CONTROL SCHEMES

Cascade control

Control in which the output of one controller is the setpoint for another
controller

FLOW OUTPUT TEMPERATURE SET POINT

CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
SECONDARY (PRIMARY)

STEAM
INLET

FLOW
TRANSMITTER

CONDENSATE
OUTLET TEMPERATURE
TRANSMITTER

HEATED
WATER
COOL OUTLET
WATER
INLET

Advantages

1. Disturbances to the secondary control loop are corrected before they

effect the primary variable
2. Phase lag in the secondary process is reduced by the secondary loop.
This improves response and stabilizing time for the primary loop.
3. Non – linearity in the secondary process decreases

Primary and Secondary Control Loop

1. Natural periods in primary control loop and secondary control loops.

Natural period of the primary control loop must be more than 3 times the
natural period of the secondary control loop.
2. Effect of the non – linearity on the secondary control loop.
Gain of the primary control loop varies.

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Temperature – Temperature Cascade Control
Natural periods in the primary and secondary control loops

Other cascade Control

Composition control
Valve positioner

Block Diagram of Control System Using a Valve Positioner

Operation of Cascade Control System

Manual Operation

The cascade control system can be

operated manually by switching the primary
controller to manual (M) while leaving the
secondary controller in cascade ©.

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Tuning

Tune the secondary controller and then tune the primary controller

Tuning the Secondary Loop Tuning the Primary

Loop

Ratio Flow Control

Ratio Controller: A controller which maintains a predetermined ration

between two variables

Ratio Set Station: A device in which an input signal is multiplied by a

factor set locally or remotely.

Applications

Combustion control of a boiler

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 Maintain the ratio of fuel flow and airflow constant.

Chemical Reactor Control

Maintain maximum throughput in a reactor by setting the flow rates

of all ingredients

Calorie Control

By setting the ratios of the component gases, keep a calorie

content of mixed gas constant.

In – line Blending

The digital blending system which maintains the ratio of integrated

flow rate of component oils.

FLOW
TRANSMITTER STIRRER
PRIMARY

PRIMARY
FLOW

SECONDARY
FLOW

FINAL PRODUCT OUTPUT

CONTROL
VALVE MIXING TANK

FLOW
TRANSMITTER
PRIMARY

OUTPUT
OUTPUT
FLOW FLOW
CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
PRIMARY SET POINT PRIMARY

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Ratio Control Systems

Serial

Parallel

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Remote Ratio Setting (Cascade)

Digital Blending

Master Line Follow – up Type

Master Set Station Follow – up Type

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RATIO SET STATION

Analog Type

Ratio Expressions For square root input

signal

IO = nIi +α IO = n2Ii

IO = Output 4 ~ 20 mA DC n: 0.6 ~ 1.7

Ii = Input 1 ~ 5V DC
α = Bias
Ratio Set n: 0.3 ~ 3.0

Digital type

Ratio Expressions
Mode A; MV = SVn (PV + P1) + P4 (EB + P2) + P3
Mode B; MV = SVn (PV + P1) = P4 (EB + P2) + P3

MV = Calculated output
PV = Measured Variable
EB = External Bias
SVn = Internally Calculated Ratio (0.000 ~ 8.000)
P1 ~ P4 = Parameters (P3: Internal Bias)

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Feedforward Control System

Feedforward control is a type of control which information concerning one

or more conditions that can disturb the controlled variable are converted, outside
of any feedback loop, into corrective action to minimize the deviation of the
controlled variable.
The use of feedforward control does not change system stability because
it is an open forward loop and is not a part of any feedback loop which
determines stability characteristics. It is necessary to develop a control model for
the process.

STEAM
SET POINT INLET
COMPUTER FLOW FLOW
TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER

FLOW CURRENT TO
TRANSMITTER AIR
WATER CONVERTER

CONTROL
VALVE
8
COOL HEATED
WATER WATER
INLET OUTPUT
Energy Balance

Feedforward Control of Output Temperature of Water

Correction of Dynamic Response

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 Feedforward loop with Dynamic Response

Improvements by Feedforward Control

Improving Control with Feedforward Control

Addition of Feedback Loop

Feedback loop is added to eliminate the effects caused by:

1. Proximity of the control model

2. Disturbance not included in the model
3. Errors in transducer and computing unit

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Auctioneering Control (Override Control, Limiting Control)

AUTO SELECTOR
STATION DISCHARGE
PRESSURE
SUNCTION CONTROLLER
PRESSURE
CONTROLLER

SUNCTION RELAY DISCHARGE

TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER

AUCTIONEERING CONTROL
- OVERRIDE -

AUTO SELECTOR
STATION PRESSURE
CONTROLLER
FLOW
CONTROLLER

FLOW CONTROL PRESSURE

TRANSMITTER VALVE TRANSMITTER

AUCTIONEERING CONTROL
- LIMITING -

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 In auctioneering control, either the highest or the lowest signal from two or
more input signals is automatically selected. Common examples include the
following:

1. Suction and Discharge Pressure Compressor Control.

The discharge valve is normally regulated from the
discharge pressure. However, if the suction pressure drops below
its set point, control is transferred to the suction pressure controller.
This prevents excessive suction on the supply side, from demand
exceeding supply, with resultant compressor damage.

2. Flow and Pressure Control of Gas Distribution Systems

The distribution control valve is normally regulated from
discharge pressure. However, under high – demand conditions,
control is transferred to the flow controller. This arrangement limits
the maximum flow rate and the maximum pressure in a distribution
system.

3. Temperature or Vacuum and Differential Pressure Control for a

Packed
Distillation Column

The column is controlled either from a vacuum set point, with

steam flow on manual for constant heat input, and a differential –
pressure override to prevent flooding; or regulation is from a
temperature set point with the vacuum on manual for constant
vacuum with a differential – pressure override to prevent flooding.

Feedback Control System

The symbols in the block diagrams represent the transfer functions of the
respective blocks. In general, such functions have a dynamic part and steady –
state part; when they are combined, they specify the output response to changes
in the input. The combination of often referred to as gain. Some useful insights
into the operation of feedback control can be obtained by considering the transfer
function in a more general way. This is done by recognizing that an integral
action of a controller provides the equivalent of a very high (infinite) gain,
although it may require some time to do so. We also noted that derivative
functions provide a prompt large gain in response to a rate of change on the
input.
By use of the block diagram representation, some essential characteristics
of systems with and without feedback can now be examined. The figure below
shows the block diagram of a single system without feedback, subjected to a
single disturbance U. This might represent, for instance, a process on manual

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control where M is the manipulated variable, C is controlled variable, and U is a
disturbance. From Eq. 2,it can be seen that the effect of the disturbance is only
modified by G2. Furthermore, even if there is no disturbance (U = 0), a change in
G1 or G2 will cause a corresponding change in the controlled variable C. Since C
= G1G2M when U = 0, nonlinearity in the gains G 1 and G2 as they affect C versus
M1 can be made self-canceling to some extent.

Gain Calculations

Consider the case where G1 represents a control valve and G2 represents

a flow transmitter. If G1 is a 1 – 1i (~2.5 –cm) valve with a C v of 10 and a
pressure drop of 9 psi (~60 kPa), the steady – state gain is

If the flow transmitter is an orifice – type flowmeter, the output will be

proportional to the square of the flow. Differentiating

Note that the steady – state gains have been calculated under the
operating conditions and will change as the operating conditions change.
If the disturbance U can be calculated as

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Feedback Control Equations

Since the block diagram conventions are based on linear operations,

superpositions applies, and Eqs. 3 to 7 can be easily developed algebraically by
considering each input separately with the other inputs equal to zero. An
example of the algebra for the system of Fig. 5 is

Key Ratios

Several algebraic operators occur repeatedly in the single-loop system

equations. These are:

GH, the Loop Ratio

A signal passing once around the loop from any point will be
multiplied
by minus this operator.

1/(1 + GH), the Actuating Ratio

The ratio of the output of a summing point to the external
input signal entering the summing point. A third and fourth algebraic
operator are important where the reference input (or set point) varies.

G/(1 + GH), the Control Ratio

The ratio of the controlled variable C to the reference input R.

GH/(1 + GH), the Primary Feedback Ratio

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 The ratio of the response of the primary feedback B to reference
input R.
In addition to Eqs. 3 to 7, two others (Eq. 8 and 9) are simply derived.
These equations show another interesting property of feedback control systems:

Equation 8 shows that for variations in G the percent variation in the

control ratio C/ R per percent variation in G is the actuating ratio 1/(1 + GR).
Thus, where the loop ratio GH is large, changes in G have a relatively small
effect on the control ratio. Where variations occur in H, however, there is almost
an equal percentage change in the control ratio when the loop ratio is large.
Based on Eqs. 3 to 7, some useful characteristics of (single-loop)
feedback control systems can be stated:

1. The effect of any additive input (such as R, U 1, and U2) to the system is
modified
directly by the elements between the point of entry and the $elected
signal (also
the case without feedback). Its effect is further modified by multiplying by
the
actuating ratio 1/(1 + GR).
2. The relative effect of changes in G on the control ratio C/ R is modified by
multiplying by the actuating ratio 1/(1 + GR). If the actuating ratio is small,
then
the loop ratio GH is large.
3. The control-ratio response C / R depends primarily on the feedback
elements H. In terms of control and measurement devices, this means that
the linearity and drift of a feedback device may be made satisfactory by
using a high value of loop ratio GH and quality feedback elements H. This
is useful, since GI may be a pneumatic pilot relay or electronic amplifier
stage that must supply power and may not have the required linearity and
low-drift characteristics.
4. For unit feedback (H equal to unity) and high forward gain G the output G
will reproduce the input R. If H is then increased above unity, C will be
less than R. This points out, in a general way, the effect of imperfections in
feedback elements, whether they involve dynamic or merely static
deficiencies.
5. If one of the forward elements G2 contains non - linearity, the effect of
feedback may be to shift the resulting distortion from C, the output of G 2,
back toward M+ U1, the input of G2.

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Control and Regulation

The algebraic analysis above shows several important characteristics of

feedback control systems; a high loop gain (large value of loop ratio GR), e.g.,
due to a narrow proportional band controller provides:

1. Accurate set-point tracking (C/ R approaches 1 when GH is large and H = 1).

2, Effect of disturbances on the controlled variable C is small, as desired in a
regulator.

Integrators have a high (ideally infinite) gain and therefore produce the
same two effects. However, they act less promptly than the proportional action.
Derivative response in the controller produces a prompt, but not sustained, high-
gain response to rapidly changing disturbances. If it were not for stability
considerations, many control requirements could be met by a proportional
controller with a very narrow proportional band, as indicated below.

Stability

Note that, if GH = -1, the denominator goes to zero and the expression
blows up. This occurs when the signal goes out of phase as it traverses the loop
and is a result of dynamic elements in the control loop, as discussed later.
Unfortunately, this limits the maximum value of loop gain that can be used.

Split Range

By: Control Arts Inc.

Split range control is a special case of a full multivariable controller - two

interacting inputs that have multiple objectives (total flow or heat etc. and steady-
state valve position) and multiple constraints (rate of change and valve limits).

The standard split range control works well on simple control problems,
such as flow control. If you have a more complicated control, either due to
dynamics or constraints, then this controller will show a dramatic increase in
performance. The operators will also appreciate the simplicity of this control, as it

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looks and operates like a normal split range control. It can be used in any place
that uses a "bulk" input and "fine tuning" input to achieve a desired setpoint. Flow
control is the most typical, but other important applications are where there are
two different sources of (say) heat, where one is cheap but sloppy, while the
other is expensive but results in precise control.

Benefits
 Improves product quality by providing better control.
 Saves engineers time because it is simple to install and tune.

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