Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

UNIT II - D.C. CIRCUITS

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Course Objectives:

■ 1. To impart knowledge of Electric, Magnetic and

Electronic circuits
■ 2. To develop an understanding of the fundamentals of
AC and DC circuits
■ 3. To give exposure to analyze circuits of
semiconductor diodes and transistors.
■ 4. To equip the students with the ability to understand
IC technology with examples of analog and digital
circuits

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Course Outcomes:
■ After completion of this course students will be able to
■ 1. Understand AC signal generation and AC circuit
analysis (CLII)
■ 2. Apply DC circuit analysis techniques (CL III)
■ 3. Identify and understand basic electronic circuits
using diodes and transistors (CL-II)
■ 4. Develop simple OPAMP-based circuits and
combinational logic circuits (CL-III)

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Learning Resources:
Reference Books:
1. Hughes, “Electrical and Electronic Technology”, 10th Edition, Pearson
2. Cotton H., “Electrical Technology”, 7th Ed., C.B.S. Publication.
3. Theraja B.L., “Electrical Technology”, Vol. I and II, 2005, S. Chand
4. R.P. Jain, Modern Digital Electronics. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, 4th Edition,
2009
Supplementary Reading:
1. Nagrath I.J. and Kothari D.P., “Theory and Problems of Basic Electrical Engineering”,
2005, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd
2. Floyd Thomas, “Electronic Devices”, Prentice Hall, 9th Edition 2012
Links

https://legacy-uploads.ul.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/2016/02/Internet-of-Things-w
hite-paper_final.pdf.pdf

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Contents

D.C. Circuits: Basic active and passive circuit

elements, dependent and independent
sources, series, parallel, star to delta and
delta to star conversion, KCL, KVL,
Thevenin’s Theorem, Superposition Theorem
(10L)

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Learning Resources
■ DC series ccts- https://youtu.be/VV6tZ3Aqfuc
■ Dc parallel ccts- https://youtu.be/5uyJezQNSHw

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Circuit Elements

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Basic Passive Circuit Elements
■ A passive element is an electrical component that does
not generate power.
instead

■ dissipates, stores, and/or releases it

■ Passive elements include resistances, capacitors, and
coils (inductors).
■ In most circuits, they are connected to active elements,
typically semiconductor devices such as amplifiers and
digital logic chips.

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1. Resistance

• Resistance (R) : Property of an electric circuit tending to prevent

the flow of current and at the same time causes electrical
energy to be converted to heat is called resistance.
R = ρl/A
l - length in meters
ρ – Resistivity in ohms-meters
R-Resistance in ohms
A- cross-sectional area in square meters
Conductance (G): reciprocal of resistance, indication of ease
with which current can flow through the material, measured in
unit Siemens
Denoted as G = 1/R

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2. Inductor
• Inductance which has the symbol “L” and is measured in
Henries (H), is the element used for the storage of energy in
the form of an electromagnetic field.
• An inductor is a passive device that can store or deliver energy
but cannot generate it.
• An ideal inductor is lossless, meaning that it can store energy
indefinitely as no energy is lost as heat.
• Inductors present a low impedance path to DC current and a
high impedance path to AC current.
• The impedance of an inductor called inductive reactance
varies with frequency and in an ideal inductor the current of
the AC sine wave lags the voltage by 90o.

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3. Capacitor
■ A capacitor stores its energy electrostatically as a charge across its plates.
■ A capacitor is made up of two or more conducting plates which are
separated by a dielectric material.
■ Capacitance, “C” is the property of a capacitor which opposes any
changes in the voltage across it as defined by the constant of
proportionality as the current flowing through it is proportional to the
rate of change of voltage across it with respect to time.
■ Capacitors present a low impedance path to AC signals but will block DC.
■ The impedance of a capacitor called capacitive reactance varies with
frequency and in an ideal capacitor the voltage of the AC sine wave lags
the current by 90o.
■ Capacitance is always a positive value.

C=Q/V
.

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Basic Passive components

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 Dependent and Independent sources

■ Sources can be either independent or dependent of/upon

some other quantities.

■ Independent voltage (or current) source maintains a voltage

(or current) which is not affected by any other quantity.

There are two principal types of sources, namely voltage source

and current source.

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 Independent sources

Independent voltage source Independent current source

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Ideal Voltage Source
■ An ideal voltage source has no internal resistance.
■ It can produce as much current as is needed to provide
power to the rest of the circuit.
■ The voltage generated by the source never fluctuates
and is not affected by the amount of current drawn by
the circuit.

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Practical Voltage Source
Practical Voltage source:
■ A practical voltage source has internal resistance
■ Due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and
it causes the terminal voltage to reduce.

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Ideal and Practical current sources
■ An Ideal current source in Figure C, is a two-terminal circuit
element which supplies the same current to any load
resistance connected across its terminals.
■ An ideal current source always generates its exact rated
current and is not affected by the characteristics of the
circuit to which it is connected.
■ A practical current source in Figure D, has large value of
internal resistance. Current varies with respect to the
voltage across the element.

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 Source Transformation
■ Current to Voltage and vice versa
■ Using Ohm’s Law : current through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points.

Current to Voltage transformation Voltage to Current transformation

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 Dependent sources

■ A dependent source is a voltage source or a current

source whose value depends on a voltage or current
somewhere else in the network.
■ In general, dependent source is represented by a diamond
shaped symbol as not to confuse it with an independent
source. One can classify dependent voltage and current
sources into four types of sources as shown in fig.
■ Examples: A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) can be modeled
as a dependent current source whose magnitude depends on
the magnitude of the current fed into its controlling base
terminal.
■ An operational amplifier (OpAmp) can be described as a
voltage source dependent on the differential input voltage
between its input terminals
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 Dependent sources
■ Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS):
The source delivers the voltage as per the voltage of the dependent element
In the VCVS dependent source μ is voltage gain because it’s the ratio of the
voltage output to the voltage input.
■ Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS):
The source delivers the voltage as per the current of the dependent element
In the CCVS dependent source, the proportionality constant r is called the
transresistance because its input-output relationship takes the form of Ohm’s
law: v = iR. V2/V1= µ Or V2= r I1

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 Dependent sources
■ Voltage-controlled current source(VCCS):
The source delivers the current as per the voltage of the dependent element
Similarly, the VCCS dependent source has a proportionality constant g, called
the transconductance, following a variation of Ohm’s law: i = Gv (where the
conductance G = 1/R).
■ Current-controlled current source(CCCS):
The source delivers the current as per the current of the dependent element
For the CCCS dependent source, you can think of the proportionality constant
β as the current gain because it’s the ratio of current output to current input.

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Series Networks
Volt drops in a series circuit:
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Since, in general, V = IR, then V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 =
IR3, the current I being the same in each resistor.
Substituting in equation
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
For the complete circuit, the effective resistance of
the load R represents the
ratio of the supply voltage to the circuit current
whence
V = IR
but V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
hence IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
and R = R1 + R2 + R3
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Series Networks
■ Calculate for each of the circuits shown in Fig. the
current flowing in the circuit given that R = 3 kΩ.

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Series Networks
■ Calculate the voltage across each of the resistors shown
in Fig. and hence calculate the supply voltage V.

V1 = IR1 = 1.5 × 2 = 3.0 V

V2 = IR2 = 1.5 × 3 = 4.5 V
V3 = IR3 = 1.5 × 8 = 12.0 V
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = 3.0 + 4.5 + 12.0 = 19.5 V

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 Series Networks
Voltage division between two resistors:
The total resistance of the circuit is

The ratio of the voltages therefore depends on the ratio of the resistances.
This permits a rapid determination of the division of volt drops in a simple
series circuit and the arrangement is called a voltage divider.
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Series Networks
■ A voltage divider is to give an output voltage of 10 V
from an input voltage of 30 V as indicated in Fig. Given
that R2 = 100 Ω, calculate the resistance of R1.

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Parallel networks
Currents in a parallel network:

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Parallel networks
■ Calculate the supply current to the network shown in
Fig.

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Parallel networks
■ For the network shown in Fig. 3.20, calculate the
effective resistance and hence the supply current.

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 Parallel networks
For the combination of two resistors in parallel, as shown in Fig. the
effective resistance R is given by

Two parallel resistors share a supply

current.

The current in one resistor is that portion of the total given by the ratio of the other
resistance
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Parallel networks
■ A current of 8 A is shared between two resistors in the network
shown in Fig. Calculate the current in the 2 Ω resistor, given that
(a) R1 = 2 Ω;
(b) R1 = 4 Ω.

From this, it is seen that equal resistances

share the current equally.

The lesser resistance which takes the greater

part of the supply current.
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Series and Parallel network Summery
Series network Parallel network

Current The current is the same in all

parts of the circuit
I = I1 = I2 = I3

Voltage The total voltage equals the

sum of the voltages across the
different parts of the circuit
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Resistance The total resistance equals
the sum of the separate
resistances
R = R1 + R2 + R3
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Kirchhoff’s Current(first) Law
■ Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that: ‘the algebraic sum of
currents at a node is zero’.
Or
■ The sum of currents entering the junction is thus equal
to the sum of currents leaving

a) A ‘node’ is the technical term

for a junction in a circuit, where
two or more branches are joined
together.

b) The phrase ‘algebraic sum’

reminds us that we have to
take account of the current
direction, as well as
magnitude, when applying
Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
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Kirchhoff’s Current Law
For the network junction shown in Fig., calculate the current I3, given
that I1 = 3 A, I2 = 4 A and I4 = 2 A.

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law
■ With reference to the network shown in Fig. determine
the relationship between the currents I1, I2, I4 and I5.

Kirchhoff ’s Current (first)

law need not only apply
to a junction but may
also apply to a section of
a network.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage(second) Law
■ ‘The algebraic sum of voltages around a closed circuit
loop is zero’.
■ There’s the phrase ‘algebraic sum’ again, so we must
recognize that the direction of voltages matters when
using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

Apply KVL :
10 – Vr1 – Vr2 – Vr3 = 0

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
■ For the network shown in Fig. determine the voltages V1
and V3.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
■ Figure shows a network with two sources of e.m.f.
Calculate the voltage V1 and the e.m.f. E2.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
■ Figure shows a network with two sources of e.m.f.
Calculate the voltage V1 and the e.m.f. E2.

Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the

left-hand loop,
E1 = V1 + V2
V1 = E1 − V2 = 10 − 6 = 4 V

The right-hand loop gives

−E2 = −V2 − V3
E2 = V2 + V3 = 6 + 8 = 14 V

These results may be checked by considering the outside loop

E1 − E2 = V1 − V3
10 − 14 = 4 − 8
which confirms the earlier results.
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Numerical 1
■ Calculate the currents in the network shown in Figure.

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Numerical 1
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop 1:
10 = 1I1 + 18(I1 + I2)
10 = 19I1 + 18I2 (a)
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop 2:
20 = 2I2 + 18(I1 + I2)
20 = 18I1 + 20I2 (b)
(a) × 10: 100 = 190I1 + 180I2 (c)
(b) × 9: 180 = 162I1 + 180I2 (d)
(d) − (c): 80 = −28I1
I1 = −2.85 A
Substituting in (a)
10 = −54.34 + 18I2
I2 = 3.57 A
Current in 18 Ω resistor is
3.57 − 2.85 = 0.72 A
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Numerical 2
■ For the network shown in Fig. determine the supply
current and the source e.m.f.
EMF (ϵ) is the amount of energy (E) provided by the battery to each
coulomb of charge (Q) passing through.
Since R3 and R4 are in parallel
V3 = I4R4 = 3 × 8 = 24 V = I3R3 = I3 × 16
I3= 24/16 =1.5 A

By Kirchhoff’s first law

I = I3 + I4 = 1.5 + 3 = 4.5 A
Also V1 = IR1 = 4.5 × 8 = 36 V
V2 = IR2 = 4.5 × 6 = 27 V
By Kirchhoff’s second law
E = V1 + V2 + V3 = 36 + 27 + 24 = 87 V
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Numerical 3
■ Given the network shown in Fig. determine I1, E, I3 and I.

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Numerical 4
■ Calculate the currents in the network shown in Fig.

Current in 18 Ω resistor is
20/18 = 1.1 A
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the outside loop:
20 − 10 = −I1 × 1
I1 = −10 A
I2 = −(−10) + 1.1 = 11.1 A

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Superposition theorem

■ The Superposition theorem states that, the response in a

particular branch of the network when multiple
independent sources are acting at the same time is
equivalent to the sum of the responses due to each
independent source acting at a time.
■ The current in, or the potential difference across, any
branch can be found by considering each source
separately and adding their effects
■ Omitted sources of e.m.f. are replaced by resistances
equal to their internal resistances.

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Superposition theorem
■ By means of the Superposition theorem, calculate the
currents in the network shown in Figure.

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 Superposition theorem
Because there are two sources of e.m.f. in the network, then two
separate networks need to be considered, each having one source of
e.m.f.

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Superposition theorem
■

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Superposition theorem

I2c + I1c = 6.78 − 6.42 = 0.36 A

Thus I1 = I1b + I1c = 3.57 − 6.42 = −2.85 A

and I2 = I2b + I2c = −3.21 + 6.78 = 3.57 A

also I1 + I2 = −2.85 + 3.57 = 0.72 A

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Numerical 2
■ Find the current through 2Ω resistor using superposition
theorem in the given circuit

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Numerical 2
Step 1
■ At first, find the current through 2Ω resistor with 48V source acting
alone. Hence replace the 24 V source by a short circuit.
■ To find the current I2, find the total current supplied by the source
(I1) with its total resistance. Then apply current division rule and
find the current through 2Ω resistor with 48V source acting alone.
■ Calculations for this step is as follows:

■ Here, the current supplied by the 48V source is 6.86 Amperes.

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Numerical 2
Step 2
■ Now consider the 24V source alone and replace 48 V source by a
short circuit.
■ Now find the total resistance of the circuit and find the total current
supplied by the source.
■ Then apply current division rule at node ‘A’ and by find the current
through 2 Ω resistor while 24V source acting alone.

■ Here, the current supplied by the 24V source is 1.71 Amperes.

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Numerical 2
Step 3
■ Finally, add the two currents considering their direction.
■ Here the two currents are flowing into the 2Ω resistor with the
same direction. So the total current flowing through 2Ω will be
the algebraic sum of I2 due to 48V and I2 due to 24V .

■ Finally, the current through the 2Ω resistor is 8.57 amperes.

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Numerical 3
■ Find the current through 20Ω resistor using
superposition theorem.

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Numerical 3

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Numerical 3

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Numerical 4
■ Find the current through branch AB using superposition
theorem.

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Numerical 4

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Numerical 4

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Numerical 5
■ Find the current through 10 Ω resistance in the given
network by using superposition theorem?

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Numerical 5
Step 1: Activating ‘16V’ source at a time, other will be
deactivated.
I1a I2a
> >

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 Numerical 5
Step 2:After deactivation of ‘16V’ voltage source by short
circuit

So, current in 10Ω resistor- I1 = 4 A.

Resultant current through 10 ohms = 0.5-4= 3.5 A (right to left)
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Numerical 5
■ Direction of current when single source is active and other is deactivated
through 10Ω resistance will be shown with their value, as shown below

■ Finally, the current through 10Ω resistance is 3.5A

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Thevenin’s theorem
■ Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify
any linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an
equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and
series resistance connected to a load.

■ Thevenin’s Theorem makes this easy by temporarily

removing the load resistance from the original circuit
and reducing what’s left to an equivalent circuit
composed of a single voltage source and series
resistance. The load resistance can then be re-connected
to this “Thevenin equivalent circuit” and calculations
carried out as if the whole network were nothing but a
simple series circuit.

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Thevenin’s theorem
■ The current through a resistor R connected across any two
points A and B of an active linear network [i.e. a network
containing one or more sources of e.m.f.] is obtained by
dividing the potential difference between A and B, with R
disconnected, by (R + r), where r is the resistance of the
network measured between points A and B with R
disconnected and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their
internal resistances.
OR
■ An active network having two terminals A and B can be
replaced by a constant-voltage source having an e.m.f. E and
an internal resistance r.
■ The value of E is equal to the open-circuit potential
difference between A and B, and r is the resistance of the
network measured between A and B with the load
disconnected and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their
internal resistances.
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Thevenin’s theorem
■ Suppose A and B in Fig. (a) to be the two terminals of a network
consisting of resistors having resistances R2 and R3 and a battery
having an e.m.f. E1 and an internal resistance R1. It is required to
determine the current through a load of resistance R connected across
AB. With the load disconnected as in Fig. (b),

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Thevenin’s theorem
Since there is no current through R2, potential difference across AB is

Figure (c) shows the network with the load disconnected and the battery
replaced by its internal resistance R1. Resistance of network between A and
B is

Thevenin’s theorem merely states that the active network enclosed by the
dotted line in Fig. (a) can be replaced by the very simple circuit enclosed by
the dotted line in Fig. (d) and consisting of a source having an e.m.f. E equal
to the open-circuit potential difference V between A and B, and an internal
resistance r, where V and r have the values determined above. Hence

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Numerical 1
( Same as Numerical 4 with Superposition Thm,
slide 54)
■ In Fig. (a) C and D represent the two terminals of an
active network. Calculate the current through R3 using
Thevenin’s theorem

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Numerical 1 Solution- Step 1
■ With R3 disconnected, as in Fig. (b),

E1-E2-I1*R2 – I1*R1=0

OR E = E2 + (0.4 * 3) = 5.2V

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Numerical 1 Solution –Step 2
■ When the e.m.f.s are removed, as in Fig. (c), total resistance
between C and D is

■ Hence the network in Fig. (a) can be replaced by a single source

having an e.m.f. of 5.2 V and an internal resistance of 1.2 Ω, as in
Fig. (d); consequently the current thru’ R3 is

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Numerical 2

■ Calculate the current through 40Ω resistor using

Thevenin’s theorem

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Numerical 2 -Solution- step 1
Find the Equivalent Voltage:
■ Remove the center 40Ω load resistor connected across the
terminals A-B
Applying KVL
20- I* 20 – I * 10 – 10 =0

■ The voltage drop across the 20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be
calculated as:
VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.
or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.
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Numerical 2 Solution- Step 2

Find the Equivalent Resistance:

■ Remove any internal resistance associated with the
voltage source(s).

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Numerical 2 Solution- Step 3
■ Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a
series resistance of 6.67Ω and a voltage source of 13.33 V.
With the 40Ω resistor connected back into the circuit we
get:

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Numerical 3
■ Calculate the current through 16Ω resistor using
Thevenin’s theorem

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Numerical 3- Solution

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Numerical 3 Solution

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Numerical 4
■ Calculate the current through 10Ω resistor using
Thevenin’s theorem

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Numerical 4 Solution

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Numerical 4

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Numerical 4 Solution

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Delta–star transformation
■ Figure (a) shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected
in a closed mesh or delta to three terminals A, B and C,
their numerical subscripts 1, 2 and 3 being opposite to
the terminals A, B and C respectively.
■ It is possible to replace these delta-connected resistors
by three resistors Ra, Rb and Rc connected respectively
between the same terminals A, B and C and a common
point S, as in Fig. (b). Such an arrangement is said to be
star-connected.

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Why?

Calculation of equivalent resistance using

delta to star (Wye) conversion

Delta

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Delta–star transformation
For Fig. (a), we have

----------- [1]

For Fig. (b), we have

RAB = Ra + Rb ----------- [2]
In order that the networks of Fig. (a) and (b) may be equivalent to each
other, the values of RAB represented by expressions [1] and [2] must be
equal.

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Delta–star transformation

----------- [3]
■ ----------- [1]

----------- [4]

----------- [5]

Subtracting equation [4] from [3], we have

----------- [6]

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Delta–star transformation
Adding equations [5] and [6] and dividing by 2, we have

----------- [7]

----------- [8]

----------- [9]

These relationships may be expressed thus: the equivalent star

resistance connected to a given terminal is equal to the product of the
two delta resistances connected to the same terminal divided by the
sum of the delta resistances.

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Star–delta transformation
■ Let us next consider how to replace the star-connected
network of Fig. (b) by the equivalent delta-connected
network of Fig. (a).
Dividing equation [7] by equation [8], we have

Similarly, dividing equation [7] by equation [9], we have

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Star–delta transformation
Substituting for R2 and R3 in equation [7], we have

--------- [10]

--------- [11]

--------- [12]
These relationships may be expressed thus as: the equivalent delta resistance
between two terminals is the sum of the two star resistances connected to
those terminals plus the product of the same two star resistances divided by
the third star resistance.

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Star to Delta Transformation

R12= 17.5 Ohms

R31=70 Ohms
R23=35 ohms
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Numerical 1
■ Convert given delta into star

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 Numerical 1-Solution
■ Convert given delta into star

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 Numerical 2
■ Convert given star into its equivalent Delta

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 Numerical 2
■ Convert given star into its equivalent Delta

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Numerical 3
■ Determine the resistance between the terminals X and Y
for the circuit shown below.

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Numerical 3 Solution

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Numerical 3 Solution

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Numerical 4
■ Calculate resistance between terminal AB

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Numerical 4 Solution

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Numerical 4 Solution

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Find R between A and B

Ans:
RAB=9.07 Ohms

Ans:
RAB=

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Extra Resources
■ Multisim cct analysis
https://youtu.be/2SOyJYQQflU

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