatter is most common in the early
600 morning hours, and it can be an
foF2 foF2 interesting adjunct to amateur communi-
cation at 21 MHz and higher, espec-
E 400 1- hop
ially in periods of low solar activity.
It is at its best during major me-
200 teor showers.°

Backscatter
o A complex form of scatter is readily
observed when working near the maximum
2 3 4 5 usable frequency for the F layer at the
MHz time. The transmitted wave is refracted
back to earth at some distant point, which
Fig. 4 — F-layer ionogram taken at night during magnetically quiet conditions. The traces show may be an ocean area or a land mass
the breaking up into ordinary and extraordinary waves. Because it required twice the travel time, where there is no use of the frequency in
the double-hop return appears as having come from twice the height of the single-hop. question at the time. A small part of the
energy is scattered back to the skip zone
ly progagated wave can be reflected than single-sideband signals with sup- of the transmitter via the ionospheric
upward near RIor R2, travel again to the pressed carrier do. route.
ionosphere, and be refracted to earth. Backscatter signals are generally rather
This process can be repeated several times THE SCATTER MODES weak, and subject to some distortion from
under ideal propagation conditions, multipath effects. But with optimum
leading to communication beyond halfway Much long-distance propagation can be equipment they are usable at distances
around the world. Ordinarily ionospheric described in terms of discrete reflection, from just beyond the reliable local range
absorption and ground-reflection losses though the analogy is never precise since out to several hundred miles. Under ideal
exact tolls in signal level and quality, so true reflection would be possible only with conditions backscatter communication is
multiple-hop propagation usually yields perfect mirrors, and in a vacuum. All possible over 3000 miles or more, though
lower signal levels and more distorted electromagnetic wave propagation is sub- the term "sidescatter" is more descriptive
modulation than single-hop. This is not ject to scattering influences which alter of what probably happens on such long
always the case, and under ideal condi- idealized patterns to a great degree. The paths.
tions even long-way-around communica- earth's atmosphere and ionospheric layers The scatter modes contribute to the
tion is possible with good signals. There is are scattering media, as are most objects usefulness of the higher parts of the DX
evidence to support the theory that that intervene in the wave path as it leaves spectrum, especially during periods of low
signals for such communications, rather the earth. Strong returns are thought of as solar activity when the normal ionos-
than hopping, may be ducted through reflections and weaker ones as scattering, pheric modes are less often available.
the ionosphere for a good part of but both influences prevail. Scatter modes
the distance. have become useful tools in many kinds of MF AND HF PROPAGATION
communication.
The I.8-MHz band offers reliable
Fading Forward Scatter communication over distances up to at
Two or more parts of the wave may We describe askip zone as if there were least 50 miles during daylight. On winter
follow different paths, causing phase no signal heard between the end of useful nights ranges up to several thousand miles
differences between wave components at ground-wave range and the points RI or are possible.
the receiving end. Total field strength may The 3.5-MHz band is seldom usable
R2 of Fig. 3, but actually the transmitted
be greater or smaller than that of one beyond 200 miles in daylight, but long
signal can be detected over much of the
component. Fluctuating signal levels also distances are not unusual at night,
skip zone, with sufficiently sensitive
result from the changing nature of the especially in years of low solar activity.
devices and methods. A small portion of
wave path, as in the case of moving Atmospheric noise tends to be high in the
the transmitted energy is scattered back to
air-mass boundaries, in tropospheric pro- summer months on both 3.5 and 1.8
earth in several ways, depending on the
pagation on the higher frequencies. MHz.
frequency in use.
Changes in signal level, lumped under the The 7- MHz band has characteristics
Tropospheric scatter extends the local
term fading, arise from a variety of communications range to an increasing similar to 3.5 MHz, except that much
phenomena; some natural, some man- greater distances are possible in daylight,
degree with frequency, above about 20
made. Reflections from aircraft, and and more often at night. In winter dawn
MHz, becoming most useful in the vhf
ionospheric " holes" produced by the ex- and dusk periods it is possible to work the
range. Ionospheric scatter, mostly from
haust from large rocket engines, are in the other side of the world, as signals follow
the height of the E region, is most marked
latter category. at frequencies up to about 60 or 70 MHz. the darkness path.
Under some circumstances the wave The 14- MHz band is the most widely
Vhf tropospheric scatter 13 usable within
path may vary with very small changes in used DX band. In the peak years of the
the limits of amateur power levels and
frequency, so that modulation sidebands solar cycle it is open to distant parts of the
antenna techniques, out to nearly 500
arrive at the receiver out of phase, causing world almost continuously. During low
miles. Ionospheric forward scatter is
distortion that may be mild or severe. solar activity it is open mainly in the
discernible in the skip zone at distances up
Called selective fading, this problem to 1200 miles or so.
*Bain, " VHF Propagation by Meteor Trail Ioniza-
increases with signal bandwidth. Double- A majur Luinputient of ionospheric tion," QST, May 1974. Table or maim mew,
sideband a-m signals suffer much more scatter is that contributed by short-lived showers, Radio Amateur's VHF Manual, Ch. 2

Wave Propagation 18-4

 daylight hours, and is especially good in than on 50 MHz. Auroral propagation is and even as high as 432 MHz, under op-
the dawn and dusk periods. There is quite similar to that on 50 MHz, except timum conditions.
almost ,always a skip zone on this band. that signals tend to be somewhat weaker
The 21 -2114-14z band shows highly vari- and more distorted at 144. Tropospheric Sporadic-E Skip
able propagation depending on the level propagation improves with increasing fre- Patchy ionization of the E region of the
of solar activity. During sunspot maxima quency. It has been responsible for 144- ionosphere often propagates 28- and
it is useful for long-distance work almost MHz work over distances up to 2500 miles, 50-MHz signals over 400 to 1300 miles or
around the clock. At intermediate levels it and 500-mile contacts are fairly common more. Often called "short skip," this is
is mainly adaylight DX band. In the low in the warmer months. Reliable range on most common in May, June and July, with
years it is useful for transequatorial paths 144 is slightly less than on 50 under ashorter season around year end. Seasons
much of the year, but is open less often to minimum conditions. are reversed in the southern hemisphere. E
the high latitudes. Sporadic-E skip is skip can occur at any time or season, but is
220 MHz and Higher
common in early summer and midwinter. most likely in mid-morning or early
The 28- MHz band is excellent for DX Ionospheric propagation of the sorts evening. Multiple-hop effects may extend
communication in the peak solar-cycle discussed above is virtually unknown the range to 2500 miles or more.
years, but mostly in the daylight hours. above about 200 MHz. Auroral communi- E, propagation has been observed in the
The open time is shorter in the inter- cation is possible on 220 and 420 MHz, 144-MHz band, and on TV channels up to
mediate years, and is more confined to but probably not on higher frequencies, about 200 MHz. Minimum skip distance is
low-latitude and transequatorial paths as with amateur power levels. Tropospheric greater, and duration of openings much
solar activity drops off. For about two bending is very marked, and may be better shorter, on 144 MHz than on 50. Reception
years near the solar minimum, F-layer on 432 than on 144 MHz, for example. of strong Es signals from under 300 miles
openings tend to be infrequent, and Communication has been carried on over on 50 MHz indicates some possibility of
largely on north-south paths, with very paths far beyond line of sight, on all ama- skip propagation on 144, probably to 800
long skip. teur frequencies up through 10,000 MHz. miles or more.
Sporadic-E propagation keeps things Under minimum conditions, signal levels
interesting in the period from late April drop off slightly with each higher band. Aurora Effect
through early August on this band, and High-frequency communication may be
on 21 MHz, providing single-hop com- VHF/UHF PROPAGATION MODES wiped out or seriously impaired by absorp-
munication out to 1300 miles or so, and Known means by which vhf signals are tion in the ionosphere, during disturbances
multiple-hop to 2600 miles. Effects dis- propagated beyond the horizon are associated with high solar activity and
cussed in the following section on vhf pro- described below. variations in the earth's magnetic field. If
pagation also show up in this band, though this occurs at night in clear weather, there
tropospheric bending is less than on 50 F2-
Layer Reflection may be avisible aurora; but the condition
MHz. also develops in daylight, usually in late
Most communication on lower fre-
quencies is by reflection of the wave in the afternoon. Weak wavery signals in the 3.5-
THE WORLD ABOVE 50 MHz and 7- MHz bands are good indicators.
F region, highest of the ionized layers. Its
density varies with solar activity, the Vhf waves can be returned to earth
50 to 54 MHz
maximum usable frequency (muf) being from the auroral region, but the varying
This borderline region has some of the intensity of the aurora and its porosity as
highest in peak years of the sunspot cycle.
characteristics of both higher and lower apropagation medium impart amultipath
frequencies. Just about every form of The F2- layer muf is believed to have
distortion to the signal, which garbles or
wave propagation is found occasionally in reached an all-time high, near 70 MHz, in
even destroys any modulation. Distortion
the 50- MHz band, which has contributed the fall of 1958 (Cycle 19). Wherever the
increases with signal frequency and varies,
greatly to its popularity. Its utility for band was in use in late 1979, the best
often quite quickly, with the nature of the
service-area communication should not be months of Cycle 21, there was
aurora. Single-sideband is preferred to
overlooked. In the absence of any favor- phenomenal worldwide 50-MHz DX, and
modes requiring more bandwidth. The
able condition, the well-equipped 50- MHz an muf of at least 65 MHz on the North
most effective mode is cw, which may be
station should be able to work regularly Atlantic path. Cycle 20 brought marginal
the only reliable communications method
over aradius of 75 to 100 miles or more, 50-MHz DX in 1968 to 1970, but less than
at 144 MHz and higher, during most
depending on terrain and antenna size and Cycle 18, 1946 to 1950, and Cycle 21, not
auroras.
height. yet complete.
Propagation is generally from the
Changing weather patterns extend cov- The muf for F2- layer propagation
north, but probing with a directional
erage to 300 miles or more at times, main- follows daily, monthly and seasonal
array is recommended. Maximum range is
ly in the warmer months. Sporadic-E skip cycles, all related to conditions on the sun,
about 1300 miles, though 50- MHz signals
provides seasonal openings for work over as with the hf bands. Frequency checks
are heard occasionally over greater dis-
400 to 2500 miles in seasons centered on will show if the muf is rising or falling,
tances, usually with little or no auroral
the longest and shortest days of the year. and the times and directions for which it is
distortion.
Auroral effects afford vhf operators in the highest. Two-way work has been done
How often auroral communication is
temperate latitudes an intriguing form of over about 1800 to 12,500 miles; even
possible is related to the geomagnetic
DX up to about 1300 miles. During the greater, if daylight routes around the
latitude of participating stations, auroras
peak of " 11-year" sunspot cycle 50- MHz earth the long way are included.
being most frequent in northeastern USA
DX of worldwide proportions may be
The TE Mode and adjacent areas of Canada. They are
workable by reflections of waves by the
rare below about 32° N in the Southeast
ionospheric F2 layer. Various weak-signal Also associated with high solar activity
and about 38 to 40° N in the Southwest.
scatter modes round out the 50-MHz pro- is atransequatorial mode, having an muf
The highest frequency for auroral returns
pagation fare. somewhat higher than the F2. This is
depends on equipment and antennas, but
observed most often between points up to
144 to 148 MHz auroral communication has been achieved
2500 miles north and south of the geo-
up to at least 432 MHz.
Ionospheric effects are greatly reduced magnetic equator, mainly in late afternoon
at 144 MHz. F-layer propagation is un- or early evening.' Work done by amateurs, 'World Radio and TV Handbook, Billboard Publica-
known. Sporadic-E skip is rare and much beginning in 1976, has shown that the TE tions, London WI V IPG, England; 2160 Patterson
St., Cincinnati, OH 45124. Gilfer Associates, Box
more limited in duration and coverage mode works in the 144-MHz band, 239, Park Ridge, NJ 07656.

18-5 Chapter 18
Tropospheric Bending distances are 600 to 1200 miles. consideration. This job is made easier if
Backscatter, common on lower fre- we understand the causes of the ups and
An easily anticipated extension of nor- quencies, is observed on 50 MHz during downs, so familiarity with basic in-
mal vhf coverage results from abrupt ionospheric propagation, mainly of the F2 formation given earlier in this chapter is
changes in the refractive index of the atmos- variety. Conditions for 50-MHz backscat- helpful.
phere, at boundaries between air masses ter are similar to those for the hf bands, What frequencies are "open," and
of differing temperature and humidity detailed earlier in this chapter. where the cutoff in ionospheric pro-
characteristics. Such warm-dry over cool- Scatter from meteor trails in the E pagation lies in the spectrum can be
moist boundaries often lie along the region can cause signal enhancement, or determined quite readily by tuning up-
southern and western edges of stable slow- isolated bursts of signal from astation not ward in frequency with ageneral-coverage
moving areas of fair weather and high baro- otherwise heard. Strength and duration of receiver, until ionospherically propagated
metric presure. Tropospheric bending meteor bursts decrease with increasing signals are no longer heard. The muf for
can increase signal levels from within signal frequency, but the mode is popular the day and the times that a given fre-
the normal working range, or bring for marginal communication in the 50- quency band opens or closes can be found
in more distant stations, not norm- and 144- MHz bands. It has been used on in this way. A daily log will show if con-
ally heard. 220 MHz, and, more marginally, on 432 ditions are improving or deteriorating.
A condition known as ducting or MHz. Listening in the amateur bands and on
trapping may simulate propagation within Random meteor bursts can be heard by immediately adjacent frequencies may be
awaveguide, causing vhf waves to follow cooperating vhf stations at any time or the only way to do this, if the receiver is
earth curvature for hundreds or even season, but early-morning hours are the amateur-bands-only variety. Most DX
thousands of miles. Ducting incidence preferred. Major meteor showers (August bands are narrower in other parts of the
increases with frequency. It is rare on 50 Perseids and December Geminids) pro- world than in the Americas, so there is no
MHz, fairly common on 144, and more so vide frequent bursts. Some other showers lack of round-the-clock occupancy by
on higher frequencies. It occurs most have various periods, and may show other services, ordinarily. Most receivers
often in temperate or low latitudes. It was phenomenal burst counts in peak years. also cover somewhat more than the actual
the medium for the W6NLZ-KH6UK Distances are similar to other E-layer com- amateur assignments, at their widest, so
work on 144, 220 and 432 MHz, over a munication. some commercial and governmental sig-
2540-mile path. Gulf Coast states see it All scatter communication requires nals can be found close by our band edges.
often, the Atlantic Seaboard, Great Lakes good equipment and optimum operating A worldwide listing of stations, by fre-
and Mississippi Valley areas occasionally, methods. The narrow-band modes are quency, is useful in identifying signals for
usually in September and October. superior to wide-band systems. propagation monitoring purpose. Don't
Many local conditions contribute to overlook W I AW; frequencies and sche-
tropospheric bending. Convection in coastal PROPAGATION PREDICTION dule are listed in every QST.
areas in warm weather; rapid cooling of Ability to tune to 5MHz and multiples
Information on the prediction of maxi-
the earth after a hot day, with upper air thereof, to receive the standard time-
mum usable frequencies (muf) and opti-
cooling more slowly; warming of air aloft and-frequency stations now operating in
mum working frequencies for F-layer pro-
with the summer sunrise; subsidence of many parts of the world, is agreat aid. See
pagation was formerly available from the
cool moist air into valleys on calm Table 1. Most such stations operate
U.S. Government Printing Office. The
summer evenings — these familiar situa- continuously, with appreciable power and
material took several forms, as methods
tions create upper-air conditions which omnidirectional antennas. WWV and
developed for military communications
can extend normal vhf coverage. WWVH are excellent indicators, at any
use were adapted to worldwide civilian
The alert vhf enthusiast soon learns to suitable distance from Colorado or Hawaii.
needs. Though the service was terminated
correlate various weather signs and Their signal behavior can tell the expe-
in 1975, the basic methods are still of
propagation patterns. Temperature and rienced observer at least as much about
interest. A full description may be found
barometric-pressure trends, changing cloud propagation — at the moment — as does
in QST for March, 1972. 8 The govern-
formations, wind direction, visibility and the content of their propagation bulletins.
ment information is available in some
other natural indicators can give him clues Many receivers can be made to tune some
technical libraries. The propagation charts
as to what is in store in the way of tropos- of these frequencies by detuning their
which appear regularly in QST are
pheric propagation. front-panel tracking controls. See Septem-
computer-derived from information simi-
The 50- MHz band is more responsive ber 1975 QST, page 23, for suggestions.
lar to that described in reference 8.
to weather effects than 28, and 144 MHz Simple crystal-controlled converters for
Other means are available to amateurs
is much more active than 50. This trend the standard frequencies offer another
who wish to make their own predictions,
continues into the microwave region, as possibility (June 1976 QST, page 25).
both short- and long-term. An appreciable
evidenced by tropospheric records on all amount of observing and record-keeping Recurring Phenomena
our bands, up to and including work over time is involved at first, but the work can
many long paths on 10,000 MHz. Because the sun is responsible for all
be streamlined with practice. Many
radio-propagation variables, their rhyth-
amateurs who try it find the task almost
The Scatter Modes mic qualities are related to time, season
as interesting as any operational suc-
Though they provide signal levels too and other sun-earth factors. Some are
cess that may result from it. Properly
low for routine communication, several obvious. Others, particularl; the rota-
organized, data collection and propa- tional period of the sun, abo' 27.5 days,
scatter modes attract the advanced vhf gation prediction can become an ideal
operator. show best in long-term chartrecords kept
group project. on amonthly or four-week bais. Recur-
Tropospheric scatter offers marginal
communication up to 500 miles or so, rence data are used in nearly all prediction
Getting Started
almost regardless of conditions and work done presently, and the data can
Because most factors have well-defined
frequency, when optimum equipment and yield fair accuracy.
cyclical trends, the first step in pro- If the muf is high and conditions are
methods are used. pagation prediction is to become familiar
Ionospheric scatter is useful mainly on generally good for several days, asimilar
with the rhythm of these trends for the
condition is likely to prevail four weeks
50 MHz, where it usually is acomposite of geographical location and season under
meteor bursts and aweak residual scatter later, when the same area of the sun will
.Hall, "High- Frequency Propagation Estimations be in view from the earth. Ionospheric
signal. The latter may be heard only when
optimum conditions prevail. The best for the Radio Amateur," QST, March 1972. disturbances also generally follow the

Wave Propagation 18-8

 cies at other observatories. The 2800-MHz
Table 1 flux is given because this value correlates
well with the ionization density of the
Some time and frequency stations useful for propagation monitoring.
ionospheric F region, with the Zurich
Call Frequency (kHz) Location
sunspot number (see Fig. 1), and with the
WWV 2500, 5000, 10,000, 15,000, 20,000 Ft. Collins, Colorado maximum usable frequency for long-
WWVH Same as WWV, but no 20,000 Kekaha, Kauai, Hawaii
CHU 3330, 7335, 14,670 distance communication.
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
RID 5004, 10,004, 15,004 Irkutsk, USSR• A solar flux value of 66 represents
RWM 4996, 9996, 14,996 Novosibirsk, USSR• "quiet sun" conditions. It will be heard
ZUO 2500, 5000 Pretoria, South Africa only in the years near the minimum of the
VNG 7500 Lyndhurst, Australia
BPV 5000, 10,000, 15,000
solar cycle, most recently 1975 and 1976.
Shanghai, China
JJY 2500, 5000, 10,000, 15,000 Tokyo, Japan
At such times any flux variation is worthy
LOL 5000, 10,000, 15,000 Buenos Aires, Argentina of note, as it will produce an observable
change in long-distance propagation in
'Call, from international table, may not check with actual reception. Locations and frequencies
appear to be as given.
the hf range. Large increases in flux values
come from large new active areas on the
sun, which will be apparent to the regular
viewer of the sun. The short-term effects
27-day cycle, though there may be marked announcement at 18 minutes after each of flares do not appear in the solar flux
differences in level from one period to the hour. values, unless they are very large and
next. The solar flux is ameasure of the sun's numerous. Flares are mentioned in the
Some solar-activity centers are short- radiation at 2800 MHz, taken daily at bulletins, if they are major events capable
lived, lasting less than a full rotation. 1700 UTC in Ottawa. Similar measure- of affecting radio propagation.
Others go on and on, recognizable from ments are made on many different frequen- A steady rise or fall in solar flux will
their propagation effects for a year or
more. Recurring phenomena are more
apparent in the low-activity years of the
235 -
solar cycle, most of them being far enough
230 -
apart to be clearly identifiable. In April JANUARY
225 -
and May, 1976, for example, there were 220 -
three well-separated areas affecting radio 215 -
propagation. All were of "the old cycle." 210 -
H FEB 1
There were also three new-cycle areas seen 205 -

briefly, but with no recognizable radio- 200

propagation influence. The WWV pro- 195 -

pagation bulletins described will be seen 190 -

to show recurring effects, if their content 185 -

•
is charted for extended periods. 180 LOW 179
I III II IIIII I il 1111 1 11111111111111
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 1 3
WWV Propagation Bulletins
The National Bureau of Standards 245

radio station WWV, Ft. Collins, CO, 240 JAN -

34 ----2 43 - HIGH SINCE
, ,
235
transmits hourly bulletins on solar activity FEB 31968 -. NAR H
230
and the condition of the earth's magnetic FEBRUARY
225
field. This information is essentially 220
current, and thus invaluable to any 215

student of radio propagation. Putting it 210

into simple chart form and using it in 205

conjunction with visual observation of the 200

sun provides an excellent base for 195

propagation understanding and predic- 190

185
tion. The WWV ( and WWVH) signals
180
themselves are also very useful in gather-
175
ing propagation data, as the stations are 170
on the air continuously, using constant
30 1 3
power levels and omnidirectional anten- 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 1 3

nas. It should be stated here that WWVH 215 -

(Kekaha, HI) does not carry the bul- 210 .4-FEBH
letin service, but its signals provide 205 MARCH
valuable propagation evidence. Other 200 -

time-and-frequency stations, some of 195 -

which are listed in Table 1, can be used 190

similarly. 185

In order of their presentation, the 180

WWV bulletins give the solar flux and 175

A-index for the previous Universal Time 170

(UT) day; the Boulder K-index (changed 165 - 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 I 1111111111[1111111111

27 1 3 5 7
every 3 hours); the state of solar activity 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31

and the condition of the earth's magnetic

field for the previous 24 hours, and the Fig. 5 — Graphs of 2800- MHz solar flux values for the first three months of 1979, approaching the
same factors predicted for the coming 24 peak of Cycle 21. The same period in 1976, near the bottom of Cycle 20, had values between 68
and 85. The dates are arranged so that days one solar rotation (27.5 days, average) apart line up
hours. The bulletin starts after the time
vertically. Recurring solar phenomena are clearly apparent.

18-7 Chapter 18
show clearly in radio propagation effects, relates to fast-changing conditions that active. These three words rather aptly
and also in the observer's view of sunspot affect propagation adversely. Activity is describe the propagation conditions as-
activity. Trends either way are important given as very low, low, moderate, high or sociated with them and with the K indices.
to the propagation student. They often very high. Often any K value of 4 or higher will be
run for several days, during which the Geomagnetic field conditions are termed associated with a "geomagnetic storm,"
associated changes in muf, and in the quiet, unsettled or active. These relate usually described as " minor" or " major."
duration and geographical distribution of roughly to K indices of 0to 1for quiet, I Either is bad news for the amateur interest-
openings on frequencies above about 15 to 3 for unsettled, and 4 or higher for ed in high-latitude hf communication.
MHz, are easily observed. Flux readings
of 80 or higher will make the 21- and 3E-
28- MHz bands come alive, even near the 28- JANUARY 1-11-F68
bottom of the solar cycle. 24-
In the intermediate years of the cycle, as 20-
in 1977 to 1979, flux values tend to range 16 -
between about 100 and 200, the latter 12 -
being high enough to make even the
8
50-MHz band worth watching for world-
4 -
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 1- 3
111111111111111 1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
o 111111111111111

wide communication on the more favored

paths. When values above 200 come, the 36 -
32 -JAN.-Pi I
-1MAR -
21- and 28- MHz bands are open almost FEBRUARY
around the clock during the cooler months
28 -
of the year. Sustained periods above 250,
24 -
20 -
particularly in spring and fall, will bring 16 -
widespread 50- MHz openings. 12 -
The A-index is a24-hour figure for the e
activity of the geomagnetic field, on a 4-
scale of 0 to 400 or so, though values of ° 30
1 1
1 3 5 7 9 11
1 I I I I 1 I I 1 I I I
13
1 I
15
IIIII1I
17 19 21
I
23
I I
25
1 I
27
I I
1
100 or more are rare. A quiet field (A 44 -
indices of 10 or lower) is characteristic of 40
the best propagation conditions. Absorp- 36 -
32 - MARCH
tion of wave energy is low at such times,
so signals are strong on long paths. This
28 -
effect is most noticeable on circuits
29 -
20 -
crossing the higher latitudes, where very 16 -
low K values must prevail or propagation 12 -
will be very poor or nonexistent. The e—
effect of geomagnetic activity is very slight 4-
27 I 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
11111111
on low-latitude paths or any circuit 1 I I I I 1 11 I 1 I 1 1 1 I I 1

crossing the equator. In fact, it is observed

that north-south or transequatorial pro- 66 - 66
HIGH SINCE
pagation may improve briefly at the onset 62 --MARCH-H AUGUST,1978 I

of a period of high A ( and K) indices, 58 -

especially on the highest frequency that is 54 - APRIL
usable at all. 50 -
The K-index is similar to the A-index, 46 -
except that it is as near to acurrent figure 42 -
as can be given in bulletin form. It is also 38 -
given on adifferent mathematical scale, in
39 -
order to make short-term changes more
30
26
apparent. The information given by 22
WWV is for Boulder, Colorado. It is 8
likely to be higher for Boston, and lower 14 --
for San Francisco or New Orleans, both 10 -
the latter cities having much lower 6-
geomagnetic latitude than either Boulder 28
20 22 24 26
1111)11
27
29 31 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
— 111111111111111 1 _,L,1_1 1111

or Boston, while Boston's is higher than

Boulder's. 40 APRIL -A-
The K-index is given for three-hour 36- 66- SEE
periods beginning at 0000, 0300, 0600, 32 - ABOVE . RIGHT MAY
0900, 1200, 1500, 1800 and 2100 UT. It
28-
represents the conditions during the last
24-
three hours just before the bulletin's time
of issue. Thus, it is close to anow state-
2016-
12 -
-\
ment of a factor of vital importance to e—
any user of the hf radio spectrum. It may 4-
18 20 22 24 26
I

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 I 1 ! 1 I 1 1 1 I
interest vhf operators as well, when the 24 26 28 30
1 I 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I I I I
0

values go above 3. The trend is important

— arising trend means degraded hf prop-
Fig 6 — A-index information transmitted by WWV for the first four months of 1979, arranged to show
nation; values of 4 and up may mean effects of recurring solar phenomena, as in Fig. 5. Recurrence dates vary because of the varying
auroral conditions on the vhf bands. travel time of charged particles from the sun that cause geomagnetic disturbances on Earth.
Solar Activity, as the term is used in the A-indices of 10 and lower go with 0000 nf propagation. Peaks above 20 nearly always are accern-
final portion of the WWV bulletins, panied by high signal absorption. Auroral effects are common in high latitudes at these times.

Wave Propagation 18-8

"Major" may include atotal or near-total
W1AW Propagation Bulletins
interruption of all communication on the
For those who may not have time or interest to
lower hf bands. It is likely to be accompa-
do their own predicting, short-term predictions
nied by auroral conditions on the vhf of propagation conditions are carried daily on
bands, at least in the higher latitudes. the Headquarters station, W1AW. (See
K values are used to derive the A-index schedule in April and October PST, or write
for the Whole UT day. The manner in ARRL for a copy.) These bulletins are designed
to supplement the propagation charts given in
which this is done is rather involved. It is OST, and to provide the best available informa-
spelled out in detail in reference I. tion on the conditions to be expected in the
Explanation of the bulletin data in greater next few days after the bulletin date. Normally
detail is also given, though the form of the the text is changed weekly, but new informa-
tion is included whenever it becomes available.
bulletins is now different from that
The bulletin contents are made up from a
described in the three 1975 QST articles. combination of daily monitoring and charting
Information on all WWV services can be of all WWV information, observation of the sun
had by writing the National Bureau of with advanced equipment, and frequent
Fig. 7— Projection viewing of the sun's image monitoring of the amateur hf and vhf bands. In-
Standards, Boulder, CO 80302.
with a4- inch ( 102- mm) reflector-type telescope. teresting propagation events of recent days are
White- paper viewing surface is cemented in the reported, in order to put new information in
Keeping Records
bottom of ablack-sprayed cardboard box. proper perspective.
In agroup project, or for the individual
observer who has the time for it, charting rialloosi.11.14.4211,
/IMP

all WWV information is very useful. A

less time-consuming effort, since it requires already have much better instruments
logging only asingle bulletin each day, is a available. Moderately priced 2- or 3-inch
chart record of the solar flux and A-index (51- or 76-mm) refractors give beautiful
only. Depending on the time available, detail with light-exclusion viewing.
this record can take many forms. In the Telescopes with more than 4-inch
interest of readability here, Figs. 5and 6 (102-mm) aperture are not recommended
are separate records of the solar flux and for projection, as they may develop
A-index. Both are plotted in four-week enough internal heating to damage optical
periods, lined up vertically to show recur- components. Large telescopes also
rent effects resulting from the solar rota- introduce mechanical stability problems,
tional period. unless mounted on permanent supports or
For his own purposes the author tripods of exceptional sturdiness.
developed a compact form containing Better definition is available with larger
much more detail than could be repro- Fig. 8 — Direct viewing of the sun should be telescopes when they are used for direct
duced clearly. Graph paper having five done only with a telescope equipped with an viewing, as shown in Fig. 8. This requires
aperture filter known to be safe for this pur-
blocks to the inch is cut to just over 54 a safe solar filter, mounted over the
pose. Telescope is a Celestron 5 with the
blocks high and 73 blocks wide. This maker's solar filter, which passes 0.01 percent telescope aperture. Never look at the sun
format was chosen to fit astandard binder of impinging light. A brimmed hat shading the directly, with the naked eye, binoculars or
11-1/2 X 15-1/2 inches (292 X 394 mm) in observer's eyes from direct rays of the sun any telescope, except through asolar filter
helps to improve visual acuity.
size. Two blocks per day are used horizon- known to be safe. Such a filter should
tally, the record beginning a day or two pass no more than 0.01 percent of the im-
before the first of the month, and running pinging light, and it should be reasonably
over up to three days at the end, for better fully by anyone, including professionals. uniform across the whole solar spectrum.
continuity in the total information. Solar It is a wide-open field. Do not use eyepiece filters. Be sure that
flux values are plotted in the upper por- the aperture filter is mounted firmly so
tion of the sheet, using two squares for Advanced Solar Observation
that it cannot come off while the telescope
each five flux units. The A and K indices Regular viewing of the sun should be a is in use. Never look at the sun without it.
share the lower portion, using different part of any major propagation-prediction Visual acuity is very important. Even
scales. The A-index is plotted at two units effort. Even simple projection with a people who think they have satisfactory
per block and the K-index at one unit per low-cost telescope, as shown in Fig. 2, is eyesight, with or without glasses, may find
block. Using a different color for each well worthwhile, if it is done regularly and that keener eyes will see much solar
item helps to keep them sorted out visual- drawings are made to record what is seen. surface detail that they miss. Have a
ly: Improvements in technique need not be younger helper, if you are middle aged or
Much more information can be added. costly. A desirable first step is a light. older.
Brief propagation notes, drawings of the exclusion box. An example, shown in use
sun for the more significant dates, and a in Fig. 7, uses a corrugated-paper box Interpreting What You See and Hear
record of the solar flux and A-index sprayed dull black, inside and out, with a In viewing the sun with a celestial
values for the corresponding day four white viewing surface cemented in the telescope equipped with a star diagonal
weeks before are commonly used. If the bottom. The observer should position and avertical eyepiece, one sees the solar
record for the previous solar rotation is himself so as to see as little light other disk with the east limb on the right and
inked in lightly (solar flux and A-index than that of the solar image as possible. A the west limb on the left. This is the
only) when the chart is first set up, it will wide-brim hat is useful in this. For a opposite of the view obtained with the
make anticipation of recurring effects complete black-box viewing system that setup of Fig. 2, but is more natural since it
much easier. It should be emphasized that can be built from plywood and simple simulates a map. Visible solar activity
solar rotation time is by no means the optical components, see reference 2. moves across the disk from right to left,
whole story. Clearly there are occasional The small refractor telescope shown in on a line parallel with the solar equator.
surprises which are not explained by this Fig. 2is alow-priced model. Scopes in this The apparent position of the equator
factor alone. Activity centers die out and general range work well, especially with varies with the time of day and the
new ones are born, seemingly without the light-exclusion methods described position of the viewer, but it can be
reason. Prediction of these seeming above. Many radio amateurs are also determined readily if drawings are made
anomalies presents achallenge not yet met interested in astronomy, and thus may during each observation. Knówing the

18-9 Chapter 18
position of the equator is important in improvement in hf conditions that will regardless of size or position on the sun.
identifying activity as belonging to the old last as long as the K-index remains low. A (Both size and position are important con-
or new cycle, in times of transition. rise in muf will be apparent at such times, siderations in assessing the effects of
Old-cycle spots move near the equator. and propagation will remain good on all changing solar activity on radio propaga-
New-cycle activity appears some 30° above frequencies foi several days, barring tion.) The constant, k, is in effect a
or below. sudden solar change which is always a "rating" of the individual observer, based
In good projection, or with properly possibility. on the equipment and skill, and the at-
safeguarded direct viewing, bright patches If, on the first attempt at solar viewing, mospheric transparency at his or her
may be seen, especially near the east or one sees sizeable spots or groups, it is well observing site. Though this system is
west limbs. Known as plage, faculae, or to remember that these may represent ac- cumbersome, and vague at best, it is the
flocculi, these patches identify active areas tivity in adeclining phase. If so, they may only statistical link with solar history prior
that may or may not include visible spots. move across the disc with only minor ap- to 1947, when the solar flux program
When seen on the east limb, they may be parent change. Keep watch though — the began. Its continuance on the same basis
advance notice of spots due in another area could be brought back to active state is thus of some considerable value.
day or two. They serve as warning of again by forces not yet fully understood. Provisional American daily sunspot
propagation changes several days away, This is why long-term predictions are numbers, RA I, are issued weekly by
and their appearance may coincide with doomed to occasional abject failure and AAVSO. This program is handled by
the start of asteady rise in solar flux and why short-term prediction, using all the Casper Hossfield, KA2DKD, chairman of
in the muf as well. Faculae may identify tools available, is such an exciting and the Solar Division. The smoothed sunspot
new activity in which spots will appear useful pursuit. number, often shown graphically in solar
four weeks later, or they may be the records and referred to in Fig. 1, is
residue of declining activity that contained SUNSPOT NUMBERS prepared as the cycle progresses, but it is
spots last time around. They can be avital AND THE SOLAR FLUX tentative until after the cycle is over. Daily
part of visual records, and their signifi- Information about solar cycles is usu- sunspot number comparisons with the
cance will increase as records accumulate. ally based on the statistically smoothed In- solar flux may not follow the curve of Fig.
In their first or last day on the east or ternational Sunspot Number (R1). From 1, though long-term averages should do
west limb, respectively, sizeable spots or 1840 through 1980 this number was com- so.
groups usually show as fine lines on or puted at the Institute of Astronomy at the Using Solar Flux Data
close to the edge of the image. Some detail Federal College of Technology (ETH) in
The daily solar flux reading at 2800
will begin to show on the second day of Zurich, and was known as the Zurich
MHz, available hourly on WWV, is more
new or recurring activity, and sketches Sunspot Number (Rz). This work is now
closely related to radio conditions than is
should be made as accurately as possible. the responsibility of the Sunspot Index
the sunspot number. It correlates well
Note any changes in additional sketches, Data Center (SIDC) at the Royal Obser-
marked with date and time. Changes in with the ionization density of the F2 layer,
vatory of Belgium. CCIR document
appearance and growth or decay are and thus with the maximum usable fre-
6/229-E gives the details of the R1 com-
quency for long-distance communication.
significant indicators, becoming more so putation method.
on consecutive rounds of long-lived Solar flux values range from about 66
Daily and smoothed sunspot numbers
activity centers. (quiet sun, near the bottom of the solar
are compiled from observations made all
cycle) to highs of over 300, reached in the
Increasing size and number of spots will over the world. The Solar Division of the peak months of only the more-active
be reflected in a rise in solar flux on the American Association of Variable Star cycles. There were four days over 300 in
WWV bulletins, particularly the one for Observers (AAVSO) has been a major
November 1979, and readings in the 280s
0000 UTC and in rising F-layer muf. Sud- contributor to this program since 1944,
in May 1980.
den large growth, or amajor breakup of a receiving financial and technical support
The significance of rising or falling
large spot or group, may show radio ef- from the National Oceanic and At- solar flux values differs with the season
fects at once — arise in muf and perhaps mospheric Administration (NOAA) in and With the latitude of the stations in-
aconsiderable increase in noise level. The Boulder, Colorado. The 2800-MHz solar volved. In the temperate latitudes the muf
latter is more obvious when using adirec- flux (see " Solar Phenomena," at the is highest, for agiven solar flux value, in
tive array that can be aimed at the sun. beginning of this chapter) is much more the cool months of the year. There is
The noise burst and visible change will useful for short-term propagation study much less seasonal effect in the equatorial
almost certainly be accompanied by and prediction. regions. Transequatorial paths also show
particle radiation increase, the radio
little seasonal change. In general, a solar
effects of which will be increased absorp- Interpreting Sunspot Numbers
flux of 80 or so, even in the lowest years of
tion of hf signal energy, and possibly "Sunspot Number" is not number of the cycle, can bring brief flurries of DX
auroral conditions on 28 MHz or the vhf sunspots. Often called the " Wolf on 28 MHz, in the northern hemisphere
bands, one to four days later. ( Rising K- Number," after its Swiss originator, the fall. Values over 200 work similarly for
index on WWV, possibly without warning relative sunspot number, R, is derived 50- MHz F-layer activity, if they come be-
on previous bulletins.) from tween late October and early December. A
Slower growth, barely distinguishable
R = k(10G + S), sustained period of high flux values has
from day to day, will be accompanied by
more significance in this respect than a
rising solar-flux numbers, probably a where G is the number of sunspot groups,
point or two daily, and a gradual single peak day.
and S is the number of sunspots, both

Wave Propagation 18-10

 Chapter 19

Transmission Lines

T ransmission lines, and the theory

behind them, play an important role in
section along the line), only two para-
meters are required to express the line
circuitry, it is convenient to be able to
express the input impedance of a line in
many phases of radio communication. properties completely. These are the phase terms of the output or load impedance. A
This is because the basic principles velocity, vp and the characteristic impe- line treated this way is then similar to a
involved can be applied to awide variety dance, Zo. If the line can be considered filter or matching network with a given
of problems. Types of transmission lines lossless as well, Zo becomes apure resis- load impedance. One caution should be
— include simple two-conductor configura- tance, Ro. kept in mind in applying such relations
tions such as the familiar coaxial cable Assume that avery short burst of power and that is the manner in which the source
and TV parallel-wire line. Such lines are is emitted from the source. This is and load are connected to the line can be
useful from power frequencies to well up represented by the vertical line at the left important. There are always some "para-
into the microwave region and form of the series of lines in Fig. 2. As the pulse sitic" effects arising from connectors and
perhaps the most important class. The voltage appears across the load Za, all the post-connector circuit configuration that
waveguide is representative of a second energy may be absorbed or part of it may may cause the line to "see" a different
type. Here, the conductor configuration is be reflected in much the same manner impedance than if measurements were
rather complex and ordinary concepts energy in a wave in water is reflected as made at the load terminals directly. This is
such as voltage and current tend to the wave hits a steep breakwater or the indicated by the abrupt change in line
/ become obscure. As a consequence, end of acontainer. This reflected wave is dimensions at points a and g in Fig. I.
various parameters are expressed in terms represented by the second line in the series Even though the short line connecting the
of the electric and magnetic fields and the arrow above indicates the generator to the main transmission line
associated with the line. Finally, the direction of travel. As the latter wave (and the one connecting the load to the
propagation of electromagnetic energy reaches the source, the process is again line) might have the same characteristic
through space itself is closely related to repeated with either all of the energy being
similar phenomena in wave guides and absorbed or partially reflected.
transmission lines. In fact, the only The back-and-forth cycle is actually an
significant physical difference is that the infinite one but after afew reflections, the
power density in a wave propagated in intensity of the wave becomes very small.
space decreases with increasing distance If, instead of ashort pulse, acontinuous
while it is possible to transmit power over voltage is applied to the terminals of a
long distances with conventional lines transmission line, the voltage at any point
with little attenuation. This is because along the line will consist of a sum of
power flow is essentially confined to one voltages of the composite of waves
dimension in the latter case while the traveling toward the right and a com-
three-dimensional aspect of space does posite of waves traveling toward the left.
not permit such confinement. The total sum of the waves traveling Fig. 1 — Source and load connected by means
toward the right is called the forward wave of a transmission line.
Transmission Lines and Circuits or incident wave while the one traveling
A transmission line differs from an toward the left is called the reflected wave.
ordinary circuit in one very important Provided certain conditions concerning Za
aspect. Delay effects associated with the are met, there will be anet flow of energy 10"

finite propagation time of electromagnetic from the source to the load, with afrac-
energy are often neglected in network tion of the energy being stored in the
design since the dimensions involved are "standing" waves on the line. This
normally small compared to the wave- phenomenon is identical to the case of a 5
length of any frequencies present in the coupled resonator with ordinary circuit
circuit. This is not true in transmission- elements. Sections of transmission line are I* • Inep
line considerations. The finite propaga- often used for this purpose, especially in
tion time becomes afactor of paramount the vhf/uhf region. The duplexer found in o I I r r
-
importance. This can be illustrated with many vhf repeaters is acommon example. o t 27 37 47 57 67 77 BY

the aid of Fig. I. A transmission line

separates asource at point g from aload Line Factors and Equations
Fig. 2 — Magnitudes of components for for-
at point aby adistance /. If the line is uni- Since transmission lines are usually ward and reverse traveling waves of a short
form (same conductor shape at any cross connected between lumped or discrete pulse on a transmission line.

19-1 Chapter 19
impedance, if the sizes are different a Fortunately, it is possible to determine Since the foregoing transmission-line
mismatch will still occur. Normally, this the input resistance and reactance of a equations are somewhat awkward to work
effect can be neglected at hf but becomes terminated line if the load resistance and with, various plots have been devised that
important as the frequency of operation is reactance are known, along with the line permit a graphical solution. However,
extended into the vhf region and above. length and characteristic impedance. (With with modern programmable calculators,
In referring to the previous example actual lines, the physical length must be even those in a moderate price class, it
shown in Fig. 2, the ratio of the voltage in divided by the velocity factor of the cable takes approximately four seconds to solve
the reflected wave to that of the voltage in which gives the value of lin the following both equations. The plots shown in Fig.
the incident wave is defined as the voltage formula.) The equations are 3A and Fig. 3B were computed in this
reflection coefficient designated by the manner. The curves are for ri a and xh, for
Greek letter, f , or by p. The relation various values of ra (Xa equal to 0) and line

between the output resistance, Ra, the r

a(1 + tan 2f3/) length in degrees. Note that 90 degrees
output reactance, Xa, the line impedance, = appears to be a "critical" value and
(1 — xatanf3.1) 2 + ( ratan/31)2
Zo, and the magnitude of the reflection co- represents a line length of a quarter
efficient is wavelength. As this value is approached,
x
in = the transmission-line equations can be
= Ra — R0)
2 Xa2 approximated by the formulas:
/(R 0 Ra)
2 Xa2 xa(1 — tan 2P/) + ( 1 — r
a2 — Xa2)tale
r
a
Note that if Ra is equal to 11 0,and if Xa is (1 — xatanp./) 2 + (r
atan0.1) 2
rin
ra 2 xa 2
0 the reflection coefficient is 0, which
represents " matched" conditions. All the for a 1-ohm line. Equations are often -x,
energy in the incident wave is transferred "normalized" this way in order to make = ,
to the load. In effect, it was as if there universal tables or plots that cover awide r
ah + Xa2

were an infinite line of characteristic range of values. If characteristic impe- If Xa is zero, the formula for a quarter-
impedance Zo connected at a. On the dances (Zo) other than 1.0 are to be used, wavelength transformer is obtained:
other hand, if Ra is 0, regardless of the the following set of conversions apply
value of Xa the reflection coefficient is 1.0. where Ra and Xa are the load resistance Rin = Zo2/R a
This means all the power is reflected in and reactance and Rin and Xio represent
much the same manner as radiant energy the resistance and reactance at the input Quite often, it is mistakenly assumed that
is reflected from a mirror. end of the line. power reflected from a load represents
If there are no reflections from the load, power " lost" in some way. This is only
the voltage distribution along the line is Ra true if there is considerable loss in the line
constant or " flat" while if reflections Ri n = Zorin itself and the power is dissipated on the
ra = o
exist, astanding-wave pattern will result. way back to the source. On the other
The ratio of the maximum voltage on the hand, the quarter-wavelength transformer
line to the minimum value (provided the Xa is an example where reflections on a
xi n = ZoXin
line is longer than aquarter wavelength) is xa = 7 0— lossless line can actually be used to
defined as the voltage standing-wave ratio advantage in matching aload impedance
(VSWR). The VSWR is related to the In order to determine the value of the that is different from the source im-
reflection coefficient by tangent function, either the line length in pedance.
meters or feet, along with the frequency in If the terminating resistance is zero, the
VSWR — 1 + r and f= VSWR — 1 MHz, can be substituted into the fol- input resistance is also zero. In effect, the
i—r VSWR + 1 lowing expressions: line and load act as a pure reactance
This latter definition is a more general which is given by the formula:
one,valid for any line length. Quite often, 0/(degrees) = 1.2f(mHz) X '(meters) Xa + tan/3/
the actual load impedance is unknown. xi n =
131(degrees) = 0.367f-(MHz) X i(feet) 1 — xatanp/
An alternate way of expressing the
reflection coefficient is

100

=
Pf

where
= the power in the reflected wave
and
Pf = the power in the forward wave.
1.0

The parameters are relatively easy to

measure with power meters available
commercially or with homemade designs. 0.1

However, it is obvious there can be no

other power sources at the load if the
foregoing definition is to hold. For 0.01
instance, the reflection coefficient of the 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
generator in the example shown in Fig. 2
pi(DEGREES) f3V DEGREES)
is 0.9. This value could have been ob-
tained by substituting the generator resis- (A) (B)

tance and reactance into aprevious formu-

la for reflection coefficient, but not by Fig. 3 — Normalized input reactance and resistªnrP vs line length for various values of
measurement if the source were activated. ra(x a = U).

Transmission Lines 19-2

 The special cases in which the terminating ing table, where x is the width of a rec-
reactance is either zero or infinity are tangular guide and ris the radius of acir-
given by the respective formulas cular guide. All figures are in terms of the
R F POTENIAL
dominant mode.
= tan 131 ALONG GUIDE
(A)
Xi n = cot 01 Rectangular Circular
T brae

Cut-off wavelength 2x 3.41r

A short length of line with ashort circuit
Longest wavelength
as a terminating load appears as an eV RIF
transmitted with little
inductor while an open-circuited line attenuation 16x 3.2r
appears as a capacitance. Shortest wavelength
before next mode
Waveguides becomes possible 1.1x 2.8r

A waveguide is a conducting tube ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

through which energy is transmitted in the (e) Coupling to Waveguides

form of electromagnetic waves. The tube Energy may be introduced into or ex-
is not considered as carrying acurrent in tracted from awaveguide or resonator by
the same sense that the wires of a two- _L means of either the electric or magnetic
conductor line do, but rather as abound- L field. The energy transfer frequently is
ary which confines the waves to the through a coaxial line, two methods for
enclosed space. Skin effect prevents any coupling to which are shown in Fig. 5.
electromagnetic effects from being evi- The probe shown at A is simply ashort ex-
dent outside the guide. The energy is in- MAGNETIC
INTENSITY tension of the inner conductor of the
ALONG GUIDE
jected at one end, either through coaxial line, so oriented that it is parallel
)
capacitive or inductive coupling or by to the electric lines of force. The loop
_
--- .7 -, (- _..._ ..
.r,
radiation, and is received at the other end. --, " i 3e-__ 1 ' , shown at B is arranged so that it encloses
The waveguide then merely confines the 4 ( Z:1;;t1. , 1 ,4:: -
-..1-1 -- * some of the magnetic lines of force. The
energy of the fields, which are propagated te- , t _',-.-;:_' ,
I l_'-..il • - point at which maximum coupling will be
through it to the receiving end by means secured depends upon the particular mode
of reflections against its inner walls. of propagation in the guide or cavity; the
Analysis of waveguide operation is coupling will be maximum when the
Fig. 4 — Field distribution in a rectangular
based on the assumption that the guide coupling device is in the most intense
waveguide. The TE t o mode of propagation is
material is aperfect conductor of electrici- depicted. field.
ty. Typical distributions of electric and Coupling can be varied by turning the
magnetic fields in arectangular guide are probe or loop through a90-degree angle.
shown in Fig. 4. It will be observed that When the probe is perpendicular to the
the intensity of the electric field is greatest electric lines the coupling will be
(as indicated by closer spacing of the lines minimum; similarly, when the plane of the
of force) at the center along the xdimen- loop is parallel to the magnetic lines the
sion, Fig. 4( B), diminishing to zero at the coupling will have its minimum value.
end walls. The latter is anecessary condi-
tion, since the existence of any electric Evolution of a Waveguide
field parallel to the walls at the s :rface
,
Suppose an open-wire line is used to
would cause an infinite current to flow in
convey rf energy from a generator to a
a perfect conductor. This represents an
load. If the line has any appreciable length
impossible situation. Fig. 5 — Coupling to waveguide and
resonators. it must be supported mechanically. The
line must be well insulated from the sup-
Modes of Propagation
ports if high losses are to be avoided.
Fig. 4 represents a relatively simple TE) .0 ,Di u ,etc. The number of possible Since high-quality insulators are difficult
distribution of the electric and magnetic modes increases with frequency for a to realize at microwave frequencies, the .
fields. There is in general an infinite given size of guide. There is only one logical alternative is to support the
number of ways in which the fields can ar- possible mode (called the dominant mode) transmission line with quarter-wavelength
range themselves in a guide so long as for the lowest frequency that can be stubs, shorted at the far end. The open
there is no upper limit to the frequency to transmitted. The dominant mode is the end of such astub presents an infinite im-
be transmitted. Each field configuration is one generally used in practical work. pedance to the transmission line, provided
called a mode. All modes may be the shorted stub is non-reactive. However,
separated into two general groups. One Waveguide Dimensions
the shorting link has finite length and,
group, designated TM (
transverse In the rectangular guide the critical therefore, some inductance. This induc-
magnetic), has the magnetic field entirely dimension is x in Fig. 4; this dimension tance can be nullified by making the rf
transverse to the direction of propagation, must be more than one-half wavelength at current flow on the surface of a plate
but has a component of electric field in the lowest frequency to be transmitted. In rather than athin wire. If the plate is large
that direction. The other type, designated practice, the y dimension usually is made enough, it will prevent the magnetic lines
TE ( transverse electric) has the electric about equal to 1/2 xto avoid the possibili- of force from encircling the rf current.
field entirely transverse, but has acompo- ty of operation at other than the dominant Infinitely many of these quarter-wave
nent of magnetic field in the direction of mode. stubs may be connected in parallel
propagation. TM waves are sometimes Other cross-sectional shapes than the without affecting the standing waves of
called E waves, and TE waves are rectangle can be used, the most important voltage and current. The transmission line
sometimes called H waves, but the TM being the circular pipe. Much the same may be supported from the top as well as
and TE designations are preferred. considerations apply as in the rectangular the bottom, and when infinitely many
The particular mode of transmission is case. supports are added, they form the walls of
identified by the group letters followed by Wavelength formulas for rectangular awaveguide at its cutoff frequency. Fig. 6
two subscript numerals; for example, and circular guides are given in the follow- illustrates how a rectangular waveguide
19-3 Chapter 19
 WAVEGUIDE

Fig. 7 — " 0" matching section, aquarter- wave

impedance transformer.

= ‘
ÍZT,
INDUCTANCE -
CANCELLING PLATE where
Z1 = antenna impedance
A/4 STUB
Z, = characteristic impedance of the
line to which it is to be matched.
Fig. 6 — At its cutoff frequency a rectangular waveguide can be analyzed as a parallel two-
Example: To match a600-ohm line to
conductor transmission line supported from top and bottom by infinitely many quarter-wavelength an antenna presenting a72-ohm load, the
stubs. quarter-wave matching section would
require acharacteristic impedance of

v'72 x 600 = = 208 ohms

evolves from atwo-wire parallel transmis- Note that it is essential, if the SWR is to
sion line. This simplified analysis also be made as low as possible, that the load The spacing between conductors and
at the point of connection to the the conductor size determines the
shows why the cutoff dimension is ahalf.
transmission line be purely resistive. In characteristic impedance of the transmis-
wavelength.
While the operation of waveguides is general, this requires that the load be sion line. As an example, for the 208-ohm
usually described in terms of fields, cur- tuned to resonance. If the load itself is not transmission line required above, the
rent flows on the inside walls, just as fields resonant at the operating frequency the line could be made from 1/2-inch
exist between the conductors of a two- tuning sometimes can be accomplished in (13-mm) diameter tubing spaced 1.5 in-
the matching system. ches (38-mm) between conductors.
wire transmission line. At the waveguide
The length of the quarter-wave matching
cutoff frequency, the current is concen-
The Antenna as a Load section may be calculated from
trated in the center of the walls, and
disperses toward the floor and ceiling as Every antenna system, no matter what
its physical form, will have adefinite value 246V
the frequency increases. Length (feet) =
of impedance at the point where the line is
Matching the Antenna to the Line to be connected. The problem is to 75V
The load for atransmission line may be transform this antenna input impedance to Length (meters)
any device capable of dissipating rf energy. the proper value to match the line. In this
where
When lines are used for transmitting respect there is no one "best" type of line
V = velocity factor
applications the most common type of for aparticular antenna system, because it
f = frequency in MHz
load is an antenna. When atransmission is possible to transform impedances in any
line is connected between an antenna and desired ratio. Consequently, any type of Example: A quarter-wave transformer
a receiver, the receiver input circuit (not line may be used with any type of antenna. of RG-11/U is to be used at 28.7 MHz.
the antenna) is the load, because the There are frequently reasons other than From Table 1of this chapter, V = 0.66.
power taken from a passing wave is impedance matching that dictate the use 246 X 0.66
delivered to the receiver. of one type of line in preference to Length = 28.7 = 5.65 feet
Whatever the application, the con- another, such as ease of installation,
ditions existing at the load, and only the inherent loss in the line, and so on, but = 5feet 8inches ( 1.72 m)
load, determine the standing-wave ratio these are not considered in this section.
Although the input impedance of an The antenna must be resonant at the
on the line. If the load is purely resistive
operating frequency. Setting the antenna
and equal in value to the characteristic antenna system is seldom known very
length by formula is amply accurate with
impedance of the line, there will be no accurately, it is often possible to make a
single-wire antennas, but in other systems,
standing waves. In case the load is not reasonably close estimate of its value.
particularly close-spaced arrays, the anten-
purely resistive, and/or is not equal to the Matching circuits can be built using
ordinary coils and capacitors, but are not na should be adjusted to resonance before
line Zo, there will be standing waves. No
used very extensively because they must the matching section is connected.
adjustments that can be made at the input
be supported at the antenna and must be When the antenna input impedance is not
end of the line can change the SWR, nor is
weatherproofed. The systems to be de- known accurately, it is advisable to
it affected by changing the line length.
scribed use linear transformers. construct the matching section so that the
Only in a few special cases is the load
spacing between conductors can be changed.
inherently of the proper value to match a
The Quarter- Wave Transformer The spacing then may be adjusted to give
practicable transmission line. In all other
or "Q" Section the lowest possible SWR on the transmis-
cases it is necessary either to operate with
As mentioned previously, a quarter- sion line.
a mismatch and accept the SWR that
results, or else to take steps to bring about wave transmission line may be used as an
Folded Dipoles
aproper match between the line and load impedance transformer. Knowing the
by means of transformers or similar antenna impedance and the characteristic A half-wave antenna element can be
devices. Impedance-matching transfor- impedance of the line to be matched, the made to match various line impedances if
mers may take avariety of physical forms, characteristic impedance of a matching it is split into two or more parallel conduc-
depending on the circumstances. section such as is shown in Fig. 7is tors with the transmission line attached at

Transmission Lines 19-4

 diameters to give a desired impedance
5/2 • •
ratio using two conductors may be ob-
1-1 1_1
tained from Fig. 9. Similar information
for a three-conductor dipole is given in
J-.1—?,/4 X Vp LINE
Fig. 10. This graph applies if all three con-
ductors are in the same plane. The two
(a) conductors not connected to the transmis-
5./2 sion line must be equally spaced from the
fed conductor, and must have equal
diameters. The fed conductor may have a
10
different diameter, however. The
08
unequal-conductor method has been
found particularly useful in matching to
low-impedance antennas such as directive
5./2
arrays using close-spaced parasitic
elements.
The length of the antenna element
should be such as to be approximately
self- resonant at the median operating
(C)
frequency. The length is usually not highly 1 15 2 3 4 5 7.5 10
5/42
critical, because a folded dipole tends to
have the characteristics of a "thick"
Fig. 8 — The folded dipole, a method for using Fig. 9 — Impedance transformation ratio, two.
the antenna element itself to provide an im- antenna and thus has a relatively broad
conductor folded dipole. The dimensions dl,
pedance transformation. Depending on the frequency-response curve. d2 and s are shown on the inset drawing.
velocity factor of the line used for the flat top, Curves show the ratio of the impedance
the conductors should be shorted part-way in (resistive) seen by the transmission line to the
"T" and "Gamma Matching" Sections
from the end. This is because the sections radiation resistance of the resonant antenna
must be resonant both as quarter-wave The method of matching shown in Fig. system.
transmission- line stubs and quarter-wavelength
11 is based on the fact that the impedance
single-wire radiators. A flat top made from
300-ohm twin-lead would have shorting straps between any two points along aresonant
5.0
at about 85 percent of the distance from center antenna is resistive, and has avalue which 4.0
to end. However, no straps are necessary when depends on the spacing between the two
open-wire line is used in the flat top. This is 3.0

because the velocity factor of the line (about

points. It is therefore possible to choose a
97 percent) is very close to the percentage of a pair of points between which the im- 2

physical half wavelength needed for electrical pedance will have the right value to match 15

resonance in the "thick" antenna thus created. a transmission line. In practice, the line
1.0
cannot be connected directly at these
points because the distance between them
the center of only one of them. Various is much greater than the conductor spac- 0.5
forms of such " folded dipoles" are shown ing of apractical transmission line. The T 0.4

in Fig. 8. Currents in all conductors are in arrangement in Fig. 11 overcomes this dif- 0.3

phase in a folded dipole, and since the ficulty by using a second conductor 0.2
conductor spacing is small the folded paralleling the antenna to form a 1==..1-
dipole is equivalent in radiating properties matching section to which the line may be L. FEED POINT
1- 42
to an ordinary single-conductor dipole. connected. 2 3 4 5 810 15 20 30 5
However, the current flowing into the in- The T is particularly suited to use with a 5/42
put terminals of the antenna from the line parallel-conductor line, in which case the
is the current in one conductor only, and two points along the antenna should be Fig. 10 — Impedance transformation ratio,
the entire power from the line is delivered equidistant from the center so that three-conductor folded dipole. The dimensions
at this value of current. This is equivalent electrical balance is maintained. The dl, d2 and s are shown on the inset drawing.
to saying that the input impedance of the operation of this system is somewhat Curves show the ratio of the impedance
(resistive) seen by the transmission line to the
antenna has been raised by splitting it up complex. Each T conductor (y in the radiation resistance of the resonant antenna
into two or more conductors. drawing) forms with the antenna con- system.
The ratio by which the input impedance ductor opposite it a short section of
of the antenna is stepped up depends not transmission line. Each of these transmis-
only on the number of conductors in the sion-line sections can be considered to be 5/2
folded dipole but also on their relative terminated in the impedance that exists at
diameters, since the distribution of cur- the point of connection to the antenna.
rent between conductors is a function of Thus the part of the antenna between the Y .1
their diameters. (When one conductor is two points carries a transmission-line
larger than the other, as in Fig. 8, the current in addition to the normal antenna
LINE

larger one carries the greater current.) The current. The two transmission- line
ratio also depends, in general, on the matching sections are in series, as seen by (A)
spacing between the conductors, as shown the main transmission line.
by the graphs of Figs. 9and 10. An impor- If the antenna by itself is resonant at the X/2

tant special case is the two-conductor operating frequency, its impedance will be y

dipole with conductors of equal diameter; purely resistive. In such case the mat-
as asimple antenna, not apart of adirec- ching-section lines are terminated in a LINE
tive array, it has an input impedance close resistive load. However, since these
enough to 300 ohms to afford a good sections are shorter than a quarter (B)
match to 300-ohm twin-lead. wavelength, their input impedance — i.e.,
The required ratio of conductor the impedance seen by the main transmis- Fig. 11 — The " T" match and " gamma" match

19-5 Chapter 19
sion line looking into the matching- -
section terminals — will be reactive as
well as resistive. This prevents a perfect
match to the main transmission line, since
its load must be a pure resistance for LINE
METAL ."'"
SLEEVE
perfect matching. The reactive component k/4

of the input impedance must be tuned out

before a proper match can be secured. (A)
One way to do this is to detune the SHORTED TO
COAX OUTER
antenna just enough, by changing its CONDUCTOR
.*--COA XIAL
LINE
"A./2 HERE
length, to cause reactance of the opposite
kind to be reflected to the input terminals (B)
of the matching section, thus cancelling
the reactance introduced by the latter.
Another method, which is considerably COAXIAL k /4
LINE
easier to adjust, is to insert a variable =BALANCED
(= Z2/41
capacitor in series with the matching
section where it connects to the transmis- UNBAL ANCED

sion line, as shown in chapter 20. The

HORTED
capacitor must be protected from the wea- TOGETHER

ther. (C) (D)

The method of adjustment commonly
used is to cut the antenna for approximate
Fig. 12 — Radiator with coaxial feed (A) and methods of preventing unbalanced currents from
resonance and then make the spacing x
flowing on the outside of the transmission line (B and C). The half-wave phasing section shown at
some value that is convenient construc- D is used for coupling between an unbalanced and a balanced circuit when a4:1 impedance ratio
tionally. The distance y is then adjusted, is desired or can be accepted.
while maintaining symmetry with respect
to the center, until the SWR on the trans- through the shielding afforded by the to the line-balancing function of the de-
mission line is as low as possible. If the outer conductor. Hence these "antenna" vice, and baluns of this type are some-
SWR is not below 2:1 after this adjust- times made shorter than aquarter wave-
currents flowing on the outside of the line
ment, the antenna length should be length to provide the shunt inductive reac-
will be responsible for radiation.
changed slightly and the matching section tance required in certain matching sys-
taps adjusted again. This procedure may Linear Baluns tems.
be continued until the SWR is as close to
Line radiation can be prevented by a Fig. 12D shows athird balun, in which
1:1 as possible.
number of devices whose purpose is to equal and opposite voltages, balanced to
When the series-capacitor method of
detune or decouple the line for "antenna" ground, are taken from the inner conduc-
reactance compensation is used, the anten-
currents and thus greatly reduce their tors of the main transmission line and
na should be the proper length to be
amplitude. Such devices generally are half-wave phasing section. Since the
resonant at the operating frequency. Trial
known as baluns ( a contraction for voltages at the balanced end are in series
positions of the matching-section taps are
"balanced to unbalanced"). Fig. 12B while the voltages at the unbalanced end
then taken, each time adjusting the
shows once such arrangement, known as a are in parallel, there is a4:1 step-down in
capacitor for minimum SWR, until the
bazooka, which uses a sleeve over the impedance from the balanced to the un-
standing waves on the transmission line
transmission line to form, with the outside balanced side. This arrangement is useful
are brought down to the lowest possible
of the outer line conductor, a shorted for coupling between a300-ohm balanced
value.
quarter-wave line section. As described line and a75-ohm coaxial line, for exam-
The unbalanced (" gamma") arrange-
earlier in this chapter, the impedance ple.
ment in Fig. 11 is similar in principle to
looking into the open end of such a sec-
the T, but is adapted for use with single Other Loads and Balancing Devices
tion is very high, so that the end of the
coax line. The method of adjustment is
outer conductor of the coaxial line is ef- The most important practical load for a
the same.
fectively isolated from the part of the line transmission line is an antenna which in
below the sleeve. The length is an elec- most cases, will be "balanced" — that is,
Balancing Devices symmetrically constructed with respect to
trical quarter wave, and may be physically
An antenna with open ends, of which shorter if the insulation between the sleeve the feed point. Aside from considerations
the half-wave type is an example, is and the line is other than air. The bazooka of matching the actual impedance of the
inherently a balanced radiator. When has no effect on the impedance relation- antenna at the feed point to the charac-
opened at the center and fed with a ships between the antenna and the coaxial teristic impedance of the line (if such
parallel-conductor line, this balance is line. matching is attempted) abalanced anten-
maintained throughout the system, so Another method that gives an equiva- na should be fed through a balanced
long as the causes of unbalance discussed lent effect is shown at C. Since the volt- transmission line in order to preserve
in this chapter are avoided. ages at the antenna terminals are equal symmetry with respect to ground. This will
If the antenna is fed at the center and opposite (with reference to ground), avoid difficulties with unbalanced cur-
through acoaxial line, as indicated in Fig. equal and opposite currents flow on the rents on the line and consequent un-
12, this balance is upset because one side surfaces of the line and second conductor. desirable radiation from the transmission
of the radiator is connected to the shield Beyond the shorting point, in the direc- line itself.
while the other is connected to the inner tion of the transmitter, these currents If, as is often the case, the antenna is to
conductor. On the side connected to the combine to cancel out. The balancing sec- be fed through coaxial line, (which is
shield, acurrent can flow down over the tion " looks like" an open circuit to the inherently unbalanced) some method
outside of the coaxial line. The fields thus antenna, since it is aquarter-wave parallel- should be used for connecting the line to
set up cannot be canceled by the fields conductor line shorted at the far end, and the antenna without upsetting the symme-
from the inner conductor because the thus has no effect on the normal antenna try of the antenna itself. This requires a
fields inside the line cannot escape operation. However, this is not essential circuit that will isolate the balanced load

Transmission Lines 19-6

 from the unbalanced line while providing
efficient power transfer. Devices for Zo
o
doing this are called baluns. The types
used between the antenna and transmis-
Z2. 4Z1
sion line are generally linear, cofisisting of o
transmission-line sections. 20 • 2Z1
The need for baluns also arises in o

coupling a transmitter to a balanced

transmission line, since the output circuits
of most transmitters have one side PARALLEL -

CONDUCTOR
grounded. (This type of output circuit is LINE
C OAX
desirable for a number of reasons,
including TVI reduction.) The most
flexible type of balun for this purpose is
the inductively coupled matching network
described in a subsequent section in this
chapter. This combines impedance
matching with balanced-to-unbalanced Fig. 13 — Baluns for matching between push-pull and single-ended circuits. The impedance ratio
operation, but has the disadvantage that it is 4:1 from the push-pull side to the unbalanced side. Coiling the lines ( lower drawing) increases
the frequency range over which satisfactory operation is obtained.
uses resonant circuits and thus can work
over only a limited band of frequencies
without readjustment. However, if afixed
impedance ratio in the balun can be toler-
ated, the coil balun described below can
be used without adjustment over a fre-
quency range of about 10:1 — 3 to 30
MHz, for example. JI

UNBALANCED
Coll Baluns
4R
The type of balun known as the "coil BALANCED

balun" is based on the principles of J6

linear-transmission-line balun as shown in

the upper drawing of Fig. 13. Two
transmission lines of equal length having a UNBALANCED

characteristic impedance (Zo) are con-

nected in series at one end and in parallel J3 J2 4,1 RATIO
R
at the other. At the series-connected end BALANCED

the lines are balanced to ground and will

R- UNBALANCED
match an impedance equal to 2Z o.At the TOROIDAL CORE
parallel-connected end the lines will be Ti
72
matched by an impedance equal to Z0/2.
One side may be connected to ground at R- BALANCED

the parallel-connected end, provided the

4R
two lines have a length such that, con- BALANCED

sidering each line as a single wire, the

balanced end is effectively decoupled
from the parallel-connected end. This re- R- UNBALANCE:

quires alength that is an odd multiple of a

quarter wavelength. • I BALANCED TO UNBALANCED 4 I BALANCED TO UNBALANCED
A definite line length is required only
for decoupling purposes, and so long as (A) (6)

there is adequate detsoupling the system

will act as a 4:1 impedance transformer
Fig. 14 — Schematic and pictorial representations of the balun transformers. Ti and T2 are
regardless of line length. If each line is wound on CF- 123 toroid cores (see footnote 4 and the text). J1 and J4 are SO-239-type coax con-
wound into acoil, as in the lower drawing, nectors, or similar. J2, J3, J5, and J6 are steatite feedthrough bushings. The windings are labeled
the inductances so formed will act as a, b and c to show the relationship between the pictorial and schematic illustrations.
choke coils and will tend to isolate the
series-connected end from any ground
connection that may be placed on the that the Zo of the lines forming the coils be what bulky when designed for operation
parallel-connected end. Balun coils made 150 ohms. in the 1.8- to 30- MHz range. A more
in this way will operate over a wide A balun of this type is simply a compact broadband transformer can be
frequency range, since the choke in- fixed-ratio transformer, when matched. It realized by using toroidal ferrite core
ductance is not critical. The lower frequency cannot compensate for inaccurate matching material as the foundation for bifilar-
limit is where the coils are no longer effective elsewhere in the system. With a " 300- wound coil balun transformers. Two such
in isolating one end from the other; the ohm" line on the balanced end, for ex- baluns are described here.
length of line in each coil should be about ample, a 75-ohm coax cable will not be In Fig. 14 at A, a 1:1 ratio balanced-to-
equal to aquarter wave-length at the lowest matched unless the 300-ohm line actually unbalanced-line transformer is shown.
frequency to be used. is terminated in a 300-ohm load. This transformer is useful in converting a
The principal application of such coils 50-ohm balanced line condition to one
is in going from a 300-ohm balanced line Two Broadband Toroidal Baluns
that is 50 ohms, unbalanced. Similarly,
to a 75-ohm coaxial line. This requires Air-wound balun transformers are some- the transformer will work between

19-7 Chapter 19
 used between the core material and the
windings to increase the breakdown
voltage of the balun.

A 50- to 75-Ohm Broadband Transformer

Shown in Figs. 16 through 18 is asimple
50- to 75-ohm or 75- to 50-ohm
transformer that is suitable for operation
in the 2- to 30- MHz frequency range. A
pair of these transformers is ideal for
using 75-ohm CATV hardline in a50-ohm
system. In this application one
transformer is used at each end of the
cable run. At the antenna one transformer
Fig. 16 — Schematic diagram of the 50. to
raises the 50-ohm impedance of the anten-
75-ohm transformer described in the text. Cl
na to 75 ohms, thereby presenting amatch and C2 are compensating capacitors.
to the 75-ohm cable. At the station end a Cl — 100 pF, silver mica.
Fig. 15 — Layout of a kilowatt 4:1 toroidal
balun transformer. Phenolic insulating board is
transformer is used to step the 75-ohm C2 — 10 pF, silver mica.
J1, J2 — Coaxial connectors, builder's choice.
mounted between the transformer and the line impedance down to 50 ohms.
Ti — Transformer, 6 trifilar turns no. 14
Minibox wall to prevent short-circuiting. The The schematic diagram of the enameled copper wire on an FT-200-61 (al
board is held in place with epoxy cement. Ce-
transformer is shown in Fig. 16, and the material, pi. 125) core. One winding has
ment is also used to secure the transformer to
the board. For outdoor use, the Minibox cover
winding details are given in Fig. 17. CI one-half the number of turns of the other
two.
can be installed, then sealed against the and C2 are compensating capacitors; the
weather by applying epoxy cement along the values shown were determined through
seams of the box. swept return-loss measurements using a
spectrum analyzer and tracking generator.
The transformer consists of atrifilar wind- 75 It

balanced and unbalanced 75-ohm im- ing of no. 14 enameled copper wire
pedances. A 4:1 ratio transformer is il- wound over an FT-200-61 ( Q Imaterial) or
lustrated in Fig. 14 at B. This balun is equivalent core. As shown in Fig. 17, one
useful for converting a200-ohm balanced winding has only half the number of turns
condition to one that is 50 ohms, un- of the other two. Care must be taken
balanced. In a like manner, the when connecting the loose ends so that the
transformer can be used between a proper phasing of the turns is maintained.
balanced 300-ohm point and a75-ohm un- Improper phasing will become apparent
balanced line. Both balun transformers when power is applied to the transformer.
will handle 1000 watts of rf power and are If the core has sharp edges it is agood
designed to operate from 1.8 through 60 idea either to sand the edges until they are
MHz. relatively smooth or wrap the core with
Low- loss high- frequency ferrite core tape. The one shown in the photograph
material is used for T1and T2. 1.2 The was wrapped with ordinary vinyl electrical
cores are made from Q-2 material and tape, although glass-cloth insulating tape
cost approximately $ 5.50 in single- lot would be better. The idea is to prevent
quantity. They are 0.5 inches ( 13-mm) chafing of the wire insulation.
thick, have an OD of 2.4 inches (61-mm)
and the ID is 1.4 inches ( 36-mm) The Construction
permeability rating of the cores is 40. A The easiest way to construct the
packaged 1- kilowatt balun kit, with transformer is wind the three lengths of
winding instructions for 1:1 or 4:1 wire on the core at the same time. Dif-
impedance transformation ratios, is avail- ferent color wires will aid in identifying
able, but uses acore of slightly different the ends of the windings. After all three
Fig. 17 — Pictorial drawing of the 50- to 75-ohm
dimensions.' windings are securely in place, the ap- transformer showing details of the windings.
propriate wire may be unwound three
Winding Information turns as shown in the diagram. This wire is
The transformer shown in Fig. 14 at A the 75-ohm connection point. Connec-
has a trifilar winding consisting of 10 tions at the 50-ohm end are a bit tricky,
turns of No. 14 Formvar° -insulated cop- but if the information in Fig. 17 is
per wire. A 10-turn bifilar winding of the followed carefully no problems should be
same type of wire is used for the balun of encountered. Use the shortest connections
Fig. 14 at B. If the cores have rough possible, as long leads will degrade the
edges, they should be carefully sanded un- high- frequency performance.
til smooth enough to prevent damage to The transformer is housed in a
the wire's Formvar insulation. The wind- homemade aluminum enclosure measuring
ings should be spaced around the entire 3-1/2 X 3-3/4 x 1-1/4 inches ( 89 X 95
core as shown in Fig. 15. Insulation can be x 32 mm). Any commercial cabinet of
similar dimensions will work fine. In the
'Available in single- lot quantity from Permag Corp., unit shown in the photograph, several
88-06 Van Wyck Expy., Jamaica, NY 11418
"blobs" of silicone seal ( RTV) were used
'Toroid cores are also available from Ferroxcube
Corp. of America, 5083 Kings Hwy., Saugerties, to hold the core in position. Alternatively,
NY 12477. a piece of phenolic insulating material Fig. 18 — This is a photograph of a pair of the 5O
'Amidon Associates, 12033 Otsego St., Nui th Holly- to 75-ohm transformers. The units are identical.
wood, CA 91601. may be used between the core and the

Transmission Lines 19-8

 operation between 3.5 and 30 MHz, Cl
can be a 200-pF type with suitable plate
ANT
Cl
spacing for the power level in use. C2 and
(HI - Z)
TRAN. IRAN.
• ANT. C3 should be 500-pF units to allow for
(L0-2) (LO- Z)
CI
(Z UNKNOWN) flexibility in matching. LI, L4 and L5
should be tapped or rotary inductors with
sufficient L for the operating frequency.
L3 can be tapped Miniductoe coil with
ample turns for the band being used. An
CI
SWR bridge should be used as a match
indicator.
L3
TRAN
IRAN. L2 TAP (LO- Z) Coupling the Transmitter to the Line
ANT. ANT
ILO- Z)
(Z UNKNOWN) (Z UNKNOWN) The type of coupling system that will be
C2 C3
needed to transfer power adequately from
the final rf amplifier to the transmission
line depends almost entirely on the input
impedance of the line. As shown earlier in
Fog. 19 — Networks for matching a low-Z transmitter output to random- length end- fed wire
this chapter, the input impedance is
antennas.
determined by the standing-wave ratio
and the line length. The simplest case is
aluminum enclosure. Silicone seal is used box,® sealed against moisture, works that where the line is terminated in its
to protect the inside of the unit from nicely for the latter. characteristic impedance so that the SWR
moisture. All joints and screw heads is 1:1 and the input impedance is equal to
should receive agenerous coating of RTV. Nomaidiating Loads
the 4 of the line, regardless of line length.
Typical examples of nonradiating loads Coupling systems that will deliver
Checkout for atransmission line are the grid circuit power into aflat line are readily designed.
Checkout of the completed transformer of a power amplifier (considered in the For all practical purposes the line can be
or transformers is quite simple. If a chapter on transmitters), the input circuit considered to be flat if the SWR is no
75-ohm dummy load is available connect of a receiver, and another transmission greater than about 1.5:1. That is, a
it to the 75-ohm terminal of the line. This last case includes the "antenna coupling system designed to work into a
transformer. Connect a transmitter and tuner" — a misnomer because it is pure resistance equal to the line Zo will
VSWR indicator ( 50 ohm) to the 50-ohm actually adevice for coupling atransmis- have enough leeway to take care of the
terminal of the transformer. Apply power sion line to the transmitter. Because of its small variations in input impedance that
(on each of the hf bands) and measure the importance in amateur installations, the will occur when the line length is changed,
VSWR looking into the transformer. antenna coupler is considered separately if the SWR is higher than 1:1 but no
Readings should be well under 1.3 to 1on in alater part of this chapter. greater than 1.5:1.
each of the bands. If a75-ohm load is not Current practice in transmitter design is
Coupling to aReceiver
available and two transformers have been to provide an output circuit that will work
constructed they may be checked out A good match between an antenna and into such aline, usually acoaxial line of
simultaneously as follows. Connect the its transmission line does not guarantee a 50 to 75 ohms characteristic impedance.
75-ohm terminals of both transformers low standing-wave ratio on the line when The design of such output circuits is
together, either directly through acoaxial the antenna system is used for receiving. discussed in the chapter on high-frequency
adaptor or through a length of 75-ohm The SWR is determined wholly by what transmitters. If the input impedance of the
cable. Attach a50-ohm load to one of the the line "sees" at the receiver's antenna- transmission line that is to be connected
50-ohm terminals and connect atransmit- input terminals. For minimum SWR the to the transmitter differs appreciably from
ter and VSWR indicator (50 ohm) to the receiver input circuit must be matched to the impedance value into which the
remaining 50-ohm terminal. Apply power the line. The rated input impedance of a transmitter output circuit is designed to
as outlined above and record the receiver is anominal value that varies over operate, an impedance-matching network
measurements. Readings should be under a considerable range with frequency. must be inserted between the transmitter
1.3 to I. Most hf receivers are sensitive enough and the line input terminals.
The transformers were - checked in the that exact matching is not necessary. The
ARRL laboratory under various mis- most desirable condition is when the Impedance-Matching Circuits for
matched conditions at the 1500-watt receiver is matched to the Zo and the line Transmission Lines
power level. No spurious signals ( in- in turn is matched to the antenna. This
As shown earlier in this chapter, the
dicative of core saturation) could be transfers maximum power from the
input impedance of aline that is operating
found while viewing the If, hf and vhf fre- antenna to the receiver with the least
with ahigh standing-wave ratio can vary
quency range with aspectrum analyzer. A transmission line loss. over quite wide limits. The simplest type
key-down, 1500-watt signal produced no of circuit that will match such arange of
Coupling to Random-Length Antennas
noticeable core heating and only aslight impedances to 50 to 75 ohms is asimple
increase in the temperature of the win- Several impedance-matching schemes series- or parallel-tuned circuit, approxi-
dings. are shown in Fig. 19, permitting random- mately resonant at the operating fre-
length wires to be matched to normal low- quency. If the load presented by the line at
Using the Transformers Z transmitter outputs. The circuit used the operating frequency is low (below a
For indoor applications, the trans- will depend upon the length of the anten- few hundred ohms), aseries-tuned circuit
formers can be assembled open style, na wire and its impedance at the desired should be used. When the load is higher
without benefit of aprotective enclosure. operating frequency. Ordinarily, one of than this, the parallel-tuned circuit is
For outdoor installations, such as at the the four methods shown will provide a easier to use.
antenna feed point, the unit should be en- suitable impedance match to an end-fed Typical simple circuits for coupling
capsulated in epoxy resin or mounted in a random wire, but the configuration will between the transmitter with 50- to
suitable weatherproof enclosure. A Mini- have to be determined experimentally. For 75-ohm coaxial-line output and a

19-9 Chapter 19
balanced transmission line are shown in
Fig. 20. Thc inductor LI should have a
reactance of about 60 ohms when ad-
justable inductive coupling is used ( Figs.
20A and 20B). When a variable series
capacitor is used, LI should have a reac-
tance of about 120 ohms. The variable
capacitor, Cl, should have a reactance at
maximum capacitance of about 100 ohms
On the secondary side, L, and C, should
be capable of being tuned to resonance at
about 80 percent of the operating fre-
quency. In the series- tuned circuits, for a
given low- impedance load, looser coup-
ling can be used between Lland L, as the
Le to-C, ratio is increased. In the parallel-
tuned circuits, for agiven high- impedance
load looser coupling can be used between
LI and Lp as the Cp-to-Lp ratio is in-
creased. The constants are not critical; the
rules of thumb are mentioned to assist in
correcting a marginal condition where
sufficient transmitter loading cannot be
obtained. Fig. 20 — Simple circuits for coupling a transmitter to a balanced line that presents a load dif-
Coupling to a coaxial line that has a ferent than the transmitter output impedance. (A) and ( B) respectively are series- and parallel-
high SWR, and that consequently may tuned circuits using variable inductive coupling between coils, and (C) and ( 0) are similar but use
fixed inductive coupling and a variable series capacitor, Cl. A series-tuned circuit works well with
present atransmitter with aload it cannot
a low- impedance load; the parallel circuit is better with high- impedance loads (several hundred
couple to, is done with an unbalanced ver- ohms or more).
sion of the series-tuned circuit, as shown
in Fig. 21. The rule given above for
coupling ease and Ls- to-Cs ratio applies to
these circuits as well.
The most satisfactory way to set up ini-
tially any of the circuits of Fig. 20 or 21 is
to connect a coaxial SWR bridge in the
line to the transmitter, as shown in Fig.
21. The " Monimatch" type of bridge,
which can handle the full transmitter
power and may be left in the line for con-
tinuous monitoring, is excellent for this
purpose. However, a simple resistance
bridge is perfectly adequate, requiring Fig. 21 — Coupling from a transmitter designed for 50- to 75-ohm output to a coaxial line with a 3
only that the transmitter output be re- or 4:1 SWR is readily accomplished with these circuits. Essential difference between the circuits
duced to a very low value so that the is (A) adjustable inductive coupling and (B) fixed inductive coupling with variable series capacitor.
bridge will not be overloaded. To adjust In either case the circuit can be adjusted to give a 1:1 SWR on the meter in the line to the
transmitter. The coil ends marked " x" should be adjacent, for minimum capacitive coupling.
the circuit, make a trial setting of the
coupling ( coil spacing in Figs. 20A and B
and 21A, Cl setting in others) and adjust
C, or Cp for minimum SWR as indicated tuning that is critical with frequency. The could be used to give the transmitter a
by the bridge. If the SWR is not close to bridge method is simple and gives the 50-ohm load, even though a significant
practically 1:1, readjust the coupling and optimum operating conditions quickly mismatch was present at the antenna feed
return C, or Cp,continuing this procedure and with certainty. point. It is important to remember that
until the SWR is practically 1:1. The set- the Transmatch will not correct the actual
tings may then be logged for future A Transmatch for Balanced or SWR condition; it only conceals it as far
reference. Unbalanced Lines as the transmitter is concerned. A
In the series-tuned circuits of Figs. 20A Most modern transmitters are designed Transmatch is useful also when using a
and 20C, the two capacitors should be set to operate into loads of approximately 50 single-wire antenna for multiband use. By
at similar settings. The " 2C," indicates ohms. Solid-state transmitters produce means of a balun at the Transmatch out-
that a balanced series-tuned coupler re- progressively lower output power as the put it is possible to operate the transmitter
quires twice the capacitance in each of two SWR on the transmission line increases, into a balanced transmission line, such as
capacitors as does an unbalanced series- owing to the built-in SWR protection cir- a300- or 600-ohm feed system of the type
tuned circuit, all other things being equal. cuits. Therefore, it is useful to employ a that would be used with a multiband
It is possible to use circuits of this type matching network between the transmitter tuned dipole, V beam or rhombic anten-
without initially setting them up with an and the antenna feeder when antennas na.
SWR bridge. In such acase it is amatter with complex impedances are used. One A secondary benefit can be realized
of cut-and-try until adequate power example of this need can be seen in the from Transmatches of certain varieties:
transfer between the amplifier and main case of an 80- meter, coax- fed dipole The matching network can, if it has a
transmission line is secured. However, this antenna which has been cut for resonance bandpass response, attenuate harmonics
method frequently results in a high SWR at, say, 3.6 MHz. If this antenna were from the transmitter. The amount of at-
in the link, with consequent power loss, used in the 75- meter phone band, the tenuation is dependent upon the loaded Q
"hot spots" in the coaxial cable. and SWR would be fairly high. A Transmatch (QL) of the network after the impedance

Transmission Lines 19-10

 more than 1000 ohms (from a 50-ohm
transmitter). This is because asubstantial
amount of capacitance is always in
parallel with the rotary inductor (C2B and
Li of Fig. 24). In comparison with the
"Ultimate" circuit of Fig. 23, it can be
seen that at high load impedances, the
Ultimate Transmatch will have minimal
effective output capacitance in shunt with
the inductor, giving rise to a high-pass
response.
Another advantage of the SPC
Transmatch is its greater frequency range
with the same component values used in
Fig. 22 — Exterior view of the SPC Trans-
match. Radio Shack vernier drives are used for
the Ultimate Transmatch. The circuit of Flg. 23 — Circuit of the Ultimate Transmatch
Fig. 24 operates from 1.8 to 30 MHz with showing the network which can degenerate to
adjusting the tuning capacitors. A James
a high-pass network under some conditions of
Millen turns-counter drive is coupled to the the values shown. Only 3/4 of the avail-
,rotary inductor. Green paint and green Dymo transformation (see text). A T-network con-
able inductance of LI is needed on 160 figuration will provide identical matching
tape labels are used for panel decor. The cover
is plain aluminum with a lightly grooved finish
meters. range, making a split-stator capacitor un-
(sandpapered) which has been coated with The notable difference in outward per- necessary at Cl.
clear lacquer. An aluminum foot holds the formance over the circuit in Fig. 23 is
Transmatch at an easy access angle. somewhat sharper tuning. This is because
of the increased network Q. This is
especially prominent at 40, 80 and 160 this model for the wiring between the
meters. For this reason there are vernier- switch and the related components. The
has been matched. The higher the QL the drive dials on Cl and C2. They are also insulation is sufficient to prevent
greater the attenuation. Some Trans- useful in logging the dial settings for breakdown and arcing at 2kW PEP input
matches, such as the "Ultimate changing bands or antennas. to the transmitter.
Transmatch" of Fig. 23, can exhibit a All leads should be kept as short as
Construction possible to help prevent degradation of
high-pass response (undesirable), depend-
ing upon the transformation ratio they • Figs. 22 and 25 show the structural the circuit Q. The stators of Cl and C2
are adjusted to accommodate. In aworst- details of the Transmatch. The cabinet is should face toward the cabinet cover to
case condition the attenuation of har- homemade from 16-gauge aluminum minimize the stray capacitance between
monic currents may be as low as 3to 6dB. sheeting. L brackets are affixed to the the capacitor plates and the bottom of the
Under different conditions of impedance right and left sides of the lower part of the cabinet (important at the upper end of the
transformation (better) the attenuation cabinet to permit attachment of the Transmatch frequency range). Insulated
can be as great as 20 to 25 dB. U-shaped cover. ceramic shaft couplings are used between
The " SPC Transmatch" described here The conductors which join the com- the vernier drives and Cl and C2, since
was developed to correct for the ponents should be of heavy-gauge the rotors of both capacitors are
sometimes poor harmonic attenuation of material to minimize stray inductance and "floating" in this circuit. Cl and C2 are
the network in the Ultimate Transmatch. heating. Wide strips of flashing copper are supported above the bottom plate on
The SPC (series-parallel capacitance) cir- suitable for the conductor straps. The steatite cone insulators. Si is attached to
cuit maintains abandpass response under center conductor and insulation from RG- the rear apron of the cabinet by means of
load conditions of less than 25 ohms to 59/U polyfoam coaxial cable is used in two metal standoff posts.

UNBAL
J3
DUMMY
LOAD

ANt

(A) (B)

Fig. 24 — Schematic diagram of the SPC circuit. Capacitance is in pF.

Cl — 200-pF transmitting variable with plate J1, J2, J4 — SO-239 style coaxial connector. J4 mm) ID x 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) long.
spacing of 0.075 inch (2 mm) or greater. J. W. should have high-dielectric insulation if high- Si — Large ceramic rotary wafer switch with
Miller Co. no. 2150 used here. Z single-wire antennas are used at J3. Teflon heavy contacts. Two-pole, 4-position type.
C2 — Dual-sectiOn variable, 200 pF per insulation is recommended. Surplus Centralab JV-9033 or equiv., two
section. Same plate spacing as Cl. J. W. J3 — Ceramic feedthrough bushing. positions unused.
Miller Co. no. 2151 used here. (Catalog no. Li — Rotary inductor, 2501 min. inductance. 21 — Balun transformer. 12 turns no. 12
79, J. W. Miller Co., 19070 Reyes Ave., E. F. Johnson 229-203 or equiv. Formvar wire, trifilar, close-wound on 1-inch
Compton, CA 90224.) L2 — Three turns no. 8copper wire, 1inch (25 (25-mm) OD phenolic or PVC-tubing form.

19-11 Chapter 19
Operation
The SPC Transmatch is designed to
handle the output from transmitters
which operate up to 2 kW PEP. 12 has
been added to improve the circuit Q at 10
and 15 meters. However, it may be omit-
ted from the circuit if the rotary inductor
(LI) has atapered pitch at the minimum-
inductance end. It may be necessary to
omit L2 if the stray wiring inductance of
the builder's version is high. Otherwise, it
may be impossible to obtain a matched
condition at 28 MHz with certain loads.
An SWR indicator is used between the
transmitter and the Transmatch to show OHM 13114 •
= me& L
É
when a matched condition is achieved. MIIIMei MOW
Sainte: e
The builder may want to integrate an •11111.1
MI= MLA
SWR meter in the Transmatch circuit
between J2 and the arm of S1A ( Fig. »act

24A). If this is done there should be room IMMM

lei;
MUM.
Mel
for an edgewise panel meter above the ver- milli-- MBA

141 tif
MINK. Mel
nier drive for C2. 11111111M
Mama
Initial transmitter tuning should be umea
ellIMIFI
done with adummy load connected to J1, triV IL
lemm
e ilIF

siellIOS
and with SI in the D position. This will
prevent interference which could other-
one a=iiiim
wise occur if tuning is done " on the air." as-wiern

After the transmitter is properly tuned

into the dummy load, unkey the transmit- !Mail eximile
k
ter and switch SI to T (Transmatch).
4e
1.111M1111.1111=Miiillig
Never " hot switch" aTransmatch, as this Pie

can damage both transmitter and Trans- Ito

match. Set Cl and C2 at midrange. With a
few watts of rf, adjust LI for adecrease in
reflected power. Then adjust CI and C2
alternately for the lowest possible SWR. If
the SWR cannot be reduced to 1:1, adjust
Fig. 25 — Interior view of the W1 FB SPC Transmatch. L2 is mounted on the rear wall by means of
LI slightly and repeat the procedure. two ceramic standoff insulators. Cl is on the left and C2 is at the right. The coaxial connectors,
Finally, increase the transmitter power to ground post and J3 are on the lower part of the rear panel.
maximum and touch up the Transmatch
controls if necessary. When tuning, keep
your transmissions brief and identify your
station.
The air-wound balun of Fig. 24B can be
used outboard from the Transmatch if a
low-impedance balanced feeder is con-
templated. Ferrite or powdered-iron core
material is not used in the interest of
avoiding TVI and harmonics which can
result from core saturation.
The B position of SI permits switched-
through operation when the Transmatch
is not needed. The G position is used for
grounding the antenna system, as
necessary; a quality earth ground should
be attached at all times to the Transmatch
chassis.

Final Comments
Surplus coils and capacitors are okay in
this circuit. LI should have at least 25 uH
of inductance, and the tuning capacitors
need to have 150 pF or more of
capacitance per section. Insertion loss
through this Transmatch was measured at
less than 0.5 dB at 600 watts of rf power
on 7MHz.

A Link-Coupled Matching Network

Fig. 26 — Exterior view of the band- switched link coupler. Alligator clips are used to select the
Link coupling otters many advantages proper tap positions of the coil.

Transmission Lines 19-12

Fig. 27 — Schematic diagram of the link
coupler. The connections marked as " to
balanced feed line" are steatite feedthrough in-
sulators. The arrows on the other ends of these
connections are alligator clips.
Cl — 350 pF maximum, 0.0435 inch plate
spacing or greater.
C2 — 100 pF maximum, 0.0435 inch plate
spacing or greater.
J1 — Coaxial connector.
Li, U, L3 — B&W 3026 Miniductor stock,
2-inch diameter, 8turns per inch, no. 14 wire.
Coll assembly consists of 48 turns. Li and
L3 are each 17 turns tapped at 8and 11
turns from outside ends. L2 is 14 turns
tapped at 8and 12 turns from Cl end. See
text for additional details.
Si — 3-pole, 5- position ceramic rotary switch.

Fig. 28 — Interior view of the coupler showing the basic positions of the major components. Com-
over the types of systems where a direct ponent placement is not critical, but the unit should be laid out for minimum lead lengths.
connection between the transmitter and
antenna is required. This is particularly
true on 80 meters, where commercial
broadcast stations often induce sufficient
voltage to cause either rectification or the operating frequency. mounted in the enclosure and the connec-
front-end overload. Transceivers and Switch sections S1A and SIC select the tions between the coil and the bandswitch
receivers that show this tendency can usual- amount of inductance necessary for each are made. Every other turn of LI and L3
ly be cured by using only magnetic coupl- of the hf bands. The inductance of each of is pressed in toward the center of the coil
ing between the transceiver and antenna the coils has been optimized for antennas to facilitate connection of the alligator
system. There is no direct connection and in the impedance range of roughly 20 - 600 clips.
better isolation results along with the in- ohms. Antennas that exhibit impedances As can be seen from the schematic, C2
herent band-pass characteristics of mag- well outside this range may require that must be isolated from ground. This can be
netically coupled tuned circuits. some of the fixed connections to LI and accomplished by mounting the capacitor
Although link coupling can be used L3 be changed. Should this be necessary on steatite cones or other suitable in-
with either single- ended or balanced remember that the LI and L3 sections sulating material. Make sure that the hole
antenna systems, its most common ap- must be kept symmetrical — the same through the front panel for the shaft of
plication is with balanced feed. The model number of turns on each coil. C2 is large enough so the shaft does not
shown here is designed for 80- through come into contact with the chassis.
10-meter operation. Construction
The unit is housed in a homemade Tuneup
The Circuit aluminum enclosure that measures 9 X 8 The transmitter should be connected to
The circuit shown in Fig. 27 and the ac- X 3 1/2 inches (229 X 203 X 89 mm). the input of the Transmatch through some
companying photographs are those of a Any cabinet with similar dimensions that sort of instrument that will indicate SWR.
band-switched link coupler. L2 is the link will accommodate the components may be SI is set to the band of operation and the
and Cl is used to adjust the coupling. SIB used. LI, 12 and L3 are a one-piece balanced line is connected to the in-
selects the proper amount of link induc- assembly of B&W 3026 Miniductor stock. sulators on the rear panel of the coupler.
tance for each band. LI and L3 are The individual coils are separated from The alligator clips are attached to the mid
located on each side of the link and are the each other by cutting two of the turns at points of coils LI and 13 and power is ap-
coils to which the antenna is connected. the appropriate spots along the length of plied. Adjust CI and C2 for minimum
Alligator clips are used to connect the the coil. Then, the inner ends of the outer reflected power. If a good match is not
antenna to the coil because antennas of sections arc joined by ashort wire that is obtained, move the antenna tap points
different impedances must be connected run through the center of L2. Position the either closer to the ends or center of the
at different points (taps) along the coil. wire so that it will not come into contact coils. Again apply power, tune CI and C2
With many antennas it will be necessary to with 12. Each of the fixed tap points on until the best possible match is obtained.
change taps for different bands of opera- LI, 12 and L3 is located and lengths of Continue moving the antenna taps until a
tion. C2 tunes LI and L3 to resonance at hookup wire are attached. The coil is I-to- 1match is obtained.

19-13 Chapter 19
Table 1
Characteristics of Commonly Used Transmission Lines
pF Max
Zo Ve! per Diet. Operating Volts
Type of line Ohms % foot OD Material (RMS)
RG-6/U 75 75 18.6 . 266 Foam PE
RG-8/M 52.0 75 26.0 . 242 Foam PE
R&M 52.0 66 29.5 . 405 PE 4,000
RG-8/U Foam 50.0 80 25.4 . 405 Foam PE 1,500
RG-8A/U 52.0 66 29.5 . 405 PE 5,000
RG-9/U 51.0 66 30.0 . 420 PE 4,000
RG-9A/U 51.0 66 30.0 . 420 PE 4,000
RG-9B/U 50.0 66 30.8 . 420 PE 5,000
RG-11/U 75.0 66 20.6 . 405 PE 4,000
RG-11/U Foam 75.0 80 16.9 . 405 Foam PE 1,600
AG-11A/U 75.0 66 20.6 . 405 PE 5,000
RG-12/U 75.0 66 20.6 . 475 PE 4,000
RG-12A/U 75.0 66 20.6 . 475 PE 5,000 05 10 2 3 4 5 78910

RG-17/U 52.0 66 29.5 . 870 PE 11,000 CENTER- TO- CENTER SPACING IINCHES)
RG-17A/U 52.0 66 29.5 . 870 PE 11,000
RG-55/U 53.5 66 28.5 . 216 PE 1,900
RG-55A/U 50.0 66 30.8 . 216 PE 1,900 Fig. 29 - Chart showing the characteristic im-
AG-55B/U 53.5 66 28.5 . 216 PE 1,900 pedance of spaced-conductor parallel
RG-58/U 53.5 66 28.5 . 195 PE 1,900 transmission lines with air dielectric. Tubing
RG-58/U Foam 53.5 79 28.5 . 195 Foam PE 600 sizes given for outside diameters.
RG-58A/U 53.5 66 28.5 . 195 PE 1,900
RG-58B/U 53.5 66 28.5 . 195 PE 1,900
sion lines used by amateurs. Open- wire
RG-58C/U 50.0 66 30.8 . 195 PE 1,900
RG-59/U 73.0 66 21.0 . 242 PE 2,300 line has avelocity factor of essential unity
RG-59/U Foam 75.0 79 16.9 . 242 Foam PE 800 because it lacks a substantial amount of
RG-59A/U 73.0 66 21.0 . 242 PE 2,300 solid insulating material. Conversely,
RG-62/U 93.0 86 13.5 . 242 Air Space PE 750
RG-62/U Foam 95.0 79 13.4 . 242 Foam PE
molded 300- ohm TV line has a velocity
700
AG-62A/U 93.0 86 13.5 . 242 Air Space PE 750 factor of 0.80 to 0.82. The higher cost of
RG-626/U 93.0 86 13.5 . 242 Air Space PE 750 the larger coaxial lines is often worth the
RG-133A/U 95.0 66 16.2 . 405 PE 4,000 expenditure in terms of reduced feeder
RG-141/U 50.0 70 29.4 . 190 PTFE 1,900
losses.
RG-141A/U 50.0 70 29.4 . 190 PTFE 1,900
RG-142/U 50.0 70 29.4 . 206 PTFE 1,900 Amateurs can construct their own
RG-142A/U 50.0 70 29.4 . 206 PTFE 1,900 parallel transmission lines by following
RG-142B/U 50.0 70 29.4 . 195 PTFE 1,900 the chart contained in Fig. 29. When using
RG-174/U 50.0 66 30.8 .1 PE 1,500
RG-213/U 50.0 66 30.8 . 405 PE
wire conductors it is an easy matter to
5,000
RG-215/U 50.0 66 30.8 . 475 PE 5,000 fabricate open-wire feed lines. Spacers
RG-216/U 75.0 66 20.6 . 425 PE 5,000 made of high-dielectric material need to
Aluminum Jacket be affixed to the conductors at ap-
Foam Dielectric propriate distances apart to maintain the
1/2 inch 50.0 81 25.0 .5 2,500
spacing between the wires (constant im-
3/4 inch 50.0 81 25.0 . 75 4,000 pedance) and to prevent shorting of the
7/8 inch 50.0 81 25.0 . 875 4,500 conductors.
1/2 inch 75.0 81 16.7 .5 2,500
3/4 inch 75.0 81 16.7 . 75 3,500 Characteristic Impedance
7/8 inch 75.0 81 16.7 . 875 4,000
Open wire - 97 - - -
The characteristic impedance of an air-
75-ohm trans- insulated parallel-conductor line, neglect-
mitting twin lead 75.0 67 19.0 - - ing the effect of the insulating spacers, is
300-ohm twin lead 300.0 82 5.8 - - given by
300-ohm tubular 300.0 80 4.6 -

Open wire, TV type Zo = 276 log -

b

1/2 inch 300.0 95 - - - a

1 inch 450.0 95 - - - where
Dielectric Designation Name Temperature Limits Zo = Characteristic impedance
PE Polyethylene - 65° to + 80° C b = Center-to-center distance between
Foam PE Foamed Polyethylene - 65° to + 80° C conductors
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene - 250° to + 250° C a = Radius of conductor ( in same units
(Teflon)
as b)
The characteristic impedance of an air-
insulated coaxial line is given by the for-
The circuit described here is intended must be taken into account when cutting a mula
for power levels up to roughly 200 watts. transmission line to a specific part of a
Balance was checked by means of two rf wavelength - such as with a quarter- Zo = 138 log - b
a
ammeters, one in each leg of the feed line. wavelength transformer. For example, if
Results showed the balance to be well RG-8A/U were employed to make a where
within 1dB. quarter-wa‘ elength line at 3.5 MHz, the Zo = Characteristic impedance
line dimension should be 246 f(MHz) X b = Inside diameter of outer conduc-
Transmission Line Characteristics 0.66. Thus, the line would be 46.4 feet tors
Each type of line has a characteristic (14.14 m) long instead of the free-space a = Outside diameter of inner conduc-
velocity factor, owing to the insulating- length of 70.3 feet ( 21.4 ru). Table 1shows tor ( in sanie units as b)
material properties. The velocity factor various velocity factors for the transmis - It does not matter what units are used tor

Transmission Lines 19-14

 mamma
111111

11Íhki
1111110NIS
snt,
o
o
qopp 111§goîeîgiteN
8 MIL laninaBLISIAM,
IM.IV11111301MN\
11U111MIOM\ IMICIIBOLNI1011\\
o 111111MINigii. mahosh_ h'eugimeania
I 11111101011WIR ‘001'311
...

WA NOMOGRAP
marammo
...
...„ _
....__ 11011%. 111\11111MISh7.
11.......
IIMMZIMM
NNW&

111111111
lull Z t h lieltsegs
liumuomiamolommaK

Fig 31 — VSVVR as a function of forward and reflected power

Ili «
, 11111111E1111111.
No
III - g h
I dialiii— liliSiger
' I •11011111 _III
IN
In
' 2 --' III 11111111111111
illimummum
IIIIIIIIIMOZ\
IIIIIMIMIllffl
INII ' IIIMMIIIIM111111•111 111111133111MIM.

iii i, Ill

19-15 Chapter 19
0 00 f
, el •,/ c, 01
8gg'82 o a In 01 ci d c;
1 I
o 000 o - o.• ; o fote., o o o co r• to o o• o e ei
,i ei e. (
si -dc; Odd 6 ci 0
€M Ô o SUM — 1:13MOd 031031à3t1

(SP) NOI1W1N131.1V
 —
aand bso long as they are the same units.

8
The characteristic impedance of any
transmission line can be expressed as a
function of the distributed capacitance and
inductance: Air

u,
Z. =
where
Z. = characteristic impedance /

V. /

co
L = inductance (henrys) per unit length /
/
C = capacitance (farads) per unit length I o /
I o ... I /
I /
VSWR Nomograph and VSWR/Loss /
II / I
Chart

-4
The graph displayed in Fig. 31 can be / ? /
I /
used to determine the VSWR on a / À /

wow A i , .,
_ ,_ _,_
transmission line when a forward and
reflected power measurement are known. I // Ull / /
__I

en
As an example, suppose aforward power I
ei /
-7-
measurement is taken as 100 watts and the
reflected power measurement is 11 watts.
dt3

,
/
The 100-watt line on the horizontal axis is
LOSS,
u‘

,
Atillffillad
located and the 11-watt line on the vertical
axis is noted. The intersection of these two
lines on the graph is at the 2to 1VSWR
TOTAL

line. Therefore the VSWR for this set of I /

conditions is 2to 1. I Arlara I
e

i I
3 /
The graph at Fig. 32 provides a con- /
4
l I 3 /
venient means of determining total losses /
/ //
l / / /
if the VSWR at either the input or the load

'A'
/ /5

is known and if the loss in the line without 6 /

cm

/ I/
// / / /
standing waves is known. ( This latter fac- I / / , /
/
tor may be obtained from Table 1of this I 1 , - /
chapter or the manufactuier's literature). I i I I / 0 / /
Conversely, if the VSWR values at the in- I / 1
N)

/ /
put to the line and at the load are I
, / / /i / 1
measured with a reliable instrument, the L ¡ / 1 / / /
total line loss and the loss of the line
1 i / 0.5 / / / /12
without standing waves ( matched loss) / f
f I -1--,-- ---/ 1--1----1---- 1
—

may be determined from the graph.

i I I / 1
The horizontal axis of the graph is i 0.
25l / i
'
di 14
calibrated in values representing the /01 '
In."— / / /
VSWR at the load, while the % ertical axis / /
I 1 ./
represents total loss of the line in decibels.
0

2 3 4 6 8 10 12 15 20
The curves that are predominantly vertical VSWR AT LOAD
1

(dotted lines) in the body of the graph

represent the VSWR value at the line in- Fig. 32 — Transmission loss as a function of source and load VSWR. See text for applications.
put, and the curves that are predominant-
ly horizontal in the lower portion of the locate the value of 3, representing the 3:1 line input if the line is lossless, or has 0dB
graph ( solid lines) represent the matched- VSWR at the load. Follow the vertical of matched loss). This time, however,
line loss. Interpolation of values may be "3" line up until it intersects with the " 1" proceed by following the " 2" dotted line
made between curves, and the curves are solid-line curve which represents 1dB of up and slightly to the right, as this dotted
interrelated so that each set or family may matched-line loss. The calibration scale at lint, represents a2:1 VSWR at the line in-
be considered as another " axis" of the the left indicates that the total line loss put. Follow this line until it intersects with
overall graph. under these conditions is 1.5 dB. At this the 3 solid curve, representing the
A couple of examples best illustrate use same intersection, by interpolating matched loss of the line. From this in-
of the graph. Suppose 100 feet of RG-8 between the dotted-line curves, it may be tersection it may be read (scale at left) that
feed line connects a 15- meter transmitter seen that the VSWR at the line input is ap- the total line loss is just abit more than 5
and its load. If the VSWR as measured at proximately 2.3:1. dB, and that the VSWR at the load (scale
the load is 3:1, what is the total line loss As another example, assume the use of at the bottom) is 5:1. Had the attenuation
and what is the VSWR at the line input? aline with amatched loss of 3dB and that values not been known in this example but
First, it is necessary to determine the the measured VSWR at the line input is the VSWR at both the load and line input
matched loss of the length of the coaxial 2:1. What is the total line loss and the were known, it would have been possible
cable. Table 1indicates that the line has a • VSWR at the load? In this case begin as to determine the matched loss and the
loss of 1.0 dB per hundred feet at 21 before, by running afinger along the scale total loss from the intersection of the 5
MHz. Proceed by running a finger along at the bottom of the graph until the value VSWR-at-load vertical line and the 2
the scale at the bottom of the graph and of 2 is located (it will be the same at the VSWR-at-input curve.

Transmission Lines 19 16
Chapter 20

Antennas
for High Frequency

A nantenna system is comprised of all

the components which are used between
in urban areas have frequent need to
accept acompromise type of antenna for
though circular polarization is possible,
just as it is at vhf and uhf. The
the transmitter or receiver and the actual the hf bands because the city lot won't polarization is determined by the position
radiator. Therefore, such items as the accommodate full-size wire dipoles, end- of the radiating element or wire with
antenna proper, transmission line, fed systems or high supporting structures. respect to earth. Thus, aradiator that is
matching transformers, baluns and Other constrictions are imposed by the parallel to earth radiates horizontally,
Transmatch qualify as parts of an antenna amount of money available for an while an antenna at aright angle to earth
system. antenna system (inclusive of supporting (vertical) radiates avertical wave. If awire
Only the antenna does the radiating in a hardware), the number of amateur bands antenna is slanted above earth, it radiates
well-designed system. It is noteworthy to be worked, and local zoning or- waves which are between vertical and
that any type of feed line can be utilized dinances. Finally, the operational ob- horizontal in nature. During line-of-sight
with agiven antenna, provided asuitable jective comes into play: To dedicate one's communications, maximum signal strength
matching device is used to ensure a low self to DXing, or settle for ageneral type will be realized when the antennas at both
standing-wave ratio (SWR) between the of operation that will yield short- and ends of the circuit have the same polarity.
feed line and the antenna, and again long-haul QS0s during periods of good Cross polarization results in many deci-
between the feed line and the transmitter propagation. Because of the foregoing bels of signal reduction. However, during
and/or the receiver. Some antennas influences, it is impossible to suggest one propagation via the ionosphere (sky wave)
possess acharacteristic impedance at the type of antenna system over another. it is not essential to have the same
feed point close to that of certain transmis- Perhaps ageneral rule of thumb might be polarization as the station at the opposite
sion lines. For example, ahalf-wavelength to erect the biggest and best antenna end of the circuit. This is because the
center-fed dipole, placed acorrect height collection that space and finances will radiated wave is bent and tumbled
above ground, will have afeed impedance allow. If amodest system is the order of considerably during its travel from the
of approximately 75 ohms. In such acase the day, then use whatever is practical and atmospheric layer from which it is
it is practieal to use 75-ohm coaxial or accept atradeoff between elaboration and refracted. At the far end of the com-
balanced line to feed the antenna. But few performance. Practically any radiator will munications path the wave may be
amateur half-wavelength dipoles actually enable the operator to make good horizontal, vertical or somewhere in
exhibit a 75-ohm impedance. This is contacts under some conditions of pro- between at a given instant. On multi/top
because at the lower end of the high- pagation, assuming that the radiator is transmissions, where the signal is refract-
frequency spectrum the typical height able to accept power and radiate it at ed more than once from the atmosphere,
above ground is rarely more than 1/4 some useful angle respective to earth. and similarly reflected from the earth's
wavelength. The 75-ohm characteristic is In general, the height of the antenna surface during its travel (skip), con-
most likely to be realized in a practical above ground is the most critical factor at siderable polarization shift will occur.
installation when the horizontal dipole is the higher end of the hf spectrum — 20, 15 Therefore, the main consideration for a
approximately one-half, three-quarters or and 10 meters. This is because the antenna good DX antenna is a low angle of
one wavelength above ground. At other should be clear of conductive objects such
heights the feed impedance may vary from as power lines, phone wires, gutters and
roughly 58 to 95 ohms (see Fig. 1). This the like, plus high enough to have alow
general principle applies to nearly all radiation angle. This is not nearly as 120

antennas which are erected horizontally important at 160, 80 and 40 meters, but it X/2 HORIZONTAL

above an earth ground. Furthermore, the is still recommended that lower-frequency

precise conductivity of the earth at one antennas be well away from conductive
location may differ markedly at another objects and as high above ground as
site, and this phenomenon has a direct possible in the interest of good per-
effect on the electrical height of the formance. The exception is a ground-
radiator above ground. A curve (dotted mounted vertical antenna. Ground-plane 20 -
line) is included in Fig. 1to demonstrate verticals, however, should be installed as
the radiation resistance of avertical dipole high above ground as possible so that
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 14 lb
at various feed-point heights above ground. their performance will not be degraded by
conductive objects. HEIGHT 04
(ANTENNA CENTER)
The Antenna Choice
Paramount among the factors to con- Antenna Polarization
Fig. 1 — Curves showing the radiation resistance
sider when selecting an antenna is the Most hf-band antennas are either of vertical and horizontal half-wavelength dipoles
matter of available space. Those who live vertically or horizontally polarized, al- at various heights above ground.

20-1 Chapter 20
radiation rather than the polarization. It
2.0 —
should be said, however, that most DX
antennas for hf work are horizontally
zz
polarized. The major exception is the /411—H•3/4
ground-plane vertical and phased vertical
arrays.

Impedance
The impedance at agiven point in the
antenna is determined by the ratio of the
1.4
voltage to the current at that point. For
example, if there were 100 rf volts and
1.4 amperes of current at aspecified point

FACTOR
in an antenna, the impedance would be 12

approximately 71 ohms. The impedance is

significant with regard to matching the

MULTIPLYING
feeder to the feed point: Maximum power 1.0
transfer takes place under a perfectly
matched condition. As the mismatch in-
creases so does the reflected power. If the
feed line is not too lossy or long, good
performance can be had at hf when the
standing-wave ratio (SWR) is 3:1 or less.
When feeder loss is very low — such as
with open-wire transmission line — much
higher SWR is not particularly detrimen- )J4

tal to performance provided the transmit-

ter is able to lead into the mismatched con- H.1/2
dition satisfactorily. In this regard, a
Transmatch ( matching network between 0.2

the transmitter and the feed line) is often

employed to " disguise" the mismatch
condition, thereby enabling the operator 1
to load the transmitter to its full rated 10* 20° 30* 40° 50° 60* 70° 80* 90°
power. VERTICAL ANGLE
Antenna impedance can be either
resistive or complex. This will depend
Fig. 2— Effect of ground on the radiation of horizontal antennas at vertical angles for four antenna
upon whether or not the antenna is
heights. These data are based on perfectly conducting ground.
resonant at the operating frequency.
Many operators believe that amismatch,
however small, is a serious matter, and
that their signals won't be heard well even follows the rule where the bandwidth of a is increased, so that good heights are not
if the SWR is as low as 1.3:1. This resonant circuit doubles as the frequency impracticable; a half wavelength at 14
unfortunate fallacy has cost many man- of operation is increased one octave MHz is only 35 feet, approximately, while
hours and dollars among some amateur (doubled) assuming the Q is the same for the same height represents a full wave-
groups as individuals attempted to obtain each case. Therefore, it is often difficult to length at 28 MHz. At 7 MHz and lower
a " perfect" match: A perfect match, achieve sufficient bandwidth to cover all frequencies the higher radiation angles are
however ideal the concept may be, is not of the 160- and 80-meter bands with a effective, so that again a useful antenna
necessary. The significance of a perfect dipole antenna cut for each of those height is not difficult to attain. But,
match becomes more pronounced at vhf bands. The situation can be aided by greater height is important at 7MHz and
and higher, where feeder losses are a applying broadbanding techniques, such lower when it is desired to work DX
major problem. as fanning the far ends of a dipole to consistently. Heights between 35 and 70
simulate aconical type of dipole. feet are suitable for the upper bands, the
higher figures being preferable. It is well
Antenna Bandwidth Radiation Angle to remember that most simple horizontal-
The bandwidth of an antenna refers The vertical angle of maximum ra- ly polarized antennas do not exhibit the
generally to the range of frequencies over diation is of primary importance, especially directivity they are capable of unless they
which the antenna can be used to obtain at the higher frequencies. It is ad- are one-half wavelength above ground, or
good performance. The bandwidth is vantageous, therefore, to erect the anten- greater, at their operating frequency.
usually referenced to some SWR value, na at aheight that will take advantage of Therefore, with dipole-type antennas it is
such as "The 2:1 SWR bandwidth is 3.5 to ground reflection in such a way as to not important to choose a favored
3.8 MHz." Some more specific bandwidth reinforce the space radiation at the most broadside direction unless the antenna is
terms are used also, such as the gain desirable angle. Since low angles usually at least one-half wavelength above ground.
bandwidth and the front- to-back ratio are most effective, this generally means
that the antenna should be high — at least Imperfect Ground
bandwidth. The gain bandwidth is sig-
nificant because the higher the antenna one-half wavelength at 14 MHz, and Fig. 2is based on ground having perfect
gain the narrower the gain bandwidth will preferably three-quarters or one wave- conductivity, whereas the earth is not a
be, for a given gain-bandwidth product. length, and at least one wavelength, and perfect conductor. The principal effect of
For the most part, the lower the preferably higher, at 28 MHz. The actual ground is to make the curves
operating frequency of a given antenna physical height required for agiven height inaccurate at the lowest angles; ap-
design, the narrower the bandwidth. This in wavelengths decreases as the frequency preciable high- frequency radiation at

Antennas for High Frequency 20-2

 relatively little, the decreased L/C ratio Example: Find the length of a half-
1.00 70
causes the Q of the antenna to decrease, so wavelength antenna at 28.7 MHz, if the
antenna is made of 1/2-inch ( 12.7 mm)
2 that the resonance curve becomes less
lE
0.98 65 c>
1.)
sharp. Hence, the antenna is capable of diameter tubing. At 28.7 MHz, a half-
o
0.96
working over a wide frequency range. wavelength in space is
; 0.94 5 This effect is greater as the diameter is
-1
a. increased, and is a property of some 492
t5 0.92 = 17.14 ft (5.3m)
importance at the very high frequencies 28.7
IH I . -i •— 45 t
.,
c
where the wavelength is small.
10 50 200 1000 5000

20 100 500 2000 10,000 The Half-Wave Wavelength Antenna

from Equation 1. The ratio of half
A fundamental form of antenna is a wavelength to conductor diameter (chang-
RATIO OF HALF WAVELENGTH
TO CONDUCTOR DIAMETER single wire whose length is approximately ing wavelength to inches) is
equal to half the transmitting wavelength.
Fig. 3 — Effect of antenna diameter on length for It is the unit from which many more- (17.14 x 12) — 411
half-wavelength resonance, shown as a complex forms of antennas are con- 0.5
multiplying factor, K, to be applied to the free-
structed. It is known as adipole antenna.
space, half-wavelength equation ( Eq. 1). The
The length of ahalf-wave in free space
effect of conductor diameter on the center From Fig. 3, K = 0.97 for this ratio. The
impedance is shown also. is length of the antenna, from Equation 3a
492 is
Length (ft) = la
f ( MHz)
angles smaller than a few degrees is (492 x 0.97)
28.7 — 16.63 ft ( 5.06 m)
practically impossible to obtain over 150
Length (m) = f (MHz) lb
horizontal ground. Above 15 degrees,
or 16 feet 7-1/2 inches. The answer is
however, the curves are accurate enough obtained directly in inches by substitution
for all practical purposes, and may be The actual length of a half-wavelength
of Equation 3b.
taken as indicative of the result to be antenna will not be exactly equal to the
expected at angles between 5 and 15 half-wavelength in space, but depends
(5905 x 0.97)
degrees. upon the thickness of the conductor in 28.7 — 199.6 inches (5.06 m)
The effective ground plane — that is, relation to the wavelength as shown in
the plane from which ground reflections Fig. 3, where K is a factor that must be The length of a half-wavelength antenna
can be considered to take place — seldom multipled by the half wavelength in free is affected also by the proximity of the
is the actual surface of the ground but is a space to obtain the resonant antenna dipole ends to nearby conductive and
few feet below it, depending upon the length. An additional shortening effect semiconductive objects. In practice, it is
characteristics of the soil. occurs with wire antennas supported by often necessary after cutting the antenna
insulators at the ends because of the to the computed length to do some
Current and Voltage Distribution capacitance added to the system by the experimental " pruning" of the wire,
When power is fed to an antenna, the insulators (end effect). The following shortening it in increments to obtain alow
current and voltage vary along its length. formula is sufficiently accurate for wire SWR. This can be done by applying rf
The current is maximum ( loop) at the antennas for frequencies up to 30 MHz. power through an SWR indicator and
center and nearly zero ( node) at the ends, observing the reflected-power reading.
while the opposite is true of the rf voltage. Length of half-wave antenna (ft) = When the lowest SWR is obtained for the
The current does not actually reach zero desired part of an amateur band, it does
at the current nodes, because of the end 492 x0.95 468 not necessarily follow that the antenna is
2a
effect; similarly, the voltage is not zero at f ( MHz) — f ( MHz) resonant at that frequency. However, a
its node because of the resistance of the matched condition will have been secured
antenna, which consists of both the rf — the basic objective in preparing an
150 x0.95 _ 143
resistance of the wire ( ohmic resistance) 2b antenna for use.
f ( MHz) f ( MHz)
and the radiation resistance. The radiation
Radiation Characteristics
resistance is an equivalent resistance, a
Example:
convenient conception to indicate the The classic radiation pattern of adipole
A half-wave antenna for 7150 kHz ( 7.15
radiation properties of an antenna. The antenna is most intense perpendicular to
468
radiation resistance is the equivalent MHz) is -ifs.=65.45 ft, or 65 ft 5in.(19.9 m). the wire. A figure-8pattern ( Fig. 4) can be
resistance that would dissipate the power assumed off the broad side of the antenna
Above 30 MHz the following formulas (bidirectional pattern) if the dipole is 1/2
the antenna radiates, with a current
should be used, particularly for antennas wavelength or greater above earth and not
flowing in it equal to the antenna current
constructed from rod or tubing. K is tak- degraded by nearby conductive objects.
at acurrent loop (maximum). The ohmic
en from Fig. 3. This assumption is based also on a
resistance of ahalf-wavelength antenna is
ordinarily small enough, compared with symmetrical feed system. In practice, a
the radiation resistance, to be neglected Length of half-wave antenna ( ft) = coaxial feed line will distort this pattern
for all practical purposes. slightly. Minimum horizontal radiation
492 x K
3a occurs off the ends of the dipole. The
Conductor Size f ( MHz) foregoing relates to a half-wavelength
The impedance of the antenna also antenna which is parallel to the earth.
5905 x K
depends upon the diameter of the Length (in.) 3b However, if the dipole is erected verti-
f (MHz)
conductor in relation to the wavelength, cally, uniform radiation in all compass
as indicated in Fig. 3. If the diameter of Length (m) = 150 x K 3c directions ( adoughnut pattern if it could
the conductor is increased, the ca- f ( MHz) be viewed from above the antenna) will
pacitance per unit length increases and the result.
inductance per unit length decreases. Length (mm) — 150 ' 0°C) x K 3d One of the greatest errors made by
Since the radiation resistance is affected f ( MHz) some beginners is to assume that adipole

20-3 Chapter 20
 DX-communications angle of approxi-
mately 15 degrees. The higher- angle lobes
(50°) are useful for short- haul com-
munications and compare favorably in
practice with the lobe angle seen in Fig.
SA. At heights appreciably lower than 1/2
wavelength, the lobe angle becomes
higher, and eventually the two lobes
converge to create a discrete " ball of
radiation" which has a very high- angle
Fig. 6 — Method for affixing the feed line to the
nature ( poor for long-distance com-
center of adipole antenna. A plastic block is
munications). used as acenter insulator. The coaxial cable is
held in place by means of ametal clamp.

Feed Methods for Half- Wavelength

Antennas
Most amateur single- wire dipole anten- - HALF WAVELENGTH
FROM FORMULA

nas ( half wavelength) have a feed im-

pedance between 50 and 75 ohms,
Fig. 4 — Azimuth- plane response of ahalf-
depending on the installation. Therefore,
wavelength dipole in free space. SOLDER
standard coaxial cable is suitable for most 3000 TWIN- LINE
OR OPEN- WIRE INSULATOR OR
installations. The smaller types of cable LINE ( UP TO 6" PLASTIC " SANDWICH
(152 . 4rnrn SPACING)
(RG-58/U and RG-59/U) are satisfactory BLOCK

for power levels up to afew hundred watts PLASTIC INSULATING

if the SWR of the system is low. For BLOCK (" SANDWICH') 3000 "rvile LINE
(ANY LENGTH)
high- power stations it is recommended
that the larger cables be employed
(RG-8/U or RG-11/U). These cables can
Fig. 7 — Construction details for a folded-
be connected at the center of the antenna, dipole antenna. TV ribbon line is used as the
as shown in Fig. 6. A plastic insulating dipole and feed line. Two pieces of plastic
block is used as a central reinforcement form an insulator/sandwich at the center to
for the cable and the dipole wires. The hold the conductor junction secure. When rib-
bon line is used for the flat top, the two con-
coax shield braid connects to one leg of ductors should be shorted at about 82% of the
the dipole and the center conductor is distance from the feed point to the ends.
soldered to the remaining leg. The
exposed end of the cable should be sealed
against dirt and moisture to prevent
degradation of the transmission line.
Symmetrical feed can be achieved by
inserting a 1:1 balun transformer at the
dipole feed point. If one is not used, it is
unlikely that the slight pattern skew
resulting from nonsymmetrical feed will
be noticed. The effects of unbalanced feed
are most significant in beam antennas at
vhf and higher. The narrower the beam
Fig. 5 — Elevation- plane response of adipole pattern the more annoying the condition,
antenna placed 1/2-wavelength above a perfectly will be.
conducting ground ( A), and the pattern for the The characteristic impedance of a
same antenna ( B) when it is raised to one- dipole antenna can be increased by using a
wavelength above ground.
two- wire or folded dipole of the type seen
in Fig. 7. This antenna offers a good
antenna will exhibit a " broadside pattern" match to 300- ohm feed line. In fact, the
at any height above ground. As the dipole itself can be fashioned from a
antenna is brought closer to ground, the length of 300- ohm TV ribbon. Al-
radiation pattern deteriorates until the ternatively, two pieces of wire can be used
antenna is, for the most part, an to form the equivalent of the TV- line
omnidirectional radiator of high- angle dipole. If this is done it will be necessary
waves. Many are tempted to use any to locate insulating spacers every few feet
convenient height, such as 20 or 30 feet along the length of the dipole to keep the
Fig. 8 — Center-fed Zepp antenna ( A) and an
above ground for an 80-meter dipole, only wires spaced apart uniformly and to end-fed Zepp at B.
to learn that the system is effective in all prevent short circuiting. Open- wire TV
directions over arelatively short distance "ladder line" is excellent for use in a half wavelength for the lowest desired
(out to 500 or 1000 miles under good 300-ohm folded-dipole antenna, both for amateur band. It is operated on its
conditions). It can be seen from this that the radiator and the feed line. Feeder harmonics when used for the other chosen
height above ground is important for a losses with this type of construction will amateur bands. A typical antenna of this
host of reasons. Fig. SA and B illustrate be very low as opposed to molded TV type might be utilized from 80 through 10
clearly the advantage gained from anten- twin-lead. meters. This style of radiator is known by
na height. The radiation angle of Fig. SA A dipole antenna can be used as an some amateurs as the " center- fed Zepp."
is roughly 35 degrees, whereas at aheight "all- band" radiator by using tuned open- An end- fed version ( end- fed Zepp) is
of one wavelength ( Fig. SB) the lobes split wire feed line. This principle is seen in Fig. shown in Fig. 8 at B. The latter is not
and the lower ones provide a good A. In this example the dipole is cut to a quite as desirable as the center- fed version

Antennas for High Frequency 20-4

 unbalanced one. Although the feed line single or multiband use. As is true of a
may be anything from 200 ohms up to 600 horizontal dipole, the higher the inverted
ohms (not critical), losses will be in- V is mounted above ground ( feed point),
significant when open-wire line is used. the better it will perform respective to
This is true despite the variations in dipole long-distance communications.
feedpoint impedance from band to band. Best results seem to be obtained when
The feed impedance will be high at even the enclosed angle of the inverted V is
harmonics and will be low at the lowest between 90 and 120 degrees. At angles less
operating frequency and at odd har- than 90 degYees considerable cancellation
monics thereof. For example, if the dipole is likely, resulting in reduced antenna
is cut for 40 meters, the feed impedance performance. At angles greater than 120
will be low on 40 and 15 meters, but it will degrees, the antenna begins to function as
be high at 20 and 10 meters. ahorizontal dipole.
When using any dipole antenna it is When the ends of the inverted V are
recommended that the feed line be routed relatively close to the earth, pruning of the
away from the antenna at aright angle for dipole legs may be necessary to com-
as great a distance as possible. This will pensate for the capacitive effect to
help prevent current unbalance in the line ground. Thus, if the dipole is cut to length
caused by rf pickup from the dipole. A by means of the standard half-wavelength
right-angle departure of 1/4 wavelength dipole equation, it may be too long as an
Fig. 9— Example of asloping half-wavelength or greater is suggested.
dipole. Maximum directivity is as shown provided inverted V. Incremental trimming of each
ametal mast is used. If atree or nonconducting
Under some circumstances it may be end of the dipole can be done while using
mast is employed the pattern will be similar to necessary to experiment with the length of an SWR indicator. This will show when
that of avertical ground- plane antenna. the open-wire feeders when using an the lowest SWR is obtained. A 50-ohm
all-band Zepp. This is because at some feed line offers agood match for inverted
operating frequencies the line may present Vs when single-band operation is desired.
an "awkward" impedance to the Trans- For multiband use, the inverted V can be
match, making it impossible to obtain a fed by means of open-wire line and
suitable load condition for the transmit- matched to the transmitter by means of a
ter. This will depend essentially on the Transmatch.
capability of the Transmatch being used.
The most ideal supporting structure for
an inverted V is a wooden or other
Dipole Variations nonconductive one. This type of support
The physical application of dipoles can will have the least effect on antenna
be varied to obtain radiation properties pattern and performance. When a metal
which differ from those of the more structure is used, the mast of tower is in
conventional " horizontal dipole." Fur- the field of the antenna and will affect the
thermore, the nature and amount of radiation pattern considerably. The effect
property at the installation site will often is similar to that of the sloping dipole,
dictate certain departures from the con- where maximum directivity is off the
ventional when erecting adipole. sloping front of the antenna ( Fig. 9). In
A sloping dipole can be useful for DX the case of an inverted V, two prominent
work because of the low angle of radiation lobes result — off two sides of the tower,
which results when it is erected as shown as if two sloping dipoles were being used.
in Fig. 9. The higher the feed point is Inverted Vs are most effective when
above ground the lower the radiation used for a single band — the one for
angle will be. However, excellent results which the dipole has been cut. As the
can be had when the ground end of the operating frequency is increased, the
antenna is only afew feet above the earth. radiation angle deteriorates: Results with
Maximum directivity is off the sloped DX are often mediocre. Good results can
front of the antenna, as shown. This be had when using an inverted V for
characteristic is obtained when the "slop- two-band operation, however. An 80-
er" is supported by ametal mast or tower: meter inverted V can be fed with
The metal structure tends to act as a open-wire line and used also on 40 meters
reflector, actually providing a slight as two half waves in phase. Although
amount of gain. Some amateurs install ARRL tests have not been made to verify
four slopers for a given amateur band, the effect, some gain seems to be realized
Fig. 10— Details for an inverted-V dipole which
can be used for multiband hf operation ( A). A
spaced equidistantly around the tower. A when operating the inverted V on its
Transmatch is seen at B. It is suitable for feed-line switching system is used to second harmonic.
matching the antenna to the transmitter over a obtain directivity in the chosen direction. Tests performed with an inverted V on
wide frequency range. Another popular type of dipole antenna 80 meters showed that with an apex height
is the so-called inverted V, or drooping of 60 feet ( 18 m) and an enclosed angle of
doublet. An inverted V is shown in Fig. 10. 90 degrees, no directivity could be ob-
because the feed system is not sym- Newcomers to amateur radio are fre- served during ground-wave signal evalua-
metrical. This can cause feeder radiation quently led to regard this antenna as a tion. The test stations were 10 miles apart
and adistortion of the antenna radiation panacea, but there is nothing magical or during daylight, and the inverted V was
pattern. Both types of Zepp antenna superior about an inverted-V dipole. The rotated through the various compass
require amatching network (Transmatch) main attributes are that it radiates more headings while the signal level was
at the transmitter end of the line to con- or less omnidirectionally at typical heights monitored at the far end of the com-
vert the feeder impedance to 50 ohms, and above ground, requires only one sup- munications circuit. The supporting struc-
to change the balanced condition to an porting structure, and can be used for ture was a60-foot ( 18 m) tower in an open

20-5 Chapter 20
 TRAp FEED TRAP
Li ffiCrN POINT e
-rry-sLI
(LO- Z)

Cl 0 0
Cl

Fig. 12 — Example of atrap dipole antenna. Li and Cl can be tuned to the desired frequency by
means of adip meter before they are installed in the antenna.

wire lengths between the traps and beyond

will be necessary.
The trap capacitors should be high-
voltage and-current units (C1).Transmit-
ting mica capacitors offer good per-
formance. Transmitting ceramic capa-
citors are usable, but change value with
extreme changes of temperature. There-
fore, they are more suitable for use in
regions where the climate is fairly
constant throughout the year. The coils
(LI) should be of reasonably heavy wire
gauge to minimize PR losses. The XL and
Xc values in the traps are not critical.
Generally the reactance can be on the
order of 100 to 300 ohms. The traps are
checked for resonance before they are
installed in the antenna system. This can
Fig. 11 — When limited space is available for a
dipole antenna the ends can be bent downward
be accomplished by means of adip meter
(A), or back on the radiator as shown at B. The Fig. 13— A helically wound dipole is illustrated and acalibrated receiver. Weatherproofing
inverted Vat C can be erected with the voltage at A. As shown, the radiation resistance will be should be added to the traps as ameasure
ends bent parallel with the ground when the very low and will require a broadband matching against detuning and damage from ice
available supporting structure is not high enough transformer. The coupling method seen at B is
snow and dirt.
to permit an enclosed angle of approximately 90 more satisfactory for providing amatched
degrees. condition.
Helically Wound Dipoles
The overall length of ahalf-wavelength
dipole can be reduced considerably by em-
20-acre field. This verified the omni- to ensure alow SWR in the favored part ploying helically-wound elements. Fig. 13A
directional property mentioned earlier. of the amateur band for which the shows the general form taken with this
antenna is built. If open-wire feeders and type of antenna. A length of insulating rod
Bent Dipoles and Trap Dipoles aTransmatch are used, the dipole length or tubing ( fiberglass or phenolic) is used to
When there is insufficient real estate to will not be acritical factor, provided it is contain the wire turns of the dipole. The
permit the erection of a full-size hori- close to the length required for a fully material should be of high dielectric
zontal or inverted-V dipole, certain extended half-wavelength dipole. Pruning quality. Varnished bamboo has been used
compromises are possible in the interest of will be required if single-band operation successfully by some in lieu of the more
getting an antenna installed. The voltage with coaxial feed line is planned. expensive materials. A hardwood pole
ends ( far ends) of a dipole can be bent Trap dipoles offer one solution to from a lumber yard can be used after
downward toward earth to effect reso- multiband operation with a shortened being coated one or more times with
nance, and the performance will not be radiator. The concept is seen in Fig. 12. In exterior spar varnish.
reduced markedly. Fig. 11 illustrates the this example the dipole is structured for To minimize losses, the wire used
technique under discussion. At A the two-band use. Assuming in this case that should be of the largest diameter prac-
dipole ends are bent downward and the antenna is made for operation on 80 tical. The turns can be close wound or
secured to anchors by means of guy line. and 40 meters, the overall radiator spaced apart with little difference in
Some pattern distortion will result from (inclusive of the traps) must be resonant at performance. The ends of the helical
bending the ends. The dipole ends can the center of the chosen section of the dipole should contain capacitance hats
also be bent back over the wire halves of 80-meter band. The traps add loading to (disks or wire spokes preferred) of the
the antenna, as seen at B in Fig. 11. This the dipole, so the length from the feed largest size practical. The hats will lower
causes some signal cancellation (more point to the far end of each leg will be the Q of the antenna and broaden its
severe than with the system of Fig. 11A), somewhat shorter than normal. During response. If no disks are used, extremely
so it is not apreferred technique. 40-meter operation the traps present a high rf voltage can appear at the ends of
Fig. 11C demonstrates a bending high impedance to the signal and "di- the antenna. At medium power levels and
technique for inverted Vs when the vorce" the wires beyond the traps. higher the insulating material can burn
available supporting mast or tree is too Therefore, the wire length from the feed when no hats are used. The voltage effect
short to permit normal installation. The point to each trap is approximately is similar to that of aTesla coil.
ends of the dipole are guyed off by means what it would be if the dipole were The feed impedance of helical dipoles
of insulators and wires, as shown. cut for just 40 meters, with no traps in the or verticals is quite low. Therefore, it may
Alternatively, but not preferred, is the line. This principle can be extended for be necessary to employ some form of
fold-back method at B in Fig. 11. additional bands, using anew set of traps matching network to interface the anten-
All of the shortening systems high- for each additional band. Since there is na with 50-ohm coaxial cable. A broad-
lighted in Fig. 11 will have an effect on the considerable interaction between the vari- band, variable-impedance transformer is
overall length of the dipole. Therefore, ous segments of amultiband trap dipole, convenient for determining the turns ratio
some cutting and testing will be necessary considerable experimentation with the of the final transformer used. The feed

Antennae for High Frequency 20-6

 tradeoff, this antenna is capable of good 180
performance when there is no room for a
full-size dipole. 160 8

A
LONG-WIRE ANTENNAS 140 7

An antenna will be resonant so long as 6

an integral number of standing waves of

5
current and voltage can exist along its \s.

RATIO
length; in other words, so long as its 4

length is some integral multiple of ahalf

POWER
wavelength. When the antenna is more 3

than one wavelength long it usually is 40

called along-wire antenna, or aharmonic
antenna. 20

Current and Voltage Distribution 0

1 2 3 4 5 e 7 13 9 10 11 12 13 14

Fig. 14 shows the current and voltage ANTENNA LENGTH -

distribution along a wire operating at its

fundamental frequency (where its length Fig. 15 — Curve A shows variation in radiation
is equal to a half wavelength) and at its resistance with antenna length. Curve B shows
power in lobes of maximum radiation for long-
second, third and fourth harmonics. For wire antennas as a ratio to the maximum radia-
example, if the fundamental frequency of tion for a half-wave antenna.
the antenna is 7 MHz, the current and
voltage distribution will be as shown at A.
The same antenna excited at 14 MHz
Fig. 14 — Standing-wave current and voltage would have current and voltage distribu- 492 (4 — 0.05) _ 492 (3.95)
distribution along an antenna when it is tion as shown at B. At 21 MHz, the third 14.2 — 14.2
operated at various harmonics of its funda- harmonic of 7 MHz, the current and
mental resonant frequency.
voltage distribution would be as in C; and = 136.7 feet, or 136 feet 8inches.
at 28 MHz, the fourth harmonic, as in D.
The number of the harmonic is the It is apparent that an antenna cut as a
number of half waves contained in the halfwave for a given frequency will be
antenna at the particular operating fre- slightly off resonance at exactly twice that
method shown at B of Fig. 13 can be used
quency. frequency (the second harmonic), because
to secure a matched condition. L2 is
The polarity of current or voltage in of the decreased influence of the end ef-
wound over LI, or between the two halves
each standing wave is opposite to that in fects when the antenna is more than one-
of LI, as illustrated. C 1is adjusted for an
the adjacent standing waves. This is half wavelength long. The effect is not
SWR of I at the center of the desired
shown in the figure by drawing the current very important, except for apossible un-
operating range. The bandwidth of this
and voltage curves successively above and balance in the feeder system and conse-
type of antenna is quite narrow. A
40- meter version with an 18- foot ( 5.5-m) below the antenna (taken as a zero quent radiation from the feedline. If the
overall length exhibited a 2:1 SWR reference line), to indicate that the polari- antenna is fed in the exact center, no un-
bandwidth of 50 kHz. The capacitance ty reverses when the current or voltage balance will occur at any frequency,
hats on that model were merely 18- inch goes through zero. Currents flowing in the but end- fed systems will show an un-
(457- mm) lengths ( spikes) of no. 8 same direction are in phase; in opposite balance on all but one frequency in each
copperweld wire. Greater bandwidth would directions, out of phase. harmonic range.
result with larger capacitance hats. It is evident that one antenna may be
used for harmonically- related frequencies, Impedance and Power Gain
To obtain half- wavelength performance
it is necessary to wind approximately one such as the various amateur bands. The The radiation resistance as measured at
wavelength of wire on the tubing. Final long-wire or harmonic antenna is the basis a current loop becomes higher as the
pruning can be accomplished while ob- of multiband operation with one antenna. antenna length is increased. Also, along-
serving an SWR indicator placed in the wire antenna radiates more power in its
Physical Lengths
transmission line. Proximity to nearby most favorable direction than does ahalf-
conductive objects and the earth will have The length of along-wire antenna is not wave antenna in its most favorable direc-
asignificant effect on the resonance of the an exact multiple of that of a half-wave tion. This power gain is secured at the ex-
antenna. Ideally, final adjustments should antenna because the end effects operate pense of radiation in other directions. Fig.
be made with the antenna situated where only on the end sections of the antenna; in 15 shows how the radiation resistance and
it will be during use. Marine spar varnish other parts of the wire these effects are ab- the power in the lobe of maximum radia-
should be painted on the elements after all sent, and the wire length is approximately tion vary with the antenna length.
tuning is finished. This will protect the that of an equivalent portion of the wave
antenna from the weather and will lock in space. The formula for the length of a Directional Characteristics
the turns in place so that detuning will not long-wire antenna, therefore, is As the wire is made longer in terms of
occur later on. the number of half wavelengths, the direc-
A reasonably linear current and voltage tional effects change. Instead of the
distribution will result when using a 492 ( N — 0.05) "doughnut" pattern of the half-wave
Length ( feet) =
helically wound dipole or vertical. The Freq. (MHz) antenna, the directional characteristic
same is not true of center-, mid- or splits up into " lobes" which make various
end- loaded ( lumped inductance) dipoles. where N is the number of half-waves on angles with the wire. In general, as the
The efficiency of this antenna will be the antenna. length of the wire is increased the direc-
somewhat less than afull-size dipole. The tion in which maximum radiation occurs
performance will degrade as the helixes Example: An antenna 4half-waves long at tends to approach the line of the antenna
are made shorter. Despite the gain- length 14.2 MHz would be itself.

20-7 Chapter 20
 Directional characteristics for antennas of sufficient length work well over athree-
one wavelength, three half-wavelengths, 70•
0* 90°
30
do.
70
to-one or four-to-one frequency range
and two wavelengths long are given in 50*
406
25
te•
and hence are useful for multiband opera-
50•

Figs. 16, 17 and 18, for three vertical 40. tion.

angles of radiation. Note that, as the wire 30• , ' 30. Antenna gains of the order of 10 to 15
length increases, the radiation along the 0
dB can be obtained with properly con-
line of the antenna becomes more pro- le ' • . e 10'
structed long-wire arrays. However, the
nounced. Still longer antennas can be con- ‘ ' '
Oa
pattern is rather sharp with gains of this
order, and rhombic and " V" beams are
•
sidered to have practically " end-on"
directional characteristics, even at the 0
not used by amateurs as commonly as
20• s

lower radiation angles. they were, having been displaced by the

30.
rotatable multi-element Yagi beam. Fur-
0
30•
When along-wire antenna is fed at one \
20 40.
ther information on these antennas can be
40
end or at the current loop closest to that 50* 25 50.

end, the radiation is most pronounced 70

60. found in The ARRL Antenna Book.
90* Orr
from the long section. This unidirectional
BEAMS WITH DRIVEN ELEMENTS
pattern can be accentuated by terminating
the far end in aresistance to ground. The By combining individual half-wave
Fig. 16 — Horizontal patterns of radiation from
load resistor will dissipate energy that a full-wave antenna. The solid line shows the antennas into an array with suitable spac-
would ordinarily be radiated toward the pattern for a vertical angle of 15 degrees; ing between the antennas (called elements)
feed point. Depending on the pattern sym- dotted lines show deviation from the 15-degree and feeding power to them simultaneous-
pattern at 9 and 30 degrees. All three patterns
metry of the unterminated antenna, this ly, it is possible to make the radiation
are drawn to the same relative scale; actual
resistor must handle up to half the power amplitudes will depend upon the height of the
from the elements add up along asingle
delivered to the feed point. The exact antenna. direction and form abeam. In other direc-
resistance must be determined empirically, tions the radiation tends to cancel, so a
but the voltage-to-current ratio at a cur- power gain is obtained in one direction at
rent node is a good starting value. A the expense of radiation in other direc-
quarter-wavelength wire beyond the tions. There are several methods of ar-
resistor can serve as apseudo ground for 50.
50•
5
40
506
ranging the elements. If they are strung
the system. Low-angle radiation from a O• end to end, so that all lie on the same
long wire can be enhanced by sloping the e'
straight line, the elements are said to be
I.

wire down toward the favored direction. collinear. If they are parallel and all lying
in the same plane, the elements are said to
'‘..' .
Methods of Feeding .
•
''. be broadside when the phase of the cur-
rent is the same in all, and end-fire when
I
In along-wire antenna, the currents in I

adjacent half-wave sections must be out

•
\ ".
the currents are not in phase.
of phase, as shown in Fig. 14. The feeder 30 .

.. - .. 40. Collinear Arrays

system must not upset this phase relation- 50•
Simple forms of collinear arrays, with
50.
ship. This is satisfied by feeding the anten- SO'

na at either end or at any current loop. A

• 40. the current distribution, are shown in Fig.
two-wire feeder cannot be inserted at a 19. The two-element array at A is popu-
current node, however, because this in- larly known as a Franklin array, " two
variably brings the currents in two adja- Fig. 17 — Horizontal patterns of radiation from half-waves in phase" or a double Zepp
an antenna three half- waves long. The solid antenna. It will be recognized as simply a
cent half-wave sections in phase. A long line shows the pattern for a vertical angle of 15
wire antenna is usually made a half degrees; dotted lines show deviation from the
center-fed dipole operated at its second
wavelength at the lowest frequency and 15-degree pattern at 9 and 30 degrees. Minor harmonic.
fed at the end. lobes coincide for all three angles. By extending the antenna, as at B, the
additional gain of an extended double
LONG-WIRE DIRECTIVE ARRAYS Zepp antenna can be obtained. Carrying
Two long wires can be combined in the the length beyond that shown will result in
form of ahorizontal " V", in the form of an " X"-shaped pattern that no longer has
a horizontal rhombus, or in parallel, to the maximum radiation at right angles to
provide along-wire directive array. In the the wire.
"V" and rhombic antennas the main Collinear arrays may be mounted either
lobes reinforce along a line bisecting the horizontally or vertically. Horizontal
acute angle between the wires; in the mounting gives increased azimuthal direc-
parallel antenna the reinforcement is tivity, while the vertical directivity remains
along the line of the lobe. This reinforce- the same as for asingle element at the same
ment provides both gain and directivity height. Vertical mounting gives the same
along the line, since the lobes in other horizontal pattern as a single element, but
directions tend to cancel. When the improves the low-angle radiation.
proper configuration for a given length
Broadside Arrays
and height above ground is used, the
power gain depends upon the length ( in Parallel antenna elements with currents
wavelengths) of the wires. in phase may be combined as shown in
Rhombic and " V" antennas ale nor- Fig. 20 to form a broadside array, so
mally bidirectional along the bisector line named because the direction of maximum
mentioned above. They can be made Fig. 18 — Horizontal patterns of radiation from radiation is broadside to the plane con-
unidirectional by terminating the ends of an antenna two wavelengths long. The solid taining the antennas. Again the gain and
line shows the pattern for a vertical angle of 15 directivity depend upon the spacing of the
the wires away from the feed point in the degrees; dotted lines show deviation from the
proper value of resistance. When properly 15-degree pattern at 9 and 30 degrees. The elements.
terminated, " V" and rhombic antennas minor lobes coincide for all three angles. Broadside arrays may be suspended

Antennas for High Frequency 20-8

 either with the elements all vertical or with
them horizontal and one above the other
(stacked). In the former case the horizon-
tal pattern becomes quite sharp, while the
vertical pattern is the same as that of one
element alone. If the array is suspended
horizontally, the horizontal pattern is
equivalent to that of one element while the
vertical pattern is sharpened, giving low-
angle radiation.
Broadside arrays may be fed either by
tuned open-wire lines or through quarter-
wave matching sections and flat lines. In
Fig. 20B, note the " crossing over" of the
phasing section, which is necessary to
bring the elements into proper phase rela-
tionship.
Fig. 19 — Collinear antennas in phase. The system at A is known as "two half waves in phase"
and has a gain of 1.8 dB over a half-wave antenna. By lengthening the antenna slightly, as in B, End-Fire Arrays
the gain can be increased to 3 dB. Maximum radiation is at right angles to the antenna. The Fig. 21 shows a pair of parallel half-
antenna at A is sometimes called a " double Zepp" antenna, and that of B is known as an " ex-
tended double Zepp."
wave elements with currents out of phase.
This is known as an end- fire array because
it radiates best along the plane of the
antennas, as shown. The end- fire princi-
ple was first demonstrated by John Kraus,
W8JK, and 2-element arrays of this type
are often called " 8JK" antennas.
The end- fire array may be used either
vertically or horizontally (elements at the
same height), and is well adapted to
amateur work because it gives maximum
gain with relatively close element spacing.
Fig. 22 shows how the gain varies with
spacing. End- fire elements may be com-
bined with additional collinear and broad-
side elements to give afurther increase in
gain and directivity.
Either tuned or untuned lines may be
used with this type of array. Untuned lines
preferably are matched to the antenna
through aquarter-wave matching section
or phasing stub.

Unidirectional End-Fire Arrays

Two parallel elements spaced 1/4
Fig. 20 — Simple broadside array using horizontal elements. By making the spacing S equal to
3/8 wavelength, the antenna at A can be used at the corresponding frequency and up to twice that wavelength apart and fed equal currents
frequency. Thus when designed for 14 MHz it can also be used on 18, 21, 25 and 28 MHz. The 90 degrees out of phase will have adirec-
antenna at B can be used on only the design band. This array is bidirectional, with maximum tional pattern in the plane of the array at
radiation " broadside" or perpendicular to the antenna plane (perpendicularly through this page).
Gain varies with the spacing S, running from 2-1/2 to almost 5 dB. (See Fig. 22)
right angles to the elements. The maxi-
mum radiation is in the direction from the
element in which the current lags. In the
opposite direction the fields from the two
elements cancel.
One way in which the 90-degree phase
difference can be obtained is shown in
Fig. 23. Each element must be matched to
its transmission line, the two lines being of
the same type except that one is an elec-
trical quarter wavelength longer than the
other. The length L can be any convenient
value. Open quarter-wave matching sec-
tions could be used instead. The two
transmission lines are connected in
parallel at the transmitter coupling circuit.
When the currents in the elements are
neither in phase nor 180 degrees out of
phase the radiation resistances of the
Fig. 21 — Top view of a horizontal end- fire array. The system is fed with an open-wire line at X elements are not equal. This complicates
and Y; the line can be of any length. Feed points X and Y are equidistant from the two insulators,
and the feed line should drop down vertically from the antenna. The gain of the system will vary the problem of feeding equal currents to
with the spacing, as shown in Fig. 22, and is a maximum at 1/8 wavelength. By using a length of the elements. If the currents are not equal
33 feet and a spacing of 8 feet, the antenna will work on 20, 17, 15, 12 and 10 meters. one or more minor lobes will appear in the

20-9 Chapter 20
pattern and decrease the front-to-back
ratio. The adjustment proccss is likely to
be tedious and requires field-strength
measurements in order to get the best per-
formance.
More than two elements can be used in
unidirectional end- fire array. The require-
ment for unidirectivity is that there must
be aprogressive phase shift in the element
currents equal to the spacing, in electrical
degrees, between the elements, and the
amplitudes of the currents in the various
elements also must be properly related.
This requires " binomial" current
distribution — i.e., the ratios of the cur-
rents in the elements must be proportional
to the coefficients of the binomial series. Fig. 22 — Gain vs. spacing for two parallel Fig. 23 — Unidirectional two-element end- fire
In the case of three elements, this requires half-wave elements combined as either array and method of obtaining 90-degree
broadside or end-fire arrays. phasing.
that the current in the center element be
twice that in the two outside elements, for
90-degree (quarter-wave) spacing and ele-
antennas is the vertical type. With this
ment current phasing. This antenna has
style of antenna it is possible to obtain
an overall length of 1/2 wavelength.
low-angle radiation for ground- wave and
Combined Arrays DX work. Additionally, the space oc-
cupied by vertical antennas is relatively
Broadside, collinear and end- fire arrays
small, making them ideal for city- lot
may be combined to give both horizontal property and apartment buildings. The
and vertical directivity, as well as addi- principal limitation in performance is the
tional gain. The lower angle of radiation omnidirectional pattern. This means that
resulting from stacking elements in the QRM can't be nulled out from the
vertical plane is desirable at the higher fre- directions which are not of interest at a
quencies. In general, doubling the number given period. The exception is, of course,
of elements in an array by stacking will when phased arrays of vertical elements Fig. 24 — A four-element combination broad-
raise the gain from 2to 4db. are used. Despite the limitation of asingle side collinear array, popularly known as the
Although arrays can be fed at one end vertical element with aground screen or "lazy- H" antenna. A closed quarter-wave stub
as in Fig. 20 B, it is not especially desirable may be used at the feed point to match into an
radial system, cost versus performance is untuned transmission line, or tuned feeders
in the case of large arrays. Better distribu- an incentive that inspires many antenna may be attached at the point indicated. The
tion of energy between elements, and builders. gain over a half-wave antenna is 5 to 6 dB.
hence better overall performance will re- For use on the lower- frequency amateur
sult when the feeders are attached as near- bands — notably 160 and 80 meters —
ly as possible to the center of the array. it is not always practical to erect afull-size
A four-element array, known as the vertical. In such instances it is satisfactory
"lazy- H" antenna, has been quite fre- to accept ashorter radiating element and
quently used. This arrangement is shown, employ some form of loading to obtain an
with the feed point indicated, in Fig. 24. electrical length of one's choice. Most
(Compare with Fig. 20B). For best results, constructors design asystem that contains
the bottom section should be at least a a 1/4- wavelength driven element. How-
half wavelength above ground. ever, good results and lower radiation
It will usually suffice to make the length angles are sometimes realized when using
of each element that given by the dipole a 3/8- or 1/2-wavelength vertical. At the
formula. The phasing line between the lower amateur frequencies the larger
parallel elements should be of open-wire verticals become prohibitive, especially in
construction, and its length can be urban areas where zoning ordinances may
calculated from: exist, and where limited acreage may rule
Length of half-wave line ( feet) out the installation of guy- wire systems.
Fig. 25 provides curves for physical
480
height of verticals in wavelength versus
Freq. ( MHz)
radiation resistance and reactance. The Fig. 25 — Radiation resistance (solid curve)
Example: A half-wavelength phasing plots are based on perfectly conducting and reactance (dotted curve) of vertical anten-
line for 28.8 MHz would be ground, a condition which is seldom nas as a function of physical height.

480 realized in practical installations. It can be

= 16.66 feet = 16 feet 8inches. seen that the shorter the radiator the lower
28.8
the radiation resistance, with 6 ohms ing network when the radiation resistance
The spacing between elements can be being typical for a0.1-wavelength anten- is very low.
made equal to the length of the phasing na. The lower the radiation resistance the Illustrations of some vertical-antenna
line. No special adjustments of line or ele- more the antenna efficiency becomes radiation patterns are given in Fig. 26.
ment length or spacing are needed, pro- dependent on ground conductivity. Also, The example at A is for a quarter-
vided the formulas are followed closely. the bandwidth decreases markedly as the wavelength radiator over a theoretically
length is reduced toward the left of the ideal ground. The dashed lines show the
The Vertical Antenna
scale in Fig. 25. Difficulty is also ex- current distribution, inclusive of the im-
One of the more popular amateur perienced in developing asuitable watch- age portion below ground. The image uttli

Antennas for High Frequency 20-10

 X/4
H•X/4 X/4

RADIATOR

I 0 -5on I 0 .: 3
. °(1

RADIAL•X/3.9
9
1111/1./Ilf ,,

GROUND

GROUND PLANE MARCONI

(En (C)
L- X/3.9
GROUND PLANE
(A)

H.X/4

GUY
WIRE
GUY
WIRE
MATCHING
NETWORK
MATCHING
NETWORK

Fig. 26 — Elevation plane responses for a FOLDED UNIPOLE SLANT- WIRE FEED
GAMMA- FEED
quarter-wavelength vertical antenna (A), a (E) (F)
(D)
1/2-wavelength type ( B) and two half waves in
phase (C and D). It can be seen that the ex-
amples at B and D provide lower radiation
angles than the version at A. Fig. 27 — Various types of vertical antennas.

be equated to one half of adipole anten- that the system can be elevated well above be close to resonance at the desired
na, with the vertical radiator representing nearby conductive objects ( power lines, operating frequency if gamma feed is to be
the remaining dipole half. The illustration trees, buildings, etc.). When drooping used. The hf-band beam will contribute
at B characterizes the pattern of a half- radials are utilized they can be used as guy somewhat to top loading of the tower.
wavelength vertical. It can be seen that the wires for the mast which supports the The natural resonance of such a system
radiation angle is somewhat lower than antenna. The coaxial cable shield braid is can be checked by dropping ano. 12 or 14
that of the quarter-wavelength version at connected to the radials and the center wire down from the top of the tower
A. The lower angles enhance the DX conductor is common to the driven (making it common to the tower top) to
capability of the antenna. Two half element. form afolded unipole (Fig. 27E). A four-
wavelengths in phase are shown in Fig. 26 The Marconi antenna seen in Fig. 27 at or five-turn link can be inserted between
at C and D. From a practical point of C is the classic form taken by a the lower end of the drop wire and the
view, few amateurs could erect such an ground-mounted vertical. It can be ground- ground system, then adip meter inserted
antenna unless it was built for use on the ed at the base and shunt fed, or it can in the link to observe the resonant
higher hf bands, such as 20, 15 or 10 be isolated from ground, as shown, and frequency. If the tower is equipped with
meters. The very low radiation angle is ex- series fed. This antenna depends upon an guy wires, the latter should be broken up
cellent for DXing, however. effective ground system for efficient with strain insulators to prevent unwanted
performance. The subject of ground loading of the vertical. In such cases
Full-Size Vertical Antennas screens is treated later in this section. If a where the tower and beam antenna are
When it is practical to erect a full-size perfect ground were located below the not able to provide 1/4- wavelength
vertical antenna, the forms shown in Fig. antenna, the feed impedance would be resonance, portions of the top guy wires
27 are worthy of consideration. The ex- near 30 ohms. In apractical case, owing to can be used as top- loading capacitance. It
ample at A is the well-known vertical imperfect ground, the impedance is more will be necessary to experiment with the
ground plane. The ground system consists apt to be in the vicinity of 50 to 75 ohms. guy-wire lengths ( using the dip- meter
of four or more above-ground radial wires A gamma- feed system for a grounded technique) while determining the proper
against which the driven element is 1/4-wavelength vertical is presented in dimensions.
worked. The driven element length in feet Fig. 27D. Some rules of thumb for arriv- A folded-unipole type of vertical is
is derived from the standard equation ing at workable gamma-arm and capacitor depicted at E of Fig. 27. This system has
dimensions are to make the rod length the advantage of increased feed- point
234 0.04 to 0.05 wavelength, its diameter 1/3 impedance. Furthermore, a Transmatch
L (feet) = f(MHz) to 1/2 that of the driven element and the can be connected between the bottom of
center- to-center spacing between the gam- the drop wire and the ground system to
71.3 ma arm and the driven element roughly permit operation on more than one band.
L (meters) = 0.007 wavelength. The capacitance of C1 For example, if the tower is resonant on
f(MHz)
at a 50- ohm matched condition will be 80 meters, it can be used as shown on 160
The radial wires are slightly longer, some 7pF per meter. The absolute value and 40 meters with reasonable results,
approximately À/3.9 yielding the di- at C1 will depend upon whether the even though it is not electrically long
mension in feet. It has been established vertical is resonant and the precise value enough on 160. The drop wire need not be
generally that with four equidistant radial of the radiation resistance. Generally, best a specific distance from the tower, but
wires drooped at approximately 45 de- results can be had when the radiator is spacings between 12 and 30 inches are
grees ( Fig. 27A) the feed impedance is approximately three percent shorter than suggested.
roughly 50 ohms. When the radials are at the resonant length. Amateur antenna The method of feed seen at Fig. 27F is
right angles to the radiator (Fig. 27B) the towers lend themselves well to use as commonly referred to as " slant-wire
feed impedance approaches 30 ohms. The shunt fed verticals, even though an feed." The guy wires and the tower
major advantage in this type of vertical hf-band beam antenna may be mounted combine to provide quarter-wave reso-
antenna over a ground- mounted type is on the tower. The overall system should nance. A matching network is placed

20-11 Chapter 20
 Fig. 29 — At A are the details for the tubing section of the loading assembly. Illustration Bshows
the top hat and its spokes. The longer the spokes, the better.

the current portion of the vertical exists in of antenna lends itself nicely to operation
the coil rather than the driven element. on 160 meters. LIand the pipe extension
With center loading the portion of the above the hf-band beam can be tuned at
antenna below the coil carries current, ground level against the ground system. It
and with the top-loading version the entire should be made resonant approximately
vertical element carries current. Since the 100 kHz higher than the desired operating
current part of the antenna is responsible frequency for use on 160 meters. After it
for most of the radiating, base loading is is in place on the tower, the overall system
the least effective of the three methods. resonance will drop some 100 kHz.
The radiation resistance of the coil-loaded A method for effecting the top-loading
antennas shown is usually less than 16 of Fig. 28, illustration F, is shown in the
ohms. drawing of Fig. 29. Pipe section D is
A method for using guy wires to top mated with the mast above the hf-band
load ashort vertical is illustrated in Fig. 28 beam antenna. A loading coil is wound on
Fig. 28 — Vertical antennas that are less than at D. This system works well with gamma solid Plexiglas rod or phenolic rod (item
one quarter wavelength in height. feed. The loading wires are trimmed to C), then clamped inside the collet ( B). An
provide an electrical quarter wavelength aluminum slug (part A) is clamped inside
for the overall system. This method of item B. The top of part A is bored and
between the lower end of one guy wire and loading will result in a higher radiation threaded for a3/8 inch x 24 thread stud.
ground and adjusted for an SWR of I. It resistance and greater band-width than This will permit astandard 8- foot (2.4 m)
does not matter at which level on the the systems shown in Fig. 28 at A, B and stainless-steel mobile whip to be threaded
tower the guy wires are connected, C. If an hf-band or vhf array is atop the into item A above the loading coil. The
assuming that the Transmatch is capable tower, it will simply contribute to the top capacitance hat (Fig. 29, illustration B)
of effecting a match to 50 ohms. loading. can be made from a 1/4-inch (6.3-mm)
A tri-wire unipole is shown at E of Fig. thick brass or aluminum plate. It may be
Physically Short Verticals 28. Two no. 8drop wires are connected to round or square. Lengths of 1/8-inch
A group of short vertical radiators is the top of the tower and brought to (3-mm) brazing rod can be threaded for a
presented in Fig. 28. Illustrations A and B ground level. The wires can be spaced any 6-32 format to permit the rods to be
are for top and center loading. A convenient distance from the tower — screwed into the edge of the aluminum
capacitance hat is shown in each example. normally 12 to 30 inches (0.3 to 0.76 m) plate. The plate contains a row of holes
It should be as large as practical to from one side. Cl is adjusted for an SWR along its perimeter, each having been tap-
increase the radiation resistance of the of I. This type of vertical has afairly nar- ped for a6-32 thread. The capacitance hat
antenna and improve the bandwidth. The row bandwidth, but because C1can be is affixed to item A by means of the 8-foot
wire in the loading coil is chosen for the motor-driven and controlled from the whip antenna. The whip will increase the
largest gauge consistent with ease of operating position, QSYing is accom- effective height of the vertical antenna.
winding and coil-form size. The larger plished easily. This technique will not be
wire diameters will reduce the I 2R losses suitable for matching to 50-ohm line Cables and Control Wires on Towers
in the system. The coil-form material unless the tower is less than an electrical Most vertical antennas of the type
should be of the medium- or high- quarter wavelength. shown in Fig. 28 consist of towers and hf
voltage breakdown resistance dielectric A different method for top loading is or vhf beam antennas. The rotator control
type. Phenolic or fiberglass tubing is en- shown at Fof Fig. 28. W9UCW described wires and the coaxial feeders to the top of
tirely adequate. this system in December 1974 QST as the tower will not affect antenna perfor-
A base-loaded vertical is shown at C of "The Minooka Special." An extension is mance adversely. In fact, they become a
Fig. 28. Since this is the least effective used at the top of the tower to effect an part of the composite antenna. To prevent
method of loading in terms of antenna electrical quarter-wavelength vertical. LI unwanted rf currents from following the
performance, it should be used only as a is aloading coil with sufficient inductance wires into the shack, simply dress
last choice. The primary limitation is that to provide antenna resonance. This type them close to the tower legs and bring

Antennas for High Frequency 20-12

 over that which can be obtained with the
version at C of Fig. 30. The "compen-
sating wire" (L2) is spaced approximately
90° from LI, and is roughly 30° away
from the side of the tower. The VSWR
can be brought to alow value (usually 1:1)
by varying the L2/tower and Ll /L2 en-
closed angles. The degree of these angles
will be dependent upon the tower height,
the beam atop the tower and the ground
condition below the system.
Fig. 30E shows the relative radiation
pattern of the antenna in Fig. 30D. The
maximum radiation is off slope wire LI,
with aminor lobe occurring off the com-
pensating wire, L2. The pattern shown
was obtained with a field-strength meter
placed at the ends of 2-wavelength radials.
Without L2 in the system, asingle promi-
nent lobe prevails. However, the half-
sloper is otherwise (and for all practical
purposes) omnidirectional. Users may
want to orient the pattern in some favored
DX direction.
Tests indicate this antenna to be effec-
Fig. 30 — Some variations in vertical antennas which offer excellent performance.
tive on its harmonics for DX and local
work. If harmonic operation is planned,
the 50-ohm coaxial feeder should be
them to ground level. This de- and the tower. Polarization is vertical and replaced with open-wire line, which is
couples the wires at rf. The wires should there is directivity off the sloper side of coupled to the transmitter by means of a
then be routed along the earth surface (or the tower. Gain in the favored direction is Transmatch. With open-wire feed, the L2
buried underground) to the operating on the order of 3dB, depending on the compensating wire of Fig. 30D will not be
position. It is not necessary to use bypass quality of the ground below the tower and necessary. Best performance will be had
capacitors or rf chokes in the rotator con- antenna. The tower constitutes aportion when the base of the tower is well ground-
trol leads if this is done, even when max- of this antenna and will have a voltage ed. Buried radials are highly recommend-
imum legal power is employed. maximum somewhere between the feed ed as part of the ground system. Opera-
point and ground. The radiation angle ap- tion on 160 meters can be had by feeding
Variations in Verticals pears to be between 20 and 30 degrees, the low end of L2.
A number of configurations qualify for making the half-sloper useful for close-in The bandwidth of the system in Fig. 30
use as vertical antennas even though the work as well as for DXing. A VSWR as will be approximately 50 kHz on 160
radiators are fashioned from lengths of• low as 1.5:1 can be obtained ( using meters, 100 kHz on 80 meters, 200 kHz on
wire. Fig. 30 at A shows aflat-top T ver- 50-ohm coax feed line with the system of 40 meters, and so on, between the 2:1
tical. Dimension H should be as tall as Fig. 30 at C by experimenting with the VSWR points.
possible for best results. The horizontal slope-wire length and the enclosed angle.
section, L, is adjusted to alength which This assumes that there are no guy wires Ground Systems
provides resonance. Maximum radiation that are common to the tower. If guys are The importance of an effective ground
is polarized vertically despite the horizon- used they should be insulated from the system for vertical antennas cannot be
tal top-loading wire. A variation of the T tower and broken into nonresonant emphasized too strongly. However, is it
antenna is depicted at B of Fig. 30. This lengths for the band of operation. not always possible to install a radial
antenna is commonly referred to as an Most amateurs are likely to have towers network that approaches the ideal. It
"inverted L." Again, vertical member H that support hf-band Yagis or quad might be said that " a poor ground is
should be as long as possible. L is added beams. The conductors situated above the better than no ground at all," and
to provide an electrical quarter wave- sloper feed point have amarked effect on therefore the amateur should experiment
length overall. Some amateurs believe the tuning of the sloper system. The beam with whatever is physically possible rather
that a 3/8-wavelength version of this antenna becomes aportion of the overall than exclude vertical antennas from his or
antenna is more effective, since the tower/sloper system. Although the her construction plans. It is often possible
current portion of the wire is elevated presence of the beam seems to have no ap- to obtain excellent DX results with
higher above ground than is the case with preciable effect on the radiation pattern practically no ground system at all.
aquarter-wavelength wire. of the sloper, it does greatly affect the Although the matter of ground systems
VSWR. If alow VSWR can't be obtained could be debated almost endlessly, some
Half-Sloper Antenna practical rules of thumb are in order for
for agiven amateur antenna installation,
A basic half-sloper antenna is shown at the system illustrated in Fig. 30 at D can those wishing to erect vertical antennas.
C of Fig. 31. The wire portion represents be applied. The sloper is erected in the Generally, if the physical height of the
one half of a dipole or inverted-V. The usual manner, but a second wire (L2) is vertical is an eighth wavelength, the radial
feed point is between the tower leg and the added. It is connected to the tower at the wires should be of the same length and dis-
upper end of the slope wire, with the coax antenna feed point, but insulated at the persed uniformly from the base of the
shield braid being connected to the tower. low end. L2 plus the tower constitute the tower. In this example approximately 60
The feed-point impedance is generally be- missing half of the dipole. This half is ef- radial wires will suffice. The conductor
tween 30 and 60 ohms, depending on the fectively a fanned element (similar to a size of the radials is not especially signifi-
length of the wire, the tower height and conical element) and tends to increase the cant. Wire gauges from no. 4 to no. 20
the enclosed angle between the slope wire overall bandwidth of the sloper system have been used successfully by amateurs.

20-13 Chapter 20
 Table 1

Tubing- Section Lengths for 2- Band Vertical

Li
Band A e C D E F Cl (approx.
(MHz) (pF) pH)

Tubing 21/28 25 16 25 25 25 33 18 1.70

Length 14/21 38 33 37 37 37 33 25 2.25
(Inches) 10/14' 42 42 54 54 54 49 39 3.25
Tubing 21/28 20 16 21.5 21.5 21.5 33 —
Length 14/21 33 33 33 33 33 33 _ —
at Resonance 10/14' 37 37 49.6 49.6 49.6 49 — _
(approx.
mm = in. x 25.4 dimensions.
inches)'
'New WARC-79 band.
'See text.
'Midband
Dimensions Xci, XLI = 300 D.

A single ground rod, or agroup of them 20/15-meter trap vertical would be areso-
bonded together, is seldom as effective as nant quarter wavelength at 15-meters
a collection of random- length radial from the feed point to the bottom of the
wires. In some instances agroup of short trap. The trap and that portion of the
radial wires can be used in combination antenna above the trap (plus the 15-meter
with ground rods driven into the soil near section below the trap) constitute the com-
the base of the antenna. The power- plete antenna during 20-meter operation.
company ground can be tied in also, and if But, because the trap is in the circuit the
a metal fence skirts the property it can overall physical length of the vertical
also be used as part of the ground system. antenna will be slightly less than that of a
A good rule is to use anything that will single-band, full-size 20-meter vertical.
serve as a ground when developing a
radial-ground system. Traps
All radial wires must be connected The trap functions as the name implies:
together at the base of the vertical It traps the 15-meter energy and confines
Fig. 31 — Details of the two-band trap vertical, it to the part of the antenna below the
antenna. The electrical bond needs to be
which telescopes to 39 inches when dis-
mantled. Stainless-steel hose clamps are used
of low resistance. Best results will be trap. During 20-meter operation it allows
to hold the tubing sections together and to af- obtained when the wires are soldered the rf energy to reach all of the antenna.
fix the trap to the tubing. A short length of together at the junction point. When a Therefore, the trap should in this example
flexible wire and a banana plug are connected grounded vertical is used, the ground be tuned as a parallel resonant circuit to
to the base of the antenna for joining the
antenna to the coax connector of Fig. 33.
wires should be affixed securely to the 21 MHz. At this frequency it "divorces"
base of the driven element. A lawn-edging the top section of the vertical from the
tool is excellent for cutting slits in the soil lower section because it presents a high-
Copper wire is preferred, but where when laying radial wires. impedance (barrier) at 21 MHz. General-
soil acid or alkali is not high in level, ly, the trap inductor and capacitor have a
aluminum wire can be used. The wires Trap Verticals reactance of 100 to 300 ohms. Within that
can be bare or insulated, and they can be Although afull-size, single-band anten- range it is not critical.
laid on the earth surface or buried afew na is more effective than a lumped- The trap is built and adjusted separately
inches below ground. The insulated wires constant one, there is justification for from the antenna. It should be resonated
will have greater longevity by virtue of using trap types of multiband antennas. at the center of the portion of the band to
reduced corrosion and dissolution from The concept is especially useful to be operated. Thus, if one's favorite part
soil chemicals. operators who have limited antenna space of the 15-meter band is between 21,000
The longer the vertical antenna the on their property. Multiband " Com- and 21,100 kHz, the trap would be tuned
fewer and shorter the radials need be. For promise" antennas are also appealing to to 21,050 kHz.
example, a vertical which is 1/4 wave- persons who engage in portable operation Resonance is checked by using a dip
length high will provide good field and are unwilling to transport large meter and beating the dipper signal
strength with 16 to 18 radial wires, and the amounts of antenna hardware to the field. against a calibrated receiver. Once the
wires need be only as long as the vertical is The trap vertical antenna operates trap is adjusted, it can be installed in the
high. If time and expense are not a in much the same manner as atrap dipole antenna, and no further adjustment will
prime consideration, the amateur should or trap-style Yagi. The notable difference be required. It is easy, however, to be
bury as much ground wire as possible. is that the vertical is one half of adipole. misled after the system is assembled: At-
Some operators have literally miles of wire The radial system (in-ground or above tempts to check the trap with adip meter
buried radially beneath their vertical ground) functions as a ground plane for will suggest that the trap has moved much
antennas. the antenna, and represents the missing lower in frequency (approximately 5MHz
When property dimensions do not half of the dipole. Therefore, the more ef- lower in a 20/15-meter vertical). This is
allow a classic installation of equally fective the ground system the better the because the trap has become absorbed in-
spaced radial wires, they can be placed in antenna performance. to the overall antenna, and the resultant
the ground wherever space will permit. Trap verticals are adjusted as quarter- resonance is that of the total antenna. Ig-
They may run away from the antenna in wavelength radiators. The portion of the nore this phenomenon.
only one or two compass directions. antenna below the trap is adjusted as a Multiband operation for three or four
Results will still exceed those of when no quarter-wavelength radiator at the highest bands is entirely practical by using the ap-
ground system is used. proposed operating frequency, i.e., a propriate number of traps and tubing sec-

Antennas for High Frequency 20-14

 SECTION 9
A Practical Two-Band Vertical
Fig. 31 contains a pictorial view of a
two-band trap vertical (20/15 meters)
SAW SLOTS ( a)
which can be collapsed to 39 inches (991
1/4' 2"
mm) for easy transportation on holidays,
COPPER
s RAP
DXpeditions or camping trips. All of the
tubing sections except B telescope
WOODEN DOWEL
together to make acompact package. The
f (1/2" 2" )
trap and base plate will be separate from
PVC the remainder of the antenna during
TUBINGs—le"
storage or transport.
SAW
7/9" OD x 4")
SLOTS ( 4
If portability is not a requirement, a
single section of aluminum tubing can be
used below the trap, although two sec-
tions (telescoping) are recommended to
WOODEN DOWEL
facilitate adjustment of the 15-meter por-
1 /4" > 2"
tion of the system. Similarly, two
COPPER
STRAP "---..„4
SAW SLOTS ( 4) telescoping tubes can be used above the
trap (as shown) to permit adjustment for
20-meter operation.
C
Table 1contains data on the starting
SECTION
lengths of the tubing sections, plus ap-
Fig. 33 — Layout details for a universal mount-
proximate dimensions for resonance on a
ing plate. The hole sizes and spacing will de-
INCHES I") x 25.4 x mm
variety of band pairings. Final adjustment pend on the type of U bolts used (see text).
is done for the lowest VSWR attainable in
the chosen part of each band ( resonance).
Fig. 32 — Close-up details of the trap con- level, section F of Fig. 31 should be as
struction and how it connects to tubing sec- The adjustment must be done while the
tions B and C of Fig. 31. antenna is mounted for use with the close to ground as possible. At least 20
ground system in place. radials are recommended. They need not
Fig. 32 shows the details of a simple be longer than 20 feet, and should be
tions. The construction and adjustment trap with the tubing sections keyed to the buried from 2 to 4 inches below the sur-
procedure is the same, irrespective of the nomenclature of Fig. 31. The ID of the face of the soil or lawn.
number of bands covered. The highest- PVC tubing is too small to accommodate If an above-ground installation is
frequency section is always closest to the the 1/2-inch OD ( 13-mm) tubing. planned, a minimum of two radial wires
feed end of the antenna, and the lowest- Therefore, ahacksaw is used to cut four should be used for each band. It is sug-
frequency section is always the farthest slots at the ends of sections B and C so gested that four radials be used for each
from the feed point. As the operating fre- they will compress and fit into the PVC band. The wires are cut to one-quarter
quency is progressively lowered, more tubing. The wooden dowel plugs permit a wavelength for each of the bands,
traps and more tubing sections become a tight bond when the hose clamps are com- although some amateurs prefer to make
functional part of the antenna. pressed over the ends of the PVC tubing. them 5 percent longer than one-quarter
The trap should be weather-proofed to Innovative builders can find other wavelength to increase the antenna band-
prevent moisture from detuning it. methods for mounting the trap in the width slightly.
Several coatings of high-dielectric com- antenna. The slope of the above-ground radials
pound, such as Polystyrene Q Dope, are Copper straps G are slid into the PVC can be changed to help provide amatch to
effective. Alternatively, aprotective sleeve tubing to provide electrical contact with 50-ohm feed line. The greater the angle
of heat-shrink tubing can be applied to the tubing sections B and C. The straps are between the vertical element and the
coil after completion. The coil form for bent (as shown) so they will fit under the radial wires, the higher the feed im-
the trap should be of high-dielectric quali- hose clamps that affix the trap to the pedance. The feed impedance will be ap-
ty and be rugged enough to sustain stress tubing. The trap capacitor and coil leads proximately 30 ohms when the radials are
during periods of wind. are soldered to the copper straps. at right angles to the vertical element. If
The trap capacitor must be capable of Silicone grease is applied in athin layer such an installation is contemplated, a
withstanding the rf voltage developed between the copper straps and the tubing 1.6:1 broadband toroidal transformer can
across it. The amóunt of voltage present sections to prevent undue oxidation. be used at the feed point to effect a
will depend on the operating power of the Similarly, the grease is applied to the mating matched condition.
transmitter. Fixed-value ceramic transmit- surfaces of all of the tubing sections.
ting capacitors are suitable for most Universal Mounting Plate
If coax cable is used for the trap
power levels if they are rated at 5000 to capacitor, it can be taped (after soldering) Fig. 33 illustrates a mounting plate
10,000 volts. A length of RG-58 or RG-59 to the upper tubing section (B) of Fig. 31. which will satisfy ahost of conditions one
coax cable can be used successfully up to If a fixed-value transmitting capacitor is might encounter when operating from an
200 watts. (Check to see how many pF per used, it should be located at the trap coil unfamiliar place. The hole size and spac-
foot your cable is before cutting it for the by means of stiff wire leads, which are ing will depend on the U bolts or muffler
trap.) RG-8 or RG-11 cable is recom- soldered to copper tabs G. If afixed-value clamps used with the antenna. The lower
mended for the trap capacitor at powers capacitor is used, the trap can be brought set of holes (except the bottom-most two)
in excess of 200 watts. The advantage of to resonance by adjusting the coil turns. permit using a supporting mast that is
using coax cable is that it can be trimmed The exposed ends of the coax capacitor either vertical or horizontal. The holes in
easily to adjust the trap capacitance. should be weather-sealed with non- the top half of the plate permit the anten-
Large-diameter copper magnet wire is corrosive RTV compound. na to be mounted vertically or at a 45 °
suggested for the trap coil. The heavier angle. Hole B is for a female-to-female
the wire gauge the lower the trap losses bulkhead connector. The feed line at-
and the higher the Q. The larger wire sizes Ground System taches to one side of the fitting and the
will reduce coil heating. If the antenna is mounted at ground banana plug of Fig. 31 connects to the

20-15 Chapter 20
 vertical antenna can be modified simply
by altering the lengths of the tubing sec-
tions and/or adding atrap. Several com-
panies manufacture trap verticals covering
40, 20, 15 and 10 meters. Many amateurs
roof-mount these antennas, because an ef-
fective ground radial system isn't prac-
tical, to keep children away from the
antenna, or to clear metal-frame
buildings. On the three highest bands, the
tubing and radial lengths are convenient
for rooftop installations, but 40 meters
sometimes presents problems. Prudence
dictates erecting an antenna with the
assumption that it will fall down. When Fig. 35 — Cross-section sketch of the discone
the antenna falls, it and the radial system antenna. See text for definitions of terms.
must clear any nearby power lines. Where
this consideration rules out 40-meter
operation, careful measurement may
show that 30-meter dimensions will allow it can be operated remote from and in-
adequate safety. The antenna is resonated dependent of ground. Furthermore, since
by pruning the tubing above the 20-meter the current maximum is at the top instead
trap and installing tuned radials. of at the bottom of the antenna, and since
Several new frequency combinations its structural configuration lends itself to
are possible. The simpler ones, 12/10, mounting on a pole or on top of a
17/15/10, and 40/30/20/15/10 meters, building, the radiation characteristics of a
are shown in Fig. 34 applied to the practical discone antenna can approxi-
popular ATV series of trap verticals mate an ideal dipole antenna in free space.
manufactured by Cushcraft. Operation in The change of impedance versus frequen-
the 30-meter band requires an additional cy is, however, very much less than for
trap — use Fig. 32 as a guide for con- any ordinary dipole, even dipoles with
structing this component. rather small length/diameter ratios. The
same is true for the radiation
AN HF DISCONE ANTENNA characteristics of the discone. The anten-
The problem of covering all of the ex- na exhibits good impedance character-
isting and future amateur hf allocations istics over a ten-to-one frequency range
without complications or compromises is and low-angle radiation with little change
aseemingly formidable one. A discone (a in the radiation pattern over a three- or
contraction of disc and cone) is one possi- four-to-one frequency range. At the high-
ble solution. Developed about 40 years frequency end the pattern begins to turn
ago, this antenna can provide efficient upward, with a resulting decrease in the
Fig. 34 — Modified dimensions for the ATV- radiation and low SWR over a decade radiation at low elevation angles. The
series Cushcraft vertical antennas for some
frequency combinations that include the
bandwidth. Thus, it should be possible to discone antenna may be visualized as a
WARC bands. The 30- meter trap inductor con- cover the 3.5- to 29.7-MHz spectrum with radiator intermediate between a conven-
sists of 20 turns of no. 16 enameled wire close- a single antenna and transmission line. tional dipole and a biconical horn. A
wound on a 5/8- in. dia. Plexiglas rod. The However, this would require a 75- foot biconical horn is essentially a conical
capacitor is a 29-3/4- in, length of RG-58/U
cable.
vertical structure and aclear circular area dipole operated at frequencies for which
65 feet in diameter on the ground. These the physical dimensions of the antenna
dimensions are impractical for many become large compared with a
center hole of the opposite end of the con- hams, but a40- through 10-meter version wavelength. At the lower frequencies the
nector. This permits easy disconnection should be realizable at most locations. antenna behaves very much as adipole; at
when disassembling the antenna. The John Belrose, VE2CV, described the much higher frequencies it becomes
radials are bolted to the two holes marked design presented here in July 1975 QST. essentially ahorn radiator.
C, at the left and right center of the plate. The antenna comprises a vertical cone
The two holes ( C) at the bottom of the beneath a horizontal disc (see Fig. 35). Design Considerations
plate are for bolting an iron or aluminum For frequencies within the range of the Refer to the sketch of the discone
angle stock to the plate. A second angle- antenna, the radiation is due to a radiator in Fig. 35. The following
stock piece is cut to the same size as the resonance between the fields caused by nomenclature is used:
first and is used with the mounting hard- current flow over the disc and over the = cone flare angle (total)
ware when it is convenient to clamp the surface of the cone, which is established Ls = slant height of cone
mounting plate to aporch railing, window by its flare angle. The apex of the cone, Lv = vertical distance from the disc to
sill and so on. A pair of large C clamps which is vertical, approaches and becomes the base of the cone
can be used for this mounting technique. common with the outer conductor of the = maximum diameter of cone
The plate is made from 1/4-inch coaxial feeder at its extremity. The center Cm m = minimum diameter of cone
(b -mm) aluminum or iron stock. Brass or conductor of the coaxial feeder terminates = diameter of disc
copper material could be used equally at the center of the disc, which is perpen- S = disc-to-cone spacing
well, if available. dicular to the axis of the cone and the The optimum parameters for discone
feeding transmission line. The discone can antennas are as follows:
Adapting Commercial Trap Verticals be thought of as an upside-down conical
to the WARC Bands monopole. S 0.3 C„„„
The frequency coverage of amultiband The advantages of the discone are that D = 0.7

Antennas for High Frequency 20-16

 40 diameter is D = 0.7. Cm n, = 0.7 (456) = closely spaced wires to simulate the sur-
319.2 inches, and for Cmia = 13.5 inches (a face of the cone. The disc can be
SWR practical dimension that we shall see later), simulated by a structure consisting of
L7i AT I',
30 ..... S = 0.3 Cm ,„ = 0.3 () 3.5) = 4inches. The eight spreaders with wires connected be-
2 ratio Ls/C ra i
n — 45 ° tween them. It is important that a skirt
......
13.5 wire connect the bottom ends of all slant
= 33.7.
wires simulating the cone, and another the
3 '
The frequency response of a discone outer ends of the spreaders which simulate
antenna constructed with these dimen- the disc. These wires have the effect of in-
SOL-
22 " 32 sions is shown in Fig. 36. Here we see that creasing the effectiveness of the wire
rREQUENCV ,MHZ

the SWR is 3.25 at f c and decreases rapid- structures to a considerable extent. An

Fig. 36 — Standing-wave ratio vs. frequency for
ly with increasing frequency, being about antenna constructed in this way closely
the discone antenna designed for operation on 1.5 at fmm .The SWR is < 1.5 over the fre- approximates the performance of a solid
7 MHz and above. The " spike" in the curve at quency range 7to 23 MHz, and while this disc and acone over the frequency range
approximately 24 MHz is believed to be caused ratio increases for frequencies > 23 MHz, of the antenna.
by an adjacent metal structure, as explained in
the text.
the SWR, except for the irregularity for The discone assembly and construction
frequencies 23.5 to 25.5 MHz, is < 2.5:1 details are given in Fig. 37. The antenna is
over the frequency range 6.5 to 30 MHz. supported by an eight-inch triangular
and typically, for an optimum design The SWR peak in the frequency range aluminum mast (item 1) that is 36 feet
23.5 to 25.5 MHz is thought to be caused high. The insulator separating the disc
Ls/C rans > 22 by aresonance in the metal structure of a and the cone (item 2) is detailed in Fig. 38.
nearby part of the building on which the Basically it is two metal plates separated
= 60°
discone antenna is mounted. It was by an insulating section. The lower plate
mounted on a flat roof 70 feet from a has a coaxial feedthrough connector
The performance of the antenna is not penthouse which is 21.25 feet in height mounted at its center, and the outer edge
very critical in regard to the value of flare (including the grounded metal rail around is drilled with 24 equally spaced holes,
angle, 41, except that there is less irregulari- the top). This height is a resonant half 5/32-inch diameter, on a 13.5-inch
ty in the SWR versus frequency if > 50°, wave at 24.4 MHz. diameter circle for the guy wires that
although 4) > 90° was not investigated. simulate the cone. The end of each wire is
Practical Construction soldered to aspade lug that is attached by
Since the bandwidth is inversely propor-
tional to Crma ,that dimension must be At hf the discone can be built using a self-tapping screw to the plate. This
small; for afrequency range of ten to one
Ls/C rran should be greater than 22.
From the circuit standpoint the discone
antenna behaves essentially like a high-
pass filter. It has an effective cutoff fre-
quency, f c,below which it becomes very
inefficient, causing severe standing waves
on the feeding coaxial line. Above the
cutoff frequency little mismatch exists and
the radiation pattern remains substantially
the same over awide range of frequencies
(from some minimum frequency, f ram ,to

some maximum frequency, f max ). The

slant height of the cone, L„ is approxi-
29.
mately equal to a quarter wavelength at (32 2 GRADS)
the cutoff frequency, f c,and the vertical

height (or altitude) of the cone is approxi-

mately aquarter wavelength at the lowest
operating frequency, f am„

The radiation from the discone can be

viewed in this perhaps somewhat-
oversimplified way. A traveling wave, ex-
cited by the antenna input between the
apex of the cone and the disc, travels over
the surface of the cone toward the base
until it reaches adistance along the slant
surface of the cone where the vertical
dimension between that point and the disc
is a quarter wavelength. The wave field
therefore sees aresonant situation and is
almost entirely radiated.
For f rma = 7.0 MHz and avelocity fac-
Fig. 37 — Construction details for the hf discone antenna.
tor for propagation along the surface of
G — 50-ohm coaxial feed line, length as
the cone equal to A — Hex- head screw, 1/4-20 x 2- in. long, required. Line is secured to mast and
16 req'd. connected at feed point shown in Fig. 38
2834
0.96, L = = 405 inches. B — Hex nut, 1/4-20 thread, 16 req'd. 1 — Antenna mast with cap.
v imin C — Hex- head screw, 3/8-16 x 1- in. long, 2 — Insulator subassembly. See Fig. 38.
8 req'd. 3 — Spreaders, made from 1- in, aluminum
If = 60°. then L, = 456 inches and D — 6- in. turnbuckle, 8 req'd. tubing, 8 req'd.
f
c = 2834 — 6.22 MHz. The disc E — No. 12 Copperweld wire, 1400 feet req'd. 4 — Spreader support, 3-ft. length of steel or
L, F — Porcelain or ceramic insulators, 24 req'd. aluminum pipe or tubing, flange mounted.

20-17 Chapter 20
 plate is bolted to the top of the mast. both a horizontal dipole and an inverted
Eight 1-inch diameter disc spreaders (item V, the configuration of Fig. 40 is worth
3) are bolted to the top plate. A short trying, as it may out-perform both of the
3- foot supporting rod (item 4) is flange former in terms of all-angle coverage.
mounted at the center of the upper plate Certainly the bandwidth is impressive.
to hold the cables for supporting the far The 550 kHz obtained on 40 meters sug-
ends of the spreaders. The center conduc- gests that an 80-meter version would ex-
tor of the coaxial feed line is attached to hibit agood match over the phone or cw
the center of the top plate, as shown in portion of the band. The wire elements
Fig. 38. can be in asingle plane or the " skirt" can
As shown in Fig. 39, the antenna is be rotated 90 degrees with respect to the
mounted on the flat roof of athree-story flat top.
building. The height of the lower edge of
the cone is 4feet above the roof. The 24 VAGI AND QUAD DIRECTIVE
guy wires simulating the cone are broken ANTENNAS
by 12-inch porcelain insulators (item F) at Most of the antennas described earlier
their bottom ends, and, as previously in this chapter have unity gain or just
mentioned, the ends of each wire are slightly more. For the purpose of obtain-
joined by a skirt wire, as shown in the ing gain and directivity it is convenient to
drawing. use the Yagi-Uda or cubical-quad types of
hf-band beam antennas. The former is
Performance
commonly called a " Yagi" and the latter
The discone antenna shown in the is referred to as a " quad" in the amateur
photograph was constructed in 1968, and vernacular.
Fig. 38 — Construction details of insulator
sub-assembly. it is still in use. It has survived more than Most operators prefer to erect these
A — Hex- head screw, 1/2-13 x 2- 1/2- in. long, one freezing rain ice storm. The entire antennas for horizontal polarization, but
12 req'd. antenna and all supporting wires on at they can be used as vertically polarized ar-
B — Flat washers, 1/2- in., 12 req'd.
least one occasion were covered with rays as well by merely rotating the feed
C — Rf connector, as required.
D — 6- In, length of copper wire. 1/2-inch radial thickness of ice. A point 90 degrees. In effect, the beam
E — Wire lug, Emco 14-6 or equiv. 3-element triband amateur beam covered antenna is turned on its side for vertical
F — Round-head screw, 10-32 x 3/8- in. long. with this thickness of ice also survived the polarity. The number of elements
G — Flat- head screw, 1/2-13 x 2- 1/2- in. long, ice storm but it was unusable; it was employed will depend on the gain desired
4 req'd.
1 — Aluminum mounting plate for disc detuned too much by the ice sheath. The and the capability of the supporting struc-
spreaders. performance of the discone was unaf- ture to contain the array safely. Many
2 — Phenolic Insulators rings. fected by the ice. In fact at an operating amateurs obtain satisfactory results with
3 — Guy mounting plate. only two elements in a beam antenna,
frequency of about 14 MHz, paradoxical-
ly, the SWR was marginally lower when while others have several elements
the antenna was covered with ice com- operating for a single amateur band.
pared to normal. The antenna has no Regardless of the number of elements
sharp corners or ends, and it is operated at used, the height-above-ground rule shown
dc ground (the cone is grounded and the
disc is grounded through the input coil of
the receiver). Because of this the antenna
is essentially immune to precipitation
static caused by electrically charged rain.
The antenna exhibits most of the usual
characteristics of a vertical monopole.
The usual vertical monopole antennas
have acharacteristic overhead null in the
radiation pattern, and for short-distance
sky-wave communications a horizontal
dipole is in general the best antenna.
However, communication has always
been possible with the discone, to
distances beyond that over which the
Fig. 39 — The completed discone antenna, in-
ground wave could be received, provided
stalled on the roof of a three-story building.
of course that the ionosphere would
reflect a frequency of 7 MHz (the lowest
frequency for which the antenna could be
used). While there is certainly a null
overhead, it is not avery deep one.

A SIMPLIFIED DISCONE
The discone antenna structure can be
reduced to a mere skeleton and still pro-
vide good radiation characteristics and a
good impedance match over a single
amateur band. Fig. 40 shows the ultimate
Fig. 41 — Elevation- plane response of a three-
simplification of the discone principle as element Yagi placed 1/2 wavelength above a
Fig. 40 — Degenerative discone for 40 m used
by Mike Wintzer, PAOMWI. The 2:1 SWR band- applied by Mike Wintzer, PAOMWI, in perfect ground (A) and the same antenna
width is 550 kHz. October 1974 QST. If one has room for spaced one wavelength above giounci ( B).

Antennas for High Frequency 20-18

 tuning of the elements and thus for any
given spacing there is atuning condition '
iL

RADIATION RESISTANCE— OHMS

4-4--
that will give maximum gain at this
spacing. The maximum front-to-back A-5-, e B «.--e-P ATV; _

ratio seldom, if ever, occurs at the same .., •••••

o/ ,........
condition that gives maximum forward ;- ...-
gain. The impedance of the driven 3 5
./
80

element also varies with the tuning and :

1 10 / 60
/
spacing, and thus the antenna system is ("1-,_ 40
must be tuned to its final condition before ,,/ - RADIATION
RESISTANCE
20 /• 20
the match between the line and the
antenna ean be completed. However, the -25 ...
0 0.05 0.1 0. 5 02 0.25 0.30.35 0.4
tuning and matching may interlock to ELEMENT SPACING- WAVELENGTHS

some extent, and it is usually necessary to

run through the adjustments several times Fig. 43 — Gain vs. element spacing for an
to insure that the best possible tuning has antenna and one parasitic element. The
been obtained. reference point, 0dB, is the field strength from
a half-wave antenna alone. The greatest gain is
Fig. 42 — Azimuth-plane pattern of a three ele- Two-Element Beams in the direction A at spacings of less than 0.14
ment Vagi in free space. wavelength, and in direction B at greater spac-
A two-element beam is useful where ings. The front-to-back ratio is the difference in
space or other considerations prevent the dB between curves A and B. Variation in radia-
use of the larger structure required for a tion resistance of the driven element is also
earlier for dipole antennas remains valid
shown. These curves are for a self-resonant
with respect to the angle of radiation. This three-element beam. The general practice
parasitic element. At most spacings the gain
is demonstrated in Fig. 41 at A and B is to tune the parasitic element as areflec- as a reflector can be increased by slight
where a comparison of radiation tor and space it about 0.15 wavelength lengthening of the parasitic element; the gain
from the driven element, although some as adirector can be increased by shortening.
characteristics is given for athree-element
This also improves the front-to-back ratio.
Yagi at one-half and one wavelength successful antennas have been built with
above a perfectly conducting ground. It 0.1-wavelentgh spacing and director tun-
can be seen that the higher antenna has a ing. Gain vs. element spacing for a two- Wide spacing of both elements is
lobe that is more favorable for DX work element antenna is given in Fig. 43 for the desirable not only because it results in
(roughly 15 degrees) than the larger lobe special case where the parasitic element is high gain but also because adjustment of
of Fig. 41 (approximately 30 0). The pat- resonant. It is indicative of the perfor- tuning or element length is less critical and
tern at B shows that some useful high- mance to be expected under maximum- the input resistance of the driven element
angle radiation exists also, and the higher gain tuning conditions. is higher than with close spacing. The
lobe is suitable for short-skip contacts latter feature improves the efficiency of
Three-Element Beams
when propagation conditions dictate the the antenna and makes a greater band-
need. A free-space azimuth pattern for the A theoretical investigation of the three- width possible. However, a total antenna
same antenna is provided in Fig. 42. The element case (director, driven element and length, director to reflector, of more than
back-lobe pattern reveals that most of the reflector) has indicated a maximum gain 0.3 wavelength at frequencies of the order
power is concentrated in the forward lobe. of slightly more than 7dB. A number of of 14 MHz introduces considerable
The power difference dictates the front- experimental investigations have shown difficulty from a constructional stand-
to- back ratio in dB. It is infrequent that that the optimum spacing between the point. Lengths of 0.25 to 0.3 wavelength
two three-element Yagis with different driven element and reflector is in the are therefore frequently used for this
element spacings will yield the same lobe region of 0.15 to 0.25 wavelength, with band, even though they are less than
patterns. The data in Fig. 42 are given 0.2 wavelength representing probably the optimum.
only for illustrative purposes. best overall choice. With 0.2-wavelength In general, the antenna gain drops off
reflector spacing, Fig. 44 shows the gain less rapidly when the reflector length is
Parasitic Excitation variation with director spacing is not increased beyond the optimum value than
In most of these arrangements the especially critical and that the overall it does for acorresponding decrease below
additional elements receive power by length of the array ( boom length in the the optimum value. The opposite is true of
induction or radiation from the driven case of a rotatable antenna) can be a director. It is therefore advisable to err,
element, generally called the " antenna," anywhere between 0.35 and 0.45 if necessary, on the long side for a
and reradiate it in the proper phase wavelength with no appreciable difference reflector and on the short side for a
relationship to achieve the desired effect. in gain. director. This also tends to make the
These elements are called parasitic ele-
ments, as contrasted to the driven
elements which receive power directly
co

from the transmitter through the trans-

mission line.
The parasitic element is called adirector
N dB

when it reinforces radiation on a line

pointing to it from the antenna, and a
h

reflector when the reverse is the case.

GA

Whether the parasitic element is adirector

or reflector depends upon the parasitic-
element tuning, which usually is adjusted
0 10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
by changing its length.
SPACING FROM DIRECTOR TO FED ELEMENT IN 5.

Gain vs. Spacing

The gain of an antenna with parasitic
Fig. 44 — Gain of three-element Vagi versus director spacing, the reflector being fixed at 0.2
elements varies with the spacing and wavelength.

20-19 Chapter 20
Table 2
Element Lengths for 20, 15 and 10 Meters, Phone and CW

Freq. (kHz) Driven Reflector First Second

Element Director Director

A A B A A B.
14,050 33' 5-3/8" 33' 8" 35' 2-1/2" 35' 5-1/4' 31' 9-3/8" 31' 11-5/8" 31' 1-1/4" 31' 3-5/8"
32' 11-3/4" 33' 2-1/4" 34' 8-1/2" 34' 111/4" 31' 4" 31 6-3/8" 30' 8" 30' 10-1/2"
14,250
22' 4" 22' 5-5/8" 23' 8" 23' 7-3/4" 21' 2-1/2" 21' 4" 20' 9-1/8" 20' 10-7/8"
21,050
22' 3/4" 22'2-3/8" 23' 2-5/8" 23' 4-1/2" 20' 11-1/2" 21' 1" 20' 8-1/4" 20' 7-3/4"
21,300
16' 9" 18' 10-1/4" 17' 7-5/8" 17' 8-7/8" 15' 11" 18' 15' 7" 15' 9-1/2"
28,050
16' 5-1/4" 18' 8-3/8" 17' 3-1/2" 17' 4-3/4" 15' 7-1/4" 15' 8-1/2" 15' 3-3/8" 15' 4-1/2"
28,600
A
02 02 0_21 10.15I 0.151 0.151 These lengths are for 0.2- or 0.15-wavelength element spacing.

To convert ft to meters multiply ft x 0.3048.

Convert in. to mm by multiplying in. x 25.4.

decided upon, the element lengths can be matching system is then adjusted for 1:1
465 found by referring to Fig. 45. The lengths SWR between the feed line and driven
f(111110
determined by these charts will vary slight- element. When the antenna is raised into
to. ly in actual practice with the element its operating height, only slight touch-up
j 455
diameter and the method of supporting of the matching network will be required.
((MHz)
the elements. The tuning of abeam should A great deal has been printed about the
always be checked after installation. need for tuning the elements of a Yagi-
i2• 445
type beam. However, experience has
f(MHz) However, the lengths obtained by the use
cr
of the charts will be close to correct in shown that lengths given in Fig. 45 and
o
practically all cases, and they can be used Table 2 are close enough to the desired
435
f ( MHz) al a5 02 0.25 03 without checking if the beam is difficult to length that no further tuning should be re-
DIRECTOR SPACING 0,.) access. quired. This is true for Yagi arrays made
500
(A)
In order to make it even easier for the from metal tubing. However, in the case
1 of quad antennas, made from wire, the
Yagi builder, Table 2can be used to deter-
mine the element lengths needed. Both cw reflectors and directors should be tuned
-o
490
and phone lengths are included for the with the antenna in its operating location.
rc
o f(MHz) The reason is that it is practically impossi-
u
three bands, 20, 15 and 10 meters. The 0.2
wavelength spacing will provide greater ble to cut and install wire to the exact
480
cr f(PAHz)0.1 bandwidth than the 0.15 spacing. Anten- dimensions required for maximum gain or
0.15 02 0.25 03
REFLECTOR SPAC NG DO na gain is essentially the same with either front-to-back.
466 (
B) spacing. The element lengths given will be
((MHz)
the same whether the beam has two, three Simple Systems: the Rotary Beam
468
«MHz) 0.25R or four elements. It is recommended that Two- and three-element systems are
470
A7R
"plumber's delight" type construction be popular for rotary-beam antennas, where
«MHz)
0.1R used where all the elements are mounted the entire antenna system is rotated, to
472
7
FV11717)vv/ directly on and grounded to the boom. permit its gain and directivity to be
4
f 71.1
(m 4z
This puts the entire array at dc ground utilized for any compass direction. They
F
, 476 potential, affording better lightning pro- may be mounted either horizontally (with
° f(MHz)co 0.15 02 025 03 tection. A gamma section can be used for the plane containing the elements parallel
DIRECTOR SPAC NG (
x.)
matching the feed line to the array. to the earth) or vertically.
(C) A four-element beam will give still more
Tuning Adjustments gain than a three-element one, provided
Fig. 45 — Element lengths for athree-element The preferable method for checking the the support is sufficient for about 0.2
beam. These lengths will hold closely for tub- beam is by means of afield-strength meter wavelength spacing between elements.
ing elements supported at or near the center. The tuning for maximum gain involves
or the S meter of a communications
receiver, used in conjunction with adipole many variables, and complete gain and
antenna located at least 10 wavelengths tuning data are not available.
away and as high as or higher than the The elements in close-spaced ( less
antenna performance less dependent on
the exact frequency at which it is beam that is being checked. A few watts of than 1/4-wavelength element spacing) ar-
operated, because an increase above the power fed into the antenna will give a rays preferably should be made of tubing
design frequency has the same effect as useful signal at the observation point, and of 1/2 to 1inch ( 13 to 25-mm) diameter. A
increasing the length of both parasitic the power input to the transmitter (and conductor of large diameter not only has
elements, while a decrease in frequency hence the antenna) should be held less ohmic resistance but also has lower Q;
has the same effect as shortening both constant for all the readings. both these factors are important in
elements. By making the director slightly Preliminary matching adjustments can close-spaced arrays because the im-
short and the reflector slightly long, there be done on the ground. The beam should pedance of the driven element usually is
will be agreater spread between the upper be set up so the reflector element rests on quite low compared to that of a simple
and lower frequencies at which the gain earth, with the remaining elements in a dipole antenna. With three- and four-
starts to show arapid decrease. vertical configuration. In other words, the element close-spaced arrays the radiation
When the over all length has been beam should be aimed straight up. The resistance of the driven element may be so

Antennas for High Frequency 20-20

 weatherproofing; receiving types with
close spacing can be used at powers up to
a few hundred watts. Maximum
capacitance required is usually 140 pF at
14 MHz and proportionately less at the
higher frequencies.
If physically possible, it is better to
adjust the matching device after the
antenna has been installed at its ultimate
height, since a match made with the
antenna near the ground may not hold for
the same antenna in the air.

Sharpness of Resonance
Peak performance of a multielement
parasitic array depends upon proper
phasing or tuning of the elements, which
can be exact for one frequency only. In the
case of close-spaced arrays, which because
of the low radiation resistance, usually are
quite sharp- tuning, the frequency range
over which optimum results can be
secured is only of the order of one or two
percent of the resonant frequency, or up
to about 500 kHz at 28 MHz. However,
the antenna can be made to work
satisfactorily over awider frequency range
by adjusting the director or directors to
give maximum gain at the highest fre-
quency to be covered, and by adjusting the
reflector to give optimum gain at the
lowest frequency. This sacrifices some
Fig. 46 — Illustrations of gamma and
T-matching systems. At A, the gamma rod is
gain at all frequencies, but maintains
adjusted aiong with C until the lowest SWR is more uniform gain over awider frequency
obtained. A T- match is shown at B. It is the range.
same as two gamma-match rods. The rods and The use of large- diameter conductors
Cl and C2 are adjusted alternately for a 1:1
will broaden the response curve of an
SWR. A coaxial 4:1 balun transformer is shown
at C. A toroidal balun can be used in place of array because the larger diameter lowers
the coax model shown. The toroidal version the Q. This causes the reactances of the
has a broader frequency range than the coaxial elements to change rather slowly with
one. The T- match is adjusted for 200 ohms and
frequency, with the result that the tuning
the balun steps this balanced value down to 50
ohms, unbalanced. Or, the T-match can be set stays near the optimum over a con-
for 300 ohms, and the balun used to step this siderably wider frequency range than is
down to 75 ohms, unbalanced. Dimensions for the case with wire conductors.
the gamma and T-match rods are not given by
formula. Their lengths and spacing will depend
upon the tubing size used, and the spacing of
Delta Loops and Quad Beams
Flg. 47 — Information on building a quad of a
the parasitic elements of the beam. Capacitors One of the more effective DX arrays is delta- loop antenna. The antennas are elec-
C, Cl and C2 can be 140 pF for 14- MHz beams. called the " cubical quad" or, simply, trically similar, but the delta- loop uses
Somewhat less capacitance will be needed at
21 and 28 MHz. "quad" antenna. It consists of two or "plumber's delight" construction.
more square loops of wire, each supported
by a bamboo or fiberglass cross- arm
assembly. The loops are a quarter "deltas" for two or more bands, but if
wavelength per side ( full wavelength this is done the formulas given in Fig. 47
low that ohmic losses in the conductor can overall) one loop being driven, and the may have to be changed slightly to com-
consume an appreciable fraction of the other serving as a parasitic element — pensate for the proximity effect of the sec-
power. usually a reflector. A variation of the ond antenna. For quads the length of the
quad is called the delta loop. The full-wave loop can be computed from
Feeding the Rotary Beam
electrical properties of both antennas are
Any of the usual methods of feed the same, generally speaking, though 1005
Full-wave loop (ft) =
(described later under " Matching the some operators report better DX results f(MHz)
Antenna to the Line") can be applied to with the delta loop. Both antennas are
306
the driven element of arotary beam. The shown in Fig. 47. They differ mainly in Full-wave loop (m) =
popular choices for feeding abeam are the f(MHz)
their physical properties, one being of
gamma match with series capacitor and plumber's delight construction, while the If multiple arrays are used, each
the T match with series capacitors and a other uses insulating support members. antenna should be tuned up separately for
half-wavelength phasing section, as shown One or more directors can be added to maximum forward gain as noted on a
in Fig. 46. These methods are preferred either antenna if additional gain and field-strength meter. The reflector stub on
over any others because they permit ad- directivity is desired, though most the quad should be adjusted for the
justment of the matching and the use of operators use the two-element arrange- foregoing condition. The delta loop
coaxial- line feed. The variable capacitors ment. gamma match should be adjusted for a1:1
can be housed in small plastic cups for It is possible to interlace quads or SWR. No reflector tuning is needed. The

20-21 Chapter 20
delta loop antenna has a broader fre-
quency response than the quad, and holds tkEFL.
23 2-5/8
3'
Table 3
17 3-1/2" Materials for Two- Band Yagi
at an SWR of 1.5:1 or better across the band
8 .
it is cut for. Quantity Length Diameter Reynolds
The resonance of the quad antenna can 22' 3/4" (tr) (in.) No.

be found by checking the frequency at 2 8 1 9A

165-1/4"
4 8 3(4 8A
which the lowest SW R occurs. The DRIVEN BOOM
6' 1 8 1-1 4 10A
ELEMENT 8'
element length ( driven element) can be 1 6 T8 4231

<(
15' 7-1/4"
adjusted for resonance in the most-used
portion of the band by lengthening or 20' 11-1/2" 2U-bolts, TV antenna to mast type, 1variable capaci-
FIRST 6' tor, 150 pF maximum, any type. 1plastic freezer con-
shortening it. DIRECTOR 8,
tainer, approximately 5 x 5 x 5 inches, to house

,f
A two-element quad or delta loop 15' 3-3/8
gamma capacitor.
antenna compares favorably with a SECOND
DIRECTOR 20' 6-1/4" Gamma rod, 3/8- to 1/2- inch diameter aluminum tub-
three-element Yagi array in terms of gain ing, 36 inches long. (Aluminum curtain rod or simi-
(see QST, May, 1963 and January, 1969, lar.)
for additional information). The quad and Fig. 48 — The element lengths shown are for Ft x 0.3048 = m. In. x 25.4 = mm.
delta-loop antennas perform very well at the phone sections of the bands. Table 2 pro-
vides the dimensions for cw frequencies.
50 and 144 MHz. A discussion of
radiation patterns and gain, quads vs.
Yagis, was presented by Lindsay in May tuning critical. This array ( Fig. 50)
1968 QST. features good directivity and reasonable
gain, yet the mechanical design allows the
An Optimum-Gain Two-Band Yagi Array use of a " normal" heavy-duty rotator and
If optimum performance is desired a conventional tower support. Element
from aYagi, the dual four-element array loading is accomplished by lumped induc-
shown in Fig. 48 will be of interest. This tance and capacitance hats along the
antenna consists of four elements on 15 38- foot ( 11.6-m) elements. This design
meters interlaced with the same number concept can be applied on any of the
for 10. Wide spacing is used, providing ex- amateur hf bands.
cellent gain and good bandwidth on both
bands. Each driven element is fed Construction
separately with 50-ohm coax; gamma- The system described here uses stan-
matching systems are employed. If dard sizes and lengths of aluminum tubing
desired, asingle feed line can be run to the available through most aluminum sup-
array and then switched by a remotely pliers. For best mechanical and electrical
controlled relay. performance, 6061-T6 alloy should be
The element lengths shown in Fig. 48 Fig. 49 — The boom- to- mast fixture that holds
used. All three elements are the same
are for the phone portions of the band, the two 12- foot boom sections together. The length: the tuning of the inductor is
centered at 21,300 and 28,600 kHz. If unit is made by Hy- Gain Electronics. slightly different on each element, how-
desired, the element lengths can be ever. The two parasitic elements are
changed for cw operation, using the grounded at the center with the associated
dimensions given in Table 2. The spacing boom-to-element hardware. A helical
of the elements will remain the same for hairpin match is used to provide aproper
both phone and cw. match to the split and insulated driven ele-
ment. Two sections of steel angle stock
Construction Details are used to reinforce the driven-element
The elements are supported by commer- mounting plate since the Plexiglas center
cially made U-bolt assemblies. Muffler insulating material is not rigid and ele-
clamps also make excellent element sup- ment sag might otherwise result. The
ports. The boom-to-mast support ( Fig. parasitic element center sections are con-
49) is also a manufactured item that is tinuous sections of aluminum tubing and
designed to hold a 2-inch ( 51- mm) additional support is not needed here. Fig.
diameter boom and that can be used with 51 and 52 show the details clearly.
mast sizes up to 2-1/2 inches (63.5 mm) in The inductors for each element are
diameter. Another feature of this device is wound on 1- 1/8-inch (28-mm) diameter
that it permits the beam to be tilted after it solid Plexiglas cast rod. Each end of the
is mounted in place on the tower, pro- coil is secured in place with a solder lug
viding access to the elements if they need and the Plexiglas is held in position with
to be adjusted once the beam has been an automotive compression clamp. The
Fig. 50 — The shortened 40-meter Yagi beam total number or turns needed to resonate
mounted on the tower.
closely approximates the size Of a standard the elements correctly is given in Fig. 54.
20-meter Yagi. It is shown on a 80-foot (1.8-m)
A Small Yagi for 40 Meters The capacitance hats consist of I/2-inch
telephone pole.
A 7-MHz antenna for most amateur in- (13-mm) tubing 3 feet (0.9 m) long ( two
stallations consists of a half-wavelength pieces used) attached to the element
dipole attached between two convenient elements and a 36- foot ( 10.9-m) boom. directly next to the coil on each parasitic
Accordingly, half-size elements present element and 2inches (51 mm) away from
supports and fed power at the center with
coaxial cable. When antenna gain is are- some distinct mechanical as well as the coil for the driven element. Complete
quirement on this frequency, the dimen- economical advantages. Reducing the details are given in Figs. 53 and 54.
sions of the system can become over- spacing between elements is not recom- The boom is constructed from three
whelming. A full-size three-element Yagi mended since it would severely restrict the sections of aluminum tubing which meas-
bandwidth of operation and make the ures 2-1/2 inches (63.5 mm) diameter and
typically would have 68- foot ( 20.7-m)
Antennas for High Frequency 20-22
 original ones to assure mechanical se-
curity.
The helical hairpin details are given in
Fig. 55. Quarter-inch copper tubing is
formed into seven turns approximately 4
inches long and 2-1/4 inches ( 102 mm) ID.

Tuning and Matching

The builder is encouraged to carefully
follow the dimensions given in Fig. 54.
Tuning the elements with the aid of adip
oscillator has Proved to be somewhat
unreliable and accordingly, no resonant
frequencies will be given.
Fig. 51 — An aluminum plate and four
The hairpin matching system may not
automotive muffler clamps are used to affix
the parasitic beam elements to the boom. resemble the usual form but its operation
and adjustment are essentially the same.
For adetailed explanation of this network
see The ARRL Antenna Book, 13th
edition. The driven element resonant
frequency required for the hairpin match
is determined by the placement of the
Fig. 54 — Mechanical details and dimensions
capacitance hats with respect to the ends for the 40- meter Yagi. Each of the elements
of the coils. Sliding the capacitance hats uses the same dimensions; the difference is
away from the ends of the coils increases only the number of turns on the inductors and
the placement of the capacitance hats. Feet x
the resonant frequency (capacitive reac-
0.3048 = m. Inches x 25.4 = mm. See the text
tance) of the element to cancel the effect for more details.
of the hairpin inductive reactance. The
model shown here had capacitance hats
mounted 2-1/2 inches (63.5 mm) out from
the ends of the coils (on the driven mensions given here, the hest figures of
element only). An SWR indicator or front-to-back ( approximately 25 to 30
Fig. 52 — The driven element of the antenna is
insulated from the boom by means of PVC tub-
wattmeter should be installed in series dB) should be noticed in the cw portion of
ing. as shown. with the feed line at the antenna. The the band. Should the builder suspect the
hairpin coil may be spread or compressed tuning is incorrect or if the antenna is
with an insulated tool (or by hand if mounted at some height greatly different
power is removed!) to provide minimum than 80 feet ( 24.3 m) retuning of the
reflected power at 7.050 MHz. The elements may be necessary.
builder should not necessarily strive for a
perfect match by changing the position of A Three- Band Quad Antenna System
the capacitance hats since this may reduce Quads ha‘e been popular with
the bandwidth of the matching system. An amateurs during the past few decades
SWR of less than 2:1 was achieved across because of their light weight, relatively
the entire 40-meter band with the antenna small turning radius, and their unique
mounted atop an 80- foot tower. ability to provide good DX performance
The tuning of the array can be checked when mounted close to the earth. A two-
by making front-to- back ratio measure- element three-band quad, for instance,
Fig. 53 — Each loading coil is wound on Plex-
ments across the band. With the di- with the elements mounted only 35 feet
iglas rod. The capacitance hats for the
parasitic elements are mounted next to the
coil, as shown here. The hose clamps com-
press the tubing against the Plexiglas rod.
Each capacitance hat consists of two sections
of tubing and associated muffler clamps.

12 feet ( 3.65 m) long. These pieces are

joined together with inner tubes made
from 2- 1/4-inch ( 57 mm) stock shimmed
with aluminum flashing. Long strips,
approximately one inch wide, are wound
on the inner tubing before it is placed
inside the boom sections. A pair of 3/8 X
3-1/2 inch (9.5 X 89 mm) steel bolts are
placed at right angles to each other at
every connection point to secure the
boom. Caution: Do not overtighten the
bolts since this will distort the tubing
making it impossible to pull apart
sections, should the need arise. It is much Fig. 55 — Details of the hairpin matching network on the driven element. See Fig. 54 for metric con
better to install locking nuts over the version.

20 -
23 Chapter 20
 parasitic loops is closed ( ends soldered
together) and requires no tuning. All of
the loop sizes are listed in Table 4and are
designed for a center frequency of 14.1,
21.1 and 28.3 MHz. Since quad antennas
are rather broad- tuning devices excellent
performance is achieved in both cw and
ssh band segments of each band ( with the
possible exception of the very high end of
10 meters). Changing the dimensions to
favor a frequency 200 kHz higher in each
band to create a " phone" antenna is not
necessary.
Fig. 56 — The assembled and installed three-
One question which comes up quite
band cubical-quad beam antenna.
often is whether to mount the loops in a
diamond or a square configuration. In
other words, should one spreader be
horizontal to the earth, or should the wire
(10.7 m) above the ground, will give good be horizontal to the ground ( spreaders
performance in situations where atriband mounted in the fashion of an X)? From
the electrical point of view, it is probably a Fig. 58 — Details of one of two assemblies for
Yagi will not. Fig. 56 shows a large quad
a spreader frame. The two assemblies are
antenna which can be used as a basis for trade-off. While the square configuration
jointed to form an x with a muffler clamp
design for either smaller or larger arrays. has its lowest point higher above ground mounted at the position shown.
Five sets of element spreaders are used than adiamond version ( which may lower
to support the three- element 20- meter, the angle of radiation slightly), the top is
four-element 15- meter, and five-element also lower than that of adiamond shaped
10- meter wire- loop system. The spacing array. Some authorities indicate that never has been any substantial proof in
between elements has been chosen to pro- separation of the current points in the favor of one or the other, electrically.
vide optimum performance consistent diamond system gives slightly more gain Spreader supports ( sometimes called
with boom length and mechanical con- than is possible with a square layout. It spiders) are available from many different
struction. See Fig. 57. Each of the should be pointed out, however, that there manufacturers. If the builder is keeping
the cost at aminimum, he should consider
building his own. The expense is about
20- METER half that of acommercially manufactured
DIRECTOR
equivalent and, according to some au-
15- METER
SECOND DIRECTOR
15- METER
thorities, the homemade arm supports
1O METER
FIRST DIRECTOR described below are less likely to rotate on
THIRD DIRECTOR
10- METER
SECOND DIRECTOR
20- 15- METER the boom as a result of wind pressure.
DRIVEN ELEMENT
10- METER
A 3- foot ( 0.9-m) long section of 1- inch
FIRST DIRECTOR (25- mm)- per- side steel angle stock is used
to interconnect the pairs of spreader arms.
DIRECTION 20-15-10 METER
The steel is drilled at the center to accept a
10- METER
OF MAXIMUM
DRIVEN EL.
REFLECTOR muffler clamp of sufficient size to clamp
RADIATION
the assembly to the boom. The fiberglass
is attached to the steel angle stock with
automotive hose clamps, two per pole.
Each quad- loop spreader frame consists
of two assemblies of the type shown in
A
7'0" D Fig. 58.
H
7'0" Beam-Antenna Elements
6'0"
s_, Most Yagi antennas are made from
6.0. sections of aluminum tubing which has
been extruded or drawn. Compromise
beams have been fashioned from less-
Fig. 57 — Dimensions of the three- band cubical quad. See Table 4 for the dimensions of the let-
expensive materials such as electrical
.tered wires. Note: Feet x 0.3048 = meters.
conduit ( iron) or bamboo poles wrapped
with conductive tape or aluminum foil.
The iron conduit is heavy, a poor
conductor and is subject to rust. There-
Table 4
Three- Band Quad Loop Dimensions fore, it is best suited to experimental
antennas or emergency use. Similarly,
Driven First Second Third
Director
bamboo with conducting material affixed
Band Reflector Element Director Director
20 meters ( A) 728" ( B) 713" ( C) 696" to it will deteriorate rapidly when exposed
15 meters ( D1 48'6 1i2" tEl 477 1,2" ( F) 465" (G) 465" to the natural elements for a period of
10 meters ( H) 36 2 1/2" ( I) 356" ( J) 347" (K) 347" (L) 347" time. For the foregoing reasons it is wise
Lettes indicate loops identified in Fig. 54. Feet x 0.3048 =' m Inches x 254 = mm to use aluminum tubing for Yagi elements
and booms.

Antennas for High Frequency 20-24

 Chapter 21

VHF and UHF Antennas

I mproving an antenna system is one of

the most productive moves open to the
a sacrifice in frequency coverage, is
obtained by placing parasitic elements,
provements in coverage. Within reason,
greater height is almost always worth its
vhf enthusiast. It can increase transmit- longer and shorter than the driven one, in cost, but height gain must be balanced
ting range, improve reception, reduce the plane of the first element, but not driv- against increased transmission-line loss.
interference problems, and bring other en from the feedline. The reflector and The latter is considerable, and it increases
practical benefits. The work itself is by no directors of a Yagi array are highly with frequency. The best available line
means the least attractive part of the job. frequency sensitive and such an antenna is may be none too good, if the run is long in
Even with high-gain antennas, experi- at its best over frequency changes of less terms of wavelength. Give line-loss in-
mentation is greatly simplified at vhf and than one percent of the operating fre- formation, shown in table form in chapter
uhf because an array is a workable size, quency. 19, close scrutiny in any antenna plan-
and much can be learned about the nature ning.
and adjustment of antennas. No large Frequency Response
investment in test equipment is necessary. Ability to work over an entire vhf band Physical Size
Whether we buy or build our antennas, may be important in some types of work. A given antenna design for 432 MHz
we soon find that there is no one " best" The response of an antenna element can will have the same gain as one for 144
design for all purposes. Selecting the be broadened somewhat by increasing the MHz, but being only one-third the size it
antenna best suited to our needs involves conductor diameter, and by tapering it to will intercept only one-third as much
much more than scanning gain figures and something approximating a cigar shape, energy in receiving. Thus, to be equal in
prices in a manufacturer's catalog. The but this is done mainly with simple communication effectiveness, the 432-
first step should be to establish priorities. antennas. More practically, wide fre- MHz array should be at least equal in size
quency coverage may be areason to select to the 144- MHz one, which will require
OBJECTIVES: GAIN acollinear array, rather than aYagi. On roughly three times as many elements.
Shaping the pattern of an antenna to the other hand, the growing tendency to With all the extra difficulties involved in
concentrate radiated energy, or received- channelize operations in small segments going higher in frequency, it is well to be
signal pickup, in some directions at the of our bands tends to place broad on the big side in building an antenna for
expense of others is the only way to frequency coverage low on the priority list the higher bands.
develop gain. This is best explained by of most vhf stations.
starting with the hypothetical isotropic DESIGN FACTORS
antenna, which would radiate equally in Radiation Pattern
Having sorted out objectives in a
all directions. A point source of light Antenna radiation can be made omni- general way, we face decisions on spe-
illuminating the inside of a globe uni- directional, bidirectional, practically un- cifics, such as polarization, type of
formly, from its center, is a visual directional, or anything between these transmission line, matching methods and
analogy. No practical antenna can do this, conditions. A vhf net operator may find mechanical design.
so all antennas have "gain over isotropic" an omnidirectional system almost a
(dBi). A half-wave dipole in free space has necessity, but it may be a poor choice Polarization
2.1 dBi. If we can plot the radiation otherwise. Noise pickup and other inter- Whether to position the antenna ele-
pattern of an antenna in all planes, we can ference problems tend to be greater with ments vertically or horizontally has been a
compute its gain, so quoting it with such antennas, and those having some moot point since early vhf pioneering.
respect to isotropic is a logical base for gain are especially bad in these respects. Tests show little evidence on which to set
agreement and understanding. It is rarely Maximum gain and low radiation angle up auniform polarization policy. On long
possible to erect ahalf-wave antenna that are usually prime interests of the weak- paths there is no consistent advantage,
has anything approaching a free-space signal DX aspirant. A clean pattern, with either way. Shorter paths tend to yield
pattern, and this fact is responsible for lowest possible pickup and radiation off higher signal levels with horizontal in
much of the confusion about true antenna the sides and back, may be important in some kinds of terrain. Man-made noise,
gain. high-activity areas, or where the noise especially ignition interference, tends to
Radiation patterns can be controlled in level is high. be lower with horizontal. Verticals are
various ways. One is to use two or more
markedly simpler to use in omnidirectional
driven elements, fed in phase. Such Height Gain
systems, and in mobile work.
collinear arrays provide gain without In general, the higher the better in vhf Early vhf communication was largely
markedly sharpening the frequency re- antenna installations. If raising the anten- vertical, but horizontal gained favor when
sponse, compared to that of a single na clears its view over nearby ob- directional arrays became widely used.
element. More gain per element, but with structions, it may make dramatic im- The major trend to fm and repeaters,
21 - 1 Chapter 21
particularly in the 144- MHz band, has ANY LOAD
tipped the balance in favor of verticals in
mobile work and for repeaters. Horizontal
predominates in other communication on
50 MHz and higher frequencies. It is well (D)
(A)
to check in advance in any new area in COAX, ANY
IMPEDANCE
which you expect to operate, however, as -2- OR MORE, ANY
IMPEDANCE
some localities still use vertical almost
ANY LINE OR
exclusively. A circuit loss of 20-dB or COAXIAL BALUN
more can be expected with cross-polari-
zation.

Transmission Lines

N/
There are two main categories of
transmission lines: balanced and un-
balanced. The former include open-wire
lines separated by insulating spreaders,
and twin-lead, in which the wires are (B) BALANCED LINE (E) 300 - OHM LINE
OR BALUN OF
embedded in solid or foamed insulation. ANY IMPEDANCE
72 - OHM COAX
OR LENGTH
Line losses result from ohmic resistance,
radiation from the line and deficiencies in
the insulation. Large conductors, closely
spaced in terms of wavelength, and using
a minimum of insulation, make the best
balanced lines. Impedances are mainly
300 to 500 ohms. Balanced lines are best
in straight runs. If bends are unavoidable,
the angles should be as obtuse as possible. ANY BALANCED
COAX, ANY In
Care should be taken to prevent one wire IMPEDANCE LINE WITH
from coming closer to metal objects than SUITABLE DIPOLE
RATIO
the other. Wire spacing should be less
than 1/20 wavelength.
Properly built, open-wire line can
operate with very low loss in vhf and even
uhf installations. A total line loss under 2 Fig. 1 — Matching methods commonly used in vhf antennas. The universal stub, A, combines tuning
dB per hundred feet at 432 MHz is readily and matching. The adjustable short on the stub, and the points of connection of the transmission line,
obtained. A line made of no. 12 wire, are adjusted for minimum reflected power in the line. In the delta match, Band C, the line is fanned out
spaced 3/4 inch ( 19 mm) or less with to tap on the dipole at the point of best impedance match. Impedances need not be known in A, B and
C. The gamma- match, D, is for direct connection of coax. C 1tunes out inductance in the arm. Folded
Teflon spreaders, and running essentially
dipole of uniform conductor size, E, steps up antenna impedance by afactor of four. Using alarger
straight from antenna to station, can be conductor in the unbroken portion of the folded dipole. E, gives higher orders of impedance
better than anything but the most transformation.
expensive coax, at afraction of the cost.
This assumes the use of baluns to match
or icing. The best grades of coax are and the transmission line and stub
into and out of the line, with a short
impervious to weather. They can be run impedances are equal. In practice this
length of quality coax for the moving
underground, fastened to metal towers involves moving both the sliding short
section from the top of the tower to the
without insulation, or bent into any and the point of line connection for zero
antenna. A similar 144- MHz setup could
convenient position, with no adverse reflected power, as indicated on an
have a line loss under 1dB.
effects on performance. SWR bridge connected in the line.
Small coax such as RG-58/U or -59/U
The universal stub allows for tuning
should never be used in vhf work if the
Impedance Watching out any small reactance present in the
run is more than a few feet. Half-inch
Theory and practice in impedance driven part of the system. It permits
(13-mm) lines ( RG-8 or - 11) work fairly
matching are given in detail in earlier matching the antenna to the line without
well at 50 MHz, and are acceptable for
chapters, and theory, at least, is the knowledge of the actual impedances
I44- MHz runs of 50 feet or less. If these
same for frequencies above 50 MHz. involved. The position of the short
lines have foam rather than solid
Practice may be similar, but physical yielding the best match gives some
insulation they are about 30 percent
size can be a major modifying factor in indication of amount of reactance
better. Aluminum-jacket lines with large
inner conductors and foam insulation choice of methods. Only the matching present. With little or no reactive
devices used in practical construction component to be tuned out, the stub
are well worth their cost. They are
examples later in this chapter will be will be approximately a half-wavelength
readily waterproofed, and can last
discussed in detail here. This should from load to short.
almost indefinitely. Beware of any
not rule out consideration of other The stub should be stiff bare wire or
"bargains" in coax for vhf or uhf uses.
methods, however, and a reading of rod, spaced no more than 1/20 wave-
Lost transmitter power can be made up
relevant portions of chapters 19 and 20 length. Preferably it should be mounted
to some extent by increasing power,
is recommended. rigidly, on insulators. Once the position
but once lost, a weak signal can never
of the short is determined, the center of
be recovered in the receiver.
Universal Stub the short can be grounded, if desired, and
Effects of weather should not be
As its name implies, the double- the portion of the stub no longer needed
ignored. A well-constructed open-wire
line works well in nearly any weather, adjustment stub of Fig. IA is useful for can be removed.
many matching purposes. The stub It is not necessary that the stub be
and it stands up well. Twin-lead is
length is varied to resonate the system, connected directly to the driven
almost useless in heavy rain, wet snow
VHF and UHF Antennas 21-2
 means of a sliding clamp, and the inner
end of the arm sliding inside a sleeve
connected to the inner conductor of the
coax. A commercially supplied as-
sembly of this type is used in a 50- MHz
array described later, or one can be
constructed from concentric pieces of
tubing, insulated by plastic sleeving. Rf
voltage across the capacitor is low,
once the match is adjusted properly, so
with a good dielectric, insulation pre-
Fig. Conversion from unbalanced coax to a balanced load can be done with a half-wave coaxial
sents no great problem, if the initial
balun, A. Electrical length of the looped section should be checked with adip-meter, with ends
shorted, B. The half-wave balun gives a 4:1 impedance step up. adjustment is made with low power
level. A clean, permanent high-con-
ductivity bond between arm and ele-
ment is important, as the rf current is high
at this point.

Folded Dipole
The impedance of a half-wave anten-
na broken at its center is 72 ohms. If a
single conductor of uniform size is
folded to make a half-wave dipole as
shown in Fig. 1E, the impedance is
stepped up four times. Such a folded
dipole can thus be fed directly with
300- ohm line with no appreciable
mismatch. Coaxial line of 70 to 75 ohms
impedance may also be used if a 4:1
balun is added. (See balun information
presented later in this chapter.) Higher
impedance step up can be obtained if
the unbroken portion is made larger in
cross-section than the fed portion, as in
Fig. 3 — The balun conversion function, with no impedance change, is accomplished with quarter-
wave lines, open at the top and connected to the coax outer conductor at the bottom. The coaxial Fig. IF. For design information, see
sleeve, A, is preferred. chapter 19.

Ba/tins and Transmatches

Conversion from balanced loads to
element. It can be made part of an checked out carefully in applications unbalanced lines, or vice versa, can be
open-wire line, as a device to match like that of Fig. IC, having no tuning performed with electrical circuits, or
into or out of the line with coax. It can device. their equivalents made of coaxial line.
be connected to the lower end of a
Gamma Match A balun made from flexible coax is
delta match, or placed at the feedpoint
shown in Fig. 2A. The looped portion is
of a phased array. Examples of these An application of the same principle an electrical half-wavelength. The physi-
uses are given later. to direct connection of coax is the cal length depends on the propagation
Delta Match gamma match, Fig. ID. There being no factor of the line used, so it is well to
rf voltage at the center of a half-wave check its resonant frequency, as shown
Probably the first impedance match dipole, the outer conductor of the coax at B. The two ends are shorted, and the
was made when the ends of an open is connected to the element at this loop at one end is coupled to a
line were fanned out and tapped onto a point, which may also be the junction
dip-meter coil. This type of balun gives
half-wave antenna at the point of most with a metallic or wooden boom. The an impedance stepup of 4:1 in im-
efficient power transfer, as in Fig. 1B. inner conductor, carrying the rf current, pedance, 50 to 200 ohms, or 75 to 300
Both the side length and the points of is tapped out on the element at the
ohms, typically.
connection either side of the center of matching point. Inductance of the arm
Coaxial baluns giving 1:1 impedance
the element must be adjusted for is tuned out by means of Cl, resulting transfer are shown in Fig. 3. The coaxial
minimum reflected power in the line, in electrical balance. Both the point of sleeve, open at the top and connected
but as with the universal stub, the contact with the element and the setting to the outer conductor of the line at the
impedances need not be known. The of the capacitor are adjusted for zero lower end (A) is the preferred type. A
delta makes no provision for tuning out reflected power, with a bridge con- conductor of approximately the same
reactance, so the universal stub is often nected in the coaxial line. size as the line is used with the outer
used as a termination for it, to this end. The capacitor can be made variable conductor to form a quarter-wave stub,
Once thought to be inferior for vhf temporarily, then replaced with a
in B. Another piece of coax, using only
applications because of its tendency to suitable fixed unit when the required the outer conductor, will serve this
radiate if improperly adjusted, the delta capacitance value is found, or Cl can purpose. Both baluns are intended to
has come back to favor, now that we be mounted in a waterproof box. present an infinite impedance to any rf
have good methods for measuring the Maximum should be about 100 pF for current that might otherwise tend to
effects of matching. It is very handy for 50 MHz and 35 to 50 pF for 144. The flow on the outer conductor of the coax.
phasing multiple-bay arrays with open capacitor and arm can be combined in The functions of the balun and the
lines, and its dimensions in this use are one coaxial assembly, with the arm impedance transformer can be han-
not particularly critical. It should be connecting to the driven element by dled by various tuned circuits. Such a
21-3 Chapter 21
device, commonly called an antenna
coupler or Transmatch, can provide a REF DRIVEN DIRECTOR

wide range of impedance transforma- 02à 02n

tions. Additional selectivity inherent to 50.1

MHz
144.1 220.1 432.1
I 0.4), BOOM
the Transmatch can reduce RFI problems. 10-3/4' 5-1/2'
71 ded 0.22 3' 11-1/8" 1' 4-3/8'
0.252 4' 10-15/16' 1' 8-1/2' 1' 1-3/8' 6-13/16'
8-7/16"
The VHF, UHF Yagi 0.3082 6' 9/16' 2' 1-1/4' 1' 4-1/2'

The small size of vhf and, especially, REF DRIVEN DIRECTORS - Meters = 0.3048 x feet
dl mm = 25.4 x inches
uhf arrays opens up a wide range of 02X 02X 0211 0211.
construction possibilities. Finding com-
o eoom
ponents is becoming difficult for home
constructors of ham gear, but it should
not hold back antenna work. Radio and 1

TV distributors have many useful antenna REF DR VEN DIRECTORS

parts and materials. Hardware stores,

021025)1 025 A
metals suppliers, lumber yards, welding-
supply and plumbing-supply houses and 1 1211 BOOM

even junkyards should not be overlooked. 10.2 dEId

With alittle imagination, the possibilities

are endless. REF DRIVEN DIRECTORS

Boom Materials

1 1
I° 1 H —. 1 I
Wood is very useful in antenna work. It
°2>
222 BOOM

is available in a great variety of shapes I 11 111111

12.25 eBd

and sizes. Rug poles of wood or bamboo

make fine booms. Round wood stock REF DRIVEN DIRECTORS —..

(doweling) is found in many hardware

stores in sizes suitable for small arrays. " I ° 1 ° 1 - 1 Mill

III I I
IIIII
I II
1"'3›.4
'
Square or rectangular boom and frame
materials can be cut to order in most
lumber yards if they are not available B
-=1I I I
from the racks in suitable sizes. REF DRIVEN DIRECTORS -.

There is no rf voltage at the center of a

0211103011110)0.111
half-wave dipole or parasitic element, so BOOM

111111
no insulation is required in mounting 10 2 dB0

elements that are centered in the support,

whether the latter is wood or metal. Wood
is good for the framework of multibay
arrays for the higher bands, as it keeps
Fig. 4 — Element spacing for the various arrays, in terms of boom wavelength.
down the amount of metal in the active
area of the array.
Wood used for antenna construction
should be well-seasoned and free of knots elements larger than 1/2-inch diameter, and 432 MHz. These figures are based on
or damage. Available materials vary, though up to I inch ( 25 mm) is used information contained in the National
depending on local sources. Your lumber occasionally. At 144 and 220 MHz the Bureau of Standards Technical Note 688
dealer can help you better than anyone elements are usually 1/8 to 1/4 inch ( 3to which offers element dimensions for
else in choosing suitable materials. Join- 6 mm) in diameter. For 420, elements as maximum-gain Yagi arrays as well as
ing wood members at right angles is often small as 1/16 inch ( 1.6 mm) in diameter other types of antennas. The original in-
done advantageously with gusset plates. work well, if made of stiff rod. Aluminum formation provides various element and
These can be of thin outdoor-grade welding rod, 3/32 to 1/8 ( 2.4 to 3 mm) boom diameters. The information shown
plywood or Masonite. Round materials inch in diameter is fine for 420- MHz in the Tables represents a highly con-
can be handled in ways similar to those arrays, and 1/8 inch or larger is good for densed set of antenna designs, however,
used with metal components, with U the 220 band. Aluminum rod or hard- making use of standard and readily
clamps and with other hardware. drawn wire works well at 144 MHz. Very available material. Element and boom
Metal booms have a small "shorting strong elements can be made with stiff-rod diameters have been chosen so as to pro-
effect" on elements that run through inserts in hollow tubing. If the latter is duce lightweight, yet very rugged, anten-
them. With materials sizes commonly slotted, and tightened down with asmall nas.
employed, this is not more than one clamp, the element lengths can be Since these antennas are designed for
percent of the element length, and may adjusted experimentally with ease. maximum forward gain, the front-to-back
not be noticeable in many applications. It Sizes recommended above are usable pattern ratios may be a bit lower than
is just perceptible with I/2-inch ( 13-mm) with formula dimensions given in Table 1. those for some other designs. Ratios on
tubing booms used on 432 MHz, for Larger diameters broaden frequency re- the order of 15 to 25 dB are common for
example. Formula lengths can be used as sponse; smaller ones sharpen it. Much these antennas and should be more than
given, if the matching is adjusted in the smaller diameters than those recom- adequate for most installations. Addi-
frequency range one expects to use. The mended will require longer elements, tionally, the patterns are quite clean, with
center frequency of an all-metal array will especially in 50- MHz arrays. the side lobes well suppressed. The driven-
tend to be 0.5 to 1percent higher than a element lengths for the antennas represent
similar system built of wooden supporting Element and Boom Dimensions good starting-point dimensions. The type
members. Tables 1 through 4 list element and of feed system used on the array may re-
Element Materials boom dimensions for several Yagi con- quire longer or shorter lengths, as ap-
figurations for operation on 50, 144, 220 propriate. Full details of the various
Antennas for 50 MHz need not have
VHF and UHF Antennas 214
 Table 1
NBS 50.1 MHz Vagi Dimensions
0
= Boom Boom Element Insulated

-,3te Length Diameter Diameter Elements Ref. Driven Dir. 1 Dir. 2 Dir. 3 Dir. 4 Dir. 5 Dir. 6 Dir. 7 Du 8 Du 9 Dir. 10
e 7 10'(0.4 A) 1-1/4" 1/2' YES T 7' T 1-3/4' 9' 5/8"
NO 9' 7-3/4' 9' 1-3/4' 9' 1-3/8'
Vi)
.0. 15' 8-1/2'(0.8 A) 2» 3/4' YES 9' 6-1/2' 9' 1-3/4' 8' 9-1/8' W 8-3/8" 8' 9-1/8" meters = 0 3048 x feet
NO 9' 7' 9' 1-3/4' 8' 9-5/8' 8' 8-7/8' 8' 9-5/8" mm = 25 4 x inches
23' 6-7/8'0 2/) 2' 3/4" YES 9' 6-1/2' 9' 1-3/4' 8' 9-1/8' 8' 7-3/4' 8' 7-3/4" 8' 9-1/8'
NO 9' 7-3/4' 9' 1-3/4' 8' 10-1/4' 8' 8-7/8' 8' 8-7/8' 8' 10-1/4'
39' 3-3/W(2.2-1) 2' 3/4' YES 9' 6•1/2' 9' 1-3/4' 8' 9-7/8' 8' 7' 8' 5-3/8' 8' 3-112" 8' 1-3/4' 8' 1-3/4' 8' 1-3/4' 8' 1-3/4' 8' 3-1/2' 8' 5-3/8'
NO 9' 7-3/4' 9' 1-3/4' 8' 11' 8' 8-1/8' 8' 6-1/2' 8' 4-5/8' 8' 3' 8' 3' 8' 3' 8' 3' 8' 4-5/8' 8' 6-1/2'

Table 2
meters = 0.3048 x feet
NBS 144.1- MHz Vagi Dimensions mm = 25.4 x inches

Boom Boom Element Insulated Driven

Length Diameter Diameter Elements Re! . Dir. 1 Dir. 2 Dir, 3 Dir, 4 Dir. 5 Dir. 6 Dir. 7 Dir. 8 Dir. 9 Dir, 10 Dir. 11 Dir. 12 Dir. 13 Dir. 14 Dir. /
5
5'5-9/16'(0.8A) 1' 3/16" YES 3'4" T2-3/16' T7/8' T11/16' T7/8'
NO T4-5/8' 3'1-1/2' T1-3/8' T1-1/2'
W2-5/16'(1.2À) 1' 3/16' YES T4' 3718' T7/16' 37/16" T7/8'
NO T4-5/8' T1-1/2' T1-1/8' T1-1/8' T1-1/2'
15'1/4'(2.2À 1 1/4' 3/16' YES T4' 3'1-1/8' T11-13/16' T11-1/4' T10•9/16' 210-9/16' T10-9/16' 210-9/16' T10-9/16' T11-1/4' T11-13/16'
NO T4•13/16' T1-15/16' T5/8' 3' T11-3/8' 211-3/8' T11-3/8' Z11-3/8' 211-318' 3' T5/8'
21'10-1/16'(3.21) 1 1/2' 3/16" YES 3'4'
NO 3718" 39/16' T11-3/4' T11-1/8' T10-7/8' T10-9/16' 210-5/16' T10-5/16' 210-5/16' T10-5/16' T10-5/16' T10-5/16' 210-5/16' 2 10-5/16' T10-5/16'
3'5-1/16' T1-15/16' T1-3/8' T13/16' 3' 3/16' 3' T11-5/8' Z11-3/8' T11-3/8' T11-3/8' T11-318' 211-3/8' T11-3/8' Z11-3/8' 211-3/8' 211-3/8'
28'8-1/8"(4.2À) 1 1/2' 3/16' YES T3•3/8' T9/16' T9/16' 3'3/8' T11-5/8' T1 1-1/2' T1 1-1/8' 710-13/16' 710-9/16' 210-9/16' T10-9/16' 210-9/16' 210-9/16' 210-9/16'
NO T4-1/2' T1-5/8' 3'1-5/8' T1-7/16' T11/16' T9/16' T3/16' T11-7/8' 711-5/8' T11-5/8' 2.11-5/8' Z11-5/8* T11-5/8' T11-5/8'

Table 3
meters = 0.3048 x feet
NBS 220.1- MHz Vagi Dimensions mm = 25.4 x inches

Boom Boom Element Insulated Driven

Length Diameter Diameter Elements Ref • Dir. 1 Dir. 2 Dir, 3 Dir, 4 Dir. 5 Dlr. 6 Dir, 7 Dir. 8 Dir. 9 Dir, 10 Dir. 11 Dir. 12 Dir. 13 Dir. 14 Dir. /5
3'6-15/16'(0 8/) 1" 3/16" YES 22-1/16' 2'1' 111-13/16' 111-11/16' 111-13/16'
NO 72-3/4' Z1/2* T3/8' 2.1/2'
5'4-3/8"(1.2A) 1' 3/16' YES T2-1/16' 111-13/16' 111-9/16' 111-9/16' 111-3/16'
NO 2'2-3/4' T1/2' 2'1/4' T1/4' T1/2'
9'10'(2.2À) 1" 3/16' YES T2-1/16' 71/16' 111-5/16' 110-15/16' 110-1/2' 110-1/8' 110-1/8' 1101/8' 110-1/8' 110-1/2' 110-15/16'
NO 2'2-3/4' T3/4' 21/16' 111-5/8' 1'11-1/4' 110-7/8' 1'10-7/-8' 110-7/8' 110-7/8' 111-1/4' 111-5/8'
14'3-11/16"(3.2À) 1 1/4' 3/16' YES Z2-1/16' 111-13/16" 111.9/16' 110-15/16' 110-1/2' 110-5/16' 110-1/8' 1S-7/8' 1'9-7/8' 1S-7/8' 1'9-7/8' 19-718" 19-718" 1S-7/8' 1S-7/8' 1S-7/8'
NO T3' T3/4' 2'7/16' 1'11-7/8' 111-7/16' 111-1/4' 1'11' 110.13/16' 110-13/16' 110-13/16' 11013/16" 110-13/16' 110-13/16' 110-13/16' 110-13/16' 110-13/16'
18'9-5/16'(4.2À) 1 112' 3/16' YES T1-11/16' 111-5/8' 111-5/8' 111-7/16' 110-7/8' 110-3/4' 110-1/2' 110-5/16' 110-1/8' 110-1/8' 110-1/8' 110-1/8' 110-1/8' 110-1/8'
NO 2'2-3/4' T11/16' Z11/16' 2'1/2' 2' 111-1 3/
16'111-9/16' 111-3/8' 111-3/16' 111-3/16' 111-3/16' 111-3/16' 111-3/16' 111-3/16'

Table 4
meters = 0.3048 x feet
NBS 432.1- MHz Vagi Dimensions
mm = 25.4 x inches
Boom Boom Element Insulated Driven
Length Diameter Diameter Elements Ref . Dir. 1 Dir. 2 Dir, 3 Dlr. 4 Dlr. 5 Dir. 8 Dir. 7 Dlr. 8 Dir. 9 Dir. 10 Dir. 11 Dir. 12 Dir 13 Dir. 14 Dir, 15
2'8-13/16'(1.2A) 1' 3/16' YES 11-3/16' 123/32' 11-13/16' 11-5/8' 11-5/8' 11-13/16'
NO 1'1-15/16' 117/32' 111/32' 111/32' 1'17/32'
5'1/8"(2.25) 1' 3/16' YES 11-3/16' 11-29/32' 11-7/16' 11-1/4' 11' 10-13/16' 10-13/16' 10-13/16' 10-13/16' 11' 11-1/4'
NO 11-15/16'