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CHAPTER -3 • In the absence of an electric field

CURRENT ELECTRICITY electrons are in random motion due to
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GHSS Udma, thermal energy.
Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448)
• The average thermal velocity of electrons
Electric current
is zero.
• It is the rate of flow of electric charge.
• In the presence of an external electric
• The instantaneous current is given by field, electrons are accelerated and
dq acquire an average velocity.
I=
dt • During the random motion, electrons
• Steady current is given by collide with each other or with positive
q metal ions.
I= , q – charge, t- time
t Drift velocity
• Electric current is a scalar quantity. • Average velocity acquired by an electron
• SI unit – ampere (A) in the presence of an electric field.
• 1A= 1C/s Relaxation time
•
Other units are mA= 10-3 A, μA =10-6 A • Average time interval between two
•
Lightning is an example of transient successive collisions.
current. Path of an electron
•
Current in a domestic appliance is of the
order of 1A.
•
Current carried by lightning is of the order
of 104 A.
•
Current in our nerves is of the order of
1 μA.
•
By convention direction of motion of
positive charges (direction opposite to the
motion of electrons) is taken as the
direction of current.
Relation connecting drift velocity and relaxation
Current density (J)
Time
• Current flowing through a unit area held
• The force experienced by the electron in
normal to the direction of current.
an electric field is
F = −eE , where E – electric field
• From Newton’s second law F = ma ,
a- acceleration, m- mass
• Thus, ma = −eE
• Current density is given by
• Therefore acceleration of electron is
I
J= −eE
A cos  a=
m
• Where A –area of cross section, θ – angle
• If an electron accelerates, the velocity
between direction current and area.
attained is given by
• If the area is normal to the current flow,
v1 = u1 + a 1 , u1- initial velocity, τ1- time
θ=0, thus J = I
A • Similarly
• 2
Unit – A/m and dimensions are [AL ] -2 v2 = u2 + a 2
• Current density is a vector quantity. v3 = u3 + a 2
→ →
• Also I = JA cos = J . A ..................
Mechanism of current flow in conductors v N = uN + a N
• Metals have large number of free • Thus the average velocity (drift velocity)
electrons nearly 1028electrons / cm3. is given by
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v1 + v2 + ...... + vN Difference between emf and potential difference

v=
N
emf Potential Difference
u1 + a 1 + u2 + a 2 + ...... + uN + a N
v= The difference in The difference in
N
potential between potential between
u + u + ...... + uN a ( 1 +  2 + ...... +  N ) the terminals of a the terminals of a cell
v= 1 2 +
N N cell, when no current or between any two
v = 0 + a = a is drawn from it. points in a circuit
• Therefore the drift velocity is given by when current is
eE drawn from the cell.
v=−
m Exists only between Exists throughout the
• Where , τ – relaxation time the terminals of the circuit.
Relation connecting drift velocity and current cell.

It is the cause It is the after effect.

Always greater than Always less than emf

potential difference

Ohm’s law
• The number of electrons in the length l of • At constant temperature the current
the conductor = nAl flowing through a conductor is directly
• Where n- electron density (number of proportional to potential difference
electrons per unit volume) , A – area of between the ends of the conductor.
cross section. • Thus V = IR ,
• Thus total charge q = nAle , e – charge V- potential difference, I – current,
of electron R- resistance
• The electron which enter the conductor at Resistance
the right end will pass through the • Ability of conductor to oppose electric
conductor at left end in time current.
l V
t = , v- drift velocity of electrons R=
v I
q nAle • SI unit – ohm (Ω)
• Thus the current, I = = = nAve Factors affecting resistance of a conductor
t l
v • Nature of material
• That is • Proportional to length of the conductor
I = nAve • Inversely proportional to area of cross
n-electron density, A –area, v- drift velocity, section.
e- electron charge • Proportional to temperature
I nAve Relation connecting resistance and resistivity
• The current density J = = = nve
A A l
R=
A
Mobility (μ) Where ρ- resistivity, A – area, l- length
• Ratio of magnitude of drift velocity to the Resistivity (specific resistance)
electric field. • Resistivity of the material of a conductor
eE is defined as the resistance of the
e conductor having unit length and unit
= m =
E m area of cross section.
• SI unit of mobility is CmN-1s-1 RA
=
l
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• Unit – ohm meter (Ωm) • It is not a universal law.

• Resistivity of conductor depends on • The relation between V and I is not linear.
nature of material and Temperature
Conductance (G)
• Reciprocal of resistance
1
G=
R
• Unit- Ω-1, or mho or siemens (S)
Conductivity (σ)
• The relation between V and I is not
• Reciprocal of resistivity
unique, i.e., there is more than one value
1
= of V for the same current I ( A material

exhibiting such behaviour is GaAs)
• Unit- Ω-1m-1, or mho m-1, or S m-1
Ohmic conductor
• A conductor which obeys ohm’s law.
• Eg:- metals
V-I graph of an ohmic conductor

Vector form of ohm’s law

• We have V = El
I l
• From ohm’s law, V = IR =
A
Non ohmic conductors
I l
• Conductor which does not obey ohm’s • Thus El =
law. A
I
• Eg :- diode, transistors, electrolytes etc. • That is E = = J
V-I graph of a non- ohmic conductor (Diode) A
→ → → →
• Therefore E =  J or J =  E
Classification of materials in terms of resistivity
• Conductors
Resistivity between 10-8 Ωm and 10-6 Ωm
• Semiconductors
Circuit diagram for the experimental study of Resistivity between 10-6 Ωm and 104 Ωm
ohm’s law • Insulators
Resistivity > 104 Ωm
Relation connecting resistivity and relaxation
time
eE
• We have the drift velocity v =
m
Limitations of ohm’s law V
• The relation between V and I depends on • Using E = , we get
l
the sign of V.
eV 
v=
ml
• Substituting v in I = nAve
nAe 2V
I=
ml
V ml
• That is =
I nAe2
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V Brown 1 101
• From ohm’s law R =
I Red 2 102
ml Orange 3 103
• Therefore R = Yellow 4 104
nAe2
Green 5 105
l
• Comparing with the equation R = Blue 6 106
A Violet 7 107
m Grey 8 108
• Resistivity ,  =
ne2 White 9 109
Copper is used as for making connecting wires Gold 10-1 ±5%
• Copper has low resistivity. Silver 10-2 ±10%
Nichrome is used as heating element of No color ±20%
electrical devices
• Nichrome has High resistivity
• High melting point.
Why materials like constantan and manganin 4 - Band code
are used to make standard resistances?
• Resistance does not change with
temperature.
• Material has high resistivity.
Resistors
• Example
• The resistor is a passive electrical
component to create resistance in the
flow of electric current.
Symbol
Constant resisstance Variable resistance Resistance = ( 22 × 102 Ω) ± 10%

Commercial resistors
Wire bound resistors
• Made by winding the wires of an alloy,
Resistance = ( 47 × 10 Ω) ± 5%
like, manganin , constantan, nichrome or
5 - Band code
similar ones, around a ceramic, plastic, or
fiberglass core.
• They are relatively insensitive to
temperature.
• Large length is required to make high
resistance.
Carbon resistors
• Made from a mixture of carbon black, clay
and resin binder.
• Are enclosed in a ceramic or plastic jacket.
• Carbon resistors are small in size , and
inexpensive.

• The colors brown, red, green, blue, and

Colour code of resistors violet are used as tolerance codes on 5-
Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance band resistors only.
Black 0 100
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• All 5-band resistors use a colored

• Resistivity of alloys like, Nichrome,
Manganin, Constantan , is almost
tolerance band.
independent of temperature.
• Thus alloys are used to make wire bound
resistors.
Temperature – resistivity graph (Nichrome)
Temperature dependence of resistivity
m
• We have  = 2
ne 
• When temperature is increased, average
speed of the electrons increases and
hence number of collision increases.
• Thus the average time of collisions τ,
decreases with temperature.
Metals (Conductors)
• In a metal number of free electrons per Semiconductors
unit volume does not depend on • The electron density (n) increases with
temperature. temperature.
• When temperature is increased, • Thus resistivity decreases with
relaxation time decreases and hence temperature.
resistivity increases. • α is negative.
• The temperature dependence of Temperature – resistivity graph
resistivity of a metallic conductor is given
by
T = 0 1 +  (T − T0 )
• Where ρT – resistivity at a temperature T,
ρ0 - resistivity at a lower temperature T0,
α -temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• Thus for conductors resistivity increases
with temperature. Insulators
Temperature coefficient of resistivity (α) • The electron density (n) increases with

= T
(  − 0 ) temperature.
0 (T − T0 ) • Resistivity decreases with temperature.
Combination of resistors
• Unit of α is 0C-1.
Resistors in Series
• For metals α is positive.
Temperature – resistivity graph (copper )

• In series connection same current pass

through all resistors.
Alloys • The potential drop is different for each
resistor.
• The applied potential is given by
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V = V1 + V2 + V3 • Resistance offered by the electrolytes and

• Where V1, V2 and V3 are the potential drop electrodes of a cell.
across resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively. Factors affecting internal resistance
• If all the resistors are replaced with a • Nature of electrolytes
single effective resistance RS , we get • Directly proportional to the distance
V = IRS between electrodes
• Directly proportional to the concentration
• Thus IRS = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
of electrolytes.
• Therefore the effective resistance is • Inversely proportional to the area of the
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 electrodes.
• For n resistors • Inversely proportional to the temperature
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..........Rn of electrolyte.
• Thus effective resistance increases in Relation connecting emf and internal resistance
series combination.
Resistors in parallel

• In parallel connection current is different • Effective resistance = R+r

through each resistors. 
• The potential drop is same for all • Thus the current is I =
R+r
resistors.
• Where  –emf, R- external resistance,
• The total current r- internal resistance.
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 • That is I ( R + r ) =   IR + Ir = 
• If all resistors are replaced with an • From ohm’s law, V=IR, therefore
effective resistor of resistance RP, we get  −V
V r=
I= I
RP • The potential is given by
• Thus V =  − Ir
V V V V Combination of cells
= + +
RP R 1 R 2 R 3 Cells in series
• Therefore the effective resistance in
parallel combination is
1 1 1 1
= + +
RP R 1 R 2 R 3
• For n resistors in parallel • In series connection current is same; the
1
=
1
+
1
+
1
+ .... +
1 potential difference across the cells is
RP R 1 R 2 R 3 Rn different.
• For two resistors • The potential difference across the first
R1R2 cell is VAB = 1 − Ir1
RP =
R1 + R2 • Similarly VBC =  2 − Ir2
• Thus effective resistance decreases in • Thus total potential across AC is
parallel combination. VAC = VAB + VBC
• That is VAC = 1 − Ir1 +  2 − Ir2
Internal resistance of a cell (r)
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VAC = (1 +  2 ) − I ( r1 + r2 ) V =  eq − Ireq , we get

• If the two cells are replaced with a single  r + r 
cell of emf  eq and internal resistance req,  eq =  1 2 2 1 
 r1 + r2 
we have , VAC =  eq − Ireq
 rr 
• Comparing the equations we get req =  1 2 
 eq = (1 +  2 )  r1 + r2 
• Or
req = ( r1 + r2 )
• For n cells in series
 eq = 1 +  2 + ..... +  n
req = r1 + r2 + ...... + rn
• If the negatives of the cells are connected
together • If the negative terminal of the second is
 eq = 1 −  2 (1   2 ) connected to positive terminal of the first,
the equations are valid with ( 2 → − 2 )
Cells in parallel
• For n cells in parallel

Joule’s law of heating

• The heat energy dissipated in a current
flowing conductor is given by
• In parallel connection current is different H = I 2 Rt
and potential is same. • I- current, R –resistance, t –time
• For the first cell , V = 1 − I1r1 Electric power
 −V • It is the energy dissipated per unit time.
• Thus I1 = 1
r1 H
• Power , P = = I 2R
• Similarly for the second cell, V =  2 − I 2 r2 t
V2
 −V • Also P = VI =
I2 = 2 R
r2
• SI unit is watt (W)
• The total current is given by • 1 kilo watt (1kW) = 1000W
I = I1 + I 2
• 1mega watt (MW) = 106W
1 − V 2 −V • Another unit horse power (hp)
I= +
r1 r2 • 1 hp = 746 W
• That is Electrical energy
   1 1 • Electrical energy = electrical power X time
I =  1 + 2  −V  +  • SI unit – joule (J)
 r1 r2   r1 r2 
• Commercial unit – kilowatt hour (kWh)
 r + r   r + r  • 1kWh = 3.6 x 106 J.
V  1 2 = 1 2 2 1−I
 r1r2   r1r2  Efficiency
 r + r   rr  • The efficiency of an electrical device is
• Thus V =  1 2 2 1  − I  1 2  𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
 r1 + r2   r1 + r2  𝜂=
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
• Comparing this with the equation Kirchhoff’s rule
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First rule (junction rule or current rule)

• Algebraic sum of the current meeting at
junction is zero.
• Thus , Current entering a junction =
current leaving the junction

Wheatstone’ s principle
I1 + I 2 + I 3 − I 4 − I 5 = 0
• If galvanometer current is zero, P = R
Sign convention Q S
• Current entering the junction – positive Derivation of balancing condition
• Current leaving the junction - negative • Applying voltage rule to the loop ABDA
Second rule (loop rule or voltage rule) I1 P + I g G − I 2 R = 0
• Algebraic sum of the products of the • For the loop BCDB
current and resistance in a closed circuit is
equal to the net emf in it. ( ) ( )
I1 − I g Q − I 2 + I g S − I gG = 0
• This rule is a statement of law of • When the bridge is balanced Ig=0.
conservation of energy. • Thus I1P − I 2 R = 0 and I1Q − I 2 S = 0
Sign convention • Or , I1P = I 2 R and I1Q = I 2 S
• Current in the direction of loop – positive
• Thus P R
=
• Current opposite to loop - negative Q S
• This is the balancing condition of a
Wheatstone bridge.
Meter bridge (slide wire bridge)
• Works on Wheatstone’s principle.
• Used to find resistance of a wire.
Circuit diagram
Illustration

• Where k – key, X – unknown resistance,

R- known resistance, HR- high resistance,
Loop ABCFA
G – Galvanometer, J – Jockey
I1R1 − I 2 R2 = E1 − E2
Equation to find unknown resistance
Loop CDEFC • From wheatstone’s principle
I 2 R2 + ( I1 + I 2 ) R3 = E2 P R
=
Q S
• Here P – unknown resistance , Q- known
resistance, R- resistance of the wire of
Wheatstone’ s bridge
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length l , S - resistance of wire of length

(100-l).
• The length l for which galvanometer
shows zero deflection – balancing length.
• Thus
X lr
= • We have, E1  l1 and E2  l2
R (100 − l ) r
• Where r – resistance per unit length of the E l
• Thus 1 = 1
meterbridge wire. E 2 l2
• Therefore the unknown resistance is given • l1- balancing length with cell E1
by • l2- balancing length with cell E2
X =
Rl • To get the balancing length E1>E2
(100 − l ) To find internal resistance
• The resistivity of the resistance wire can Circuit diagram
be calculated using the formula
 r2 X
=
l
Where r – radius of the wire, l –length of
the wire.
Potentiometer
• A device used to measure an unknown
emf or potential difference accurately. • when the key K1 is open
Principle   l1
• When a steady current (I) flows through a • when the key K1 is closed
wire of uniform area of cross section, the V  l2
potential difference between any two  l1
• Thus =
points of the wire is directly proportional V l2
to the length of the wire between the two
• But we have
points. V = IR
• From ohm’s law , V = IR  = I ( R + r)
.
I l
• That is . V = r – internal resistance
A  I ( R + r) ( R + r)
• Therefore = =
• Therefore , Vl or V = kl V IR R
𝑉
• Thus = 𝑘, where k – constant. ( R + r ) l1
𝑙 • Thus =
𝑉 R l2
– potential gradient.
𝑙
Uses of potentiometer • The internal resistance is given by
• To compare the emf of two cells R ( l1 − l2 )
r=
• To find the internal resistance of a cell l2
• Where l1- balancing length, key K1open,
l2- balancing length, key K1 closed.
Why potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter
for measuring emf of a cell?
Comparison of emfs • In potentiometer null method is used, so
Circuit diagram no energy loss in measurement.
******