St.

Mary’s University
Faculty of Business
Department of Management

Course Outline
Course Title: Administrative & Business Communication
Course Code: MgMt 231
Credit Hrs: 3
Prerequisites: No Prerequisite
Course Description
The course is designed to handle issues related to communication in the context of carrying out the managerial
duties of a manager. It treats the importance, conceptual framework, functions, conditions, process, models and
elements of communication. Moreover, it presents the nature and types of communications in organization by
placing emphasis on formal and informal communication among members. Furthermore this course examines the
causes of communication breakdown and attempts to provide framework to rectify this crucial problem. The
course is also designed to provide theoretical as well as practical frameworks of the media of communication.
Course Objectives
The course enables students to:
 Understand the importance of effective communication in the real world of Business.
 Identify problems of effective communication and its impact on the overall organizational goal achievements.
 Introduce students to the basic skills and ways of improving communication.
 Help students improve interpersonal communication.
 Enable students understand the significance of effective communication in undertaking managerial functions.
 Learn techniques and skills of correct business research report writing; learn report writing style using an
approved style; and, apply the basics of oral communication in a presentation of a project, including, proper
speech, organization, use of graphical aids, and effective non-verbal communications.
Course Contents
Chapter One: Overview of Business Communication
1.1. Meaning and Definitions of Communication
1.2. Developments of Business Communication
1.3. Characteristics of Communication
1.4. Significance and purposes of communication in Management
Chapter Two: The Process, Levels and Barriers of Communication
2.1. The Process and Elements of Communication
2.2. The Levels of Communication
2.3. Barriers of Communication
Chapter Three: Principles of Communication (The 7Cs)
Chapter Four: Types of Communication in Organizations
4.1. Internal and External Communication
4.2. Formal and Informal Communication
4.3. Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
Chapter Five: Media of Communication
5.1. Verbal Communication
5.1.1. Written Communication
5.1.2. Oral Communication
5.2. Non-verbal communication
Chapter Six: Practical Business Letters, Reports and Employment Communication
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6.1. Employment Communication
6.1.1. Job Application Letter
6.1.2. Resume/Curriculum Vitae
6.1.3. Employment Interview
6.2. Business Letters
6.3. Memorandums
6.4. Business Reports
6.5. Business Meeting
Teaching Methods
The following methods will be implemented as appropriate for each chapter:
 Lecture
 Discussions
 Presentations
 Group/individual works
 Panel Discussions
Methods of Assessment
Methods of Assessment Weight
Quiz I/Test 10%
Assignments & Presentation 15%
Mid Exam 25%
Final exam 50%
Total 100%
References
 C.B Gubta, “Business Organization and Management “ , Sultan chand & sons, new Delhi.
 David R.Hampton, “contemporary management”, McGraw Hill Inc., New York, 1981.
 Ernest Dale. “Management. Theory and Practices.” McGraw Hill Inc. New York, 1981.
 Fred Luthans, “Introduction to Management, A Contingency Approach”, McGraw Hill Book Company
New york, 1973.
 george R.Terry and Stephen G. Franklin, “Principles of management”, All India Traveller book Sellen New
Dethi, 1991.
 Harold Kooz, Cyril o’Donnel and Heinz Weihrich, “Management”, McGraw Hill International New york,
1980
 Henry sisik, “Management and Organization”, South Western publishing Co., Chicago, 1982.
 Peter F. Druker, “Management: Task and Responsibility”, IIaper & Row, New york, 1973.
 Peter F. Druker,” The practice of management” Haper & Brothers, New York, 1986
 Samul C.Certo, “Principles of Modern Management”, Allyn and Bacon Inc., boston, 1986.
 Y.K bushan, “Fundametals of business Organization and Management”, Sultan chand & sons, New Delhi.
 Vikram Bisen Pirya (2009). New Age Business Communication, New Age International (P) Ltd., New Delhi

Chapter One
Overview of Business Communication

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1.1. Meaning and Definitions of Communication
Communication comes from the Latin word ‘Communicare’, which means “to make common to many,
share.” It is the lifeblood of every business. Information must be conveyed, received, understood, and
acted upon in a proper manner. When there is a breakdown in this process, organizational efficiency
suffers. Most organizations depend on communication to accomplish their objectives.

When people in business and professions are asked to define communication, they often respond by
saying something like, “Communication is the process of transferring thoughts and ideas from one
person to another.” This definition sounds good from the surface; it includes the idea of communicating
our idea and thoughts to others, which is a necessary occurrence in business. However, the words
transferring and from one person to another inaccurately imply that communication is like pouring
liquid from a jar to a glass. In other words, the definition implies a simple one-way action where person
A takes knowledge from her/his head and simply pours (transfers) it into the head of person B.
Obviously, communication is not that simple. Person B may refuse to accept A’s ideas and may wish to
present her/his own ideas. Or B may completely misinterpret A’s message. As one communication
scholar notes, “Communication does not consist of the transmission of meaning. Meanings are not
transferable. Only messages are transferable, and meanings are not in the message, they are in the
message-user.”

A more accurate definition of communication can be found by considering the definitions given by
different authors. Some of these definitions are the following:
“Communication occurs when an exchange of messages result in shared meaning” Bovee & Thill
“Communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information between human beings.”
Murphy & Peck
“Communication is the process of conveying messages (facts, ideas, attitudes, & opinions) from one
person to another so that they are understood.” M.W. Cumming
“Communication is the process of people sharing thoughts, ideas, & feelings with each other in
commonly understandable ways.” Hamilton & Parker
From the above definitions, you might notice that all of them share something in common. All of the
definitions stress that there should at least be two people for communication to occur & there should
also be some kind of message that is intended to be transmitted from one party to another. And, when
people communicate, they express their ideas & feelings in a way that is understandable to each other.
They share information with each other.

To put it in a nutshell, the above definitions of communication call attention to the following five
essential points:
1. Communication is a process
Communication refers to a series of activities to be accomplished in a sequence; it does not refer to
incidental events and transactions among people.
2. Communication is purposeful
When senders - receivers communicate the sender originally should have an objective to be checked at
the end of the communication process. Communication is not just the transfer of messages but

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purposeful transfer of messages between senders and receivers. Thus it does not refer to incidental
transactions between people
3. Communication involves people
Communication shows the degree of understanding among senders-receivers and how they relate to each
other. Therefore, it refers to communication among people only and the exchange of interpersonal
behaviors among them.
4. Communication involves shared meaning
This suggests that in order for people to communicate, they must agree on the definitions of the terms
and symbols they are using. The symbols used by the sender should be similarly interpreted by the
receiver in order to ensure equal or similar understanding between them.
5. Communication is symbolic
In communication symbols such as, letters, numbers, words, gestures, sound, etc can only represent or
approximate the ideas they are meant to communicate. In other words symbols are not perfect
representations of our ideas. Thus we have to take care in selecting symbols that best approximate the
sender’s ideas.
Communication is vital to human existence. It is how we pass on to others our thoughts and feelings,
tell them what we want them to do, ask them to help us, share with them our knowledge and experience.
Without communication we would each live as if alone in the world.
1.2. Development of Business Communication
In the past so many years, office technology has improved, and with it has come an array of
developments that make business communication easier, faster, and less costly than before. Office
technology permits information to be produced quickly and easily. For example, a typist using personal
computer as a word processor can produce in one hour a greater number of typed paged with fewer
errors than a typist working with a standard electric typewriter. Moreover, if changes have to be made,
the computer-generated pages can be modified by adding, deleting, or rearranging material without
having to retype everything. Information analysis & data retrieval have been made simpler & faster
through modern office technology. Hence, technology plays a crucial role in the operation of today’s’
modern offices.

Technology can help us reduce the time spent creating various business documents, as well as enhance
our ability to create professional-looking documents that will get attention from others. In addition,
technology facilitates the nearly instantaneous transmission of written and electronic communication
using duplicating machines and electronic mail.

Some of the communication technologies include:

 Computers
 Fax machines
 Scanners
 Satellite networks
 Telephone (voice mail, cellular phones, pagers)
 Telecommunication (electronic mail, video conferencing, on-line information services)
 Copiers

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  Software
1.3. Characteristics of Communication
As articulated by Gerald Miller, communication has three basic characteristics: dynamism, uniqueness
and transactional nature.
Dynamism
Every communication event stems from a series of past events and triggers a series of new ones.
Communication is affected by prior attitudes, planned thoughts and people to whom the message is
addressed. It is thus a dynamic phenomenon without beginning, without end, continually responding,
and continually changing.
Uniqueness
Evolving naturally from the notion of dynamism is the concept of uniqueness. No two communication
events are a like because of the change in the sender, the audience, delivery, time situation etc.
Transactional Nature
Communication scholars Wenberg and Wilmot mentioned that in communication all persons are
engaged in sending (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages simultaneously. Each person is
affecting the other. Each communication transaction involves reciprocal exchanges of feelings,
meanings, ideas and responses.

1.4. Significance and purposes of communication in Management

1.4.1. Significance of Communication
Effective communication is important in a business setting because of the following reasons:
1. It helps organizations achieve their goals. So important is communication that without it an
organization cannot function. Its activities require human being to interact, react – communicate. They
exchange information, ideas, plans, order needed supplies, make decisions, rules, proposals, contracts,
agreements. Both within (internal) and outside the organization (external) communication –oral or
written- is its lifeblood. A vital means of attending successfully to matters of company concern is
through effective internal communication. It helps increase job satisfaction, productivity, safety, and
profits as well as decrease absenteeism, grievances, and turnover. Messages to persons outside the
company can have a far-reaching effect on its reputation and ultimate success.
2. Businesses growth in size: large businesses have a number of branches within a country or even
abroad. For their health and growth, it is extremely important that the central organization maintains a
thorough and up-to-date knowledge of the various activities at the branch offices, keeps the branch
offices well acquainted with the activities at the center, and maintain some kind of link among the
various branches. This calls for effective and efficient network of communication.
3. Complexity of business activity: business activities have become extremely complex that different
departments handle specialization, planning, production, sales, stores, advertising, financing, accounts
etc. Thus, if these departments do not communicate with one another as well as with management, there
will be no coordination among them.
4. Business Competition: business has become very competitive such that products of common
consumption are available in the market in dozen of brands. All these brands do not sell equally well.
Marketing research has revealed that firms that communicate better can also sell better.

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5. A valuable job requirement: if you can communicate effectively in speaking and writing, you have
an important, highly valued skill. Especially if your career requires mainly mental rather than manual
labor, your progress will be strongly influenced by how effectively you communicate your knowledge,
proposals, and ideas to others who need or should receive them. Preference for communication skills is
found in the job descriptions listed by numerous companies wishing to employee college graduates.
Some of these requirements could be:
 Must be able to communicate with all levels of management
 Needs ability to compose effective correspondence
 Must have ability to communicate and sell ideas
 Will prepare special analyses, research reports, and proposals
Job and career opportunities in which effective communication is the main responsibility are available in
various areas, such as customer relations, labor relations, marketing, personnel, public relations, sales,
teaching, etc. Also, technical and scientific fields need editors, producers, researchers, and writers.
Communication skills are also important in local, state, and federal governments. Even when your work
is mainly with figures, as in the accounting profession, the ability to communicate to those who read
your financial reports is essential.
6. An essential for promotion: the requisite for a promotable executive is ‘ability to communicate.’
The ability to write and speak well becomes increasingly important as you rise in an organization. Too
often those who cannot communicate effectively in either oral or written communications remain
‘buried’ in lower, dead-end jobs. Members of management spend 60 to 90 percent of their working days
communicating, speaking, writing, and listening. Many surveys and articles have confirmed the
statement that effective communication is essential for success and promotion in business.
As a trainee on a new job, you have opportunities to speak about problems with co-workers and to
submit memos, reports and letters that test your ability to communicate clearly and quickly. A frequent
complaint of managers is the inability of college graduates to make them heard, read or understood.
Your messages can reveal how well you are doing a job, and they help management to evaluate your
fitness for a substantial promotion. For example, imagine that you are one of several highly trained
employees in an organization that requires everyone to submit frequent oral and written reports to clients
or company personnel. If there is an opening for promotion and you each rate about the same except that
you alone can write and speak effectively, then clearly you have the advantage over the others.
7. A help to meet personal responsibilities: people put things in writing to create a record, to convey
complex data, to make things convenient for the reader, to save money, and to convey their own
messages more effectively. Effective communication- written and spoken- also helps you to better
accomplish various aims in your personal activities. You will sometimes need to write letters, proposals
or reports, or to present your views orally as committee chairperson, club officers, etc. In these roles you
might communicate with public officials, business, industrial, or professional people; or personal
friends. Whatever your purpose, you will usually achieve them more effectively when you apply the
same skills that help you communicate effectively in business.

1.4.2. Purposes/Objectives of Communication in Management

Communication is neither transmission of message nor message itself. It is the mutual exchange of
understanding, originating with the receiver. Communication needs to be effective in business.

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Communication is essence of management. The basic functions of management (Planning, Organizing,
Staffing, Directing and Controlling) cannot be performed well without effective communication.

Business communication involves constant flow of information. Feedback is integral part of business
communication. Organizations these days are very large. It involves number of people. There are
various levels of hierarchy in an organization. Greater the number of levels, the more difficult is the job
of managing the organization. Communication here plays a very important role in process of directing
and controlling the people in the organization. Immediate feedback can be obtained and
misunderstandings if any can be avoided. There should be effective communication between superiors
and subordinated in an organization, between organization and society at large (for example between
management and trade unions). It is essential for success and growth of an organization. Communication
gaps should not occur in any organization.

Business Communication is goal oriented. The rules, regulations and policies of a company have to be
communicated to people within and outside the organization. Business Communication is regulated by
certain rules and norms. In early times, business communication was limited to paper-work, telephone
calls etc. But now with advent of technology, we have cell phones, video conferencing, emails, and
satellite communication to support business communication. Effective business communication helps in
building goodwill of an organization.

Just as communication is vital for our existence in civilizes society, also it is essential for functioning of
organization. Without communication there would be no organization. Needless to say, communication
is the ingredient that makes organization possible. It is the vehicle through which the basic management
functions are carried out. Virtually all actions taken in an organization are preceded by communication.
The major purposes of communication in organizations include:
Instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with the commanding nature.
The communicator transmits with necessary directives and guidance to the next level, so as to enable
them to accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions basically flow from top to the lower level.
Integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities is endeavored. The
integration functions of communication mainly to bring about inter-relationship among the various
functions of the business organization. It helps in the unification of different management functions.
Information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization is to inform the individual
or group about the particular task or company policies and procedures etc. Top management informs
policies to the lower level through the middle level. In turn, the lower level informs the top level the
reaction through the middle level. Information can flow vertically, horizontally and diagonally across
the organization. Becoming informed or inform others is the main purpose of communication.
Evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgments of the worth of task is achieved
through communication. Communication is a tool to appraise the individual or team, their contribution
to the organization. Evaluating one’s own inputs or other’s outputs or some ideological scheme
demands an adequate and effective communication process.
Direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top management or manager to the
lower level. Employee can perform better when he is directed by his senior. Directing others may be

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communicated either orally or in writing. An order may be common order, request order or implied
order.
Teaching/Training: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly recognized. A
complete communication process is required to teach and educate workers about personal safety on the
jobs. This communication helps the workers to avert accidents, risk etc. and avoid cost, procedures etc.
Influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing others or being influenced.
The individual having potential to influence others can easily persuade others. It implies the provision
of feedback which tells the effect of communication.
Image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the society. There is
interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an enterprise operating in the society.
Goodwill and confidence are necessarily created among the public. It can be done by the
communication with the different media, which has to project the image of the firm in the society.
Through an effective external communication system, an enterprise has to inform the society about its
goals, activities, progress and social responsibility.
Employee orientation: When a new employee enters into the organization at that time he or she will be
unknown to the organization programs, policies, culture etc. Communication helps to make people
acquainted with the co-employees, superior and with the policies, objectives, rules and regulations of
the organization.
Control: A company uses communication as a way to maintain control over employees and their work
environment. Written human resources policies and procedures dictate how employees are permitted to
act in the workplace. Job descriptions outline the parameters of an employee's job functions.
Motivation: Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well
they are doing and what can be done to improve performance if it’s subpar. We saw his operating in our
review of goal-setting and reinforcement theories. The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress
toward the goals, and reinforcement of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require
communication.
Emotional Expression and Interdependence: The communication that takes place within the group is
a fundamental mechanism by which members show their frustration and feelings of satisfaction.
Communication therefore provides release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of
social needs.

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 Chapter Two
The Process, Levels and Barriers of Communication

2.1. The Process and Elements of Communication

2.1.1. The Elements of Communication
The process of communication involves the following elements:
1. Sender or transmitter: The person who desires to convey the message is known as sender. Sender
initiates the message and changes the behavior of the receiver.
2. Message: It is a subject matter of any communication. It may involve any fact, idea, opinion or
information. It must exist in the mind of the sender if communication is to take place.
3. Encoding: The communicator of the information organizes his idea into series of symbols (words,
signs, etc.) which, he feels will communicate to the intended receiver or receivers.
4. Communication channel: The sender has to select the channel for sending the
information. Communication channel is the media through which the message passes. It is
the link that connects the sender and the receiver.
5. Receiver: The person who receives the message is called receiver or receiver is the person to whom
the particular message is sent by the transmitter. The communication process is incomplete without the
existence of receiver of the message. It is a receiver who receives and tries to understand the message.
6. Decoding: Decoding is the process of interpretation of an encoded message into the
understandable meaning. Decoding helps the receiver to drive meaning from the message.
7. Feedback: Communication is an exchange process. For the exchange to be completed the
information must go back to whom from where it started (or sender), so that he can know the reaction of
the receiver. The reaction or response of the receiver is known as feedback.
8. Noise: It refers to any obstruction that is caused by the sender, message or receiver during the process of
communication. For example, bad telephone connection, faulty encoding, faulty decoding, inattentive
receiver, poor understanding of message due to prejudice or inappropriate gestures, etc.
2.1.2. The Communication Process/Cycle
A simplified model of communication shown below depicts how a Sender encodes a message
in a medium and transfers it to a Receiver. The Receiver returns a message (feedback) to the
sender in some medium. The Sender checks the feedback against the intended outcome to find out
whether the goal has been achieved. Hence it can be termed that communication is goal oriented and
purposeful transfer of information.
The transmission of sender’s ideas to the receiver and the receiver’s feedback or reaction to the sender
constitute the communication cycle. The process of communication begins when one person (the
sender) wants to transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other information to someone else (the receiver).
This facts, idea or opinion has meaning to the sender. The next step is translating or converting the
message into a language which reflects the idea. That is the message must be encoded. The encoding
process is influenced by content of the message, the familiarity of sender and receiver and other
situation of factors. After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or
medium. Common channel in organization includes meetings, reports, memorandums, letters, e-mail, fax

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and telephone calls. When the message is received, it is decoded, by the receiver and gives feedback to the
sender as the conformation about the particular message has been carefully understand or not.

The elements of communication act and interact in the five-step process. Whether you are speaking or
writing, listening or reading, communication is more than a single act. Instead, it is a chain of events that
can be broken into five phases, as:
1. The sender has an idea.
2. The idea becomes a message.
3. The message is transmitted.
4. The receiver gets the message.
5. The receiver reacts & sends feedback to the sender.
Then the process is repeated until both parties have finished expressing themselves. Communication is
effective only when each step is successful.
1. The Sender Has an Idea
The sender is the individual who initiates the communication. This person is sometimes known as the
‘encoder’. Two things must happen before the sender even wants to send a message. First, an internal or
external stimulus prompts you to send a message. This prompt may arrive in the form of letters,
memorandum, penciled note, electronic mail, fax, telex, or even casual conversation in the hallway.
Regardless of the stimulus source, it could be a business transaction, a written question, a meeting, an
interview, or unexpected request for a favor. Whatever the case might be, you will start thinking of ideas
for the message.
2. The Idea Becomes a Message
After being stimulated & motivated to communicate, the sender must decide how best to convey a
message to the specific receiver. The message is the information or core idea being transmitted. The
process of putting a message into the form in which it is to be communicated is called ‘encoding.’ It
consists of both verbal (written or spoken) symbols & nonverbal (unspoken) symbols. Verbal
information is the part of the message that is heard. Nonverbal information entails such things as body
language & the surrounding environment.

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Whenever you compose a message, you need to consider what content to include, how the receiver will
interpret it, & how it may affect your relationship. A simple ‘thank-you’ message will be relatively easy.
In contrast, to inform 200 employees of bad news about salaries will require much more complicated,
carefully planned message. To some extent, your choice of words also depends on your cultural back-
ground. When you choose your words, you signal that you are a member of a particular club and that
you know the code. The nature of your code - your language and vocabulary- imposes its own limits on
your message. For example, the language of a lawyer differs from that of an accountant or a doctor, and
the difference in their vocabularies affects their ability to recognize and express ideas.

Several things can go wrong when you're formulating a message. Typical problems involve:
 indecision about message content,
 lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver,
 emotional conflicts, or
 difficulty in expressing ideas

Problems of this sort can be overcome, but only with some effort. The important thing is to recognize
the problem & take action. Taking courses in communication at university is a good first step. An
inability to put thoughts into words can be overcome through study & practice.
3. The Message is transmitted
The third step in the communication process is physical transmission of the message from sender to
receiver. How will you send your message? Should one write or speak? What is the appropriate channel
for any given message? The channel is the means used to convey the message. The forms of
communication may be verbal, or nonverbal. Beyond that, you can convey a message by phone,
computer, face-to-face exchange, or other medium.
4. The Receiver Gets the Message
The receiver is the individual to whom the message is directed, also knows as ‘decoder’. When the
encoder’s message is picked up, the receiver tries to make sense out of it; i.e. to decode it. Decoding is
the process the receiver goes through in trying to interpret the exact meaning of a message. Everyone
tries to read between the lines in an effort to interpret what the sender means by the message. If you send
a letter, the recipient has to read it before s/he can understand it. If you're giving a speech, the people in
the audience have to be able to hear you, and they have to be paying attention.

But physical reception is only the first step. The receiver also has to absorb the message mentally. In
other words, the message has to be understood and stored in the receiver's mind. If all goes well, the
message is interpreted correctly: The receiver assigns the same basic meaning to the words as the sender
intended and responds in the desired way.

Like transmission problems, problems during the reception phase often have a physical cause.
Competing sights and sounds, an uncomfortable chair, poor lighting, or some other irritating condition
may distract the receiver. In some cases, the barrier may be related to the receiver's health. Hearing or
visual impairment, for example, or even a headache, can interfere with reception of a message. These

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annoyances don't generally block communication entirely, but they may reduce the receiver's
concentration.

Perhaps the most common barrier to reception is simply lack of attention on the receiver's part. We all
let our minds wander now and then, regardless of how hard we try to concentrate. People are especially
likely to drift off when they are forced to listen to information that is difficult to understand or that has
little direct bearing on their own lives. If they are tired or concerned about other matters, they are even
more likely to lose interest.
Is the communication process complete once the receiver has the message? No, not yet

5. The Receiver Reacts & Gives Feedback to the Sender

Feedback is the receiver’s response to a message. It is the final link in the communication chain.
However, the feedback response involves a reversal of the communication process so that the receiver
now becomes the sender & the sender becomes the receiver. After getting the message, the receiver
responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The signal may take the form of a smile, a
long pause, a spoken comment, a written message, or an action. Even a lack of response is, in a sense, a
form of response.

Feedback is a key element in the communication process because it enables the sender to evaluate the
effectiveness of the message. It provides guidance for the next message that you send to the receiver. If
your audience doesn't understand what you mean, you can tell by the response and refine the message.
Feedback plays an important role by indicating significant communication barriers: differences in
background, different interpretations of words, and differing emotional reactions. So when the receiver
of the message has made feedback and the sender is sure that the message has been communicated in the
way intended, we say communication has existed.

Therefore, from the above phases, you can think of communication as a process consisting of
identifiable links, with ultimate objective of influencing behavior, attitudes, & beliefs. Each element of
the communication process is critical: the sender, encoding, channel, the receiver, decoding, &
feedback.

Noise
In the framework of communications noise is any interfering factor that, if present, can distort the
intended message. Noise can be present in any element. i.e. the sender, channel or receiver. Noises are
of two types: Psychological noise and Physical noise. Physical noise is unwanted sound created in the
external environment or in transmission. On the other hand psychological noise is created in the mind of
senders-receivers. It generally refers to absentmindedness that may be caused by pain, hunger, headache,
and other factors that preoccupy human mind.

2.2. The Levels of Communication

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Communication can be classified into groups depending on different approaches. According to its
nature, we can classify communication as verbal and nonverbal, which mean that use words and that do
not respectively. In another approach, we can categorize it as intrapersonal, interpersonal, public and
organizational.
2.2.1. Intrapersonal Communication: is a type of communication that is held within a person (an
individual). Intrapersonal communication is thought to be a complex, dynamic, open, purposive,
information processing and decision- making system. The basic operations of the system are:
 To convert raw data into information
 To interpret and give meaning to that information and
 To use such information as a basis for behavior.
For the most part it is a neuropsychological activity. Since it is the level in which the individual talks to
him/ herself. Events, ideas, and experiences are handled securely. Intrapersonal communication is the
base for other types of communication because all the patterns, rules and skills of interpersonal and
public communication are formed here.
Basic elements in this type of communication are receivers, information processing unit and
transmitters.
 Receivers: are the five sense organs in which the individual receives external stimuli.
 Information processing unit: is the central nervous system.
 Transmitters: are the faculties used for speaking, writing, vocalizing, gesturing, etc.
through which the message is intended to be sent.
These three elements function interdependently to make the intrapersonal communication possible. If
one of them is defective or inefficient in function, the quality of communication will decrease.
2.2.2. Interpersonal Communication: is a type of communication in which persons are involved
overtly and covertly. Information is sent and received in such a communication. It interpersonal
communication, each party has to be aware of the other as a unique person. Otherwise no interpersonal
communication will be possible. Interpersonal communication includes:
 Dyadic communication and
 Small group communication
a. Dyadic communication: is a kind of communication that is made
between two persons only (can be formal or informal). These are like a conversation on telephone,
visiting over a cup of coffee, or a dialogue between a subordinate and a superior etc.
b. Small group communication: can be formal or informal
conversation between people more than two. An example can be three people talking in a backyard
or a meeting of a five people committee.
Both dyadic and small group communications need direct and person to person interaction.
2.2.3. Public communication: is the third level of communication. The main aim of this type of
communication is to send messages to a public, which is an audience of several people. Most of the
time, the speaker doesn’t know the members of the audience specifically. In such types of
communication, the audience is primarily receiver and responder while the speaker does most of the job,
if not all, being the sender. Public communication includes:
a. Speaker –audience communication- which is most commonly used and ,
b. Mass communication- which is mass distribution of distribution of identical copies of a message to
receivers unknown to the sender and at the same time unknown to each other in any sense of interaction.
Mass communication is characterized as public, rapid and transient.
2.2.4. Organizational communication
This includes all the types and levels, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and public. The distinguishing
characteristic of this level is that the communication is from an organization to another. This means the
organization acts like an individual with regard to communication, even in legal scene.

13
The organization originates, owns and sends messages and the receivers could be numerous internal or
external public. Organizations are also intended receivers of messages from other organizations or
individuals. Hence we can conclude that organizational communication is the highest level of
communication.
Organizational communication can be classified into two as Internal and External
A. External organizational communication: can be classified further in outward and inward external l
organizational communications.
i. Outward : All the messages that go out of the organization to suppliers , customers, banks , insurance
companies, government departments, the mass media, and general public , etc .are considered in this
sub –classification .This can be done in the form of letters, telephone calls, telegrams, reports, ads, press
handouts, speeches, visits, etc. These methods of communication have an important effect on public
image of and public relation of the organization.
ii. Inward: whatever kind of communication that comes outside the organization is put under this sub –
class.
Both the inward and the outward external communications have to be registered, attended to, studied,
acted upon, replied, and stored.
B. Internal organizational communication: This is the communication that the organization does
within itself (with its employees). This may have different lines and networks of communication that are
discussed previously. (Formal or Informal communication networks and Downward, Upward,
Lateral, or Diagonal communication lines)

2.3. Barriers of Communication

The word barrier means an obstacle, a hindrance or simply a problem that comes in a way of
transmission of a message and blocks the process, either completely or partially.
No two persons are exactly alike mentally, physically, or emotionally. Thus the innumerable human
difference plus cultural, social, & environmental differences may cause problems in conveying an
intended message. Although all communication is subject to misunderstandings, business
communication is particularly different. Various characteristics of the sender, receiver, &
communication situation can create barriers to effective communication.

The major barriers of communication include the following:

1. Channel selection: Communication may be oral, written, visual or audio-visual. The different
communication channels can be personal barriers in that some individuals always seem to lean toward a
particular channel even though a more effective one exists. All the media have their relative merits and
limitations. While a properly chosen medium can add to the effectiveness of a communication, an
unsuitable medium may act as a barrier to it.

Consider, for example, a superior who uses a written memo to let you know about the recent denial of a
promotion. The more effective channel in this case might have been face-to-face meeting in which you
can ask questions. If a salesperson is required to submit a report based on the comparative sales figures
of the last five years, he will fail to communicate anything if he writes a lengthy paragraph about it. He
has to present the figures in a tabular form, or preferably make a bar diagram, which would make
communication an instantaneous process. An employee desirous of expressing his regrets for his earlier
misconduct with his supervisor should meet him personally. Whatsoever a lengthy letter he might write,
it can never be as effective as an earnest look on his face. But if he does not meet him personally, his

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written explanation will most probably be misinterpreted. In offices, if memos are frequently issued to
employees to ask them to explain minor things like late arrivals or early departure they become a source
of irritation. A manager using a memo to complement an employee for a creditable achievement or to
congratulate another employee for a wedding is surely creating communication barrier through the
wrong choice of medium.
2. Physical barriers: these include noise, and time & distance.
a. Noise: Anything that interferes with communication & distorts or blocks the message is
noise. Noise is quite often a barrier to communication. In factories oral communication could be
difficult by the loud noise of machines. Electronic noise like blaring often interferes in communication
by telephone. The word “noise” is also used to refer to all kinds of physical interference like illegible
handwriting, smudged copies of duplicated typescript, poor telephone connections, use of jargons
(terms that have a precise meaning among specialists, but are unfamiliar to others), distraction
that prevents the receiver from paying attention, a worn printer ribbon that makes a document hard to
read, etc.
b. Time & Distance: Time and distance also act as barriers to communication. Modern communication
facilities like fax, telephone and Internet are not available everywhere. This is especially so in most
companies of our country. Even when these technologies are available, sometimes-mechanical
breakdowns render these facilities ineffective. In such cases, the distance between the transmitter and
the receiver becomes a barrier. There is a kind of communication gap between persons working in
different shifts of a factory. Can you imagine how difficult it would be to send an urgent message to a
business partner living in Holland if it had to be done through postal mail?
The effectiveness of our communication may be reduced if our timing is not right. First, we must
consider the time of the day. Our attempts at communication must be made at the appropriate hour of
the day. A telephone call will not normally be welcome at 5 o’clock in the morning and very few of
us welcome a string of requests or enquiries on matters of high importance, the minute we arrive at our
office. Second, the time of convenience is important. In other words, we should not endeavor to
communicate with another person if he is pre-occupied with other matters: we will receive less than
proper attention. For instance if the company secretary is concentrating on arranging the agenda for a
particularly important management meeting, he is not likely to pay much attention to a request for
authority to buy a new office equipment. The request could quite well wait for a more propitious
moment. Therefore, to be effective, we must communicate at the appropriate time both by the clock
and by opportunity
3. Semantics: refer to the different uses & meanings of words. Words are symbols; therefore, they do
not necessarily have the same meaning for everyone. Semantic barriers include:
a. Interpretations of words: Do you remember a situation where you and your friend understood a
word communicated by somebody else in a different way? The knowledge we each have about a subject
or word affects the meaning we attach to it. Individuals have their own network of words & meanings
available for recall that overlap, but do not correspond exactly, with those of others. Individuals using
their own networks can attach different meanings to words. Receivers decode words & phrases in
conformity with their own network, which may be very different from those of senders. Words are
capable of communicating a variety of meanings. It is quite possible that the receiver does not assign the
same meaning to a word as the sender has intended, that may lead to miscommunication.

15
For some, a successful career means having prestigious job title & making lots of money; for others, it
may mean having a job they really enjoy & plenty of personal time to spend with family & friends.
Different word interpretations are especially noticeable in ‘bypassed’ instructions & in reactions to
denotations, connotations, and euphemisms.
b. Bypassed instructions: when the message sender & receiver attribute different meanings to the same
words or use different words though intending the same meaning, bypassing often occurs. Example: An
office manager handed to a new assistant a letter, with the instruction “Take it to our store room and
burn it.” In the office manager’s mind (and in the firm’s jargon) the word “burn” meant to make a copy
on a photocopier. As the letter was extremely important, she wanted an extra copy. However, the
puzzled new employee afraid to ask questions, burned the letter and thus destroyed the only existing
copy! To avoid communication errors of bypassing, when you give instructions or discuss issues, be
sure your words & sentences will convey the intended meaning to the recipient. Also, when you are the
recipient of unclear instruction, before acting on it, ask questions to determine the sender’s intended
meaning.
c. Denotations, Connotations, & Euphoniums: Many of us have at some time been surprised that a
remark intended as a complement, or joke was interpreted by the receiver as an insult. A statement
intended as a good deed can be distorted into something self-serving. Some of these communication
problems may occur because words have both denotative and connotative meanings, and the sender has
not considered the receiver’s probable interpretation and reactions.
Denotations: the denotative meaning is the meaning on which most people will probably agree. It often
is the dictionary definition. The word informs the receiver & it names objects, people, or events without
indicating positive or negative qualities. Such words are car, desk, book, house, water convey denotative
meaning, provided, of course, that the communicators understand the English language & provided that
the receiver has a similar understanding of the context in which the word is used.
Connotations: in addition to more literal denotative meanings, some words have connotative meanings
that arouse qualitative judgments & personal reactions. The term ‘meeting room’ is denotative.
Director’s lounge, executive suite, boardroom, though they each denote a meeting place, also has
connotative meanings. The word ‘student’ is denotative; bookworm, scholar, dropout, school dummy,
gunner are connotative. Some words have favorable connotations in some contexts but unfavorable
meanings in other instances. Compare, for example, fat check & fat girl; free enterprise & free (rude,
bold) manners; cheap products & cheap price.
The communicators’ different backgrounds & interests also affect the connotative meanings for words.
On hearing that a particular person is ‘cool’, members of one generation may take it to mean the person
is fun to be with, while members of earlier generation may believe it means that the individual is
unemotional & insensitive.
Euphemisms: tactful writer & speakers are euphemisms whenever possible to replace words that might
have blunt, painful, lowly, or distasteful connotations. Euphemisms are mild, innovative expressions
with which most people do not have negative associations. Expressions like the following have obvious
connotative advantage: maintenance worker or staff member instead of janitor; slender instead of
skinny; restroom instead of toilet. Instead of saying an employee was fired, a communicator may use
such euphemism as laid off, terminated, or a victim of reorganization or staff cutbacks.

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To communicate effectively you need to be aware of the usual connotative meanings of various terms
and also to realize that some people may have their own unique meanings because of their experiences
& background. Thus choose your words carefully, considering both their connotations and other
denotations to convey the idea you want and achieve the desired results.
4. Perception of reality: The reality of an object, an event, or a person is different to different people.
Reality is not a fixed concept; it is complex, infinite and continually changing. Besides, each human
being has limited sensory perceptions-touch, sight, hearings, smell, and taste and each person’s mental
filter is unique. People perceive reality in different ways. No two persons perceive reality in identical
manners. We make various abstractions, inferences, and evaluations of the world around us.
a. Abstracting: the process of focusing on some details & omitting others. In countless instances,
abstracting is necessary and desirable - for both written and oral communications. Whether you write a
memo, letter or report or converse by telephone, you will be limited somewhat by time, expense, space,
and purpose. You will need to select facts that are pertinent to accomplish your purpose and to omit the
rest. We often use abstracting while preparing business reports & application letters. Precise writing is
nothing but the art of abstracting. So how is abstracting considered a barrier to communication?
Abstracting poses a grave barrier to communication for details, which look pertinent to one reporter,
may look insignificant or trivial to another. You as a communicator must also anticipate the likelihood
that others may not be abstracting as you are. Their points may be as important as yours though they
select differently from the infinite details in reality. For example, when reporting on an event- a football
game or an accident, no two witnesses give exactly the same descriptions. The participants will perceive
different details than the observers, but all or several observers may mention some parts of the whole.
Juries often determine which witness’s details are the most credible.
Differences in abstracting occur not only when persons describe events but also when they describe
people, equipment, project, or animals. We do not give allowances for these differences, and
misunderstandings arise. Very often we yield to the “allness” fallacy.
The allness fallacy states that we believe that whatever we know or say about an object or event is all
that is worth knowing or saying about it. The more we delve into some subjects the more we realize
there is so much more to learn and to consider. And unfortunately the less we know the more sure we
feel that we know it all. Even experts on certain subjects admit they don’t know all the answers; they
continue to study all available facts, though they sometimes disagree among themselves. Unfortunately,
it is true of some people that the ‘less they know, the more sure they are that they know it all.’ Thus, it is
best for us to avoid assuming we know all about any subject or circumstances simply because we have a
few facts. Otherwise we may have an inadequate, erroneous impression of the whole, as did the six blind
men who each felt only one part of an elephant. The one who felt only the swinging tail thought an
elephant was like a rope; the second one who felt the elephant’s tusk thought an elephant was a spear;
the third who touched the elephant’s side thought an elephant was a wall; the fourth one thought the
elephant was a tree having felt its knee; the fifth one having felt the elephant’s trunk thought the
elephant was a snake; and the last person thought the elephant was a fan having felt its ear.
b. Inferring: What we directly see, hear, feel, taste, smell or can immediately verify and confirm &
constitutes a fact. But the statements that go beyond the facts and the conclusions based on facts are
called inferences. They are conclusions made by reasoning from evidences or premises. A very simple

17
example of inferring is when we drop a letter in the post box, we assume that it will be picked up by
someone and be delivered to the destiny we desired. If enough rain fall during the summer, we can infer
that the price of ‘teff’ will go down. We infer that the gas station attendant pumps gasoline (not water)
into our car’s tank.
For business & professional persons inferences are essential & desirable in analyzing materials, solving
problems, & planning. Systems analysts, marketing specialists, advertisers, architects, engineers, and
designers are all required to draw inferences after they have gathered as much factual data as possible.
Also, as consumers in our daily activities, we may make inferences that are necessary & usually fairly
reliable. When we base our inferences on direct observations or on reasonable evidence, they are likely
to be quite dependable; but even so, there are disappointing exceptions. Conclusions we make about
things we have not observed directly may be true or untrue.
As intelligent communicator we must avoid faulty inferences. We must realize that inferences may be
incorrect & unreliable & may cause miscommunication. We need to anticipate risks before acting on the
inferences. Consider this simple example. Suppose that a personnel manager observes a particular new
employee has been leaving the office one hour late everyday for the last two weeks. What can be
inferred from this observation? The manager might infer that the worker is:
 Exceptionally conscientious;
 That he is incapable of doing the required work within the regular time;
 That he has been given more responsibility than should be expected of a new
trainee; or
 Even that he is searching for some secrets from confidential materials after
others have left the office.
Do you suppose the personnel manager should take an action based on any of the above-mentioned
inferences or any other possible inference that the manager could make? Before acting on any of these
inferences, the manager should get more facts. A wrong inference can surely be a barrier to
communication.
c. Making frozen evaluation: another drawback of effective perception is the frozen evaluation – the
stereotyped, static impression that ignores significant differences or changes. Stereotyping is the
tendency to attribute characteristics of an individual on the basis of an assessment of the group to which
the individual belongs. The manager uses those perceived common characteristics to draw conclusions
about the characteristics of the individual, rather than acquiring information about those characteristics
more directly. It is often based on faulty inferences. To help you assure that your comprehension of
reality will be correct, you need to recognize that any person, product, or event may be quite different
from others in a group, or may have significant differences today when compared with characteristics
yesterday or some time ago. You should recognize individual differences within groups & differences
within time periods. In all, we should remember to avoid frozen evaluation made on the basis of what
was true for one (for a group) at one time. Changes occur in everything.
Perhaps you might know someone who asserts “I’ll never again buy any coat with ELICO label! The
one that I bought last year came apart at the seams.” S/he should realize that (1) probably not all
ELICO coats last year ripped at the seam (ELICO coat #1 is not exactly the same as ELICO coat #2) and
(2) ELICO coats last year may not be the same as ELICO coat this year or next year. A customer

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payment record this year is not necessarily exactly the same as last year. Nor can you be sure that a
successful sales campaign this month will again be successful next month.

5. Attitudes & Opinions: communication effectiveness is influenced also by the attitudes & opinions
the communicators have in their mental filters. People tend to react favorably when the message they
receive agrees with their views towards the information, the set of facts, & the sender. In addition,
sometimes unrelated circumstances affect their attitudes, & responses like:

a. Emotional state: a person’s ability to encode a message can become impaired when a person is
feeling strong emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is harder to consider the other person’s
viewpoint & to choose words carefully. Likewise, the receiver will have difficulty-decoding message
when her/his emotions are strong. For instance, a person who is elated at receiving good news might
not pay close attention to some one else’s words or body language. Some one who is angry might
pay attention but misinterpret a message in light of her/his anger.
For example, a division sales manager who has just has an argument with a spouse is not likely to
receive a quarterly sales report showing a downturn in sales with much sensitivity or to be open to
explanations as to why sales are low. However, it is possible that, with time to cool off, the manager
will be more willing to listen to reasons for poor sales.

b. Favorable or Unfavorable information: rejecting, distorting, & avoiding are three common
undesirable, negative ways receivers react to information they consider unfavorable. For example, if
a change in the policy of an organization proves advantageous to employees, they welcome it as
good; if it is contrary to their beliefs or benefits, they may reject, or resent the company and their
boss, perhaps falsely accusing them of being unfair. Or they may instead, distort, the meaning and
misinterpret the true purpose of the policy change. Or they may avoid the message, situation or
people by putting off acceptance, hoping that the delay will some how prevent the change & protect
them.

c. Closed mind: some people have a closed mind toward receiving new information. The closed-
minded person is one of the most difficult to communicate with. Typically this person has only
inadequate and mainly incorrect knowledge of the subject. Yet s/he refuses to consider any new
facts, even from an expert who has made a long, careful study of the problem and the proposed
change. The closed minded person says in essence: “my mind is made up” “Don’t bother me with
facts” “I want what I want”. Closed-minded people stubbornly reject, distort or avoid a viewpoint
before they know the facts.

d. Status consciousness: people in the upper areas of organization’s hierarchy, those who have
more status & power, may be hesitant to listen to those individuals lower in the hierarchy, feeling for
example, that people of lower status & power do not possess any useful information. By the same
token, people of lower status & power may be reluctant to share information because they believe
that people with higher status & power will not listen. Subordinates are afraid of communicating any
unpleasant information to their managers. They may be afraid that they might displease their

19
 superiors by telling them unpleasant facts. Or they may fear that unfavorable communication may
adversely reflect upon their own competence. The subordinates also find it difficult to offer
proposals for the improvement of the organization, for such proposals are not usually encouraged.

e. Credibility: people react more favorably when a communicator has credibility – when they
respect, trust, & believe in the communicator. A sender’s credibility plays an important role in how a
message is received & understood. If the receiver does not consider the sender trustworthy or
knowledgeable about the subject being communicated, s/he will most likely be reluctant even to
listen to the message. For example, if you learn that your professor has no educational background
about management, you may feel that she has little knowledge concerning the area of management
&, thus, place little weight on anything she tells you concerning the subject. Likewise, a sender may
limit what s/he communicates to a receiver who is not considered trustworthy. For instance, if an
employee offers an idea for a more efficient way to perform a job & his supervisor takes credit for it,
then the employee is more likely to withhold future information from the supervisor, as he will
probably not trust the supervisor with such information.

6. Information overload: refers to the condition of having too much information to process. The
implication is that individuals can effectively process only a certain amount of information. An example
would be if your professor gave you too much information, too quickly, concerning a term paper’s
requirements or if a manager gave an employee too much information at one time about a report’s
requirements. In either situation, the receiver probably does not receive the entire message. Managers
need to be aware of potential for information overload & to make appropriate adjustments.
7. Inconsistent verbal and Nonverbal Communication: We think of language as the primary medium
of communication, but the messages we send and receive are strongly influenced by such nonverbal
factors as body movements, clothing, our posture, gestures, facial expression, eye movements, and body
contact. Even when our message is as simple as “Good morning”, we can covey different intents by our
nonverbal communication. A busy manager who does not want to be disturbed might respond to a
subordinate’s greeting without looking up from his or her work for example.

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 Chapter Three
Principles of Communication
There are some specific communication principles that have to be followed to compose effective
messages. These are the seven C’s
 Completeness,
 Conciseness,
 Consideration,
 Concreteness,
 Clarity,
 Courtesy, and
 Correctness
1. COMPLETENESS: A business message whether oral or written is complete when it contains all
facts the reader or listener needs for the reaction we desire. To achieve both the specific purpose of the
message and goodwill, examine your messages to make sure that you have covered everything you
intended to cover and that you provided sufficient detail for your reader/receiver to know what you
expect of him/her. Complete letter also minimizes the possible cost of additional letter. To make your
message complete, make sure the reader/receiver knows who is to do what as well as where, when and
why he/she is to do it. Guidelines for Completeness include:
o Answer all Questions Asked: when you are replying to an inquiry try to answer
all questions asked. Incomplete reply could be unfavorable to a customer. It could mean
carelessness or may mean intension to cover a weak side. For instance, in a reply to a customer
request, if you fail to answer the entire question, you might loss a customer. Hence, you should
take your time to give reply to the customer.
o Give Something Extra, when desirable: at times when the question is not
adequate or the person does not know what she wants, then you have to give more information.
That is, Answer anticipated questions the reader may have but forgot to ask. Example, Customer
entering one’s supermarket for the first time; Customer buying insurance policy; First day of a
foreign college student.
o Check for the Five W’s and any other essentials: to help make our message
complete is to answer, whenever desirable, the ‘five W’ questions who, where, what, when, why
and other essentials like how. For instance, to organize a concert, we need to specify the type of
concert (what), location (where), date and time (when), performers (who), and other necessary
details (how).

2. CONCISENESS: Conciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words.
Conciseness is one of the most important principles of effective business writing because a wordy
message requires more time and money to type and read. This means economy in writing saves time and
money. Guidelines to achieve conciseness:
o Eliminate Wordiness: eliminate unnecessary words from your statements.

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  Wordy: If and when we can establish and define our goals and objectives, each
and every member will be ready and willing to give aid and assistance.
 Instead: When we define our goals, each member will be ready to help.
 Wordy: There are 4 rules that should be observed.
 Concise: Four rules should be observed.
 Wordy: There is no question that the increased use of advertising benefited the
company.
 Concise: Unquestionably, the increased advertising benefited the company.
Omit unnecessary articles, relative pronouns prepositions, and conjunctions
Examples:
Article:
the evidence we have Evidence we have
Relative pronoun:
He said that he agreed. He said he agreed.
Prepositional phrase:
Date of the policy Policy date
Conjunction:
and colon or period
Wordy Concise
During the year of 1993 during 1993
For the reason that since, because
o Include only Relevant Statements: not only unnecessary word, but also
unnecessary facts should also be excluded. The major causes of irrelevance include:
 Failure to stick to the purpose of the message.
 Including information obvious to the reader.
 Using big words to make an impression.
 Beating around the bush - failure to come to the point.
 Being excessively polite, etc.
o Avoid Unnecessary Repetition: when the same thing is repeated again and again
it becomes boring. Here are some ways to eliminate unnecessary repetition.
o Use a short name after you have mentioned the longer one once. For example,
instead of the Mina Trading company, “use the company”
o Use pronouns rather than repeating long names. For instance, instead of using
“the Ethiopian Insurance Company" again and again, uses “it.”
3. CONSIDERATION: Consideration is to show care for your listener or reader, to see things form
the receiver’s point of view, and to have a ‘you-attitude’ instead of ‘I-attitude’. This is because the
relationship between of the message, the sender and the receiver profoundly affects communication
effectiveness.
Is your letter and its message considerate?
 Do you show your readers you care about their needs in the message you send
and the way in which you send it?
 Have you looked at your letter from your reader’s point of view?

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  Have you used a warm, friendly tone that tells your readers you care about
their needs?
Guidelines to achieve consideration
o Focus on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘’We’: a receiver is more concerned about her
than us or our organization. Hence, we should try to get their attention by focusing on the ‘you-
attitude’.
 Poor: we give the best service from around the vicinity.
 Better: You can get the best service from around the vicinity.
 Poor: We welcome you to our online bookshop. If we can be of additional help, please call on
us.
 Better: You are welcome to our on-line bookshop. Please call on us whenever you need
additional help.
 Poor: I want to send my Congratulations…….
Better: Congratulations to you on your …
NB: In situations like below, it is advisable not to use ‘YOU’.
1. When the reader has made a mistake
 Poor: Your contract tells you clearly not to
 Better: I am glad to explain more fully the contract terms.
2. When a reader has an opinion different from us.
 Poor: You are entirely wrong in your attitude.
 Better: The proposed plan has three aspects which are extremely important
and which we need to explain now.
o Show Reader Benefit or Interest in Reading: show your receiver the benefit
that she will get from the message. For instance, “Buy Nyala Insurance” - one should then state
what special benefits Nyala has as compared to EIC, Nile Insurance, … OR We hope you will be
glad to know that we are now open on Sundays and until mid-night on all weekdays.
o Emphasize the Positive, Pleasant Facts: Stress on what can be done instead of
what cannot and focus on words your recipient will consider favorably.
 Negative: There is no way that we give you a discount of that much on the
machinery.
 Positive: You will be legible for that much discount if you can also buy these
accessories.
o Apply Integrity and Ethics: integrity is to be honest and reliable. Ethics is moral
and belief. Communication requires honesty and moral, both within and outside the organization.
Integrity with persons outside the organization; “Doing the harder right instead of the easier
wrong.”
E.g. some managers use a different material (low quality) after they make a contract with a particular
client.
Integrity is also important with or about co-workers. Dishonest behavior towards employer include
claiming sick leave when not ill; internal thefts, etc. Unfair communication about co-workers includes
providing false information about someone to a superior.

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4. CONCRETNESS: Concreteness refers to being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and
general
o Do you use easy-to-understand words that give your reader specific mental
pictures about your message?
- Do your verbs show actions (such as direct, send, produce) instead of just being (such as is,
are, were, was)?
Guidelines for Concreteness include:
 Use Specific Facts and Figures: facts and figures tend to last long in somebody’s mind
than general statements.
a. General: Our Company serves the majority of the market.
b. Concrete: Our Company serves 60% of the market.
a. General: Please send your check for the full amount soon.
b. Concrete: Please send your check for Birr 5,000 on or before June 5.
a. General: NASA claims that it has the best Physicists from all over the world.
b. Concrete: 7 out of the 10 physicists who have won the ‘Nobel’ prize in the field of
physics have worked in NASA at one point in their lives.
Often vague, general words may have different meanings to the sender and the receiver. The list
that follows gives words, which can lead to uncertainty, misunderstanding, or confusion.
A few more short
High most slow
Large nice small
Low quick soon
Many several tall
Using plenty of examples, prefixed by phrases like “for instance,” “for example,” “such as,”
also helps make your writing concrete as well as clear.
 Put Action in your verbs: Strong verbs can activate other words and help made your
sentences definite. To write strong sentences:
 As much as possible use the active voice rather than the passive voice as
who did what to whom stands out loud and clear in active sentences than passive
sentences.
 Put action in your verbs instead of in nouns and infinitives.
Example:
“The board of directors decided” is more explicit than “A decision has been made.”
“Figures show” is more concise than “It is shown by figures.
The passive requires more words and thus, slows both the writing and reading.
“W/t Almaz is generally disliked here. Her work habits are frequently criticized. Prior to
beginning work as supervisor, she was rated poorly as a leader”.
Almaz may insist and say:
 Who dislikes (active) me?
 Who criticizes (active) me?
 Who rates (active) me poorly?

24
 She might thus request her evaluation be written in active form, not passive, so that she confronts
her accusers.
Action must also be put in verbs, not in nouns and infinitives. Notice the following examples:
Action hiding in a Noun
The function of this office is the Collection of accounts and the Compilation of statements.
Action in the verb
This office collects accounts and compiles statements.
Action hiding in Infinitive
The duty of a stenographer is to check all incoming mail and to record it.
Action in the verb
A stenographer checks and records all incoming mail.

 Choose Vivid, Image-Building Words: methods of making words more forceful,

vivid, and specific are comparisons, and figurative language.
a. Comparisons: Comparing one with its equivalent builds a meaningful
picture. E.g. CBE Vs other banks
b. Figurative language: figures of speech may express an idea more clearly than
literal language.
Example: Selam is the one who usually organize social activities; instead of she is usually the
one who organize things.
5. CLARITY: Clarity refers to getting a message across so that the receiver will understand what you
are saying easily. That is, Clarity is the transfer of the writer’s thoughts to a reader without
misunderstanding. It is the single most important factor in communication. A misunderstood message is
worse than no message at all. A message that is not clear to a reader cannot possibly communicate the
writer’s intentions. Thus, clarity is the writer’s first responsibility. The first and most important task of
the writer is to be understood. That is, the writer wants to have his/her reader interpret the message with
the same meaning as intended.
Guidelines for Clarity consist of:
• Choose short and simple words rather than long and complicated words –Generally,
short, familiar and everyday words communicate more effectively than longer and less known
words. Therefore, use short and familiar words if your reader is to understand your message.
Example:
Complicated word simple word
Interrogate ask
Subsequent to after
Give consideration to consider
Under date of on
As of this writing now

In addition, when you select words you should make sure that the words you have selected would
mean the same thing to your audience as they do to you. Words have both denotations (dictionary
meaning) and connotations (associated, personal meanings). The words inexpensive and cheap can

25
 denote the same thing. But their connotations are different. For most people, inexpensive simply
means low in cost while cheap means poorly made or a poor value.
• Avoid ambiguous and equivocal words – Ambiguous words have more than one
meaning and equivocal words
Whenever possible, avoid technical jargons when you talk or write to a person who is not familiar
with such words. If you must use technical words, define them briefly and clearly, other wise you
will confuse, embarrass, or irritate your reader, and perhaps be forced to explain later.
Examples:
Technical jargon Expressions familiar to layperson
Annual premium annual payment
Assessed valuation value of property for tax purpose
Charge to your principal increase the balance of your loan
Maturity date final payment date
Per Diem daily
Sentence: Days of grace under this policy expire May 15, 1980
Revised: The extra 30 - days allowed you to pay your premium without interest end May 15, 1980
• Use concrete and specific words rather than general and abstract words – Specific
language enables the reader to visualize the action of your letter and it creates believability.
Always give exact facts, figures, details, explanations and examples. For example, instead of soon
use March 15, 2002.
• Use short and simple sentences – Sentence structure is also an important consideration
in achieving clarity. The easiest sentences to read and to understand are short, simple sentences
using active voice in the past, present, or future tense and making an explicit statement. While it is
true that to avoid monotony, sentence length should be varied; short sentences are easier to read
and are therefore usually clearer than long sentences. Use short sentences for your main ideas, and
place supporting information in the longer sentences. Beyond proper length, sentences seem to
grow weaker with added word.
• Your message must be definite and straight for ward – State your message explicitly
rather than implicitly. Using specific and concrete words will help you make explicit statements.
Example:
Implicit: It will be to your advantage to order now
Explicit: By ordering now, you will receive two issues absolutely free.
• Construct effective sentences and paragraphs – Clear writing depends on logical
structure. A clear message requires a definite beginning, middle and end. In addition to the
logical structure, the writer also needs to provide the reader with a unified message that moves
clearly from point to point.

A unified message has continuity of thought. Unity and structure requires planning. You should
group related ideas together and then arrange the groups into a logical sentence. Eliminate ideas that
do not pertain to either your subject content or your feeling content. So that your reader will always
know where your message has been and where it is going as you move from idea to idea, provide
your reader with a clear, specific reference to the preceding idea or anticipate your next idea with an

26
 explicit statement of direction. As a result your statement (writing) should aim for unity and
coherence.
[
In a sentence, unity means having one idea and other ideas closely related to it. For instance, the
manager of the firm-X is Abebe and Alemu won a gold medal in the marathon, game. These two
ideas do not relate; the second idea is irrelevant to the first ideas

Sentences and paragraphs should have logical sequence showing the reader the relationship between
them. The use of linking words is important in this case.
• Include examples, illustrations, and other visual aids, when desirable: you can
improve the clarity of you message by giving illustration, examples, or visual aids such as
tabulation, charts, pictures, etc.

6. COURTESY: Courteous message helps to strengthen present business friendship, as well as make
new friends. Courtesy stems from sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical
insertions of “pleases” and “thank-yous”. To be courteous, the communicator should follow the
following suggestions regarding tone and promptness of messages.
 Being Sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful, and Appreciative: Tactful instead of bluntness.
Not only, tactful, messages should also be thoughtful and appreciative.
o Blunt: Obviously, if you’d read your policy carefully, you’d be able to answer these
questions yourself.
o Tactful: Sometimes policy wording is a little hard to understand. I’m glad to clear up
these questions for you.
 Omit Expressions that Irritate, Hurt, or Belittle: do not offend the reader or listener
of your message. Avoid expressions such as: you forgot to; you surely don’t expect; you failed
to; you are probably ignorant of the fact that; you have to etc.
 Grant and Apologize Good-Naturedly: begin your message with the good news and
continue with a courteous and willing tone.
 Answer your mail promptly
For courtesy as well as better results one should answer a business inquiry promptly. If you need
time to gather information, or have a stack of other urgent work, before you can answer a
request, send a short note like the following:
I will gladly send you the information you need. It may take a few days to assemble the facts.
You will hear from me by….
7. CORRECTNESS: Presenting a message correctly helps you to avoid the risk of
miscommunication. Mistakes cause misunderstanding and they can destruct the recipients from
concentrating on the intended message. Besides, errors can affect the credibility of the sender and the
message. As a principle of effective writing the broad term correctness refers to:
 Correct figures, accurate statements, facts and explicit identification of assumptions and
opinions. It is obvious that without correct figures and statements, accurate communication is
impossible.

27
 Correct spelling, grammar, mechanics, and language usage. Misspelled words, faulty
punctuation, and awkward constructions will be barriers to communication. Your ability to use
language correctly and to write a message free from superficial errors is a nonverbal message that
tells your readers that you are an intelligent, careful person who cares enough about them to pay
attention to the details of your message. Because your letters, memos, and reports provide a lasting
record of your abilities to think, write and communicate about business matters, you should take the
time to ensure correctness since communication errors will undermine your business effectiveness.
Thus, as a writer of a business letter, you should apply the following guidelines in your
communication:
 Use of the right level of language: there are 3 levels in the English language
o Formal level – a language level that is usually used for scholarly dissertation, legal
documents, or government agreements.
o Informal level - a language level that is used for business letter, newspaper, reports, etc,
and
o Substandard level – a language level that is colloquial. The substandard has to be
avoided at all times.
 Use short, well-known, and conversational words.
 Maintain Acceptable writing Mechanics: use words, and punctuation marks correctly; Avoid
grammatical errors; Watch out for spelling errors and careless omission.
Spelling errors: nad (and); form (from)
Careless Omission: No (No.)
 Choose Nondiscriminatory Expressions: avoid discrimination between the sexes, races, ethnic
groups, and physical features.
Discriminatory: mankind; manpower; chairman
Nondiscriminatory: human being; human power; chairperson
 Check Accuracy of Figures, Facts, and Words: check for the correctness of figures, facts, or
words. In some cases inaccurate figure or fact can cause a serious problem. Words can also be
confusing, thus chose correct words to communicate your message.
Example: Reporting an amount of Birr 300,000 instead of Birr 30,000 as the total revenue in an
important company meeting
Example: between and among -Between involves two people or groups while among involves
three or more.

Planning in Communication
Your careful planning of the message is most important for effective communication since your goal is
to gain desired reaction or action from the recipient. Thus, think and plan before you communicate.
This means, to determine what points to include in your message, and to determine how to arrange those
points for greatest effectiveness. You need to analyze the communication context by asking yourself:
what is the purpose of the message? What is the reader’s point of view? And what is necessary to
achieve the principles of effective communication? Planning in communication requires applying the
following steps:
i) Understand the purpose of the message

28
 Determine the receiver of your message and what you want to achieve. Your first step is to
determine what you want to achieve out of the message. Every message has two categories of
purposes or objectives.
Business objective - establishes the subject content. Your business objective is to obtain the
information that will help your dealer help you. Example: informing your reader that you are
offering a new product or service or persuading him/her to purchase the new product or service or
informing him/her the delay of the shipment. You may also inquire the availability of sufficient
goods.
Human objective - establishes the feeling content. Your human objective is to establish empathy
with the reader so that a spirit of cooperation will prevail. This part of purpose is important to build
goodwill. Thus, be sure to keep, both your business purpose (specific) and human purpose (general),
in mind as you plan every message.
ii) Visualize your reader
Understand your reader and your reader’s point of view. Your reader can be a business or
professional person, superior, colleague or subordinate; man or woman; young, middle aged, or
elderly new or longtime customer; and so on. The different people with whom you are
communicating will not have the same point of view. Visualizing that there is an individual
difference adjust your message accordingly. Write your message with the individual reader in mind
iii) Choose the ideas that the message is to include
Identifying the purpose and the ideas that the purpose is to include is helpful to avoid irrelevant ideas
and overall wordiness. The ideas you will include in the writing depend upon the type of message
you are considering.
iv) Get all the facts to support your ideas
Once you have determined the ideas, you must ensure that you have the necessary figures, facts and
quotations to support these ides. Be sure you know your company policy, procedures and product
details if this message requires them.
v) Organize your ideas/thoughts
Before you write your message, outline your ideas in a sequence/logical order so that the flow of
ideas can be smooth.
vi) Write, revise, and proofread
Write and revise your message carefully. No matter your writing is routine short communication or
complex long communication you must read your draft objectively, from the viewpoint of your
reader. Make sure that your message meets all principles of effective business writing. Finally, after
your message is written, it needs careful proofreading. Proofreading is essential to correct any
possible error; so that your message will reflect favorably on you and your business.

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 Chapter Four
Types of Communication in Organizations
Based on the whether the communication is within or outside the organization, it can be classified as (1)
Internal and (2) External. Taking into account the nature of communication, two categories such as (1)
Formal and (2) Informal are considered. From the view of direction in which the communication flows,
three types of communication have been identified. They are (1) downward (2) upward and (3)
lateral3 Depending upon the media or form of communication, three types (1) Written (2) Oral or
Spoken (both together constitute Verbal) and (3) Non-Verbal have been recognized. The
following section focuses on each one of these.

4.1 Internal and External Communication

4.1.1 Internal Communication

Internal communication involves transmission of information within the organization. Among various
ways of communicating with companies are
 Memos
 Reports
 Meetings
 Face-to-face discussions
 Teleconference
 Video conference
 Notices, etc.
Internal communication is a vital means of attending to matters of company concern.
4.1.2 External Communication
External communication is communication with people outside an organization. It is the organization’s
means of establishing contact with the outside world. External communication could include
 Business letters
 Press releases
 Advertisements
 Leaflets
 Invitations
 Telegrams
 Proposals, etc.
Messages to persons outside the organization can have a far reaching effect on its reputation and
ultimate success. The right letter, proposal, or personal conversation can win back a disgruntled
customer, crate a desire for a firm’s product or service, help negotiate a profitable sale, encourage
collections, motivate performance, in general create goodwill.

4.2. Formal and Informal Communication

4.2.1 Formal Communication
The formal communication is communication that flows along the organization’s lines of authority.
Formal channels of communication are intentionally defined and designed by the organization. They

30
represent the flow of communication within the formal organizational structure. Typically,
communication flows in four separate directions
 Downward
 Upward
 Horizontal and
 Diagonal.
Downward Communication
Communication that involves a message exchange between two or more levels of the organizational
hierarchy is called vertical communication. It can involve a manager and a subordinate or can involve
several layers of the hierarchy. It can flow in a downward or an upward direction.

Formal messages that flow from managers and supervisors to subordinates are called downward
communication. Usually, this type of communication involves
 Job directions
 Assignment of tasks and responsibilities
 Performance feedback
 Certain information concerning the organization’s strategies and goals.
 Speeches
 Policy and procedure manuals
 Employee handbooks
 Company leaflets
 Briefings on the organization’s mission and strategies
 Staff meetings and
 Job descriptions are all examples of downward communication.

Most downward communication involves information in one of five categories:

 Job instructions: related to specific tasks: “Before pushing lever # 3, make sure that both levers
1 and 2 are securely locked into position”.
 Job rationales: explaining the relationship between a task and other organizational tasks: “if any
of these panels are more than 1/1000 of an inch over or undersized, the assembly crews will not
be able to get the perfect fit needed and will return the panels to us. And, as you know, once a
panel has been formed, it cannot be resized, so any returned panel ends up as scrap.”
 Policy and Procedures: practice of the organization or rules and regulations of the organization.
“All unused sick leaves will be converted into cash bonuses at the end of every year.”
1. Feedback: on employee performance appraisal/individual performance on assigned tasks:
“You did great on the last project, Selam”.
2. Motivational appeals: efforts to encourage a sense of mission and dedication to the goals
of the organization. “If everyone will put in a little extra effort, we can become the number
one producer of X components.”
Downward communication across several levels is prone to considerable distortion. As much as 80%
of top management’s message may be lost by the time the message reaches five levels below. There are
usually three main reasons for the distortion.

31
  Faulty message transmission may occur because of sender carelessness, poor communication
skills, and the difficulty of encoding a message that will be clearly understood by individuals at
multiple levels.
 Another is that managers tend to overuse one-way communication methods, such as, memos,
manuals, and newsletters, leaving little possibility for immediate feedback regarding receiver
understanding.
 Finally, some managers may intentionally or unintentionally filter communications by
withholding, screening, or manipulating information.

A major problem with managers and downward communication is their assumption that employees do
not need or want to know much about what is going on. Intentional filtering typically occurs when a
manager seeks to enhance personal power over subordinates by tightly controlling organizational
information.
Upward Communication
Formal messages also flow upward from subordinates to supervisors and managers. Without upward
communication, management would never know how their downward messages were received and
interpreted by the employees and would miss out on valuable ideas; workers would not get the chance to
be part of the company. To solve problems and make intelligent decisions, management must learn
what’s going on in the organization. Because they can not be everywhere at once, executive depend on
lower-level employees to furnish them with accurate, timely reports on problems, emerging trends,
opportunities or improvements, etc.

The following types of messages are valuable when communicated upward.

1. What subordinates are doing: highlights of their work, achievements, progress, and future job
plan.
2. Outlines of unsolved work problems: on which subordinates now need aid or may require help
in the future.
3. Suggestions or ideas for improvements: within departments or in the organization as a whole.
4. How subordinates think and feel: about their jobs, their associates, and their organization.

Forms of upward communication include one-to-one meetings with one’s immediate supervisor, staff
meetings with supervisors, suggestion systems, grievance procedures, employee attitude survey,
progress reports, inquiries, etc.
The distortion that characterizes downward communication also plagues upward communication. First,
individuals are likely to be extremely selective about the information that they transmit upward.
Information favorable to the sender is very likely to be sent upward. In contrast, information that is
unfavorable to the sender will probably be blocked, even when it is important to the organization.
Subordinates are more likely to filter information when they do not trust their superiors, perceive that
their superiors have considerable influence over their careers, and have a strong desire to move up.
Second, managers do not expend sufficient effort in encouraging upward communication. Managers
often behave in manners that exacerbate the situation, usually through punishing the bearer of bad news
or allowing themselves to be isolated from subordinates at lower levels.

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Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication involves exchange of information among individuals on the same
organizational level, such as across or within departments. Thus, it generally involves colleagues and
peers. Horizontal information informs, supports, and coordinates activities both interdepartmentally and
interdepartmentally. Considerable horizontal communication in organizations stems from staff
specialists, in areas such as engineering, accounting, and human resources management, who provide
advice to managers in various departments. Horizontal communication is especially important in an
organization for the following purposes:
1. To coordinate task when several employees or departments are each working on part of an
important project.
2. To solve problems such as how to reduce waste or how to increase the number of items
assembled each hour.
3. To share information such as an easier way to perform a task or the results of a new survey.
4. To solve conflicts such as jealousy or disagreements between coworkers.
5. To build rapport: peer support.

Three major factors tend to impede necessary, work-related horizontal communication.

 First, rivalry among individuals or work units can influence individuals to hide
information that is potentially damaging to them or that may aid others.
 Second, specialization may cause individuals to be concerned mainly about the work of
their own unit and to have little appreciation for the work and communication needs of others.
For example, scientists in R and D unit that is focused on long-term projects may find it difficult
to interrupt their work to help with current customer problems identified by the sales department.
 Third, motivation may be lacking when subordinate horizontal communication is not
encouraged or rewarded.

Diagonal Communication
Some organizational structures employ teams comprised of members from different functional areas,
even different levels of the hierarchy. When these individuals from different units and organizational
level communicate, it is diagonal communication. With more and more firms reducing the number of
management layers and increasing the use of self managed work teams, many workers are being
required to communicate with others in different departments and on different levels to solve problems
and coordinate work. For instance, a team might be formed from all functional areas (accounting,
marketing, operations, and human resources) to work on a specific product project to ensure that all
points of view are considered.

4.2.2. Informal Communication (Grapevine)

A middle manager of a medium-size manufacturing company was surprised when a fellow employee
congratulated her on her promotion. She has received no formal announcement.

33
Not all messages flow along the official paths prescribed by the organization’s chain of command. Many
messages, as in the example above, flow along an informal network commonly called the ‘grapevine’.
Informal communication, better known as grapevine, is communication that takes place without regard
to hierarchical or task requirements. Informal communication channels are not deliberately designed and
therefore, are not abide by the formal organizational hierarchy or chain of command.

One classical study investigated four possible configurations for grapevine chains.
 Single-stand chain: communication moves serially from person A to B to C and so on (each
tells one other).
l
A B C D

 Gossip chain: a person with the information passes it to every other individual in the chain
person; that is, A seeks out and tells others (one tells all).
l
A

E
B
F C D

 Probability chain: each person passes on information at random, without particular regard for
who the receiver is. And the receivers use the same approach in their communication efforts; that
is, person A spreads the message randomly; as do individuals F & D (each randomly tells
others).
l

D
C E

B F

A G
H I

34
  Cluster chain: - information is passed on selectively: the individual deliberately tells some
people and does not tell others. Some of those getting the information pass it on to others while
the remainder does not. The result is that handful of people often account for all of the
information that is passed along this information chain. Person A tells selected individuals and
then one of these tells selected others (some tell selected others).
l
A

B D
C
E F

G M

H L
I J K

The study found that the cluster chain was the most predominant form, which suggests that
individuals who euphonium are part of grapevines are likely to be selective about the persons to
whom they relay information and that only some of these persons will in turn pass the
information further.

Despite the fact that grapevines sometimes create difficulties when they carry gossip and false rumors,
they are a fact of life in organizations, and it is unrealistic for managers to think that they can eliminate
grapevine. The type of information the grapevine carries depend on the ‘health’ of the organization. If an
organization’s managers are fairly open with employees and send all necessary information trough
formal channels, the grapevine usually caries only personal interest items. However, when the formal
communication channels fail to do the job, the grapevine begins to carry information about the
organization. In other words, the grapevine busies itself with official matters only when the formal
channels of communication fail to deliver, are not understood, or are not accepted by the people for
whom the messages are intended.

Research has found that although some entirely false rumors are spread by the grapevine, information
passed by this means is 75-95% accurate. Informal messages may be more accurate than the formal ones
because status, power and rank differences are temporarily set aside. Overall, grapevines tend to be fast,
and carry large amounts of information.

Managers who listen carefully to the informal communication find it useful source of information about
employees concerns and problems. Some managers actually leak new ideas or proposals to the
grapevine to test worker response. If an idea is greeted with hostility, they drop it or reverse it; if the
idea is received positively, they introduce it into official channels. The grapevine can also help to
disseminate information about organizational traditions and history.

35
Importance of the grapevine
a. It is used by employees as a safety value
Employees use the grapevine as a way of expressing their confined emotions use releasing their
anxieties. When people feel powerless to direct their destinies, the grapevine is a way of letting out
their confined emotions thereby reducing frustration.
b. The grapevine promotes organizational solidarity and cohesion.
People have inborn interest to interact and they satisfy their needs for friendliness. Love and
acceptance by their peers.
c. Provides feedback to management
It enables managers to know the real responses of employees towards a policy or other parts of the
organization from the grapevine leaders informally than formal reports from supervisors.

The most negative attribute of the grapevine, however, is that it serves as a network for rumors that
cannot be supported by facts. Rumors can travel like wild fire across the boundary of an organization
thereby spoiling the public image of the organization. Besides often transmits incomplete information
resulting in possible misunderstanding, confusion and wrong action.

Ways of effectively utilizing the grapevine

Grapevine is a natural and enviable result of people working together in groups. It cannot be avoided
because the more one tries to block the more force it will have. Therefore the following are some of the
ways through which the grapevine can be utilized effectively for organizational purposes.
 Managers should admit its existence and try to feed the leaders or the grapevine accurate
information for fast dissemination and minimize rumors that adversely affect the organizations
productivity and public image.
 The grapevine should be used to diagnose the feelings and attitudes of employees so that
management policies, styles and other practices would be adjusted profitably according to the
common interest.
 Encouraging informal organizations to build team work wand mutual understanding so that false
rumors can be prevented before they prove to be harmful and disastrous.

4.3. Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

4.3.1. Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is the written or oral use of words to communicate. It can take place through
various channels (such as face-to-face or over the telephone) and can take place at different levels
(individually, in group). Verbal communication is a significant part of a manager’s job. For example,
most managers hold meetings, talk on the phone, and give speeches. Research has found that managers
spend as much as 90 percent of their total communication time involved in oral communication.

Written Communication
As the name implies it is the communication which is produced in black and white. A written
communication is conveyed through a business letters, memorandums, reports, resumes, written

36
telephone messages, newsletters, policy manuals, etc. It is a very common form of communication in
most organizations and is suitable for many situations.
Advantages:
Despite some possible shortcomings in written skills, written communication generally has several
advantages over oral communication.
i. It provides records of the message for future references and can serve as a legal document,
ii. It is useful when the message to be transmitted is lengthy and the receivers are large in
number and located at a distance from the sender; in other words, it can be disseminated widely
with a minimum effort,
iii. It allows the sender to think through the intended message carefully, and
iv. It can promote uniformity in policy and procedures.
Disadvantages:
i. It may create mountains of paper
ii. It is more expensive (both in terms of time and money) to prepare than oral communication,
iii. It is relatively impersonal,
iv. Possible misunderstanding by the receiver,
v. There is less flexibility. Once the message has been sent it will be difficult to withdraw.
Frequent amendments and changes in written communication leads to loss of trust and prestige,
vi. It will be difficult to keep a matter confidential if it is considered necessary, and
vii. It may not provide an immediate feedback, consequently, it may take a long time to know
whether or not a message has been received and properly understood.
Oral Communication
In this medium of communication the two parties in communication exchange their ideas or the message
with the help of words of mouth. The message-instruction order, directive, etc, is conveyed through
spoken words. This method can be observed in a number of forms of communication such as
conferences, committee meetings, interviews, telephone conversations, face-to-face talks etc.
Advantages:
i. It provides for speedy interchange with immediate feedback. People can ask questions and
clarify points at the spot and in face-to-face communication the effect can be noted.
ii. It is generally more personal than written communication, and
iii. It provides immediate feedback from others involved in the conversation.
iv. It is economical both in terms of time and money
v. It brings people together, eliminates the gap between the communicator and the communicate,
facilitates free discussion and promotes the chance of better understanding. Furthermore, it may
give a subordinate a feeling of importance
vi. It can be supported by non-verbal symbols.
Disadvantages:
i. It is time consuming, can be more difficult to terminate.
ii. It requires that additional effort be expended to document what is said if a record is necessary.
iii. It does not provide any proof. There is nothing on record. One can forget completely or partially
what had been said.
iv. It does not provide for serious thinking as decisions are to be taken immediately.

37
 v. It is not appropriate if there is a distance between the communicator and the communicate.
vi. It is not suitable if the message to be communicated is quite lengthy.
Given the advantages and disadvantages of written and oral communication, it is not surprising that
managers use both types of verbal communication. The transmission channel or the medium you choose
depend on the message you want to convey and on other factors, such as the, location of your audience,
the need for speed, and the formality of the situation. Here are some examples:
 When immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication channels are more effective.
 If there is a need to document the communication, written channels are the best choice.
 If the message should have detailed accuracy, written channels are best.
While transmitting a message, one might face several problems. When problems arise during the
transmission phase of the communication process, they are often physical: bad connections, poor
acoustics, and illegible copy. Although defects of this sort (called "noise") seem trivial, they can
completely block to otherwise effective message. For this reason, you should exercise as much control
as possible over the physical transmission link. If you're preparing a written document, make sure that its
appearance doesn't detract from your message. If you're delivering an oral presentation, choose a setting
that permits the audience to see and hear you without straining.

4.3.2. Nonverbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the communication which occurs with the help of words. A verbal
contact, therefore, suggests an oral contact and verbal evidence denotes oral evidence. Non-verbal
communication refers to the type of communication that does not use words. Non-verbal communication
is closely associated with the power of observation. The receiver of the communication should be in a
position to see, hear and even feel the communicator. The receiver of the communication should be in a
position to clearly see the face, the gesture, the tone, the dress, the appearance and also hear the voice of the
communicator. Since it is through observation, non-verbal communication may be both intended and
unintended. It is intended when the communicator tries to convey certain messages to the target group
through conscious gesture, postures and other forms of body language. Non-verbal communication is
unintended when the body language, posture or appearance of the communicator is interpreted by the
receiver, even though it is not done consciously. A sloppy posture or a casual attire (cloths) may be
interpreted as lack of seriousness, although the speaker may be quite intent.
Importance of Non-verbal Communication
For conveying ideas related to geography, maps, charts, graphs etc. At a glance, the receiver can
understand the matter, because non-verbal methods can present a large amount of data in a compact
form.
For traffic signs and signals, non-verbal communication is absolutely essential because there must be
instant response from the drivers or pedestrians.
Every human being normally responds quickly to colors, pictures or sounds than to any language.
The only method to convey illiterate people through non-verbal symbols.
According to one estimate, there are over 700,000 forms of nonverbal communication. For discussion
purposes, however, these forms can be grouped into general categories. In this section the essential
nonverbal communications are presented in the following major categories:
 Body Language
 Para-Language
 Time (Chronemics) and Space Distance (Proxemics)

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  Physical environment
(The details will be discussed in the 5th Chapter)

Chapter Five
Media of Communication
Based on the channels used for communicating, the process of communication can be broadly classified
as verbal communication and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication includes written and
39
oral communication whereas the non-verbal communication includes body language, facial expressions
and visuals diagrams or pictures used for communication.
5.1. Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is further divided into written and oral communication. The oral communication
refers to the spoken words in the communication process. Oral communication can either be face-to-face
communication or a conversation over the phone or on the voice chat over the Internet. Spoken
conversations or dialogs are influenced by voice modulation, pitch, volume and even the speed and
clarity of speaking. The other type of verbal communication is written communication. Written
communication can be either via snail mail, or email. The effectiveness of written communication
depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity and precision of language.
5.1.1. Written Communication
Written communication is best suited when the communicator and the receiver are beyond oral
communication medium. The executives in all organizations can maintain effective inter departmental and
intra departmental connection through messages by written words. The process of communication involves
sending message by written words.
Types of Written Communication
Written communication covers all kinds of subject matter like:
 Notices,
 Memorandums,
 Reports,
 Financial Statements,
 Business letters….. etc
This type of communication simply means a process of reducing message into writing which is extensively
used in organizations. Formal communication must always be in writing such as rules, orders, manuals,
policy matter etc.
Purposes of Writing
The systematic filing of written communication is one of the important aspects of communication. Filing
along with indexing is necessary because of the poor retention power of human being. The purpose of
preserving written messages is to provide necessary information readily and without any delay and when it
is needed. However, the following gives the main purpose of writing the messages.
1. Future references: The limitation of human mind and poor retention power cannot be overlooked.
Written messages can be preserved as records and reference sources. Various media of communication
can be filed for future reference. Thus, keeping records are essential for continuous operation of the
business.
2. Avoiding mistakes: In transmitting messages, earlier records help in reducing mistakes and errors
and also prevent the occurrence of fraud.
3. Legal requirements: Written communication is acceptable as a legal document. That is why some
executives think that even if some messages have been transmitted orally, they should later be confirmed
in writing.
4. Wide access: Communication media having become very fast, written communication enjoy a wide
access. If the communicator and the receiver are far from each other, written communication sent through
post or e-mail is the cheapest and may be the only available means of communication between them.
5. Effective decision-making: Old documents help effective decision-making in a great way. Decision-
making process becomes easier if old records are available, because the messages provide the necessary
information for decision-making purpose.

Principles of Effective Writing

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1. Unity: Unity of writing implies a condition of being one. The principle of unity applies on three levels.
First, the individual sentences must be unified. Second, the individual paragraph must be unified. Third, the
totality of the message must be unified.
2. Coherence: To achieve clarity in a written communication the principle of coherence should be
there. Relation and clarity are two important aspects of coherence. The principle of coherence applies to
sentences, paragraphs and to the message as a whole.
3. Avoid jargon: As far as possible, the writer should avoid jargon. Jargon is a language which is special
to science, commerce, technology, trade or profession. In private language with persons in the field,
jargon may be incorporated. In other cases, jargon can be used, but the only thing is that the words used
must be clear to others as well.
4. Accuracy: The subject matter must be correct and accurate. The manner in which the message is
transmitted must be correct. Accuracy in writing can be achieved by careful checking and editing.
5. Brevity: Writing should be shorter by using few words for many. Brevity not only saves the time but
also gives grace to the writing. Business communication must be brief and direct.
6. 7 Cs of communication: Please refer to Chapter 2.
Written Communication Merits
• Accurate
• Precise
• Permanent record
• Legal document
• Can reach a large number of people simultaneously
• Helps to fix responsibility.
Written Communication Limitations
• Time consuming
• Expensive not in terms of postage but of the time of so many people
• Quick clarification not possible.

5.1.2. Oral Communication

Oral communication is the communication where the message or information exchanges by spoken
words. It can be done by both face to face and also through mechanical devices. And definitely both
will take place an important position in the organization. In an organization face to face
communication can be done through conference, seminar, group discussion, personal interview, etc.
Mechanical devices play an important role in modern business communication process which include
signals, telephone, mobile, e-mail, fax etc. For making oral communication effective a speaker should
take care of their body language, paralanguage, presentation style, time, place, etc.
Advantages of Oral Communication
1. Speed: Once you make contact with your audience, there is no time lag between the transmission
and reception of massage.
2. Speaker is able to get personal attention of the listener: You might spend hours drafting
a memorandum, letter or report only to have recipient scan if superficially or not read it at all. In a
personal contact, however, you have much more command over the receiver’s attention.
3. It saves time: Where action is required to be taken immediately, it is advisable to
communicate orally.
4. It saves money: At one time you can communicate with more than one person and it saves money
as compared to the written communication when it is within the organization.
5. It allows instantaneous feedback: When you speak directly to one or more listeners, you can
respond to questions as soon as they arise. You can revise quickly if you have used the wrong word and
offended or confused your audience.

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6. Supplemented by non-verbal clues: The person receiving oral communication can combine it
with the expressions and other non-verbal clues around the speaker, the message can be better understood.
7. It is extremely useful while communicating with groups at meetings, assemblies, etc.

Limitations of Oral Communication

Although it has many advantages, oral communication is not always the best approach. It suffers from the
following disadvantages:
1. No evidence: There is no documentary proof of oral communication and as such the impact of oral
communication is purely temporary.
2. The lengthy messages are not suitable for such type of communication, because of poor retention
power of human being.
3. Expensive and time consuming when the communicator and receiver are far removed from each
other or when the people who need to communicate are separated by longer distance, personal contact is
expensive and time consuming. Even a cross-town trip for a half-hour meeting can take most of the
morning or afternoon, depending upon traffic or weather.
4. Not appropriate when the matter is controversial.
5. Serious deliberation is not possible: A serious thought is not possible on the subject because the
receiver has to take an immediate decision in response to the communication received.
6. More prone to physical noise: An oral message has more probability of getting distorted because of
physical noise of speech, somebody interfering in between, and likewise.
7. Oral massages do not have any legal validity unless they are taped and made a part of permanent
record.

Feedbacks for the Effectiveness of two Sides of Oral Communication

The sender and the receiver are the two sides of oral communication. As sender, what are the different
methods for making oral communication effectively are described in other section of chapter but as the
receiver oral evaluation may include both positive comments and areas for improvement. Like feedback
on any assignment, it is helpful to offer constructive criticism without personally attacking the character of
the speaker. Suggestions to receivers for providing oral or written feedback to oral presentations:
• Be descriptive. Describe what you observed the speaker doing rather than passing
judgment, e.g. say “I did not hear a concluding statement” rather than “That was a stupid
way to end your presentation.”
• Be specific. Give the speaker enough information so that she/he can improve for the next
presentation, e.g. say “I would increase the font size on your PowerPoint slides because I
had trouble reading the slides” rather than “Your visual aids were ineffective.”
• Be positive. “Sandwich” comments such that you begin with a positive comment, then
offer suggestions for improvement, and end with a positive comment.
• Be constructive. Give specific suggestions for improvement rather than simply telling the speaker
what they did wrong.
• Be sensitive. Use tactful language in giving feedback rather than offering blunt suggestions or
comments, e.g. say “Speak a bit louder so those in the back of the room can hear you” rather than “I
couldn’t hear a word you said—speak up!”
• Be realistic. Give the speaker feedback about things that he/she can actually change. Telling a speaker
that she/he is too short is not helpful.

5.2. Non-verbal communication

5.2.1. Meaning of Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication includes the overall body language of the person who is speaking, which
will include the body posture, the hand gestures, and overall body movements. The facial expressions
42
also play a major role while communication since the expressions on a person’s face say a lot about
his/her mood. On the other hand gestures like a handshake, a smile or a hug can independently convey
emotions. Nonverbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations, signboards, or
even photographs, sketches and paintings.
Have you ever heard anyone say, "His actions spoke so loudly I couldn't hear what he said?" Have you
ever wondered whether anyone has said this about you? What we do is a means of communication,
subject to interpretation by others. Did you ever stop to think that even failure to act is a way of
communicating?
Today, many researchers are concerned with the information sent by communication that is independent
of and different from verbal information; namely, the non-verbal communication. Verbal
communication is organized by language; non-verbal communication is not.
Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us spend about 75
percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to others. However,
most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our communication is of a non-verbal form as opposed to
the oral and written forms.

Nonverbal communication has been defined as communication without words. It includes apparent
behaviors such as facial expressions, eyes, touching, and tone of voice, as well as less obvious messages
such as dress, posture and spatial distance between two or more people. “Everything communicates,”
including material objects, physical space, and time systems. Although verbal output can be turned off,
nonverbal cannot. Even silence speaks.

No matter how one can try, one cannot communicate. Activity or inactivity, words or silence all have
message value: they influence others and these others, in turn, cannot respond to these communications
and are thus themselves communicating. Commonly, nonverbal communication is learned shortly after
birth and practiced and refined throughout a person’s lifetime. Children first learn nonverbal expressions
by watching and imitating, much as they learn verbal skills.
Humans use nonverbal communication because:
 Words have limitations: There are numerous areas where nonverbal communication is more
effective than verbal (when explain the shape, directions, personalities are expressed nonverbally)
 Nonverbal signal are powerful: Nonverbal cues primary express inner feelings (verbal messages
deal basically with outside world).
 Nonverbal message are likely to be more genuine: because nonverbal behaviors cannot be
controlled as easily as spoken words.
 Nonverbal signals can express feelings inappropriate to state: Social etiquette limits what can be
said, but nonverbal cues can communicate thoughts.
 A separate communication channel is necessary to help send complex messages: A speaker can
add enormously to the complexity of the verbal message through simple nonverbal signals.
 Researches in communication suggested that only 7% of message is sent through words, with
remaining 93% sent nonverbal expressions (depending on author, verbal part goes up to 35%).

5.2.2. Types (Forms) of Non-verbal communication

In this section the essential nonverbal communications are presented in the following major categories:
 Body Language
 Para-Language
 Time (Chronemics) and Space Distance (Proxemics)
 Physical environment
I). Body Language

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Body language means the changes that occur in the body position and movements that shows what the person
is feeling or thinking. Much of it is involuntary and unconscious most persons are not aware of their body
language. But it makes powerful impact on others. Body language can be divided into conscious and
unconscious:
A. Unconscious movements are of biological origin, acquired habit and cultural customs are as follows:
 Biological: Certain body shapes, skin color and features cause persons to have some kinds of
gestures, expressions and postures. Besides, we constantly try to adjust and adapt our body to our
environment which we may or may not find comfortable.
 Habitual: Some movements and expressions are learnt as habit in the process of adapting
oneself to the environment. They also arise from one’s occupation which requires constant
posture or movement of certain kinds. Certain speaking styles and phrases are also
occupational habits.
 Cultural: Customs like not sitting cross-legged before elders, not looking straight in the eye of elder
or senior are culture specific. Customs of receiving guests, introduction, and social conduct also
include some gestures.
B) Conscious movements, postures and voice modulations are deliberately used. Actors are specially
trained for this, skilled communicators, especially good presenters also make conscious use of body
language. No one can gain full control of one’s body language, but it is possible to enlarge one’s
awareness of one’s body and gain a good deal of control on one’s posture, movements and voice
modulation. If we develop increased sensitivity to our own body language, our ability to read other’ body
language is increased. Here let’s look at the different forms of body language in detail.
1. Physical Appearance and Attractiveness
A person’s general appearance depends on several things. Two of the important factors that contribute to
appearance are grooming and personal hygiene. Care of skin, nails, feet and hair are expected standards.
A person who neglects these aspects makes an unpleasant impression. Appearance makes the first
impression, lack of neatness or cleanliness, carelessness in grooming; clumsy clothes make a negative
impression. Poor health is easily reflected in the appearance.
Body type communicates a variety of meanings, particularly as it relates to physical attractiveness.
Three general types, each capable of arousing several stereotypes about personality, can be identified.
 The first of these is the ectomorph. Ectomorphs are tall, thin, and fragile looking and are thought
of as being tense, anxious, reticent, and self-conscious.
 Mesomorphs are bony, muscular, and athletic and are thought es being dominant, energetic, and
talkative.
 Endomorphs are described as soft, round, and fat and are thought of as complacent, warm, and
sociable.
Whether these adjectives are accurate is irrelevant; they represent and arouse the real stereotypes.

In our world attractiveness plays a role. The reason we stress various body types is that teachers, like
other people, tend to stereotype students based on their physical characteristics. The body type
considered most physically attractive to most people in this culture is mesomorph. Mesomorphs tend to
get higher grades, not because they are more intelligent, but because they are more attractive and are
likely to be targets of interaction. They are more popular with other students and teachers and often are
the opinion leaders among their peers.
Various studies have explored the effects of personal attractiveness and showed positive relationship
between physical attractiveness and:
 Effectiveness in influencing audience opinions
 Speakers’ success

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  In an educational context, a positive relationship was found between attractiveness and grade-
point average
The physical attractiveness of students and teachers does serve to influence classroom interaction. This
variable, however, is probably less deserving of attention than some others, since communicators do not
easily manipulate it.
Teachers must be very careful about the stereotypes. Intelligent students don’t all look alike, they don’t
all wear glasses, and they are not all thin.
2. Facial Expression
The saying “A picture is worth a thousand words” well describes the meaning of facial expression.
Facial appearance - including wrinkles, muscle tone, skin coloration, and eye color-offers enduring cues
that reveal information about age, sex, race, ethnic origin, and status.

There are varieties of facial expressions. A less permanent second set of facial cues-including length of
hair, hairstyle, cleanliness, and facial hair-relate to an individual’s idea of beauty. A third group of
facial markers are momentary expressions that signal that cause changes in the forehead, eyebrows,
eyelids, cheeks, nose, lips, and chin, such as raising the eyebrows, wrinkling the brow, curling the lip.
Some facial expressions are readily visible, while others are fleeting. Both types can positively or
negatively reinforce the spoken word and convey cues concerning emotions and attitude. Next to words
the human face is the primary source of information for determining an individual’s internal feelings.

Facial expressions may be unintentional or intentional. The facial expression for fear is an example of an
involuntary gesture - people generally do not think of how to move facial muscles when truly frightened.
Facial expressions can also be voluntary, as when an individual wants deliberately to hide feelings for
different reasons
Often people try to hide feelings and emotions behind masks. The frown, jutting chin, raise eyebrow,
open mouth, and sneer are facial expressions that can betray and ultimately broadcast deception. All
humans are capable of faking a happy or a sad face, a smile or a frown. I found interesting statement that
the timing gives them away. They cannot determine how long to keep it or how quickly to let it go.
3. Eye Contact
The most dominant and reliable features of the face, the eyes, provide a constant channel of
communication. They can be shifty and evasive; convey hate, fear, and guilt; or express confidence,
love, and support.
Referred to as “mirrors of the soul,” the eye serves as the major decision factor in interpreting the
spoken words. The eyes of the man converse as much as their tongues, with the advantage that the
ocular dialect needs no dictionary, but is understood, the entire world over. When the eye say one thing,
and the tongue another, a practiced man relies on eye. Except for extremely shy individuals, most people
look for social acceptance by studying the eyes of others.
Eyes also can accurately indicate a positive or a negative relationship. People tend to look longer and
more often at those, whom they trust, respect and care about than at those whom they doubt or dislike.
Researches show that a speaker who looks at an audience is perceived as much more:
 Favorable
 Confident
 Credible
 Qualified
 Honest
And less:
 Formal
 Nervous

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Normal eye dilation is not under control of the individual. But when looking at something pleasing, an
individual’s pupil will measurably dilate; when viewing something displeasing, the pupils will constrict.
Personally characteristics such as introversion and extroversion also influence eye behavior.
Eye behavior seems to be particular importance and is generally used to indicate whether one is open to
communication. This can be observed when a teacher asks the class a question: students who think they
know the answer will generally look the teacher, while students who do not will usually try to avoid eye
contact.
Eye contact is often used to control an interpersonal interaction. When people do not wish to be
interrupted, they will often glance away and continue talking. When they wish the other person to speak,
they will pause, making direct eye contact. Teachers often use eye contact in the classroom to decide
who is prepared to answer a question, or who was completed a homework assignment.
4. Smile: A smile is a very potent form of facial expression. It opens the door to communication. A
natural, pleasant smile carries great significance in establishing and sustaining human relationships.
The significance of smile is beautifully brought out in the saying, “You are never fully dressed unless you
wear a smile.”
5. Posture (Body Position): Posture refers to the way one stands, sits and walks. The position of hands and
legs and other parts of the body reveals not only an individual’s state of mind whether he is vibrant, alive
and dynamic, nervous and jittery, confident and self-assured etc. but also his grip on the subject
matter of communication. An efficient speaker stands tall, feet together with the weight directly over the
instep keeping his chin on a line parallel to the floor or at right angles to the backbone. Standing in this
posture before a group is essential for successful speaking. A speaker with a drooping shoulder and a
protruding stomach seems to be tired and worn out.
The sitting posture also shows your personality. One may keep ones back straight from the waist up, both
the feet may be on the floor, one slightly in front of the other.
The walking posture may convey how confident or diffident, energetic or withdrawn a speaker is. For
gracefully a speaker should remember to move his or her legs freely from the hips, lift to move his or her feet
from the floor, walk in straight line, and avoid stride or taking tiny steps.
For effective speaking, naturally one should cultivate how to shift his or her posture, how to shift
the weight of the body on the legs while speaking and to learn where to place his or her hands.
6. Body Movements and Gestures
Movements and gestures by the hands, arms, legs, and other parts of the body and face are the most
pervasive types of nonverbal messages and the most difficult to control. Humans express attitudes
toward themselves and vividly through body motions and posture. Body movements elucidate true
messages about feeling that cannot be masked. Because such avenues of communication are visual, they
travel much farther than spoken words and are unaffected by the presence of noise that interrupt, or
cancels out speech.
People communicate by the way they walk, stand, and sit. We tend to be more relaxed with friends or
when addressing those of lower status. Body postures and movements are frequently indicators of self-
confidence, energy, fatigue, or status. In the classroom, students keen to receive body message of
enthusiasm or boredom about the subject matter being taught can sense confidence or frustration from
the unconscious behaviors of teachers.
Gestures
One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use
hand movements regularly when talking. Cognitively, gestures operate to clarify, contradict, or replace
verbal messages. Gestures also serve an important function with regard to regulating the flow of
conversation. For example, if a student is talking in class, single nods of the head from the teacher will
likely cause that student to continue and perhaps elaborate.
Posture

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Postures refer the position of the body (characteristic or assumed). Postures as well as gestures are used
to indicate attitudes, status, affective moods, approval, deception, warmth, and other variables related to
classroom interaction. Posture conveys gross or overall affect (liking), while specific emotions are
communicated by more discreet, facial and body movements.
7. Clothing and Accessories
Although most people are only superficially aware of the wear of others, clothing does communicate.
Often dictated by societal norms, clothing indicates a great amount of information about self. It
identifies sex, age, socioeconomic class, status, role, group membership, personality or mood, physical
climate, and time in history.
In addition, attitudes most often associated with clothing relate to
 A desire to conform
 A desire for self-expression
 A desire for aesthetic satisfaction
 Prestige values
 The desire for social participation
 Physical comfort, and
 Economy
Much empirical evidence supports the view that one who is well dressed is likely to be much better
accepted by not known people than if not well dressed thus increasing interpersonal effectiveness. Some
research suggests also that a relationship exists between success of student and the acceptability of their
dress.
Clothing also affects self-confidence. In one early investigation all of the men studied believed that their
estimate of a person was affected by his clothing, and 97% of all subjects reported feelings of increased
self-confidence when they were well dressed.
I believe that this is the case also today but definition of being “well dressed” is surely somewhat
changed.
But some authors contradict the opinion that a person should always strive to be “well-dressed.” A
leader who understands this point and who would successfully “dress down” in order to better, relate to
the masses he sought to influence.
The personal artifacts (makeup, jewelry, glasses) with which people choose to adorn themselves also
communicate a message to others. The process of inferring characteristics based on personal appearance,
is based on a sort of “logic” although often erroneous. For example, she writes, a person who wears
glasses probably suffered from eye strain; eye strain is often caused from too much reading; a person
who reads a lot is apt to be very intelligent; consequently, it is “logical” to assume that people who wear
glasses are intelligent.
It is interesting to note that some older research found that college students rated people who wore
glasses higher in intelligence and industriousness. Today glasses are more often connected with closed
nature, clumsiness and religiousness.
8. Energy: Energy and enthusiasm as an aspect of body language is hard to describe, but most people
have experienced the impact of a person with a high level of energy. State of physical and mental health
play a large part in body language, a healthy person is energetic and maintains a certain level of
enthusiasm in work. A person’s enthusiasm is reflected in the style; it is usually infectious and makes
listeners also feel enthusiastic.
9. Touch (Tactile Communication)
Even a handshake tells much about an individual’s character. The human skin has hundreds of thousands
of submicroscopic nerve endings, serving as tactual receptors and detecting pressure, temperature,
texture, pain, stroking, tickling.
Parents transmit feelings to an infant physically, not verbally. In most human relationships, touching can
give encouragement, express tenderness, and show emotional support.
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In general, the meaning of touching depends of the situation, culture, sex, and age. Workers in hospitals
and nursing homes have long been aware of the therapeutic value of a sympathetic touch. There are
empirical supports for this.

Tactile communication can serve useful function in the classroom situation but it also becomes a
delicate matter. Since teachers are considered superiors in the classroom, they often initiate touching
behaviors. Teacher judgment is the best indicator. A teacher who grabs the arm or shoulder of an unruly
student enters the student’s space uninvited.

More positively, however, touching can also be used as a reinforce. At times, a teacher can develop a
close relationship with students by invading their space. A simple pat on the back for a job well done is
a much used and usually accepted from praise. There is also some limited evidence that touching
behaviors can actually increase learning. One recent investigation has shown that teachers employed
such behaviors as smiling, touching, and close body distance, small children “tended to learn
significantly more.” As children grow older, however, these touching behaviors become less
appropriate.
II) Para-Language
The proverb “It is not what we say that counts, but how we say it” reflect the meaning of vocal
intonation. An unconscious bias of the listening public is a widespread positive prejudice in favor of
man with low, deep voices with resonant tones, such as those qualities possessed by most male
newscasters. Studies have also reported the use of vocal cues as accurate indicators of overall
appearance, body type, height, and race, education, and dialect region.
Paralinguistic cues often reveal emotional conditions. Difference in loudness, pitch, timbre, rate,
inflection, rhythm, and enunciation all relate to the expression of various emotions.
Experimental findings suggest that active feelings, such as rage, are exemplified vocally by high pitch,
fast pace, and blaring sound. The more passive feelings, such as despair, ate portrayed by low pitch,
retarded pace, and resonant sound. In addition, stress is often vocalized by higher pitch and words
uttered at a greater rate than normal. The reverse (lower pitch, slower word pace) is likely during
depression.
We are generally aware of some of the common uses of vocal cues. People indicate the ends of
declarative sentences by lowering voice pitch and the ends of questions by raising it. The vocal message
can contradict the verbal one and, when done consciously, is considered an indication of sarcasm. Vocal
cues play a prominent part in people’s determination of whether or not someone is laying to them. Lets
look at some major examples of the paralinguistic implications.
1. Voice qualities: Voice has characteristics like
 Tone is the quality of the voice.
 Volume is the loudness or softness, which can be consciously adjusted to the number of the
persons in the audience and the distance between the speaker and the listener. Speaking too loud
shows lack of self-command or abrasive nature.
 Pitch is the high or low note on the scale. A high pitched voice is often unpleasant, and suggests
immaturity or emotional disturbance; a frightened person speaks in a high pitched voice. It is better to
begin softly, in a low pitch and raise the volume pitch as required.
2. Speed: Speed is factor of speech. Rapid speech indicates excitement. We increase speed of speaking to
tell an interesting story and reduce speed to explain a difficult idea.
3. Pronunciation: Pronunciation means the accepted standard of the way in which a word is said.
Correct and clear pronunciation is important and indicates that the speaker is careful and has
consideration for the audience.

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4. Accent: Accent is the way a person pronounces the sound of the language. Every language has its own
accent or way of forming the sounds; we carry out mother tongue accent to other language. Good accent in
a new language is learnt by listening to native speakers of the language.
5. Stress: Stress on a particular word in a sentence can change the meaning and implication. Try reading
the sentence, ‘what you did in last meeting?’ by stressing a different word each time and note the
difference in the implied meaning. Sometimes when the speaker hesitates to speak certain word then they
stress the word like Mmmmmm! Ouch! Huh! etc.
6. Silence: Silence can be very effective way of communication. Silence is a difficult method of
communication to use as it takes a good deal of self-control and self-confidence to be able to hold one’s
tongue. Short silences or pauses are very effective in giving emphasis to words. A pause before or after
certain words makes the words stand out from the rest. A skillfully placed pause has the power to make the
listener more alert. But some of it creates barrier for communication like when conversation through
telephone the silence may not be effective because the other person cannot see the facial expression of the
other person.
III) Time (Chronemics) and Space Distance (Proxemics)
1. Time (Chronemics)
Time given to listen or to speak to people creates a sense of self-esteem in them. It is equated with care and
concern. On the other hand, a person who uses one’s own time and other people’s time wastefully creates
an impression of being inefficient and disorganised. A sense of timing in conducting meetings, in
conveying good or bad news, in making a presentation, generates respect and goodwill.
Though this has not been adequately studied, it seems safe to say that teacher’s use of time has
nonverbal communicative value. A college teacher may tell his students that he wants to get to know
then better, but if he schedules only one office hour per week, they likely to be more influenced by latter
message.
A teacher also communicate by the extent to which he is punctual for class and by formality or
informality of the way in which he schedules appointments.
Statement usual in the North American culture, such as, “Time is money” or “We’ve out of time.”
Reflects that time is viewed as commodity.
Teachers tell students not to waste time, or to use their time more efficiently. Classes are scheduled to
meet at certain times during the day and lateness is punishable offense.
2. Space Distance (Proxemics)
Distance refers spatial separation (in relation both the social and physical environment). It can be either
horizontal or vertical distance.
 Horizontal distance
Researchers specified four horizontal distance zones which are commonly observed by North
Americans.
a. Intimate distance - from actual touching to eighteen inches. This zone is reserved for those with
whom one is intimate. At this distance the physical presence of another is overwhelming. People who
violate the others’ intimate space are likely to be perceived as intruders.
b. Personal distance from eighteen inches to four feet. This is the distance of interaction of good
friends. This would also seem to be most appropriate distance for teacher and student to discuss personal
affairs such as grades, conduct, private problems, etc.
c. Social distance exists from four to twelve feet. It seems to be an appropriate distance for casual
friends and acquaintances to interact.
d. Public distance outward from twelve feet a speaker becomes formal. Classes of teachers who
maintain this distance between themselves and their students are generally formal, and some students
may feel that the teacher is cold and distant.

49
The categorization of distance can constructively be used to lend insight into the nature of various
audience-speaker interactions. It should be noted, however, that appropriate distance is determined by
variables including the situation, the nature of the relationship, the topic of conversation, and the
physical constraints which are present.

 Vertical distance
The vertical distance between communicators is often indicative of the degree of dominance a sub
ordinance in the relationship. People are affected by literally looking up at or looking down on another
person. In schools, for example, the implications are that vertical distance can be used by teachers both
as a tool and as a weapon. Teachers, and especially those who work with small children, should realize
that students will interact more comfortably with a teacher when they are in same vertical plane. Used in
this way, an understanding of vertical distance can become a tool for improved teacher-student
communication. On the other hand, the disciplinarian can put this information to use in order to gain
psychological advantage over an unruly student.
IV) Physical environment
Environmental factors such as furniture, architectural style, interior decorating conditions, lighting,
colors, temperature, noise, and music affect the behavior of communicators during interaction. The
furniture itself can be seen as a non-verbal message
5.2.3. Interaction of verbal and non-verbal communication
When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating,
conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating.
1. Repeating: "Repeating" consists of using gestures to strengthen a verbal message, such as pointing to
the object of discussion.
2. Conflicting: Verbal and non-verbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send
opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while
simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the
interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of
uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration. When mixed messages occur, non-verbal communication
becomes the primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the situation; great
attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when people perceive mixed messages during
interactions.
3. Complementing: Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when non-verbal and verbal
communication complements each other. Non-verbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages
to reinforce the information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have been
shown to be remembered well when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.
4. Substituting: Non-verbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a
message. People learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body positioning as
corresponding with specific feelings and intentions. Non-verbal signals can be used without verbal
communication to convey messages; when non-verbal behavior does not effectively communicate a
message; verbal methods are used to enhance understanding.
5. Regulating: Non-verbal behavior also regulates our conversations. For example, touching someone's
arm can signal that you want to talk next or interrupt.
6. Accenting/Moderating: Non-verbal signals are used to alter the interpretation of verbal messages.
Touch, voice pitch, and gestures are some of the tools people use to accent or amplify the message that
is sent; nonverbal behavior can also be used to moderate or tone down aspects of verbal messages as
well. For example, a person who is verbally expressing anger may accent the verbal message by shaking
a fist.

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 Chapter Six
Practical Business Letters, Reports and Employment Communication
6.1. Employment Communication
6.1.1. Job Application Letter
Applications are commonly invited for posts that are vacant in business or government offices. Letters of
application either in response to an advertisement or in the form of a self-initiated proposal are called as
solicited and unsolicited letters respectively. Structure of the application for a post:
❖ Address of the applicant and date
❖ the name and full address of the employer or the concern
❖ Salutation
❖ Body of the application.
 Introductory paragraph.
 Details of the applicant in paragraph or paragraphs.
 Concluding paragraph.
❖ Complimentary close of application
❖ Signature of the applicant
Body of the application for a post
The opening paragraph should attract the attention of the reader and stimulate his interest to read the letter
further. In an introductory paragraph the applicant should state whether he has send the application in
response to an advertisement or at the suggestion of someone or on his own initiative?
Form the second paragraph onwards, should now give the details of the important points mentioned in
the introductory paragraph. It contains the bio-data of the applicant, such as, educational qualifications,
practical experiences, age, marital status, language known etc. In another paragraph, references, if asked
for, can be given with full address.

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In applications, unwanted matter should not be written like family troubles, family expenses etc. If you
apply for better prospects, never write adverse remarks about the present employer.
In the concluding paragraph, an applicant should mention that he will serve the employer to the best of his
ability and also assure that he will discharge his duties to the thorough satisfaction of his employer.
General Hints for Letters
 The applicant’s address and telephone number are at the top right corner of the letter.
 Neat layout is necessary, modified block or semi-block form is the best.
 If the advertisement asks that the application must be written in the candidate’s own
handwriting, the covering letter should be neatly written in dark blue ink or ball pen
 The letter should be addressed as indicated in the advertisement. If the letter is to be
addressed to a company, the salutation is ‘Sirs’. If it is to be addressed to an individual the
salutation is ‘Sir’. The complimentary close for an application letter is “yours faithfully”.
 Original documents like certificates are never enclosed with the application. Only certified copies
are enclosed. The original documents are produced at the interview.
 Application may begin with one or other of the following forms like:
 I would like to apply for the post of a System Administrator in your firm advertised in the
“Reporter” of March 22.
 I wish to be considered as a candidate for the post of Account Manager which, I understand, has
fallen vacant in your office.
 With reference to your advertisement in the “Ethiopian Herald” of 25 th September 22, I offer my
candidature for the post of computer operator in your office.
 One of the following sentences may be added to the concluding paragraph if applicant feels so.
 I write this in the belief that my qualification and experience will merit your consideration.
 Salary is a secondary consideration to the opportunity of good career.
 I look forward to an opportunity to be with you for an interview.
Mr Tesema Balcha
Addressxxxxxxxx
16 April, 2021

The Managing Director

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Dear Sir/ Madam

Your advertisement for the post of _____________________________ dated

__________________ interests me because I think I have the kind of training and
experience which you expect in the person you are looking for.

I have indicated details of my qualifications; experiences etc. in the enclosed resume for
your kind perusal but should you require any information, please let me know. I shall be
glad to give it either in person or by post, as you wish.

Yours truly,
Mr Tesema Balcha

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Encl: Resume

6.1.2. Resume/Curriculum Vitae

A resume is a summary presentation of person’s backgrounds, employments, qualifications and
intended career plan. Purpose of resume:
 To pass the employer’s screening process (requisite educational level, years’ experience etc.)
 To provide contact information, an up-to-date address and a telephone number (A telephone number
that will always be answered during business hours).
Contents of a CV/Resume
Since the purpose of the resume is to present the information one wants to give, therefore, there is no fixed
rules for a resume format. Whatever the format may be, a resume should consist of the following details:
1. Name, address and phone number: Your name, complete address and phone number, e-mail
address and fax number.
2. Career objectives: Mention career goals and specific job objectives.
3. Education: Mention the name of each institution attended, city and state, name of the
degree/diploma or certificate you have received, the year of graduation and post-graduation, if any, etc. If
you are a fresh graduate in a field relevant to the job and your percentage are good, listing your
aggregates is a good idea.
4. Experience: Describe your major job responsibilities, skills and knowledge acquired on the previous
job. List your experiences in reverse order and with the latest and most
interesting coming first. You may highlight internships, training, voluntary work, extra- curricular
activities, responsibilities handled etc. if you have no professional experience.
5. Interests: Your interests are best listed, if they are either unique or relevant to the particular job.
Professional membership, licenses/certificates are to be listed depending upon their relevance and
contribution to your value as an employee on a particular organization.
6. Personal details: It includes father’s name and mother’s name, date of birth, nationality, marital
status and address of the candidate. In case of two addresses i.e. correspondence and permanent address,
correspondence address should be mentioned on the top of the resume and permanent address in the
personal details.
7. Declaration: Declaration by the candidate that all the information written in the resume is true and
he/she will be responsible for any mistake. And it is undersigned by candidate itself and also mention date
and place.
8. Referees: The names and address of referees can be provided, if necessary.
Some Tips for Preparing an Impressive CV
 Always put the essential things—first arrange the information within each item with your career
objective in mind.
 Emphasize your skills, accomplishments and levels of responsibility attained.
 Use reverse sequential order, meaning that when items are listed by date, the most recent should
come first.
 The contents of the CV should be completely accurate and honest.
 Mention anything special that can add weightage to your candidature.
 Use a clear font and a font size that is easy to read. The font size should not be too small or too
large. The ideal font size would be 12.
 Ideally, a CV should not be more than two or three pages. It should be shorter for fresh
graduates.
 Abbreviation should be avoided.
 References should be provided, if required.

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6.1.3. Employment Interview
The word ‘interview’ means ‘view between’ or ‘sight between’. It suggests a meeting between two
persons for the purpose of getting a view of each other, or for knowing each other or we can say that it is
the interaction between interviewer and interviewee. An interview is a means of two-way
communication.
Types of Interview
1. Promotion interview: Persons due for promotion are interviewed even if there is no competition.
This type of interview is more informal and serves as induction for new responsibilities and duties. And
if there, is competition for promotion, the interview helps in the selection process and may also serve as
an opportunity for a discussion of career opportunities for candidate.
2. Appraisal or Assessment interview: An appraisal interview is one of the methods of periodical
assessment of employees. Annual appraisal interview is the best method for judging employees
performance. A face-to-face confidential talk is an opportunity for both they discuss on several issues
which are related to job. This interview is more a discussion rather than question-answer. The focus is on
the career development, shortcomings, areas which need improvement, training, opportunities for
promotion etc.
3. Exit interview: An exit interview is given to an employee who has resigned or leaving the
organization. The organization can:
 Find out the precise reason for the employee decision to leave
 Give information about PF, group insurance and how and when’s the dues will be paid
 Get feedback on employee’s opinion about the organization’s policies
 Give the final pay cheque or information about when it will be ready and how it will be handed over
 Check that all books, manuals, tools, equipment which were issued to the employee have been
returned as same
4. Problem interview: Problem interview basically meant for those employees who create problem.
An employee whose performance or behavior is unsatisfactory in spite of warning represents a
problem. An interview is more likely to suggest a solution than warnings and notices.
The reason for the employee’s poor performance can be found out in a face-to-face talk, it
may be domestic problems, health problem, lack of training or dissatisfaction with job,
environment problem, hierarchy problem etc. Many organizations have facilities for counseling staff,
the employee may be offered a session with the counselor.
5. Stress interview: A stress interview puts the candidates into difficult situations in order to test
her/his reaction to stress. This method is used for selection for positions in which the
person must be able to face difficult situations without getting upset. A stress interview tests such qualities
as courage, tact, cool temper, and self-command, on candidates which is needed when confronted by
other individual or groups.
6. Selection interview: The most important objective of the selection interviews is to measure the
suitability of the candidates for specific jobs. Employment interviews are usually taken by a panel of
interviewer. An interview may take time from 10 minutes to 45 minutes or even longer. Interviewers spend
more time on good candidates. They have to gather enough information about the candidates to be able to
assess their suitability to join the organization.
The candidates too must find out about the organization, its employee policies and culture,
what it expects the recruits to do and what opportunities for career development it offers.

Candidate’s Preparation
In interview not only information and knowledge of the candidate assessed but the whole personality is
assessed. The candidate must be physically, mentally and psychologically prepared for the interview.
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1. Physical Preparation
 The candidate is likely to be properly groomed and formally dressed. Clean and well-cut nails,
properly combed hair, well-fitting clothes, neat footwear and a suitable handbag or brief case are the
normal requirements of formal appearance.
 Posture. The way a candidate carries him while standing, walking, sitting reveals a good deal about him.
Self-confidence, nervousness or over-confidence, are all reflected in the posture and bearing of the
candidate. Note your body movements, and take care to stop any bad habitual movements.
 Good etiquette is necessary for interview. The candidate must know what the suitable greetings are
for the day on a particular time.
 Do not offer to shake hands unless it is offered by an interviewer.
 Do not sit until you are asked to sit down. If you are not asked to sit then take permission
from interviewer to sit.
 Take care, while handling the chair. It should not be dragged noisily. Sit comfortably and with
good posture.
 If you have large briefcase, put it down on the floor near the chair. If you have small one then keep
it on your lap. Be comfortable and well-practiced in handling your bag.
 Do not put elbows or hand on the table. Practice keeping hands comfortably when you are not
using them.
 Maintain comfortable posture throughout the interview.
 At the end of the interview, remember to thank the interviewers and wish them Good day.
2. Mental preparation
 It is advisable to new job-seekers, that they revise concern subjects. Knowledge in the field of
specialization must be up-to-date, take a look at your bio-data and be prepared to give more
information about your interest.
 Important current issues in the country and in the world will be asked at the time of interview.
Regular reading of newspapers, listening to TV news and discussion on current issues are suggested.
 Information about the company where you go for interview, its owners/boards of directors, its
product or services, its turnover, share capitals, market value etc. are available in the company’s
annual report or it is also available at the internet. The candidate must find out such information as
possible about the company whose employment he seeks.
3) Psychological Preparation
 Honesty and openness in answering questions is the best policy. Dishonesty generally makes
 a bad impression in the mind of the interviewers. It is better to admit inability to answer a question
than to pretend and guess answer.
 Inability to discuss a topic makes a bad impression. If there is any topic that seems too
embarrassing to talk about, it is useful to read up information on it and talk about it objectively to
a few friends for practice.
 Salary is a topic that must be discussed at the time of interview. It is important to talk about the
compensation package without appearing to be bargaining, or being driven or defeated.
 A candidate must have the clarity of purpose and determination to want to know her/his prospects in
the organization. Information about the nature of duties, working time, deduction, future
prospects, other benefits and any of the desired information must be received before leaving.
4) Self-Evaluation

55
  Anyone who wants to be successful in life must make a good self-evaluation. Knowledge of one’s
strengths and weaknesses is very useful in gaining self confidence
 It takes time and should be done carefully and patiently by candidates
 Parents and close friends can help in pointing out faults or limitation and in correcting them and also in
finding out strong points and strengthening them.
 Coming to terms with one, knowing how to deal with one’s faults, and how to make good use of one’s
talents and skills is excellent preparation for an interview. It adds a great deal of self-confidence and
poise to the personality.
Interviewer Preparation
1. Preparation for the interview has to be made well in advance. The received application are sorted and
scrutinized and qualified candidates are selected for interviewing.
2. A panel of interviewers is selected on the basis of requirements of the job and the assessment which has
to be made at interview.
3. A date for the interview is fixed, and the interviewers as well as his selected candidates are sent letters
informing them of the date, time and place of the interview.
4. On the day of the interview, the room in which the interview is to be conducted is suitably arranged.
Another room near the interview room is also arranged for the candidates to be seating while waiting
to be interviewed.
5. A senior office staff and a peon attend to the needs of the waiting candidates. Each panel member has
to examine the bio-data of candidates and prepare questions based on the bio data for each candidate.
6. Develop rapport to encourage the candidate to be involved. A candidate is more willing to speak openly
if the interview show respect and understanding of his/her needs.
At the time of interview the interviewer must consider the following points:
 A relaxed atmosphere can be created by interviewer having a brief conversation unrelated to the
interview and by using the candidate’s name.
 Friendly responses to what the candidate says make the candidate comfortable and encourage him
to speak.
 A candidate must never be humiliated even if it is obvious that he is unsuitable.
 If the interviewer conducted a stress interview than after the interview candidate should be told that it
was stress interviewing and that he need not feel anxious about it.
 Leave taking must be pleasant and sociable, with response to the candidate’s wishing.
Basic Organizations of the interview
Most interviews consist of three phases:
1. The opening phase - it includes 3 basic steps.
i) Rapport: here you create relationship or create smooth environment before conducting the Interview.
ii) Orientation - Introduce yourself and ask the interviewee to introduce himself and
Make sure whether you got the right person or not.
iii) Motivation - to get honest information from an individual, you have to motivate the interviewee.
2. Question & response phase - Here, the interviewer asks his questions appropriately.
The types of questions can be,
 Open -ended questions
 Direct /specific questions
 Closed -ended questions
Leading questions
Third person questions ...etc
3. Closing phase: smoothly end-up your interview by appreciating & saying "thank you"

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Listening for Effective communication
 Hearing - the act of receiving sound with the help of our ears
 Listening- is the process of receiving and interpreting aural stimuli i.e. understanding the sounds
with the help of our brain.
There are 3 types of listening:
i) Content listening- listening for the basic ideas of the speaker
ii) Critical listening - every points of the speaker are very important for the listner & then challenges
the speaker's message for accuracy.
iii) Active listening (emphatic listening) - is accompanied with Understanding & responding
(listening with a purpose)
Guidelines for effective listening
Catalogue key worlds & points - list down key words which can explain the major ideas
 Review key ideas - examine & consider key ideas
 Resist destructions - don't be affected with the barriers of listening, but concentrate
On the speaker's idea
Respond non-verbally during listening
Avoid prejudice - don't dislike (or hate) the speaker's subject based on false information
Focus on the content but not on delivery or the way it is presented
Bad listening habits
Criticizing speaker by his topic & delivery
Trying to challenge the speaker to disagree or mentally build arguments against the
speaker.
Trying to listen only for the facts because isolated facts by themselves are difficult to remember &
meaningless.
Making detailed outlines while listening
Faking attention /pretending to listen while really thinking about something else (engaging in day -
dreaming or fantasy).
Creating / tolerating destructions to the speaker.
Avoid listening for difficult materials/concepts
Reacting emotionally
6.2. Business Letters
Need of a Business Letter
We need to write a business letter to maintain contacts with the external world including other
businessmen, customers, government departments and also for the internal purpose like office orders,
circulars, memorandums etc. A letter writing may be less important for a small business establishment,
but it is has its own importance.
There is also some other means of communication, like telephone, telegraph etc. but they can make
only a temporary impression on the receiver’s mind. The message communicated through these media is
less likely to be kept in memory for a long time.
Functions of a Business Letter
 A business letter serves as a record for future reference. Back references are quite frequent in
business communication. Knowledge of the past transactions, agreements etc. with customers,
suppliers and the like can be had easily, quickly and correctly only when they have been preserved
in writing.
 It leaves a more durable impression on the receiver’s mind than an oral message.
 Since it can reach anywhere, it is used to widen the area of operations.
 It is used as a legal document.
57
  It is used to build goodwill.
Types of Letters
Personal letters are informal and are written to exchange news or to seek favour; letters to relatives and
friends are personal letters. Personal letters are written in a friendly, informal style. Non-personal letters
are used for the business purpose, it should be written in the formal style. The particular style depends upon
the concerned company. There are some classifications of non-personal or business letters. Following are
generally used in the organization as on broad aspect:
1. Official letters are written to government or semi-government bodies.
2. Demi-official letters (D.O.) are official in purpose but are addressed to a person by name.
D.O. letters may be written if the matter requires personal attention of the addresses, the
matter is of confidential nature, or the matter is urgent and requires immediate disposal.
3. Internal letters or memos are used both in government offices and business houses for internal
communication.
4. Form letters are used for correspondence of recurring or routine nature. They are used in case of
acknowledgements, reminders, interviews, notice, appointment, etc. relevant details filled in this letter.
Structure of Business Letter: Elements of structure or parts of a letter
1. Heading.....................................................................................................................................................
2. Date...........................................................................................................................................................
3. Your Reference.........................................................................................................................................
4. Inside Address..........................................................................................................................................
5. Attention...................................................................................................................................................
6. Salutation..................................................................................................................................................
7. Subject......................................................................................................................................................
8. Body.........................................................................................................................................................
9. Complimentary close...............................................................................................................................
10. Signature.................................................................................................................................................
11. Identification Marks...............................................................................................................................
12. Enclosure................................................................................................................................................
13. C.C..........................................................................................................................................................
14. Post Script..............................................................................................................................................

Fig: Elements of Business Letter

1. Heading: Most business organizations use their printed letterheads for the correspondence with others.
The letter head contains the name, the address, the telephone number and the telegraph address if any.
Generally, the name and address are printed on the top middle of the page and any other information is
indicated in the margins.
2. Date: Some letterhead contain, a printed line indicating where the date should be typed, in others, the
typist chooses the right place for it. It should be typed two spaces below the last
line of the letterhead. The date, month and year should be indicated in the upper right hand
corner as; Note: Names of the months and year are written in full and no suffix and as ‘nd’ or ‘th’.
3. Reference: Some letterheads contain two lines to indicate references: If you are replying, gives the
correspondent’s reference number against the first and your reference number against the second line. Some
companies prefer to indicate the reference number of the correspondent in the body of letters: Thank
you for your letter Number AB/ 46/P497 of August 2, 2021
4. Inside address: The full address of the person or organization you are addressing, should be written
two spaces below the date and two spaces above the attention line, or if there is no attention line, two

58
 spaces above the salutation. The names of persons, firms, streets, roads etc. should be written as indicated
in the source you got the address from. These details should not be abbreviated, Like Sri Mohamed. It is
bad business manners to do so. Special care should be taken to spell the addresses name correctly.
Misspelling his name may give him the impression that you have little respect for him. Many companies
have a separate dispatch section. This section reproduces on the envelope what you write as the inside
address; If you have not properly mentioned inside address, than your letter may not reach its destination.
5. Attention line: To ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter which is addressed to a firm or
company is marked to particular officer in that organization. This is done by writing an attention line two
spaces below the inside address and two spaces above the salutation. This line is generally underlined:
6. Salutation: The salutation in a letter, an essential ingredient, is like greeting a person when you meet
him. It is placed two spaces below the attention line or if there is no such line, two spaces below the inside
address. The choice of salutation depends upon the personal relationship between the writer and the reader,
and on the firm of the inside address. If you are addressing a firm, a company, a board, a club, a society and
association, an agency use “Dear Sir’s”. Always remember that the attention line does not alter the
salutation. If you write a letter to an officer by name the salutation will be “Dear Sir” or ‘Dear Smt’ or
‘Dear Kum’ followed by his or her surname, use the second part of the name after the salutation. The
following salutations are a little less formal than those give above:
My dear Sri Yadav
My dear Smt. Kanujia
If the correspondent is a close friend of yours, may address him or her by first name:
My dear Ram
My dear Smita
7. Subject: The purpose of the subject line is to let reader know immediately what the message is about.
Like attention and reference lines, it saves time. The usual practice is to type this line in a double space
between the salutation and the first line of the body of the letter. There are, however, some organizations
which prefer to have the subject line between the attention line and the salutation. Eg, Subject: Supply of
Packing Boxes.
8. Body: The main purpose of a letter is to convey a message and the main purpose of the message is
to produce a suitable response in the reader. This is done mainly through the
body of the letter. It is, therefore, important to organize and arrange the material very
carefully. In the first paragraph, reference, to any correspondence which has already taken place should
be given and in the second the main message should be stated. In the closing paragraph you must state
clearly what action you will expect the reader to take, or you may end the letter indicating your
expectations, wishes or intentions. The paragraphs are not given any headings unless the letter is very
long and deals with several important points.
9. Complimentary close: The complimentary close is a courteous leave taking polite way of ending a
letter. It is typed two spaces below the last line of the body of the letter. The complimentary close must
agree with the salutation as shown below:
The salutation The complimentary close
1. Sir, Yours faithfully or Yours obediently Yours respectfully
2. Dear sirs, Yours faithfully
Sir, or
Madams, Yours truly
Madam,
3. Dear Sri. Nayar Yours Sincerely
My Dear Smt. Das
4. Dear Shyam Yours Sincerely or

59
 My Dear Amit Yours ever
Dear Lata
5. Dear Member Yours Sincerely
Dear Customer/Reader/Subscriber

10. Signature: The signature is the signed name of the writer. It is placed below the
complimentary close. The name of the writer is generally typed four spaces below the closing line, providing
enough space for the signature.
11. Identification marks: These marks are put in the left margin to identify the typist of the letter,
one or two spaces below the signature. Usually, the initials of the officer who dedicated the letter are
put first.
12. Enclosure: If there is anything attached to the letter, it must be indicated against the enclosure
line which is typed two spaces below the identification marks. Generally, the abbreviated from Encl. is
typed against which the number of enclosures is indicated. Encl. 2
13. Copy distributions: Sometimes copies of a letter have to be sent to some people other than the
addressee also. In such cases, the names of these persons should be typed just below the reference initials
or the enclosure notation, if any. The names of the person should be arranged either in order of
importance or alphabetically.
14. Postscript: Postscript is something written after the letter is closed. Writing a postscript (P.S.)
indicated that the writer had forgotten to include something important in the body of the letter or he had not
planned his letters properly. From the view point of a good business P.S. and it should preferably be
avoided.
Style of Presentation/Form of Letters
1. Indented form: This is the oldest style and is now out-dated. In this form, the inside address
is in intended style, and every paragraph being 3 to 5 space away from the left margin. The indention
causes the letter to look uneven at the left margin. Besides, it takes more time to type because of the
indenting. This style is not used today.
Name of the Company & Addresses
Date................................

Inside Name.......................................
Inside Address.....................................

Salutation......................................................
Subject..................................................
................................................... Body of Letter...................................................................................

Complimentary Close
Signature &
Designation

Fig: Indented Form

2. Full blocked form: This is the most modern style. All parts of the letters, except the printed
letterhead, are aligned with left margin. A letter in this form saves more time because indentation is not

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required for any part. But some correspondents do not like it because it appears imbalances and heavy on
the left side.
Name & Address of the Company
Date:
Inside Name & Address ..............................
Salutation.....................................................
Subject

....................................................... Body of Letter

Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation
Fig: Full Blocked Form
3. Modified blocked form: This style is a modification of the full block form. It eliminates the
shortcoming of the full block style by keeping the date and complimentary close on the right in their usual
position. The entire paragraph being at the left margin, and there is double space between the paragraph.
This is the most popular form, as it has many of the advantage of the full form without its advantages

Name & Address of the Company

Date:-----------
Ref. Number
Inside Name & Address
Salutation
................................................. Body of Letter

Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

Fig. Modified Form

4. Semi-intended/Semi-blocked form: This is like the block style except that the paragraphs of the
letter are intended. Those who use it say that it is easier to read paragraph which begins with an indented
line because one is used to seeing this style in print.
5. Hanging indention form: This style is like the block except that the first line of each paragraph
is aligned with the left margin whereas, all other lines in each paragraph are intended four or five
spaces. Its appearance is unusual and may perhaps catch attention quickly but this fact could be a
disadvantage as well. It may distract the reader by focusing his attention on the form rather the message
of the letter. This style was not popular in the world of business
6. NOMA form: This is the most recent experiment in layout style. It is recommended by National
Office Management Association of America (NOMA). It has been accepted in the UK also. It has

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most of the features of full block form. All lines begin at the left margin and the inside address in the block
form. The special features of this form are:
 It has no solution and no complimentary close;
 The subject line is in capitals, 3 lines below the inside address;
 Numbered items of a list begin at the left margin but if there is no number, the items are indented 5
spaces. There is no full-stop at the end of items.
 The writer name and title are typed in capitals in one line below the space for signature.
 The typist initials are in the left bottom corner.

Name & Address of the Company

Date
Inside Name & Address
Subject

........................................................ Body of Letter

Signature & Designation

Fig. NOMA Form

6.3. Memorandums
A memorandum is short piece of writing used by an officer of an organization to communicate within the
organization. The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a note to assist the memory. A memorandum
is used for internal communication between executives and subordinates. It is never sent outside the
organization. Memorandum (memos) may be used for any official communication. Usually, memos are
used for:
 Conveying schedule message
 Submitting periodical reports
 Communicating changes in organization
 Issuing instruction to the staff
 Conforming a decision made at phone
 Asking certain special information
 Writing suggestions
Advantages of Memorandums
 Inexpensive: Because of its hand to hand circulation within the organization, it is
inexpensive means of communication.
 Convenient: It is convenient to write and read memo, as all heading like data, person etc.
 Usually printed in standardized format. Memos take comparatively less time for writing,
transmission and reading than letters.
 Future reference: Memos are usually stored in office files or computer’s discs. As a result, they
can be used for future reference.

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  Quick: Memos ensure quick and smooth flow of information in all directions. With
exchanges of memos, the busy executives and employees can interact with each other without
disturbing their routine.
 Fixing accountability: As memos are records of facts and decisions, they establish
accountability.
Therefore, some organizations prefer to use memos even for small events and request than
telephone/verbal communication.
The Memorandum Format
The memo format is different from that of a letter. Since a memo moves from one department to
another or from one employee to another, it is essential to write the name of the person sending the memo
and the name of the recipient and the designation or department of both the persons. It must also have
reference numbers. The words ‘From’ and ‘To’ are invariably used in memo. There is no salutation and
the writer’s signature is put without writing the subscription or complimentary close. The memo is properly
dated, is written in a direct style and is as brief as possible. The three factors to be kept in mind while
considering the tone are:
 Who is going to read the memo?
 The subject-matter of the memo, and
 The company in house style. The tone of a memo need not be very formal, nor should it be so
informal that it loses all seriousness.
Company Name
Inter-Officer/Mem
o

Date:.........................................................
Ref. No ....................................................
To:............................................................
From.........................................................

Sub:............................................................................................................

Copies to
Fig: Memo Format

6.4. Report Writing

A report is a form of systematic presentation of information relating to an event, progress of action or some
business activity. It is a written statement of results, events, qualities, conditions, progress or
interpretation of records. A report is a basic management tool used in decision-making. A report carries
information from someone who has it someone who need it. Purposes of business report:
It presents factual information to management.
It records fact and results of investigation or survey for future references.
It provides useful information to shareholders, customers, creditors and general public.
It makes recommendation for future use.
Oral and Written Reports

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An oral report is simple and easy to present. It may consist in the communication of an impression or an
observation. But written report is always preferred because:
An oral report can be denied at any time. But written report is a permanent record.
An oral report tends to be vague. In written report, the writer tries to be accurate and precise.
A written report can be referred to again and again.
Distortion during transmission reduces.
Types of Business Reports
A) On the basis of legal formalities
1. Informal reports: It is written in the form of a letter from one person to another. Informal reports
typically do not follow any prescribed form or procedure. They do not have any uniform structure. They
are prepared according to the convenience and requirements of the organization. These reports may be
informative or recommendatory.
2. Formal reports: A formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and is presented
according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority.
• Statutory: A report prepared according to the form & procedure laid down by law is
called statutory report.
• Non-statutory: Formal reports which are not required under any law but which are
prepared to help management in framing policies or taking other important decision are
called non-statutory report.
B) On the basis of the frequency of issue, a report can be periodic or special.
1. Periodic or routine reports: They are prepared and presented at regular prescribed intervals in
the usual routine of business. They may be submitted daily. Branch Manager of banks submits periodic
reports to the Head office on the quantum of business transacted during a particular period.
2. Special reports: They are related to a single occasion or situation. Reports on the desirability
of opening a new branch or on the unrest among staff in a particular branch are special reports. Special
reports deal with non- recurrent problems.
C) On the basis of functions a report can be:
1. Informative. If a report merely presents facts pertinent to an issue or a situation, it is informative.
2. Analytical or interpretative or investigative. On the other hand, if it analyses the facts, draw
conclusions and make recommendations, it may be described as analytical or interpretative or
investigative.
D) On the basis of the nature of the subject dealt with, we can have a
1. Problem-determining report
2. Fact-finding report
3. Performance report
4. Technical report etc.
Characteristics of a Good Report
 Precise and brief
 Accuracy
 Clarity
 Relevant
 Reader-oriented
Guiding Principles of Writing a Report
1. The report should be addressed to some definite authority, i.e. the Managing Director or Board of
Directors.
2. It should contain a short and clear title to know about the report at a glance.

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3. As the report is generally drafted on the advice or request of some reader, it should quote the term of
reference so that it should be clear why the report is required.
4. The body of the report should be planned and should be logical in sequence preferably with headed
paragraph.
5. The recommendations, if any, should be boldly marked so as to invite immediate attention. It may be
signed by the officer responsible for it and it should be dated.
Structure of a Report
1. Letter form: For informal reports, letter form is recommended. Its main part is heading or the title,
data, address, salutation, the body, complimentary close and signature. The body of the letter is further
divided into:
(i) Introduction: It presents the terms of reference and the subject of study. (It states
problem with the term of reference and relevant circumstances).
(ii) Findings: The next few paragraphs present the findings of the investigation.
(iii) Recommendation: It logically follows the findings given in the last paragraph of the
body.
2. Memorandum: It is simplest than letter form. The date is mentioned at the top. It is followed by
the name of the person to whom the report is addressed, the name of the writer
and the subject of the report. Next follows the actual text and the conclusion. As in the letter
form, the text of the report is divided into paragraphs with heading and sub-heading
3. Letter-text combination form: Long reports are usually written in the letter text
combination form. A complete report in this form is divided into three major parts:
(I) Introductory Parts
■ Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation
■ Cover page
■ Title page
■ Preface
■ Acknowledgement
■ Table of contents
■ List of illustrations
■ Abstract/summary or synopsis
(II) Body of the Report
■ Introduction
■ Research methodology
■ Analysis/ Discussion or description
■ Finding
■ Conclusions
■ Recommendations
(III) End Matters
■ List of references
■ Glossary
■ Bibliography
■ Appendices
■ Index

Oral Report presentations

The five basic types of short presentation are:
1. Introduction speech - to introduce a person, project ...etc
2. Briefings - to give short explanation about some thing or somebody you are familiar with.

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3. Information - to give information or new ideas to your audience.
4. Recognition speech - these are talks of special occasions such as presenting awards or recognitions
to an individual or groups.
5. Welcome speech -is to welcome (greet) your guest (s) in a friendly & honorable manner
The fundamental principles of preparing a speech
 Know your subject
 Know your audience
 Be well organized
 Involve your listeners (audiences)
 Plan your conclusion
 Maintain poise (self-control, serf confidence.... avoiding stage fear...etc)
The seven guidelines for presenting the speech
 Look at your audience- make eye contacts
 Vary your volume & speed of voice - create attractive voice
 Speak clearly - pronounce words clearly
 Check your posture & appearance
 Use appropriate gesture
 Make clear transitions -form one idea to another
 Watch & listen for feedback.
Objectives of oral report presentations: Oral business presentations/speeches can have one of the
following objectives:
 Reporting -updating or informing the audience on some issues or events.
 Explaining - detailing how to carry out a procedure or how to operate a new piece of equipment.
 Persuading - convincing the audience to accept an idea you are presenting.
 Motivating - inspiring the listeners to take some action.
Phases of oral report presentations: In general Oral presentation or speech can be organized in three
phases:
The introduction (opening phase)
The body &
The conclusion
i) The introduction (opening) phase: Your opening should introduce the topic, identify the purpose
and preview the presentation in the first few sentences & in the first few minutes of a speech .At this
time your audience members decide either or not to list to you, or whether your topic is important
enough to warrant their consideration. The opening or introduction phase of a presentation has the
following major functions:
 Gain & maintain audience attention
 To state the purpose (subject) of presentation
 Establish your qualification for speaking on the topic
 To motivate the audience
ii) The body: The body of your presentation conveys the real content. Organize the body logically,
according to your topic and audience needs. Here you will develop the points you introduced in the
opening, involving background information, specific evidences, examples, implications, consequences,
and other needed information. Since you usually do not have time to state in your presentation
everything you have done & know about the subjects of the presentation, you need to decide what
Information to include & what to exclude.
iii) The conclusion (Closing phase): The ending of your presentation is your last opportunity to achieve
your objective. Finish your speech leaving the audience with clear and simple message. Your closing
should summarize the main points of the presentation, especially if it has been a long one. Put a
conclusion remarks and make recommendations. And finish smoothly.
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Modes to deliver the presentation: There are four modes to deliver a presentation:
1. The extemporaneous mode - used to make brief talks without heavy dependence on notes. But the
speaker is prepared in advance to do so.
2. The impromptu mode -in this mode a speech is delivered without notes, plans, or formal
preparation, and is characterized by spontaneity & informal language.
Anticipate & plan for situations where you may be asked to make impromptu remarks.
3. Memorized mode -requires considerable practice & allows ample eye contacts, & body movements.
However, this mode discourages the speaker form responding to feedback and choosing words that
might be appreciate at a moment /there is always the danger of forgetting.
4. Reading mode -reading from notes is the most common mode of delivery in academic & business
settings. Writing a speech and reading from the prepared text is helpful if you are dealing with highly
complex or technical topic, if the subject is controversial, or if you have a lot of information.
Develop appropriate visual aids to reinforce your message
People tend to learn and retain more when they both see & listen. Today's audiences often assume that
any formal presentation must be accompanied by some visual elements. Transparences, slides, video,
tape, charts& handouts are the most commonly used visual aids. Visual aids should be simple, readable
and of high quality.

6.5. Business Meeting

Meeting -is a form of face –to- face communication in which two or more people come together for a
formal and purposeful discussion. Meeting can be conducted for the following purposes:
 To exchange information
 To give information
 To make decisions
 To discuss on some idea
However meetings are very costly because time is scarce & payments for the participants are expensive,
they can be effective tools for business communication if managed carefully.
Procedures /steps of a meeting
1. Planning the meeting - in this step, you should
 Identify your purpose
 Determine whether a meeting is necessary or not
 Prepare the agenda- the topics to be covered
 Decide who should attend (select the participants)
 V) Make all the necessary physical preparations -this includes place & facility Preparations.
2. Conducting the meeting: It is the meeting leader who plays a major role for the Success of the
session. To conduct a meeting you should.
Be punctual- begin every meeting on time
Follow the agenda- discuss on the topics prepared and distributed in advance or during the
meting
Lead the meeting: facilitate the progresses of the meeting, keeps track of time and doesn't let the
discussion get bagged down in details. Don't impose your own biases.
Assigning minute secretary to record the proceedings formal meetings require formal minutes of
what took place. The minutes should be accurate, objective and complete
Minutes and responsibilities of minute’s secretary
Any formal meeting, whether it is an ordinary, extra ordinary, business or non – business, requires some
essentials. These are the notice, the agenda and the minutes. In this part these points will be seen.
 The Notice

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The notice is a simple written or oral reminder that notifies participants as where and when the meeting
is going to be held. The notice may sometimes be communicated by telephone. However, it is most
frequently made in writing.
The notice can be sent to the participants with the agenda, at least three days before the date of the
meeting. A description of the type of the meeting, the specific time and the place where it is going to be
held should be included in the notice.
 The Agenda
The agenda can be understood as the items for discussion at the meeting and are essential components of
the notice. The secretary, in consultation with the chairperson, usually prepares the agenda. The agenda
are often printed on the same page just below the notice. Nevertheless, they can also be printed on a
separate page and attached to the notice under very formal conditions. Some items and old businesses
shall take permanent placement in the agenda. These are:
Minutes of the previous meeting
Matters arising from the minutes
Notification of any other items of business
 The Minutes
The minutes are written documents of the proceedings of a formal meeting. They could also be
understood as the abstract of details of what have been discussed at the meeting. Well-recorded minutes
are so important that they facilitate future reference. If once signed by the concerned, they become
legally binding. Minutes can be written in many different ways. In this short session, we will try to deal
only with the contemporary issues that are needed in the production of minutes. Minutes of any formal
meeting, should include the following essentials:
 Description of the meeting/ regular, extra ordinary, special or emergency/
 Identification of the group that meets / board, committee, Department Council, etc./
 Venue, date and time in which the meeting is held
 Identification of the participants in attendance / list of members in attendance and absentees
 Apologies received / if any/
 Reference to the minutes of the previous meeting / accepted as read or amended and then accepted/
Matters arising from the minutes
Reports of action on matters previously presented to the group / old business/
 Reports of action on matters currently presented to the group / new business/
 Adjournment
A minute’s person, usually the secretary, normally takes the verbatim report of the meeting, i.e.
necessary details of what have been discussed including resolutions/ decisions reached at the meeting.
This will definitely enable the minutes person to produce the minutes of the meeting based on the
procedures of minutes taking discussed previously.
3. Post -Meeting period - although the meeting has been held and the participants have dispersed, the
session is not yet over.
E.g. - The decisions, which have been reached, must be carried out.
- The action items implemented, &
- The next step is taken.

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