23
Levels of mental life
1. Unconscious Preconscious
2. The unconscious contains all The preconscious level of the mind
Conscious
those drives, urges, or mental elements in awareness at
instincts that are beyond our contains all those elements that are
any given point in time
awareness but that not conscious but can become
nevertheless motivate most of conscious either quite readily or 2 different directions:
our words, feelings, and with some difficulty 1. Perceptual Conscious
actions.
3. dreams, slips of the tongue, 2. Within the mental structure
and certain kinds of forgetting 2 sources:
(repression) 1. Conscious Perception
4. Phylogenic Endowment - a 2. Unconscious
portion of our unconscious
originates from the
experiences of our early
ancestors that have been
passed on to us through
hundreds of generations of
repetition
Provinces of the
mind
25
26
Dynamics of personality
To Freud, people are motivated to seek pleasure and to reduce tension and anxiety. This
motivation is derived from psychical and physical energy that springs from their basic drives.
Drives (Eros) Anxiety
Id Ego
operate as a constant motivational Freud emphasized that it is a felt,
force. As an internal stimulus, affective, unpleasant state
drives differ from external stimuli in accompanied by a physical
that they cannot be avoided sensation that warns the person
through flight. against impending danger.
Sex (Eros) - libido Neurotic anxiety
Aggression (Thanatos) Moral anxiety
Realistic anxiety
27
Drives
Sex (Eros) Aggression (Thanatos)
The aim is pleasure The aim of the destructive
Erogenous zone drive, is to return the organism
FORMS to an inorganic state. Because
Primary and Secondary the ultimate inorganic condition
narcissism is death, the final aim of the
Love aggressive drive is self-
Sadism and Masochism destruction.
The aggressive tendency is
present in everyone and is the
explanation for wars, atrocities,
and religious persecution
28
anxiety
Neurotic Anxiety – result from the ego’s dependence on the id.
apprehension about an unknown danger.
Moral Anxiety - stems from the conflict between the ego and the superego
Moral Anxiety - stems from the conflict between the
ego and the superego
Realistic Anxiety – closely related to fear
It is defined as an unpleasant, nonspecific feeling
involving a possible danger.
29
Defense mechanisms
Although defense mechanisms are normal and
universally used, when carried to an extreme they
lead to compulsive, repetitive, and neurotic
behavior
This is precisely the ego’s purpose in establishing
defense mechanisms—to avoid dealing directly
with sexual and aggressive implosives and to
defend itself against the anxiety that accompanies
them
30
31
One of the ways in which a A young woman who deeply
repressed impulse may become resents and hates her mother. To
Reaction formation conscious is through adopting a avoid painful anxiety, the young
disguise that is directly opposite woman concentrates on the
its original form opposite impulse—love
When the prospect of taking the People who continually derive
next step becomes too anxiety pleasure from eating, smoking, or
provoking, the ego may resort to talking may have an oral fixation,
Fixation
the strategy of remaining at the whereas those who are obsessed
present, more comfortable with neatness and orderliness
psychological stage may possess an anal fixation
People incorporate positive An adolescent may introject or
Introjection qualities of another person into adopt the mannerisms, values, or
their own ego lifestyle of a movie star
32
33
34
35
1. Oral Phase Anal Phase Phallic Phase
2. Infants gain pleasure through children receive satisfaction by genital area becomes the leading
sucking erogenous zone
3. Oral-receptive phase - infants
destroying or losing objects dichotomy between male and female
feel no ambivalence toward anal character—people who development
the pleasurable object continue to receive erotic Male Oedipus Complex - an infant
4. Oral-sadistic period - infants satisfaction by keeping and boy forms an identification with his
respond to others through possessing objects and by father, and later develops sexual desire
biting, cooing, closing their for his mother.
mouth, smiling, and crying. arranging them in an castration complex begins after a
5. sucking candy, chewing gum, excessively neat and orderly young boy becomes aware of the
biting pencils, overeating, fashion absence of a penis on girls
smoking cigarettes, pipes and anal triad of orderliness, Penis envy – Girls become envious of
cigars, and making biting, this appendage, feel cheated, and
sarcastic remarks stinginess, and obstinacy desire to have a penis
typifies the adult anal character
36
Latency Period Genital Period
The libido is dormant During this stage, the libido re-
during this stage, and no emerges after its latent period
further psychosexual
development occurs and is directed towards peers of
(latent means hidden). the other sex, marking the onset
In this stage, Freud of mature adult sexuality.
believed sexual impulses
are repressed, leading to During this stage, individuals
a period of relative calm. start to become sexually mature
Children focus on school and begin to explore their
activities, friendships, sexual feelings and desires
hobbies
more maturely and responsibly.
Application of psychoanalytic 37
theory
The primary goal of Freud’s later psychoanalytic therapy was to
uncover repressed memories through free association and
dream analysis.
Transference refers to the strong sexual or aggressive feelings,
positive or negative, that patients develop toward their analyst
during the course of treatment.
Freudian Slips - Freud believed that many everyday slips of the
tongue or pen, misreading, incorrect hearing, misplacing objects,
and temporarily forgetting names or intentions are not chance
accidents but reveal a person’s unconscious intentions.
38
Critique of freud
A frequent criticism of Freud is that he did not
understand women and that his theory of
personality was strongly oriented toward men.
A second area of criticism of Freud centers
around his status as a scientist. Although he
repeatedly insisted that he was primarily a
scientist and that psychoanalysis was a
science, Freud’s definition of science needs
some explanation
CONCEPT OF
HUMANITY
1. Determinism vs. Free Choice - Freud believed that most of
our behavior is determined by past events rather than
molded by present goals
2. Pessimism vs. Optimism - The innate death wish drives us
incessantly toward self-destruction or aggression, while
the sexual drive causes us to seek blindly after pleasure
3. Causality vs. Teleology - Freud believed that present
behavior is mostly shaped by past causes rather than by
people’s goals for the future
CONCEPT OF
HUMANITY
4. Conscious vs. Unconscious - psychoanalytic theory
obviously leans heavily in the direction of unconscious
motivation
5. Social vs. Biological influences - As a physician, Freud’s
medical training disposed him to see human personality from
a biological viewpoint
6. Uniqueness vs. Similarities - psychoanalytic theory takes a
middle position
Adler: Individual psychology
February 7, 1870 Several of Adler’s earliest Adler continued the rivalry
In Rudolfsheim memories were concerned with his older brother into
As a young boy, Alder was with the unhappy middle age
weak and sickly competition between his
brother’s good health and
his own illness.
42
Like Freud, Adler had a younger brother who died in Adler was more interested in social Adler attended elementary school
infancy. Rather than being terrified or relationships, and his siblings and with neither difficulty nor distinction.
feeling guilty, Adler saw this experience, along with his peers played a pivotal role in his when he entered the Gymnasium in
own near death from pneumonia, as a challenge to childhood development. preparation for medical school, he did
overcome death. so poorly that his father threatened to
remove him from school and
apprentice him to a shoemaker
Because his father had been born in Hungary, Adler was a Hungarian citizen and was 43
thus obliged to serve a tour of military duty in the Hungarian army. He fulfilled that
obligation immediately after receiving his medical degree and then returned to Vienna
for postgraduate study.
He began private practice as an eye specialist, but gave up that specialization and
turned to psychiatry and general medicine
Wednesday Psychological Society (1908) then Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
Freud led the discission groups however, Adler never considered Freud to be his
mentor and believed that he and others could make contributions to psychoanalysis
Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Psychical Compensation (1907/1917).
Physical deficiencies and not sex formed the foundation for human motivation
Society for Free Psychoanalytic Study – Society for Individual Psychology
Adler became more convinced that psychoanalysis should be broader than Freud’s view of infantile
sexuality. In 1911, he presented his views before the group expressing opposition to the strong
sexual proclivities of psychoanalysis and insisting that the drive for superiority was a more basic
motive than sexuality
44
During the last several 1932, he was a His personal qualities
years of his life, Adler permanent resident of included an optimistic
frequently visited the the United States and attitude toward the
United States, where he held the position of human condition, an
taught individual Visiting Professor for intense competitiveness
psychology at Columbia Medical Psychology at coupled with friendly
University and the New Long Island College of congeniality, and a
School for Social Medicine, now strong belief in the basic
Research Downstate Medical gender equality, which
School, State University combined with a
of NewYork willingness to forcefully
advocate women’s
rights.
Adlerian theory
Adler believe that people are born with weak, inferior bodies—a condition that leads to
feelings of inferiority and a consequent dependence on other people. Therefore, a feeling of
unity with others (social interest) is inherent in people and the ultimate standard for
psychological health.
Main tenets:
1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for
success or superiority.
2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and
personality.
3. Personality is unified and self-consistent.
4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of
social interest.
5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s
style of life.
6. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power
Striving for success or superiority
Individual psychology holds that everyone begins life with
physical deficiencies that activate feelings of inferiority—
feelings that motivate a person to strive for either superiority or
success.
Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal
superiority, whereas psychologically healthy people seek
success for all humanity.
Masculine Protest – will to power or a domination of others
47
Striving for superiority – people who strive for personal superiority over others
Striving for success – actions of people who are motivated by highly developed
social interest
FINAL GOAL - people strive toward a final goal of either personal superiority or the
goal of success for all humankind. In either case, the final goal is fictional and has
no objective existence. This has great significance because it unifies personality
and renders all behavior comprehensible
Creative power – people’s ability to freely shape their behavior and create their
own personality.
Neglected or pampered children – goal is largely unconscious and children will
compensate for feeling of inferiority in devious ways.
Children who experience love and security – set a goal that is largely conscious
and clearly understood. They strive toward superiority in terms of success and
social interest.
48
Striving force as compensation
People strive for superiority or success as a means
of compensation for feelings of inferiority or
weakness
The striving force itself is innate, but its nature and
direction are due both to feelings of inferiority and to
the goal of superiority
The goal is set as compensation for the deficit
feeling, but the deficit feeling would not exist unless a
child first possessed a basic tendency toward
completion
49
1. STRIVING FOR PERSONAL STRIVING FOR SUCCESS
SUPERIORITY psychologically healthy people
2. Some people strive for superiority with are those who are motivated by
little or no concern for others. Their social interest and the success
goals are personal ones, and their of all humankind
strivings are motivated largely by These healthy individuals are
exaggerated feelings of personal concerned with goals beyond
inferiority, or the presence of an themselves, are capable of
inferiority complex helping others without
demanding or expecting a
personal payoff, and are able to
see others not as opponents but
as people with whom they can
cooperate for social benefit
Subjective perceptions
1. Fictionalism Physical Inferiorities
2. Our most important fiction Adler (1929/1969) emphasized
is the goal of superiority or that physical deficiencies alone
success, a goal we created do not cause a particular style of
early in life and may not
clearly understand. life; they simply provide present
3. This subjective, fictional motivation for reaching future
final goal guides our style of goals. Such motivation, like all
life, gives unity to our aspects of personality, is unified
personality and self-consistent.
4. fictions are ideas that have
no real existence, yet they
influence people as if they
really existed
51
Unity and self-consistency of
personality
Adler wished to stress his belief that each person is unique and
indivisible, thus individual psychology insists on the fundamental unity
of personality and the notion that inconsistent behavior does not exist.
Organ Dialect - the body’s organs “speak a language which is
usually more expressive and discloses the individual’s opinion more
clearly than words are able to do”
Conscious and Unconscious - the harmony between conscious and
unconscious actions. Conscious thoughts are those that are
understood and regarded by the individual as helpful in striving for
success, whereas unconscious thoughts are those that are not
helpful.
52
Social interest
1. an attitude of relatedness with humanity in general as well as an empathy for each
member of the human community. It manifests itself as cooperation with others for
social advancement rather than for personal gain
2. The natural inferiority of individuals necessitates their joining together to form a
society
3. It originates from the mother-child relationship during the early months of infancy.
4. Social interest was Adler’s yardstick for measuring psychological health and is thus
“the sole criterion of human values”.
5. Healthy individuals are genuinely concerned about people and have a goal of
success that encompasses the well-being of all people.
53
Style of life
It includes a person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and
attitude toward the world.
It is the product of the interaction of heredity, environment, and
a person’s creative power.
Psychologically unhealthy individuals often lead rather inflexible
lives that are marked by an inability to choose new ways of
reacting to their environment.
Psychologically healthy people behave in diverse and flexible
ways with styles of life that are complex, enriched, and
changing
54
Creative power
Each person is empowered with the freedom to create her or his own style
of life.
Their creative power places them in control of their own lives, is
responsible for their final goal, determines their method of striving for that
goal, and contributes to the development of social interest.
55
Abnormal development
One factor underlying all types of maladjustments is underdeveloped social interest. Neurotics tend
to (1) set their goals too high, (2) live in their own private world, and (3) have a rigid and dogmatic
lifestyle.
1. EXTERNAL FACTORS:
2. Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies – They sometimes develop exaggerated feelings of
inferiority because they overcompensate for their inadequacy. They tend to be overly
concerned with themselves and lack consideration for others.
3. Pampered Style of Life - Pampered people have weak social interest but a strong desire
to perpetuate the pampered, parasitic relationship they originally had with one or both of
their parents. They are characterized by extreme discouragement, indecisiveness,
oversensitivity, impatience, and exaggerated emotion, especially anxiety.
4. Neglected Style of Life - Children who feel unloved and unwanted are likely to borrow
heavily from these feelings in creating a neglected style of life. They have little confidence
in themselves and tend to overestimate difficulties connected with life’s major problems.
Safeguarding tendencies
Adler believed that people create patterns of behavior to protect their
exaggerated sense of self-esteem against public disgrace. These
protective devices, called safeguarding tendencies, enable people to
hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their current style of life.
Excuses, aggression, and withdrawal are three common
safeguarding tendencies, each designed to protect a person’s
present style of life and to maintain a fictional, elevated feeling of
self-importance
Safeguarding tendencies
1. Excuses - “Yes, but” or “If only”
2. Aggression - depreciation, accusation, self-accusation
3. Withdrawal - safeguarding through distance; moving
backward, standing still, hesitating, constructing obstacles
55
Masculine Protest
cultural and social practices influence many men and women to
overemphasize the importance of being manly
success for boys is to win, to be powerful, to be on top. Girls
often learn to be passive and to accept an inferior position in
society
54
Applications of Individual
Psychology
1. Family Constellations
2. Early Recollections
3. Dreams
4. Psychotherapy
54
Applications of Individual
Psychology
1. Family Constellations
First Born - intensified feelings of power and superiority,
high anxiety and overprotective tendencies
Second born - highly motivated, cooperative, moderately
competitive, easily discouraged
Youngest - most pampered, strong feelings of inferiority,
lack of sense of independence
Only Child - exaggerated sense of superiority and inflated
self concept
54
Applications of Individual
Psychology
2. Early Recollection - recalled memories yield clues for
understanding a patient’s style of life
3. Dreams - can provide clues for solving future problems.
Dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer, the more an
individual’s goal is inconsistent with reality, the more likely
the dream will be used for self-deception.
4. Psychotherapy - the main purpose is to enhance
courage, lessen feelings of inferiority, and encourage social
interest
