UNIT - 3

Measurements and Scaling Techniques: Meaning-

Sources of Error in measurement - Tests of sound
measurement. Scaling: Meaning – Classification -
important scaling techniques. Methods of data
collection – Primary and Secondary Data – Sources:
Questionnaire, Interview, Observation and E-mail
Surveys – Pilot study
 MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics
(or attributes) of objects according to a pre-specified set of rules.

Objects include persons, strategic business units, companies, countries,

bicycles, elephants, kitchen appliances, restaurants, shampoo, and so on.

Examples for characteristics of objects are achievement motivation,

organizational effectiveness, shopping enjoyment, length, weight, ethnic
diversity, service quality, conditioning effects.

The organizational effectiveness of a company, measure the length (the attribute)

of a person (the object), the weight of an elephant, the tendency of stockbrokers,
the shopping enjoyment of women, the service quality of a restaurant, the
conditioning effects of a shampoo
 MEASUREMENT
EXAMPLE:
A study on customer satisfaction towards a particular
hotel.
A simple scale should consist of at least three options.
 Not satisfied
 Neutral
 Satisfied.
The numerical values assigned to these three options are
one (1), two (2) and three (3) respectively.
 ISSUES IN MEASUREMENT
 What is to be measured (Specific)
 How it is to be measured (Scale)
 Who is to be measured (Respondents)
 Choosing the most appropriate technique of
data collection
 NOMINAL SCALE
A Nominal scale is one that allows the
researcher to assign subjects to certain
categories or groups.
 EXAMPLE FOR NOMINAL SCALE
If we had interviewed 200 people, and assigned code
number 1 to all male respondents and
number 2 to all female respondents

then computer analysis of the data at the end of the survey may show that

98 of the respondents are men and

102 are women.
The frequency distribution tells us that 49% of the survey’s
respondents are men and 51% women.
Thus, the nominal scale gives some basic, categorical, gross
information.
 ORDINAL SCALE
Ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports
the ranking and ordering of the data without actually
establishing the degree of variation between them.
The preference would be ranked (e.g., from best to worst;
first to last) and numbered 1, 2, and so on.
 EXAMPLE FOR ORDINAL SCALE
Rank the following five characteristics in a job in terms of how
important they are for you. You should rank the most important item
as 1, the next in importance as 2, and so on, until you have ranked
each of them 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.
Job characteristic Ranking of importance
The opportunity provided by the job -
to: Interact with others
Use a number of different skills -
Complete a whole task from -
beginning to end.
Serve others -
Work independently -
 INTERVAL SCALE
In an interval scale, or equal interval scale, numerically equal
distances on the scale represent equal values in the
characteristics being measured.
It allow us to compare differences between objects
 RATIO SCALE
Ratio scale is a system of assigning number to the variable to label them for
identification and ranking based on a scale having equal interval size with
absolute zero that allows measurement on only one side of zero.
It is a top level of the measurement
Here, a variable is categorized in different subgroups in ascending or
descending order and intervals between the successive categories are equal and
constant.
Same as the interval scale except zero has the true value i.e. zero represent the
absolute value
All the mathematical operations are applicable in this scale.
Examples include: weight, height, sales figures, ruler measurements, number
of children.
Here, weight 0 means no weight and weight 60 kgs mean it is 30 units
more than 30 kgs and two times of 30 kgs.
INTERVAL SCALE
SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF SCALE
MEASUREMENT

Nominal Scale – Classification but no order, distance or unique

origin

Ordinal Scale – Classification and order but no distance or

unique origin

Interval Scale – Classification, order and distance but no unique

origin

Ratio Scale – Classification, order, distance and unique origin

SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
 SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

Respondent Situation Measurer Instrument

TESTS OF SOUND MEASUREMENT
• Content validity
Test of • Criterion-related validity
Validity • Construct validity

• Stability aspect
Test of • Equivalence aspect
Reliability

• Economical
Test of
• Convenient
Practicality
• Interpretable
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF SCALE
MEASUREMENT

 Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale
 Ratio Scale
These are the types of scales that can be applied to measure
different variables.

 Rating Scale
 Ranking Scale
These are the scaling techniques how we apply them.
 SCALING
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to
various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts.

This can be done in two ways viz.,

(i) making a judgement about some characteristic of an
individual and then placing him directly on a scale
that has been defined in terms of that characteristic
(ii) constructing questionnaires in such a way that the
score of individual’s responses assigns him a place on a
scale.
 DICHOTOMOUS SCALE
The dichotomous scale is used to draw Yes or No answer,
as in the example below.

Do you own a car?

Yes=1 No=0

Note that a nominal scale is used to draw the response.

 CATEGORY SCALE
The category scale uses multiple items to draw a single
response, as per the following example. This also uses the
nominal scale.
Where in London do you reside?
 East London
 South London
 West London
 North London

Please rate car model A on each of the following dimensions:

Poor Fair Good Very good Excellent
a) Durability
b) Fuel Consumption
 FIXED OR CONSTANT SUM SCALE
The respondents are here asked to distribute a given number of
points across various items as per the example below. This is
more in the nature of an ordinal scale.
In choosing a toilet soap, indicate the importance you attach to each of the
following five aspects by allotting points for each to total 100 in all.
Fragrance —
Colour —
Shape —
Size —
Texture of lather —
Total points 100
 GRAPHIC RATING SCALE
A graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale
their answers to a particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate
point on the line, as in the following example. This is an ordinal scale,
though the following example might make it look like an interval scale
On a scale of 1 to 10, how would you rate your supervisor?
– 10 Excellent
–
–
–
–
– 5 Adequate
–
–
–
– 1 Very bad
 LIKERT SCALE
The Likert scale is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or
disagree with statements on a five-point scale with the following anchors:

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

Using the preceding Likert scale, state the extent to which you
agree with each of the following statements:

My work is very interesting 12345

I am not engrossed in my work all day 12345
Life without my work would be dull 12345
Likert scales are generally treated as interval scales.
 SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
Several bipolar attributes are identified at the extremes of the scale, and
respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes, on what may be called a
semantic space, toward a particular individual, object, or event on each of
the attributes.
The bipolar adjectives used might employ such terms as Good–Bad;
Strong–Weak; Hot–Cold.
The semantic differential scale is used to assess respondents’ attitudes
toward a particular brand, advertisement, object, or individual. It is often
treated as an interval scale.

Responsive — — — — — — Unresponsive
Beautiful — — — — — — — Ugly
Courageous — — — — — — Timid
 NUMERICAL SCALE
The numerical scale is similar to the semantic
differential scale, with the difference that numbers
on a five-point or seven-point scale are provided,
with bipolar adjectives at both ends, as illustrated
below.

This scale is also often treated as an interval scale

How pleased are you with your new estate agent?

Extremely Pleased 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Extremely Displeased
 ITEMIZED RATING SCALE
A five-point or seven-point scale with anchors, as needed, is
provided for each item and the respondent states the appropriate
number on the side of each item, or circles the relevant number
against each item. This uses an interval scale

Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your response number on the line by each item.
1 3 5
2 4
Very Neither Unlikely Very
Unlikely Likely
Unlikely Nor Likely Likely
1 I will be changing my job within the next 12 months -
2 I will take on new assignments in the near future -
3 It is possible that I will be out of this organization within the next 12 months -

Note that the above is a balanced rating scale with a neutral point.
 STAPEL SCALE
This scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the
attitude toward the items under study.
The characteristic of interest to the study is placed at the centre with a
numerical scale ranging, say, from +3 to −3, on either side of the item. This
gives an idea of how close or distant the individual response to the stimulus
is. This is an interval scale
 RANKING SCALE
Ranking scales are used to tap preferences between
two or among more objects or items (ordinal in
nature)
such ranking may not give definitive clues to some
of the answers sought.
 PAIRED COMPARISON
The paired comparison scale is used when, among a
small number of objects, respondents are asked to
choose between two objects at a time.

This helps to assess preferences

 FORCED CHOICE
The forced choice enables respondents to rank objects relative to
one another, among the alternatives provided. This is easier for
the respondents, particularly if the number of choices to be
ranked is limited in number.
Rank the following magazines that you would like to subscribe to in the order
of preference, assigning 1 to the most preferred choice and 5 to the least
preferred.
Fortune —
Game —
Time —
People —
Prevention —
 COMPARATIVE SCALE
The comparative scale provides a benchmark or a point of
reference to assess attitudes toward the current object, event, or
situation under study

In a volatile financial environment, compared to stocks, how wise or useful is it to invest

in Treasury bonds? Please circle the appropriate response
1 3 5
2 4
More About the same Less
useful useful
-
-
-
 SCALE CLASSIFICATION BASES
The number assigning procedures or the scaling
procedures may be broadly classified on one or more of
the following bases:

(a)Subject orientation;
(b)Response form;
(c)Degree of subjectivity;
(d)Scale properties;
(e)Number of dimensions and
(f) Scale construction techniques.