LIBERALISM

INTRODUCTION
Liberalism did not begin as a self-conscious social and political movement.
This is evident in the fact that “Liberal did not enter the vocabulary of politics until
the early 1800’s. Like liberty, “Liberal” derives from the Latin ‘liber’ free and
before the 19th century, it was commonly used to mean generous or tolerant; an
attitude befitting a gentleman. Through an extension of this common use, “liberal”
became a label applied to those who sought a more tolerant and open society, a
society whose members would be free to pursue their own ideas and interest with
as little interference as possible.
There are self- proclaimed liberals who were understandably eager to claim
descent from prominent political and intellectual figures such as Locke,
Montesquieu and Voltaire e.g., movements such as the Protestants Reformation
and the Glorious Revolution in 1688. Religious conformity was a norm in the
medieval Europe where the Church and the state were supposed to be partners in
the defense of Christendom. The only mission of the church is to save souls for the
kingdom of God. The liberals reacted to this as it is against the meaning of liberty.
One other feature that the liberals reacted to is the ascribed status and this means
the condition in which a person’s social standard is based not on one’s
achievement but the status of the one’s parents. Against these society rooted
features; liberalism emerged as the first distinctive political ideology. But the
liberal reaction did not take form until a series of social, economic and cultural
changes shook the medieval order. 21Liberal ideas permeated borders, spreading
across continents and inspiring individuals to challenge oppressive systems.
Despite the significant strides made towards progress, liberalism’s journey during
this era was not without obstacles. It faced staunch opposition from conservative
factions who sought to preserve the status quo. These reactionary forces utilized
their influence and resources to suppress liberal movements, aiming to maintain
their grip on power and resist societal change. Nevertheless, the spirit of liberalism
persisted, fueled by the unwavering belief in the power of individual freedom,
equality, and justice. As the century progressed, the ideologies of liberalism
became firmly embedded in the fabric of societies worldwide. The struggle for
emancipation and equal rights continued, leading to significant milestones in
various realms. Women fought for suffrage, breaking free from the shackles of
gender discrimination. Social reforms addressed the concerns of the working class,
championing better wages, improved working conditions, and access to education.
The rule of law, once a distant ideal, became a cornerstone of governmental
systems, safeguarding citizens’ rights and ensuring accountability. The expansion
of liberalism not only transformed nations but also shaped the course of history. It
provided a platform for marginalized voices, empowering individuals to challenge
oppressive systems and work towards a more equitable society. The rise of liberal
democracy fostered an environment where ideas could be freely debated, and
citizens could actively participate in the decision-making process. Its principles
continue to guide modern societies, reminding us of the importance of individual
liberties, a fair justice system, and a commitment to the common good.
The Liberal ideas helped to inspire the French revolution just as they did the
more modest revolution in England and its North American colonies. The reaction
against both religious conformity and ascribed status is clear in Locke’s work of
the 1680’s, the period of the second act of the English revolution. Locke
maintained in his work that it is wrong for the government to force their subjects to
conform to a particular religion, it is a private concern not the government. Thomas
Hobbes first book of philosophical significance to bear distinctive stamp of
liberalism. He argued the people of a commonwealth grant the sovereign absolute
power, the right to defend themselves when the sovereign threatens them with
death, punishment etc. Although, this is his premises not his conclusion. However,
Hobbes account that individuals are equal. Everyone has a natural right to be free,
but in order to protect their interests, individuals consent to create and obey
government.
In the Western World, however, the aims of the early liberals are now deeply
entrenched in public policy and public opinion. Liberalism is no longer a
revolutionary ideology but an ideology defending a revolution. Liberalism today
claims that government ought to take steps to help disadvantaged people to enjoy
an equal opportunity. A lot of questions have been raised on how possible this can
happen and these questions, liberalism led people to raise. A more sympathetic
response might be to say that Liberalism is still doing what it has always done;
searching for ways to advance the cause of individual liberty and opportunity.

FAMOUS LIBERAL THINKERS

John Locke:
John Locke, the eminent English philosopher, left an indelible mark on the realms
of political philosophy and modern liberalism. His profound influence resonates
through the corridors of history, shaping the very foundations of thought. Let’s
delve into his significant contributions:
Empiricism and Political Liberalism:
  Empiricism: Locke’s works laid the groundwork for
modern philosophical empiricism. He championed the idea that
knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation.
 Political Liberalism: Locke tempered the absolutism proposed by
Hobbes, advocating for a clear separation between the realms
of Church and State. His ideas paved the way for classical
liberalism, emphasizing individual rights and freedoms.
Social Contract and Toleration:
 Social Contract: Locke believed in a social contract between
citizens and their government. According to this contract, citizens
willingly surrender some rights to form a stable society, while the
government’s duty is to protect life, liberty, and property.
 Toleration: He stressed the importance of tolerance, especially in
religious matters. His work “A Letter Concerning Toleration”
advocated for religious freedom and acceptance.
Influence on Enlightenment and U.S. Constitution:
 European Enlightenment: Locke’s ideas inspired the European
Enlightenment, fostering intellectual growth and critical thinking.
 U.S. Constitution: His political theories significantly influenced the
design of the United States Constitution. Concepts like the consent
of the governed, natural rights, and checks and balances found their
place in the country’s founding documents.

John Stuart Mill:

John Stuart Mill was a prominent philosopher, political economist, politician and
civil servant, played a pivotal role in shaping classical liberalism during the 19th
century. Here are some of his views on liberalism:
 Individual Liberalism: Mill championed individual liberty as the highest
ideal. He believed that freedom was essential not only in opposition to state
power but also against societal constraints. Here, he recognized women
faced double oppression from the state and society at large.
 Radical Liberalism: Mill's liberalism was radical for his time. He
emphasized the importance of personal autonomy, free expression and the
right to dissent. He works significantly influenced social theory, political
theory and political economy.

 Utilitarianism: He was a proponent of utilitarianism, which emphasized

maximizing overall happiness or pleasure. His "Harm Principle" asserted
that individuals should be free to act as they wish as long as their actions do
not harm.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) is probably the most important liberal thinker of the
19th century. Fundamentally, this is because Mill took the concepts of political
liberalism substantially expanded them. This expansion drew from two classical
liberalism's early goals. The inquiry into "the limits of state actions " as described
by W. VON Humboldt (1767-1835) and the attempt to place legal limitations on
government power as John Locke (1632-1704) sought to do.

Adams Smith:
He is the renowned Scottish economist and philosopher and he is also associated to
liberalism. Here are some of his views;
Harmony of interests:
 Smith believed in natural harmony of interests among individuals in the
market. He famously introduced the concept of invisible hand where
competition leads self-interested actions to benefit society as a whole.
 This perspective emphasizes that free markets, driven by individual self-
interest can generate overall social welfare.
Laissez-faire Capitalism:
 Smith's principal contribution to the liberal tradition lies in his advocacy for
laissez-faire economic policies. He championed minimal government
intervention in economic affairs.
 He envisioned a system where individuals freely pursue their economic
interests, leading to prosperity and overall social progress,
Minimalist State:
 Smith's vision extended to the role of the state. He believed in the minimalist
state, emphasizing limited government involvement.
 According to Smith, the state should focus on the essential functions such as
defense, justice, and public infrastructure while leaving most economic
decisions to private actors.
International Relations:
 In the realm of international relations, Smith acknowledged that people are
prone to quarrel and guided by emotions.
 His liberal perspective recognized that individuals prioritize their own lives
over the welfare of others.
 KEY PRINCIPLES OF LIBERALISM
INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY
Liberalism prioritizes the freedom of individuals to pursue their own goals and
interests without interference from the government or other individuals. Liberals
emphasize the importance of protecting individual rights and freedoms, including
freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and the press. They believe that individuals
should have the autonomy to make choices about their own lives without undue
interference from the government or other authorities.

EQUALITY
Equality is another principle of liberalism that aims to ensure fairness and justice
by granting everyone the same rights, opportunities, and treatment regardless of
their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, or
any other characteristic. It encompasses several key components:
 Equal Rights: This aspect focuses on ensuring that all individuals have the
same legal rights and protections under the law. This includes rights such as
freedom of speech, religion, and assembly, as well as protections against
discrimination and unfair treatment.
 Equal Opportunities: Equality of opportunity means that everyone should
have the same chances to succeed and pursue their goals regardless of their
background or circumstances. This involves removing barriers to access
education, employment, healthcare, housing, and other essential services.
 Non-Discrimination: Equality requires eliminating discrimination in all its
forms, including direct and indirect discrimination, systemic discrimination,
 and unconscious bias. It involves promoting inclusive policies and practices
that treat all individuals with dignity and respect.
 Equity: While equality focuses on treating everyone the same, equity
emphasizes fairness by recognizing and addressing the unequal starting
points and barriers that certain groups may face. This may involve
implementing targeted interventions and policies to level the playing field
and ensure that everyone has an equal opportunity to thrive.
 Social Justice: Equality is often tied to broader principles of social justice,
which seek to address systemic inequalities and injustices in society. This
includes advocating for policies that promote economic equality,
environmental sustainability, and the well-being of marginalized
communities.

Achieving equality with emphasis on equal rights and opportunities requires

ongoing efforts at the individual, institutional, and societal levels. It involves
challenging discriminatory attitudes and practices, advocating for policy reforms,
promoting diversity and inclusion, and fostering a culture of empathy and
understanding.

THE RULE OF LAW

Rule of law emphasizes the supremacy of law and the equal application of justice.
It is the concept that every individual, including government officials, is subject to
the law and accountable for their actions. Within a just legal system, the rule of law
ensures that laws are clear, transparent, and consistently applied, providing a
framework for fair and impartial adjudication of disputes. Key elements of a just
legal system within the framework of the rule of law include:
 Equality before the Law: All individuals, regardless of their status or
position, are equal under the law. This means that no one is above the law,
and everyone is entitled to equal protection and treatment by the legal
system.
 Fair and Impartial Judiciary: A just legal system requires an independent
judiciary that is free from external influence and bias. Judges should
interpret and apply the law objectively, without favoritism or prejudice,
ensuring fair trials and outcomes.
 Access to Justice: Access to justice means that all individuals have the right
to seek legal remedies and have their grievances heard in a timely and
affordable manner. This includes access to legal aid for those who cannot
afford representation.
 Legal Certainty and Predictability: Laws should be clear, predictable, and
consistently enforced to provide legal certainty to individuals and
businesses. Unclear or arbitrary laws can lead to confusion and injustice.
 Due Process and Procedural Safeguards: A just legal system upholds the
principles of due process, including the right to a fair trial, the presumption
of innocence, the right to confront accusers, and the right to legal
representation. Procedural safeguards ensure that individuals are treated
fairly throughout legal proceedings.
 Accountability and Transparency: Government officials, including those in
the legal system, should be accountable for their actions and decisions.
Transparency in legal processes and accountability mechanisms help prevent
abuses of power and corruption.
 Protection of Human Rights: A just legal system protects and promotes
fundamental human rights, including civil, political, economic, social, and
 cultural rights. Laws and legal practices should not infringe upon or
discriminate against individuals based on factors such as race, gender,
religion, or socioeconomic status.
 Public Confidence and Legitimacy: A just legal system maintains public
confidence and legitimacy by upholding the rule of law and ensuring that
justice is administered fairly and impartially. This requires effective
communication, outreach, and education about legal rights and processes.

Overall, a just legal system operates within the framework of the rule of law,
ensuring that laws are applied equally and fairly to all individuals, and that justice
is accessible, predictable, and transparent.

POLITICAL IDEALS OF LIBERALISM

Liberalism is a political ideology based on ideals of individualism, freedom,
rationalism and equality. Political Liberalism is the moral conception concerned
only with the basic structure of a society.
Political Liberalism aim at finding fair terms of social cooperation among free and
equal members of a democratic society. Government resides in and is accountable
to the governed.

LIBERAL DEMOCRACY
Liberal democracy emphasizes the separation of powers, an independent judiciary,
election between political parties, the rule of law in everyday life as part of an open
society, the equal protection of human right, civil right, liberties political freedom
for all people and a system of checks and balances between branches of
government. Liberal democracy draws up a constitution either codified or
uncodified to limit the authority of the government.
A liberal democracy may take various and mixed constitutional forms. It may be a
constitutional monarchy such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, Japan, Norway,
Netherland, Spain and the United Kingdom or a republic such as France, Germany,
India, Ireland, and the United States of America.
Liberal democracy traces its origins and its name to the AGE OF
ENLIGHTENMENT. The conventional views supporting monarchies and
aristocracies were challenged at first by a relatively small groups of enlightenment
intellectuals who believed that human affairs should be guided by reason and
principles of liberty and equality. They argued that all people are created equal and
therefore political authority cannot be justified on the basis of the noble blood, a
supposed privileged connection to God, or any other characteristics that alleged to
make one person superior to others.
They further argued that government exist to serve the people and that laws should
apply to those who govern as well as to the governed. By the late 18th century,
leading philosophers such as John Locke had published works that spread around
the European continent and beyond. These ideas and beliefs influenced the
American Revolution and the French Revolution. After a period of expansion in
the second half of the 20th Century, liberal democracy become a prevalent political
system in the world.
Liberalism’s support for Representative democracy is associated with political
stability, Economic Growth as well as a robust state institution that guarantee free
elections, the rule of law and individual liberties.
 Increased Political Stability
One argument for democracy is that by creating a system where the public can
remove administrations, without changing the legal basis for government,
democracy aims at reducing political uncertainty and instability and assuring
citizens that however much they may disagree with present policies, they will be
given a regular chance to change those who are in power or change policies with
which they disagree. Advocates use this as an argument to support their view that
liberal democracy is inherently stable and can usually only be overthrown by
external force.
 Effective Response in Wartime
By definition, a liberal democracy implies that power is not concentrated. The
legislature gives consent before the start of an offensive military operation,
sometimes the executive can do this on its own while keeping the legislature
informed. If the democracy is attacked, then no consent is usually required for
defensive operations. Research shows that democracies are more likely to win wars
than non-democracies due to transparency of the policies and the stability of their
preferences, once determined, democracies are better able to cooperate with their
partners in the conduct of wars. The emphasis on individuality within democratic
societies means that heir soldiers fight with greater initiative and superior
leadership.
 Better Information on And Correction of Problems
A democratic system may provide better information for policy decisions. The
democratic system also provides a way to replace inefficient leaders and policies,
thus problems may continue longer and crises of all kind may be more common in
autocracies.
 Reduction Of Corruption
Research by the world bank suggest that political institutions are extremely
important in determining the prevalence of corruption. Long term democracy,
parliamentary system, political stability and freedom of the press are all associated
with lower corruption. Freedom of information legislation is important for
accountability and transparency.
 Better Use of Resources
Democracies can put in place better education, longer life expectancy, lower infant
mortality, access to drinking water and better health care than dictatorships. This is
not due to higher level of foreign assistance or spending a larger percentage of
GDP on health and education, as instead the available resources are managed.
 Health And Human Development
Democracy correlates with a higher score on the human development index and a
lower score on the human poverty index. Several health indicators [life expectancy
and infant maternal mortality] have a stronger and more significant association
with democracy than they have with GDP per capita rise of the public sector or
income inequality.
In the post-communist nations, after an initial decline, those that are the most
democratic have achieved the greatest gain in life expectancy.

PLURALISM
Pluralism is of the view that in liberal democracies, power is to be shared amongst
a variety of economic and ideological pressure groups and should not be held by a
single elite or groups of elites as it is assuming that diversity is beneficial to the
society as some of the negative aspect of modern industrial society might be
overcome by economic and administrative decentralization. Political and social
views are permitted to coexist and compete for political power on a democratic
basis. They hold election where groups with different political views have the
opportunity to achieve political power.
Pluralism is the recognition and affirmative acceptance of diversity. It’s a principle
that champions coexistence, where multiple groups with varying beliefs, culture
and perceptions can thrive in a single society. It’s about creating a world where
everyone belongs and mutual respect is the norm, not the exception.
The Acceptance of Diverse Opinions and Beliefs
 Religious Pluralism- Religious pluralism is a response to the diversity of
religious beliefs, practices and traditions that exist both in the contemporary
world and throughout history.
Philosophical and theological treatment of religious diversity have generally
adopted different attitude and different method so far as their respective
disciplinary commitment differs. Theological account tends explicitly to be
grounded in the faith commitment that characterize particular religious traditions
they often explore how members of given faith ought to regard the belief and
practices of other traditions, Philosophical account by contrast, often tend to adopt
a less disinterested attitude and instead evaluate ethical issues raised by religious
diversity. Despite their mythological perspectival differences, theological and
philosophical account inform and influence each other.

TYPES OF LIBERALISM
ECONOMIC LIBERALISM
This is all about letting markets operate freely without too much government
interference. It believes in things like free trade, private property rights, and
individual freedom to make economic choices. It's like giving businesses and
people the freedom to do their thing in the economy.
Economic liberalism, also known as classical liberalism or free-market capitalism,
is an economic ideology that emphasizes minimal government intervention in the
economy and the promotion of free markets.
Here's a simplified breakdown of economic liberalism:

• Free Markets: Economic liberals believe in the power of free markets

to allocate resources efficiently and drive economic growth. They argue that when
individuals are free to buy, sell, and trade goods and services without government
interference, market forces of supply and demand will lead to optimal outcomes.
• Limited Government: Economic liberals advocate for a limited role of
government in the economy. They believe that government intervention, such as
regulations, taxes, and subsidies, can distort market mechanisms and hinder
economic progress. Instead, they prefer minimal government involvement,
focusing primarily on protecting property rights, enforcing contracts, and ensuring
a level playing field.
• Individual Freedom: Economic liberalism emphasizes individual
freedom and property rights. It argues that individuals should have the liberty to
pursue their economic interests without undue government restrictions. This
includes the freedom to own property, start businesses, enter contracts, and engage
in voluntary exchange.
• Competition and Innovation: Economic liberals see competition as
essential for driving innovation, efficiency, and consumer choice. They believe that
a competitive market environment encourages businesses to innovate, lower prices,
and improve quality to attract customers. By promoting competition, economic
liberals aim to maximize consumer welfare and economic prosperity.
• Laissez-Faire: Laissez-faire, a French term meaning "let do" or "leave
alone," is a core principle of economic liberalism. It advocates for minimal
government intervention in economic affairs, allowing markets to operate freely
without excessive regulation or control. Laissez-faire economics is associated with
the idea that government intervention often leads to unintended consequences and
inefficiencies.
Overall, economic liberalism promotes the virtues of free markets, limited
government intervention, individual freedom, competition, and innovation as the
keys to fostering economic growth and prosperity.

NEOLIBRALISM
Neoliberalism was birthed many years ago by economists who were engaged with
the collective intellectual task of attaining political drive and state power.
Neoliberalism encompasses creation and effective deployment of financial,
economic, political and social policies as well as institutions, reforms and
institutional conditions for its implementation which also covers privatization as
well as refashioning judicial systems for its effective enforcement.

According to Foucault ([1978-79] 2004), neoliberalism ascribes to a concept where

people are depicted as firms, business entities, enterprises, rationally,
systematically projected has having investment plans and cost-benefit calculations.
Thus, neoliberalism moved between a worldview, a political project and public-
economic policies (Anderson, 1995; Harvey, 2007). China and other countries like
Russia have one time practiced it but retreated from its acceptance after a
disastrous process.

SOCIAL LIBERALISM
While neoliberalism or neoliberal institutionalism could be glance upon as an off-
shoot to pure liberalism as a theory in international relations, the successor of
neoliberalism is Social Liberalism. Social liberalism is not an opposition to
neoliberalism, neither was neoliberalism an affront to pure liberalism. In fact,
neoliberalism advocates continuity with liberalism with improved nuanced
perspective. The metamorphosis from liberalism to neoliberalism and to social
liberalism explains a growth and improved phases of liberalism which earlier
started by diminishing the political power of the state as a principal actor in
international relations to projecting the voice of the citizens and seeing them as
businesses ventures up to social liberalism which advocates social responses to
fundamental societal demands.
In responding to and addressing fundamental societal demands, social liberalism
administrates economic policies through people and international organisations in
all regions of the world in which the global challenge of poverty stands out
(Panitch and Gindin, 2012; Domingues, 2013b). The World Bank, IMF, and
United Nations are the key institution in this process. It invented or found ways to
draw on innovations that turn up in the so-called ‘Global South’. This is especially
true with regard to conditional monetary cash transfers, particularly in Latin
America, Africa and South Asia – including Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Chile,
Nicaragua and almost all other Latin American countries, as well as Turkey,
Burkina Faso, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Cambodia, South Africa, Morocco, Malawi,
India, Nigeria, the Philippines and Yemen. This innovation is socially wide and
other times implemented through industry or sector focused economic policies to
repair the social strata disparity without negatively impacting entrepreneurship.

CLASSICAL LIBERALISM
Classical Liberalism, often referred to as "traditional liberalism" or "laissez-faire
liberalism," emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, particularly during the
Enlightenment era. It prioritized individual liberty, limited government
intervention in economic and social affairs, and the protection of private property
rights. Some of its key principles include:
One of the pioneering figures of Classical Liberalism is John Locke, whose ideas
on natural rights, government by consent, and the social contract laid the
foundation for liberal thought. Other influential thinkers include Adam Smith,
often regarded as the father of modern economics, who championed free-market
capitalism in his seminal work "The Wealth of Nations."
Classical liberalism is a political ideology and philosophical approach that
emerged during the Enlightenment era in Europe and America. It emphasizes
individual liberty, limited government intervention, and the protection of private
property rights.

MODERN LIBERALISM
Modern Liberalism, also known as "progressive liberalism" or simply "liberalism"
in contemporary political discourse, emerged in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries in response to the changing social and economic conditions of
industrialization. Modern liberals share some core principles with classical liberals,
such as the value of individual freedom and civil liberties, but they also advocate
for a more active role of government in addressing social inequalities and
promoting social justice. One of the pioneering figures of modern liberalism is
John Stuart Mill, whose work "On Liberty" defended individual freedom while
also recognizing the importance of collective action to address social injustices.
Other influential figures include Franklin D. Roosevelt, whose New Deal policies
during the Great Depression expanded the role of the federal government in
regulating the economy and providing social welfare benefits, and John Maynard
Keynes, whose ideas on government intervention in the economy to manage
aggregate demand shaped modern economic policy. Thus, modern liberalism
advocates for a society where individual liberty is balanced with social justice and
equality. It supports government intervention to address social inequalities,
promote economic prosperity, and protect civil rights and civil liberties. Modern
liberalism has had a significant impact on the development of welfare states and
social democracies around the world, shaping policies and institutions to promote
the well-being of all citizens.

ANALYSING SITUATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS, SOCIAL JUSTICE

AND INEQUALITIES
The Marshal Plan of 1948 is also looked with the lens of social liberalism.
According to Sage Journals, historians explain the Marshall Plan as an effect of a
bipartisan embrace of liberal internationalism, which became the dominant
ideology of US foreign policy. In April 1948, Harry Truman signed into law the
Marshall Plan, through which the United States would expend an unprecedented
$12billion ($151 billion in 2022 dollars estimate) stimulating post war economic
recovery (second World War). The Marshal Plan is typically cast as central to the
liberal internationalist order constructed by the United States and its allies after
1945.
Part of the action of the United States in drawing up and implementing the Marshal
Plan is the commitment and protection of human rights which is at the core of
social liberalism and liberalism as a theory of international relations. This entails
the right to life, liberty and ownership of property.

The United Nations, the World Bank and other international organisations are
framed with liberalist ideologies and represents global instruments of social
liberalism to address social, political and economic anomalies in among member
states and promote liberalism across the world. For example, under international
law wars of aggression are prohibited, but there are no international police or
authority to enforce it; but an aggressor knows that when breaking the law, it risks
considerable international backlash. However, states either individually or
collectively as a body like the UN impose sanctions against the offending state.
Stephen Mcglinchey, Rosie Walters & Christian Scheinpflug in their book,
International Relations Theory cited the fullest account of liberal world order
found in the work of Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry (1999), who described
three interlocking factors.

First, international law and agreements are accompanied by international

organisations to create an international system that goes significantly beyond one
of such states. The archetypal example of such organisation is the United Nations,
which pools resources for common goals such as ameliorating climate change,
poverty alleviation, education trust fund, economic empowerment, women and
child rights and many more; provides for near constant diplomacy between
enemies and friendly states alike and gives all member states a voice in the
international community.

Secondly, the spread of free trade and capitalism through the efforts of powerful
liberal states and International Monetary Fund and the World Bank create an open,
market based, international economic system. This situation is mutually beneficial
as a high level of trade between states decreases conflict and makes war less likely
since war would disrupt or cancel the benefits or profit trade. States with extensive
trade ties are therefore strongly incentivized to maintain peaceful relations. By this
calculation, war is not profitable, but detrimental to the state.

Thirdly and finally, of the liberal international order is the international norms.
Liberal norms are favourable to international cooperation, human rights,
democracy and rule of law. When a state takes action contrary to these norms, they
are subjected to various types of lost. However, international norms are often
contested because of the wide variation in values around the globe. Nevertheless,
there are costs for violating liberal norms. These lusts can be direct and immediate.
For example, the European Union placed an arms sale embargo on China following
its violent suppression of pro-democracy protesters in 1989. the embargo continues
to this day. The costs can also be less direct, but equally significant. For example,
favourable views of the United States decreased significantly around the world
following the 2003 invasion of Iraq because the invasion was undertaken
unilaterally constitutes established United Nations rules in a move that was widely
deemed illegitimate.
 CRITICISMS OF LIBERALISM
Liberalism, with its emphasis on individual rights, free markets, and limited
government intervention, has long been hailed as a cornerstone of modern
democratic societies. However, this political and economic ideology is not without
its critics. One of the most pressing criticisms of liberalism revolves around its
perceived failure to foster social cohesion, mitigate political divisions, and address
economic inequality. These criticisms highlight fundamental challenges that liberal
societies face in achieving a fair and equitable social order.
 Lack of Social Cohesion:

One of the primary criticisms leveled against liberalism is its tendency to prioritize
individual freedoms over collective well-being, leading to a lack of social
cohesion. Critics argue that the emphasis on personal liberty and autonomy has
eroded the sense of community and solidarity that is essential for a healthy society.
This erosion of social cohesion can manifest in various forms, including declining
trust in institutions, weakening social bonds, and increasing feelings of isolation
and alienation among citizens.
Research conducted by Putnam (2000) in his seminal work, "Bowling Alone: The
Collapse and Revival of American Community," highlights the decline of social
capital in liberal democracies, attributing it to factors such as increased mobility,
urbanization, and technological advancements. This decline in social capital has
profound implications for social cohesion, as it undermines the ability of
individuals to come together, collaborate, and address common challenges
collectively.

 Political Divisions:
Another significant criticism of liberalism is its failure to mitigate political
divisions and promote inclusive governance. In liberal democracies, political
polarization and partisanship have reached unprecedented levels, leading to
gridlock, dysfunction, and the erosion of democratic norms and institutions. This
polarization is often exacerbated by factors such as income inequality, identity
politics, and the influence of special interests.
Scholars like Fukuyama (2018) have argued that the rise of populism and
authoritarianism in liberal democracies can be attributed, in part, to the failure of
liberalism to address the legitimate concerns of citizens who feel marginalized or
left behind by globalization and technological change. This failure to bridge
political divides and build consensus undermines the legitimacy of liberal
democratic institutions and threatens their stability and effectiveness.
 Economic Inequality:

Perhaps the most glaring criticism of liberalism is its inability to effectively

address economic inequality. Despite its promises of meritocracy and equal
opportunity, liberal capitalist economies have become increasingly stratified, with
wealth and income disparities reaching historic levels. This concentration of
economic power in the hands of a few undermines the principles of fairness and
social justice that liberalism purports to uphold.

Studies by Piketty (2014) and others have documented the alarming rise in income
and wealth inequality in liberal democracies, attributing it to factors such as
globalization, technological change, and regressive tax policies. This widening
wealth gap not only exacerbates social tensions and undermines social mobility but
also threatens the very foundations of liberal democracy by concentrating political
power in the hands of economic elites.
In conclusion, while liberalism has undoubtedly contributed to the advancement of
individual rights and freedoms, it is not immune to criticism. The lack of social
cohesion, political divisions, and economic inequality that characterize many
liberal societies pose significant challenges to their long-term stability and
prosperity. Addressing these criticisms will require a reexamination of liberal
principles and policies to ensure that they promote the common good and uphold
the values of fairness, equality, and solidarity.

MODERN APPLICATION OF LIBERALISM

Key Influence of Liberalism on International Relations
Liberalism has played a significant role in shaping international relations,
particularly in the context of globalization. Here's how liberalism influences
various aspects of international relations;
 Promotion of Free Trade:

The establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 exemplifies

liberalism's influence on promoting free trade globally. The WTO aims to reduce
barriers to international trade by negotiating trade agreements, resolving disputes,
and enforcing rules. Its existence reflects the liberal belief that free trade leads to
economic growth, prosperity, and peaceful relations between nations.
 Advocacy for Democracy and Human Rights:
 The promotion of democracy and human rights by liberal democracies such as
the United States and European Union is a key aspect of their foreign policies.
They support democratic movements and advocate for the protection of human
rights globally. For instance, the U.S. and EU have imposed sanctions on
authoritarian regimes to pressure them into respecting democratic principles and
human rights, as seen in sanctions against countries like North Korea and Belarus.
 Multilateralism and International Cooperation:

The Paris Agreement on climate change demonstrates liberalism's influence on

international cooperation. Signed by 197 countries in 2015, the agreement aims to
limit global temperature rise and mitigate the effects of climate change through
collective action. It reflects liberal ideals of multilateralism, cooperation, and
shared responsibility in addressing global challenges.
 Expansion of International Institutions

The European Union (EU) is a prime example of how liberalism has influenced
the expansion of international institutions. Founded on principles of democracy,
rule of law, and human rights, the EU has evolved into a supranational
organization that promotes economic integration, political cooperation, and peace
among its member states. Its expansion from six founding members to 27 countries
demonstrates the appeal and influence of liberal principles in international
relations.
 Protection of Minority Rights

Liberal democracies often advocate for the protection of minority rights at the
international level. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples, adopted in 2007, is an example of international recognition and protection
of minority rights. It reflects liberal values of equality, non-discrimination, and
respect for cultural diversity.
 Cultural Exchange and Globalization

The spread of Western cultural values and ideals, facilitated by globalization,

reflects liberalism's influence on cultural exchange. The popularity of American
movies, music, fashion, and technology around the world illustrates how liberal
principles of individual freedom, creativity, and innovation shape global culture
and influence societal norms.
 Promotion of Economic Development:

Liberal economic policies, such as privatization, deregulation, and investment in

education and infrastructure, have contributed to economic development in many
countries. The Asian Tigers (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore)
experienced rapid economic growth in the late 20th century by embracing liberal
economic reforms and integrating into the global economy through exports and
foreign investment.

In summary, liberalism's influence on international relations is evident in its

promotion of free trade, democracy, human rights, international cooperation, and
economic development. These examples demonstrate how liberal principles shape
the dynamics of globalization and contribute to the evolution of the international
system.

Humanitarian Interventions
Humanitarian interventions serve as essential tools for promoting human rights
worldwide by addressing emergencies, conflicts, and crises that threaten
individuals' rights and well-being. Here are some examples illustrating their role:
 Protection of Civilians:

The United Nations peacekeeping mission in South Sudan has aimed to protect
civilians from violence and human rights abuses during the country's civil war.
Peacekeepers provide a physical presence, monitor human rights violations, and
facilitate dialogue between warring factions to promote peace and security.
 Aid Delivery:

Humanitarian organizations like the International Committee of the Red Cross

(ICRC) provide life-saving assistance to populations affected by conflicts and
disasters worldwide. For instance, the ICRC delivers food, water, shelter, and
medical care to civilians caught in the crossfire of the Yemeni civil war, promoting
their rights to life, health, and basic necessities.

 Protection of Vulnerable Groups:

UNHCR's interventions in refugee camps around the world prioritize the

protection and well-being of women, children, and other vulnerable groups. They
provide services such as gender-based violence prevention, education, and
psychosocial support to promote the rights and dignity of refugees.
 Advocacy for Human Rights:

Humanitarian organizations like Amnesty International and Human Rights

Watch conduct advocacy campaigns and investigations to expose human rights
abuses and hold perpetrators accountable. Their efforts raise awareness, mobilize
public support, and pressure governments to uphold human rights standards.
 Prevention of Mass Atrocities:

The NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999 aimed to prevent mass atrocities and
ethnic cleansing perpetrated by Serbian forces against ethnic Albanians. While
controversial, the intervention helped protect civilians, promote human rights, and
pave the way for Kosovo's independence.
 Response to Natural Disasters:

Example: Following the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, humanitarian organizations

and international actors launched a massive relief effort to provide emergency aid,
medical care, and reconstruction assistance. These interventions helped save lives,
alleviate suffering, and rebuild infrastructure, promoting the rights to life, shelter,
and livelihoods.
 Advancing Gender Equality:

UN Women's interventions in conflict-affected areas focus on promoting gender

equality and empowering women and girls. They provide support for women's
participation in peace processes, economic empowerment programs, and initiatives
to combat gender-based violence, contributing to the realization of women's rights
worldwide.
These examples demonstrate the multifaceted role of humanitarian interventions in
promoting human rights globally, from immediate life-saving assistance to long-
term advocacy and empowerment efforts. Despite challenges such as political
obstacles, funding shortages, and security risks, humanitarian interventions remain
essential for upholding human rights and protecting the dignity of individuals and
communities affected by crises and conflicts.
REAL LIFE EVENTS THAT EXEMPLIFY THE APPLICATION OF THE
THEORY OF LIBERALISM

(A) The Civil Rights Movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s:
The Civil Rights Movement in the United States is a prominent example of the
application of liberal principles. Key aspects of liberalism that were central to the
movement include:
Equal Rights and Individual Liberty: The Civil Rights Movement sought to secure
equal rights and opportunities for African Americans, including the right to vote,
access to public facilities, and equal treatment under the law. These goals align
with liberal ideals of individual liberty and equality before the law.
. Rule of Law: Activists within the Civil Rights Movement advocated for the
enforcement of existing laws and the enactment of new legislation to protect the
civil rights of African Americans. Legal strategies, such as litigation and
nonviolent protest, were used to challenge discriminatory practices and laws,
emphasizing the importance of the rule of law in promoting justice and equality.
Democratic Participation: Liberalism emphasizes the importance of democratic
participation and political engagement. The Civil Rights Movement mobilized
grassroots activism and community organizing to empower African Americans and
amplify their voices in the political process. Efforts such as voter registration
drives and mass protests aimed to expand democratic participation and challenge
systemic injustice.
Social Justice and Human Dignity: Central to liberalism is the promotion of social
justice and the recognition of the inherent dignity of every individual. The Civil
Rights Movement sought to address systemic racism and promote racial equality,
advocating for policies and practices that uphold the dignity and rights of all
people, regardless of race or ethnicity.
Overall, the Civil Rights Movement exemplifies the application of liberal
principles in challenging injustice, promoting equality, and advancing the cause of
civil rights and social justice. emphasizes individual rights, equality, and freedom,
which were central to the goals of the Civil Rights Movement. Through nonviolent
protests, legal challenges, and grassroots activism, African Americans and their
allies fought against racial segregation and discrimination, ultimately leading to
landmark legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights
Act of 1965. These laws helped dismantle institutionalized racism and entrenched
inequalities, advancing the principles of liberalism by expanding civil liberties and
promoting equality under the law.

(B) Another real-time event where the theory of liberalism was recently applied is
the global response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Liberal principles such as
sovereignty, self-determination, and the rule of law have guided the international
community's condemnation of Russia's actions and the imposition of sanctions to
deter further aggression. Countries have united in support of Ukraine's right to
territorial integrity and have sought diplomatic solutions through channels like the
United Nations and diplomatic negotiations, reflecting liberal values of peace,
cooperation, and respect for international norms.
In the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine, the application of liberal
principles has been evident in several ways:
International Condemnation: Liberal democracies have consistently condemned
Russia's actions in Ukraine, emphasizing the importance of respecting Ukraine's
sovereignty and territorial integrity. Statements from leaders of liberal
democracies, as well as resolutions passed in international organizations like the
United Nations and the European Union, reflect a commitment to upholding liberal
values such as the rule of law and respect for international norms.
Sanctions and Economic Measures: Liberal democracies have imposed economic
sanctions on Russia in response to its aggression in Ukraine. These sanctions aim
to exert pressure on Russia to change its behavior and respect Ukraine's
sovereignty, demonstrating a commitment to using peaceful means to address the
conflict.
Support for Ukraine: Liberal democracies have provided political, economic, and
military support to Ukraine in its efforts to defend itself against Russian
aggression. This support includes diplomatic assistance, financial aid, and the
provision of defensive weapons and military training. By standing with Ukraine,
liberal democracies affirm their commitment to supporting countries that uphold
liberal values and democratic principles.
Diplomatic Efforts: Liberal democracies have engaged in diplomatic efforts to
resolve the conflict through dialogue and negotiation. Diplomatic initiatives,
including the Minsk agreements and the Normandy format talks, aim to find a
peaceful resolution to the conflict and address the underlying issues driving the
conflict.
Overall, the response of liberal democracies to the Russia-Ukraine war
illustrates the application of liberal principles such as respect for sovereignty,
adherence to international law, support for human rights, and commitment to
peaceful conflict resolution.
 CONCLUSION
In summary, this paper introduced us to the concept of Liberalism being a theory
that seeks to enforce equal opportunity; the natural right to be free, access to
education, the right to better wages amidst all other forms of human liberation.
Also, the study depicted the key principles of liberation such as Individual liberty,
Equality and Rule of Law which have been analytically discussed to prove the
stance that Liberalism is not just focused on our individual rights but the society in
general. It placed emphasis on the rule of law to stress that every individual
including government officials is subject to the law and accountable for their
actions.
Furthermore, Liberalism was discussed as a political ideology using the political
ideas of Democracy and Pluralism as tools to advocate for fairness and equality in
a typical democratic society. Liberal democracy brings up a constitution that limits
the authority of government by emphasizing a system of checks and balances
between the arms of government. Pluralism on the other hand, was described as a
political ideal that relies on tolerance to resolve disagreement in a society where
different political and social views are permitted to exist.
This study did not fail to discuss liberation in its purest economic form as a
concept that preaches the free operation of markets without too much interference
from the government. The aims of economic liberation were highlighted such as
advocating for the limited role of government, individuals’ liberties to pursue their
economic interests without undue government restrictions, the believe in the power
of free markets to allocate resources efficiently and boost economic growth.
Additionally, Liberalism was discussed in this paper as a tool for social cohesion.
It discusses social liberalism as a means to protect human rights and to promote
social justice while addressing inequalities. A summary was also emphasized as
regards the metamorphosis from Liberalism to Neo-Liberalism and Social
Liberalism. This process explains the growth and improved phases of liberation as
a principal actor in international relations.
Even though Liberalism has been generally accepted as a cornerstone of modern
dramatic societies, it still was tagged as imperfect as criticized by some critics. The
criticisms levelled up against the concept of Liberalism as described in this study
include lack of social cohesion, political division, and economic inequality. The
lack of social cohesion is caused by the tendency to prioritize individual freedom
over collective well-being. In the same vein, it was argued that the rise of populism
and authoritarianism attributed to political division as it failed to address the
legitimate concerns of citizens who feel left behind by globalization &
technological change which has resulted to social inequality.
The paper presented the key influence of Liberalism on international relations and
its significant role in promoting human rights worldwide. Several benefits of
Liberalism described include Advocacy for Democracy, Multi-literation and
international co-operation, Expansion of minority rights, Cultural exchange and
globalization and promotion of economic development. The roles of promoting
human rights worldwide include Protection of civilians, Advancing gender
equality, Prevention of mass atrocities, Response to natural disasters amidst many
others.
In addition, some famous liberal thinkers were discussed as well as their
contributions to the development of Liberalism as a whole. These scholars include
John Locke, John Stuart Mill and Adams Smith. John Locke was an eminent
English philosopher known for his significant contributions such as Empiricism,
Political Liberalism, Social Contract, Toleration, European Enlightenment & U.S
Constitution. John Stuart Mill was a political economist recognized for his
significant role in advocating Individual liberalism, Radical liberalism &
Utilitarianism. Adams Smith was also an economist & a philosopher who preached
the natural harmony of interests among individuals in the market, Laissez-faire
capitalism and promoted the concept of international in general.

Conclusively, the relevance of Liberalism cannot be overemphasized as it is

basically a foundational theory developed to advocate for the fundamental rights of
people in every society.
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