Savchenko Solutions

Stefan Nicov, Aliaksandr Melnichenka et al.

July 2023

Here you can find the the solutions to the 1 Kinematics

Savchenko problem book. My advice would be to try
really hard to solve the problem before checking the
solution. 1.1 Constant Speed Motion
Feedback and suggestions are welcomed at:
[email protected] m
1.1.1 v = 200 s .
[email protected]
km
1.1.2 v = 0.7 s ; southeast.

1.1.3 v = 3 m
s ; 1 m from the ceiling and 2 m from the
side wall.

1.1.4 At a distance of 1.15 m from counter A.

A −2tB −tC
1.1.5 AO = L 3t2(t A −tB )
, tO = tB − 12 (tA − tB ).

1.1.6 l′ = l (v−u)
(v+u)

0 −τ )
1.1.7 v = c (τ
(τ0 +τ )

1.1.8 ν ′ = ν (w−u)
(w−v)

1.1.9 a. At t < vl the boundary of the region is a cone

with the apex at distance vt from the end of the
rod, passing into a sphere of radius ut touching
it. At t > vl - spheres with centers at the end of
the rod and radius ut and u(t− vl ) with a tangent
conic surface. b∗ . cos α = uv .

1.1.10 From the region bounded by the angle α =

2 arcsin( uv ) with vertex at point A, whose bisector
is the highway.
cl
1.1.11 v = √
l2 −c2 ∆t2
.
v
1.1.12 u = sin α

1.1.13 See figure

1.1.14 The ordinate and abscissa of the

intersection point of the graphs x1 = vt
v(t−t1 )
and x2 = a + 2 give the time and
coordinate of the point of particle collision:
(2a−vt1 )
t′ = v , x′ = 2a − vt1
m
1.1.15 See Fig.; b) vav = 0 c) vav = 1 s

1.1.16 See Fig.

1
 m
1.1.17 See Fig. (a) The return of the beam along the 1.2.15 See Figure; v = 600 s . From 6 to 6.9km.
x-coordinate takes a very short time, so that x = 6.9km. Check the equality of the areas in
few electrons fall per unit length of the the graph of the acceleration above and below
luminescent screen surface. the t-axis
See Fig. b) for τy τx = m
n , where m and n are 1.2.16 4 and 16
any integers.
1.2.17 See Fig. The ratio of the acceleration
√
2 2 cos2 α
1.1.18 x = 2lv v sin α+ c2c−v−v
2 modules is 2.

1.1.19 β = 2α. In the direction opposite to the initial 1.2.18 See Fig.
one.
1.2.19 v = 0.72 cm
s
1.1.20 tgφ = 2ma where m and n are any integers. √
(nb) 1.2.20 t = (2 + 2)t0
1.1.21 (−cx , cy , cz ), (−cx , −cy , −cz ). (2t1 t2 −t21 +t22 )
1.2.21 t = [2(t1 −t2 )]
q 2 2
(r −h )
1.1.22 ∆t
t = (R2 −h2 )

1.1.23 See Fig. Zero at the walls. Highest at any loca- 1.3 Motion in the field of gravity.
tion at a distance from the walls, greater than Curvilinear motion
2R
2R, and equal to (L−2R) at L > 4R; anywhere at
v
a distance from the walls greater than L − 2R, 1.3.1 t = − ∆t
g 2
and equal to one at 4R > L > 2R. q
gt2
1.3.2 a. t = 2D g . b. On a circle of diameter 2 with
upper point A.
1.2 Variable speed movement 1.3.3 At an angle of φ2 to the vertical.
p
2 R−r 1.3.4 vB = vA 2 + 2gh.
1.2.1 vav = π v R+r is directed along the interface.

1.2.2 t = 12 s, x = 24 m 1.3.5 t = vg (sinφ − cos φtgα)

1.2.3 L = v0 t + v0 (t−t0 )2 1.3.6 a) vx = v cos φ, vy = v sin φ − gt. b) x = (v cos φ)t,

2t0 2 2
y = (v sin φ)t− gt2 . c)y = xtgφ− 2v2gx
cos2 φ = xtgφ−
1.2.4 Any graph with a coordinate change over the gx2 2 2v v2 2
2v 2 (tg φ + 1). d) T = g sinφ,H = 2g sin φ,L =
specified time of 20 m and with the greatest
v2
”slope” of the tangent is 15 m
s . g siN2 φ
√ 2
1.2.5 x > l( vv21 − 1) 1.3.7 L = 2 vg

1.2.6 x = ( π4 )v0 t0
2
2v 2 cos β
1.3.8 L = g cosα ((tgβ − tgα)
1.2.7 The average speed is greater than the initial 1.3.9 v = pL(a + g).
speed, and the final speed is zero.
√ 1.3.10 H = 2ug (v cos α − u)tg α.
2
1.2.8 v = La
2v 2
q 1.3.11 L = g(tgβ+tgα) .
N
1.2.9 v = b
1.3.12 m = 7kg.
1.2.10 t = Rq √
v 2 ± v 4 −2gv 2 y−g 2 x2 v2 gx2
1.3.13 a) tgφ = gx . b) y = 2g − 2v 2 .
πv03 t2 tg 2 α q
b. v = 12 πht
p
1.2.11 a. v =
q p
s c)vmin = g(y + x2 + y 2 )
cm3
1.2.12 q = 126 2
s 1.3.14 xrel = (vDeltat
cos φ)
; yrel = (v sin φ)∆t − g∆t
2 − g∆t · t,
1.2.13 a = 277 m where t is time elapsed after the second body
s2 ; 28 times.
took off. Relative velocity is constant and ver-
m m
1.2.14 v1 = 43 s ; v2 = 423 s tically downward and is equal modulo to g∆t.

2
 q √
1.3.15 v = 2πRgn 1.4.6 vmax = v 3.
sin2α , where n is any natural number; at
α = 0 the velocity can be any modulo. 1.4.7 t = 2Lpv 2 −u2 sin2 α
. Along the trace.
v 2 −u2
√
1.3.16 t = 2vg ctgα at v cos α < 2gl sin α; 1.4.8 a) ∆v = −2(v + u). b) ∆v = −2(v − w). (The
q √ projection on the direction of the initial is con-
t = vg ctgα(1 − 1 − v2gltgα
2 cosα ) at v cos α > 2glsinα
sidered positive).
1.3.17 v1 = g∆t sin α, v2 = g∆t cos α. √
1.4.9 a) 2 2
p u = v. b) u = v + 4vw cos α + 4w . c) u =
1.3.18 R = gT√
1 T2
. v 2 + 4vw cos α cos β + 4w2 cos2 β
(2 2)
q
v 2 +u2
1.3.19 v =
p
g[2(H − h) + L]. 1.4.10 ν = 2(R−r) .
km m
q
1.3.20 vε = 1675 h , aε = 0, 034 c2
2
1.4.11 t = 2 ug2 + 2h
g .
km m
vL = 838 h , aL = 0, 017 c2 .
√ 1.4.12 The projection of velocity in the horizontal direc-
1.3.21 v = gR = 8 km
s .
tion vx = v − 2u ; the projection of velocityin the
vertical direction vy = (2n−1)Lg
(v−u) .
(4+π 2 )v 2
1.3.22 a < (2πl) .
(v1 +v2 )
1.4.13 n = (2R) .
1.3.23 See Fig.
√ 1.4.14 sin α = uv .
1.3.24 At( 3
2 ) − 102 m
s ; at5 · 10−5 rad;
√
ω = 5 · 10−3 s . −1 1.4.15 u = v 3.
q
4 4
1.3.25 a = k 2 + kr2t . 1.4.16 In the new frame of reference, the geometry of
the beams and, hence, the area of their intersec-
√
1.3.26 v = gr. tion are the same are the same as before. The ve-
√ locity of the particles is not necessarily directed
1.3.27 v = 5gR. along the beam.
1.3.28 27.5 and 42.4 km; 18.3 and 52 km; q
2
1.4.17 In 1 + uv 2 times will change.
0.2 and 73.4 km.
√
2
1.3.29 a = ( vR ) cos2 α. 1.4.18 α = 60◦ , l = 200 3 ≈ 345 m.
p q
1.3.30 t = ( Vg ) 9 sin2 α − 8 at sin α > 89 ;
q 1.5 Motion with links
t = 0 at sin α < 89 .
1.5.1 vB = 2vA .
1.5.2 vk = ωR; vg = ω(R − r).
1.4 Galileo’s transformation √
1.5.3 u = v 3.
1.4.1 In the frame of reference of the second ship
1.5.4 a = gctgα
the first ship moves in a straight line along
1.5.5 See Fig.
the vector v1 − v2 . The perpendicular dropped
on this straight line from the location of the 1.5.6 (−2, 8; 3, 1)
√
second ship will be the shortest distance. 1.5.7 a. uAB = √v . b.u1 = u2 − v 2
2
1.4.2 See Fig. v 2 (R+r)2 (R−r)2
1.5.8 See Fig. a = ( R 2 )r; rB = r , rH = r .
1.4.3 Exactly the same as the observer moving with vR v
particle A. 1.5.9 u = R cos α−r ; ω= R cos α−r ;
to the right for cos α > Rr ,
1.4.4 See Fig.
to the left for cos α < Rr .
1.4.5 a. The bucket must be tilted in the direction of
the movement of the platform√at an angle φ to 1.5.10 The trajectory of the wheel rim point runs
the vertical: tgφ = uv . b.u = 10 3 m
s . along the diameter of the cylinder.

3
1.5.11 a. One turn. b. For 4 min. 0 = v0 − at, from where v0 = at

1.5.12 a = 4ω 2 R. Then
at at2 2l
l= 2 t = 2 , from where a = t2
1.5.13 u = v cos α.
Making a substitution in (1)
1.5.14 At the center of the square in time t = av . 2ml
Fmp = t2
2
2vA t Calculations
1.5.15 See Fig.; vB = √ 2 t2
L2 +vA
2·0,1kg·20m
Fmp = (5s)2 = 0.16N
2
1.5.16 u = √ v t .
L2 −v 2 t2 Interestingly, acceleration can be obtained even
2
(v sin α)
easier when using the ”method from the oppo-
1.5.17 ω = H site” in solving the problem, if from the stop
point, accelerate the puck back to the stick, then
1.5.18 ω ′ = ω
2 sin2 ( α
2) at2
l= 2 , and a = 2lt2
1.5.19 v = √ uR .
R2 −h2 Answer:
2
π(R −r ) 2 2ml
1.5.20 d = . F = t2 = 0, 16N.
(vt)

2.1.3 The electric force informs the electron accelera-

tion
2 DYNAMICS a= Fel
me
v −v
where a = y t 0y , because v0y = 0 – the electron
2.1 Newton’s Laws flies perpendicular to the screen, then
vy Fe l me vy
t = me , and Fel = t (1)
2.1.1 Since the sum of the external forces is zero, the
Here vy is the vertical component of the veloc-
center of mass of the baron-horse system is at
ity that the electron will acquire when leaving
rest (according to the condition of the problem,
the plates. To determine the electric force, it is
the baron is stuck in a swamp).
necessary to find the vertical velocity and the
The mechanical system, which includes the time of movement of the electron before depar-
baron-horse, will be considered closed. There ture from the plates. The velocity is determined
are no external forces inside a closed mechanical from the condition
system, the interaction is caused only between at2 vy t2 vy t
the bodies of the baron-horse system, more pre- y= 2 = 2t = 2
cisely by the hand and the pigtail on the baron’s vy = 2y l
t , where t = v , (2)
head.
therefore, the vertical component of the velocity
According to Newton’s third law, forces arise 2yv
vy = l (3)
in pairs, equal in modulus, directed along one
straight line and opposite in direction. Thus, the Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get
geometric sum of the internal forces and the mo- 2yme v 2
Fel = l2 (4)
ments of these forces relative to the fixed center
is zero. The Baron violated Newton’s third law. After leaving the plates, the electron then moves
by inertia. The tangent of the angle at which the
2.1.2 According to Newton’s second law, electron flies horizontally, after departure from
⃗ + F⃗mp
m⃗a = m⃗g + N the plates, is
vy 2y 2y
In projection to the direction of motion tgα = v = vt = l

ma = Fmp (1) On the other hand

Y −y 2(Y −y)
To find the friction force, we need to determine tgα = L− 2l
= 2L−l
the acceleration of the body. Let’s propose one of
Then
the methods. The distance traveled by the body
2y 2(Y −y)
to a stop is l = 2L−l
v0 +0 v0
l = vav ; t = 2 ;t = 2 t
After simple transformations , we find
Yl
Acceleration of the body y= 2L .(5)

4
 m2 2αt−T
Let’s make a substitution (5) in (4) and find the m1 = T −αt
answer to the question Express T
2me v 2 Y l me Y v 2
Fel = l2 2L = lL T = αt 2m 1 +m2
m1 +m2
Answer: From where, the time before the thread breaks
F = me Y v 2 T
lL
T (m1 +m2 )
t= α(2m1 +m2 ) .
2.1.4 Forces acting on the cargo Newton’s second law:
T⃗1 + T⃗2 + T⃗3 + T⃗4 + m⃗g = m⃗a Answer:
T (m1 +m2 )
Write down the system of equations in projec- t= α(2m1 +m2 ) .
tions on
2.1.7 Let’s write down Newton’s second law with an
the Ox and Oy axes: astronaut
(
T4 − T3 = M g kx2 = (m0 + m)a2
T2 − T1 = ma And with an empty chair
Hence kx1 = m0 a1
2 −T1
a = g TT−4−T 3
Let ’s take into account the equidistant motion
a t2
(
Answer: k 12 0 = m0 a1
2
−T1
a = g TT42 −T3
k a22t = (m0 + m)a2
From the first equation
2.1.5 If we consider a rod with a mass of m as a single 2m0
whole, then it will move with acceleration k= t20
F We substitute it into the second
a= M.
2
Because the rod is inextensible, then the accel- m = m0 ( tt2 − 1).
0
eration of all its parts is the same and equal to
a Answer:
Consider a small section of a rod of length dx and m = m0 [( tt0 )2 − 1].
mass dm. Since the rod is homogeneous
2.1.8 Let’s write down Newton’s second law for the
dm = m dx
l , horizontal axis Ox
we write down Newton’s second law for this sec-
(
F2 − F = m 2 a
tion.
F − F1 = m1 a
adm = F (x + dx) − F (x)(1)
From here we express the mass ratio
Where
m2 F2 −F
=
F (x + dx) and F (x) are the force of interaction m1 F −F1

with neighbors Answer:

Let ’s integrate expression (1) along the horizon- m2
= F2 −F
m1 F −F1
tal x coordinate:
Rl Rl 2.1.9 1. The movement of the container can be divided
x
am dxl = x dF into three sections: on the acceleration section
ma l−x
l OA. on the piston side, a force F = nmg acts,
which accelerates the container to a speed of v0 ;
F (x) = F (1 − xl )
in the second section AB, the container moves
Answer: like a body thrown vertically upwards, in the
third section, after stopping, the container with
T = F (1 − xl )
the equipment will make a free fall to the bottom
2.1.6 Let’s write down Newton’s second of the shaft.
( law for both
m2 a = F2 − T 2. We write down the equation of the basic law
bars along the horizontal axis of dynamics for the acceleration section, which,
m1 a = T − F1
in combination with the kinematic conditions of
Reduce by acceleration a equidistant motion, allows us to determine the
m2 F2 −T
m1 = T −F1 values y1 , t1 and v0

5
 1 −m2
nmg − mg = ma a1 = a2 = g m
m1 +m2
m
a = g(n − 1) = 1240 T1 = 2m1 m2
= 2T1 .
s2 m1 +m2 g, T2
m
V0 = a∆t = g(n − 1)∆t = 50 s The positive direction of acceleration corre-
y1 = a∆t2
= g(n−1)∆t2
=2m sponds to the lowering of the load m1 .
2 2
3. Determine the time of lifting the container 2.1.12 Let ’s denote the mass of the painter by M1 , and
from the point A and to point B and the value y2 the mass of the chair by M2 . Let’s write down
t2 = vg0 = (n − 1)∆t = 5 s the equations of motion of the painter and the
2
chair:
gt
y2 = v0 t2 − 22
(
M a=T −M g+P
1 1
y2 = g(n − 1)2 ∆t2 − g2 (n − 1)2 ∆t2 M 2 a = T − M2 g − P
4. Thus, the container will stop when it reaches
where P is the pressure force of the painter on
a height:
the chair.
g(n−1)∆t2 g(n−1)2 ∆t2
y3 = y2 + y1 = 2 + 2 Subtracting the lower equation from the upper
5. The time of the container falling from a height one, we find
of y3 a= 2P −(M1 −M2 )g
= 13 g
q M1 −M2
t3 = 2yg3 = ∆t n(n − 1) = 5 s
p
Then adding up the equations of motion, we find
6. The residence time of the container with the 2T = (M2 + M2 )(a + g) = 43 (M1 + M2 )g = 1.1 · 103
equipment in the ”airless” space N
t = ∆t + t2 + t3 This is the full load on the block:
p
t = ∆t[1 + (n − 1) + n(n − 1)] N = 2T = 1.1 · 103 N
p
t = ∆t[n + n(n − 1)] = 10 s Answer:
7. The weightlessness condition of the equip- a = 3.5 cm2
ment in the container will be tested for a time
T ≈ 1.1 · 103 N
tH = 10 s
Answer: 2.1.13 Let’s write down the equilibrium condition for
q the two lower balls on the vertical and horizontal
t = n∆t(1 + 1 − n1 ); tH ≈ 10s axes
(
2.1.10 When simulating weightlessness in a swimming mg = F1 sin α
pool, astronauts are affected by the resistance Fx = F1 cos α
force of the medium, which will prevent move-
where P is the pressure force of the painter on
ment by inertia. In addition, the internal or-
the chair.
gans of astronauts in the pool will not be in a
state of weightlessness and will function differ- And for the upper ball
ently than in zero gravity. T = mg + 2F1 sin α
2.1.11 Let’s write down Newton’s second law for the T = 3mg
vertical axis Respectively, when the thread burns out, the
(
m1 a = T − m1 g force T = 3mg will act down on the upper ball.
m2 a = m2 g − T From Newton’s second law, its initial accelera-
tion is found as
From here we express the acceleration, which
T
will be the same for both loads due to the inex- a= m = 3g
tensibility of the thread On the lower balls, a force Fx will act in the hor-
a= gm 2 −m1 izontal direction, which will be compensated by
m2 +m1
a force F1 cos α, and gravity mg − F1 sin α
We substitute into the system of equations and Thus, the lower balls will be in zero gravity a = 0
find the tension force of the thread T
2m1 m2 g
Answer:
T = m1 +m2
The acceleration of the upper ball is 3g, the ac-
The answer: celeration of the lower balls is zero.

6
2.1.14 When the vibrations have already stopped, the 2.1.16 1. When the springs are connected in series,
balls move with the same acceleration a. their deformation will be different with the same
Let’s write down Newton’s second law acting force, this circumstance allows us to de-
( termine the total stiffness of the springs as fol-
m1 a1 = −k∆x
lows
m2 a2 = −F + k∆x
∆x0 = ∆x1 + ∆x2 = kF1 + kF2 = kF0
Reduce by a
m1
= −k∆x k0 = kk11+k
k2
m2 −F +k∆x 2

Express ∆x 2. The combined effect on the mass of the

∆x = F m1 springs at rest will be equal to the applied force
k m1 +m2
F
Immediately after after the termination of the k0 ∆x0 = F
force , the elastic force k∆x will act on the bodies,
F (k1 +k2 )
which
( will cause acceleration ∆x0 = (k1 k2 )
m1 a1 = −k∆x
Answer:
m2 a2 = k∆x
x = F (k(k11+k 2)
k2 ) .
From where we express a1
a1 = − m2 F 2.1.17 1. The body can be considered as free if the
+m1
bonds are replaced by their reactions. The fric-
And similarly a2 tion force in this case is caused by the action of
F m1 a magnetic force, i.e.
a2 = m2 (m1 +m2 )
Ff r = µFm
The answer:
2. The mass equilibrium condition in this case
x = − k(mF1m
+m2 ) ;
1
will take place when the modules of gravity and
a1 = − m2 F friction force are equal
+m1 ,
gm0
a2 = F m1 m0 g = µFm ⇒ Fm =
m2 (m1 +m2 ) . µ

2.1.15 1. The springs in this problem are connected in 3. When the body begins to move at m > m0 ,
parallel, their deformation is the same then the equation of Newton’s second law will
be valid, which in projection on the y axis will
∆x1 = ∆x2 = ∆x
be written as follows
2. The force acting on the mass from the springs.
mg − m0 g = ma
It is defined as the sum of
F = F + F1 a = g m−m
m
0

, or Answer: F = m0 g
µ ;
k∆x = k1 ∆x + k2 ∆x
a = g(m−mm
0)

3. Write down the equation of mass motion un-

der the action of an equivalent spring with a 2.1.18 1. If a horizontal force is applied to the body,
stiffness of co, which will determine the maxi- and despite their efforts they do not move, then
mum displacement it is natural to assume that something prevents
ma = (k1 + k2 )∆xmax this. And this ”something” is the friction force
of rest, equal in magnitude to the applied force.
∆xmax = (k1ma+k2 ) The magnitude of the resting friction force may
4. The maximum values of the forces acting on vary depending on the magnitude of the applied
the mass force. The greatest value of the friction force, at
F1max = k1 ∆xmax which sliding does not occur yet, is defined as:
F2max = k2 ∆xmax Ff r(max) = µN = µmg = 51 N
Answer: 2. The friction force of rest, like any decent
xmax = ma force, has a direction, it is directed towards a
(k1 +k2 ) ;
possible (virtual) movement, and with zero ex-
F1max = k1 xmax , ternal force, the friction force will also be zero.
F2max = k2 xmax . Thus, the resting friction force varies linearly

7
 from zero to the maximum value, remaining con- µmg cos α − mg sin α ≤ ma
stant thereafter. An external force begins to in-
a ≤ g(µ cos α − sin α)
form the body of acceleration.
Answer:
2.1.19 Let’s conduct a visual experiment, put a pen on
a piece of paper and slowly pull it aside amax = g(µ cos α − sin α)
At some point, the pen will go in the opposite 2.1.22 A body on an inclined plane is under the action
direction and slip out from under your hand of three forces: gravity F⃗1 = m⃗g , friction force
Using a special program, we will determine the F⃗2 = −µmg and the normal coupling reaction N ⃗,
angle of inclination of the handle at this moment however, with further consideration of the mo-
tion, the normal reaction can not be considered,
It turned out because its projection onto the horizontal axis
α = 7◦ along which it moves the body is equal to zero.
Let’s display the forces acting on the handle The equation of Newton’s second law in projec-
Since the friction force is the friction force at rest tion on the OX axis when the body moves up-
wards in vector form is written as follows
Ff r = µN
F⃗1 + F⃗2 = m⃗a
We write down the equilibrium condition at the
critical moment Let’s determine the projections of the acting
( forces on the Ox axis and write down the equa-
µN = F sin α tion of Newton’s second law
N = F cos α
F1x = mg sin α, F2x = µmg cos α
From where
µmg cos α + mg sin α = ma
µ = tan α
Divide both parts of the last equation by the
We substitute experimental data mass m and express the acceleration value
µ = tan 7◦ = 0.12 a = g(sin α + µ cos α)

2.1.20 1. The friction force modulo cannot exceed the The time of the body’s upward movement t1 is
value Ff r (max) = µN , where N is the sum of the determined from the condition that the velocity
projections of all forces in the direction perpen- is equal to zero at the end of the ascent
dicular to the possible displacement. At equilib- 0 = v0 − at ⇒ t1 = v0 a = v0 g(sin α + µ cos α)
rium, the friction force is equal to the sum of the The downward movement of the body corre-
projections of forces on the direction of motion. sponds to the equation
Thus, at rest
mg sin α − µmg cos α = ma
Ff r = mg sin α
a = g(sin α − µ cos α)
2. Otherwise, at µ ≥ tan α
The velocity will become equal to v0 only at the
Ff r = µmg cos α end of the descent, because the conservation law
3. The maximum value of the friction force will no one canceled the energy, so
occur at angle α0 dv
dt = g(sin α + µ cos α)
α0 = arctan µ R v0 R t2
0
dv = g(sin α + µ cos α) = 0
dt
Answer:
t2 = v0 g(sin α + µ cos α)
Ff r = mg sin α at tan α ≤ µ
The required time is determined as the sum of
Ff r = µmg cos α at tan α ≥ µ. t = t1 + t2
2.1.21 1. Discarding the bonds imposed on the box and t = [g(sin22v sin α
α−µ2 cos2 α)]
replacing them with reactions, it can be consid-
ered as a free body capable of moving along the The answer: t = [g(sin22v sin α
α−µ2 cos2 α)]
OX axis. The friction force in this case is di-
rected towards acceleration, i.e. against the pos- 2.1.23 1. The normal coupling reaction in this case will
sible movement of the box. be determined by both gravity mg and the pro-
jection of the applied force on the OY axis:
2. The equation of Newton’s second law al-
lows us to determine the maximum acceleration N = mg − F sin α
value The friction force is defined as:

8
 Ff r = (mg − F sin α) 2. The equations of motion of goods in projection
on the vertical axis in this case are written as
2. The basic law of dynamics, thus. it will be (
m1 a = m2 g − T
written as follows: follows:
m2 a = T − m2 g − Ff r
F cos α = µ(mg − F sin α)
3. Solving the equations together, we get
3. It is easy to determine the desired accelera- (m1 −m2 )g−Ff r
tion from the equation of Newton’s second law a= m1 +m2

a= 1
cos α − µmg + F sin α) 4. Substituting the acceleration magnitude into
m (F
the first equation of the system allows us to de-
F
a= m (cos α − µ sin α) termine the tension threads
Answer: 2m2 g+Ff r
T = m1 m1 +m2
F
a = (m )(cosα + µ sin φ) − µg, if the expression is
Answer:
greater than zero, otherwise a = 0 2m2 g+Ff r
T = m1 m1 +m2
2.1.24 Forces acting on the cylinder: gravity F⃗t = m⃗g
2.1.26 Consider the forces acting on the box (Fig.).
two forces of normal reaction of the faces of the
⃗1 and N ⃗2 , two forces of friction These are gravity m⃗g , rope tension force F⃗ , im-
dihedral angle N ⃗ and friction force F⃗f r , the
pact reaction force N
of the cylinder on the face ff⃗r1 and ff⃗r2 (see fig- ⃗
ures). Since the cylinder has axial symmetry value of which Ff r = µN . We will project all
and the planes of the dihedral angle are sym- forces in the direction along the convergence and
metrical with respect to the vertical perpendicular to them and write down the cor-
responding equations of motion.
|N ⃗2 | = N ff⃗r1 | = |ff⃗r2 | = ff r
⃗1 | = |N
Since the box does not move in the direction per-
According to the Coulomb — Amonton law pendicular to the convergence, the sum of the
ff r = µN. projections of forces in this direction should be
zero, that is
The basic law of dynamics for a cylinder has the
N + F sin(β − α) − mg cos α = 0, (1)
form
⃗1 + N⃗2 + ff⃗r1 + ff⃗r2 Along the convergence, the box moves with ac-
m⃗a = m⃗g + N
celeration a (in the special case, with uniform
Since the cylinder is stationary in the plane of motion a = 0), so the sum of the force projections
section perpendicular to the edge of the dihedral should be equal to ma:
angle. that is, projecting this equation onto the F cos(β − α) − mg sin α − µN = ma.(2)
axis. perpendicular to the edge, we obtain (see
Figure b) From equations (1) and (2) we obtain:

2N sin α = mg cos β F = ma+mg(sin α+µ cos α)

cos(β−α)+µ sin(β−α) .(3)
2
In projection onto the edge (axis OX), the dy- The resulting expression for the force F angle
namics equation for the cylinder is written as β includes only the denominator. Therefore, the
magnitude of the force F will be minimal at such
max = mg sin β − 2N µ a value of the angle β at which the denominator
Substituting N here, we find the acceleration of in formula (3) is maximal, that is, the maximum
the cylinder value
ax = g(sin β − µ cos β
) cos(β − α) + µ sin(β − α).
sin α
2
Let’s do some transformations. Let’s imagine
Answer:
the coefficient of friction µ as the tangent of some
µ cos β
a = g(sin β − sin α ) at µ ≤ tan β sin α2 angle γ:
2

a = 0 at µ > tan β sin α2 tan γ = µ; γ = arctan µ;

sin γ = √ µ 2 ; cos γ = √ 1
.
1+µ 1+µ2
2.1.25 1. Due to the weightlessness and inextensibility
of the thread, as well as the ideal properties of Then you can write:
the block (no losses and low weight), the problem
p
cos(β − α) + µ sin(β − α) = 1 + µ2 cos(β − α − γ).
can be solved in the following approximation)
The last expression is maximal and equal to
a1 = a2 = a p
1 + µ2 at β − α − γ = 0, that is , at β = α + γ =
T1 = T2 = T α + arctan µ.(4)

9
With such a value of the angle β and the min- with a perpendicular to the inclined plane such
imum force F . Moreover, if the box moves uni- that
formly (a = 0), then tan δ =
Ff r
= µN
=µ
N N
mg(sin α+µ cos α)
Fmin = √ . Thus, when the magnitude and direction of force
1+µ2
F⃗ change, the direction of force Q ⃗ remains un-
and when moving with acceleration a changed. Therefore, the absolute magnitude of
Fmin = ma+mg(sin α+µ cos α)
√ . the force F⃗ will be minimal if it is perpendicular
1+µ2 ⃗ (Fig.). (since the magnitude and
to the vector Q
However, this solution is not true for any accel- direction of the vector m⃗g are unchanged), the
eration. Since the direction of force F⃗ does not minimum force will be:
depend on a, and the absolute magnitude of the
Fmin = mg sin α + mgµ cos α = mg(sin α)
force F⃗ increases with increasing acceleration
, then at a certain acceleration value a = a0 , Thus, the value of the minimum force required
the force F⃗ will become such that its component to lift the box with acceleration a ≤ a0 is
F sin(β −α), perpendicular to the inclined plane, Fmin = mg(sin α + µ cos α)
will be equal in absolute magnitude to the com-
If acceleration a > a0 , then for the minimum
ponent of gravity mg cos α. In this case , both
⃗ and the force F⃗ will vanish. In the force F⃗ directed at an angle β horizontally, we
the force N
have:
future (at a > a0 ), in order for the box not to
break away from the skids, the direction of force β = α + arctan g gsin
cos α
α+a
F⃗ must change with increasing acceleration so Answer:
that the component of force F⃗ perpendicular to
the inclined plane remained equal to the compo- (a)
nent of gravity, that is, β = α + arctan µ
F sin(β − α) = mg cos α 2.1.27 1 (a) Let the man not slide
For the components of these forces parallel to the ⃗ = F⃗f r + N
⃗
R
inclined plane, we can write
µN
tan φ = ⇒ φ = arctan µ
F cos(β − α) − mg sin α = ma N

From the last two equalities we find T − min if T⃗ ⊥ R

⃗ (Because M g and R fixed in the
g cos α direction,see fig.)
tan(β − α) = g sin α+a
Fig.
from where
α=φ
β = α + arctan g gsin
cos α
α+a α = arctan µ
The value of a0 can be found from the consider- (b) Tmin −?
ations that for a = a0 the value of the angle β (
from (4) and (5) coincide: T cos α = µN
g cos α
α + arctan g sin N + T sin α = M g
α+a0 = α + arctan µ

from where T cos α = µ(M g − T sin α)

a0 = g( cosµ α − sin α) T (cos α + µ sin α) = µM g
(
µM g
So, for a ≤ a0 (hence, with uniform motion too) T = cos α+µ sin α

β = α + arctan µ tan α = µ
cos2 α+sin2 α 1
For a > a0 (1)1 + tan2 α = cos2 α ⇒√
1+µ2
β = α + arctan gg cos α
sin α + a √ q
1
(2) sin α = 1 − cos2 α = 1− 1+µ2 =
We have solved the problem. However, here is q
1+µ2 −1 √µ 2
another solution. This is a beautiful geomet- 1+µ2 =
1+µ
ric solution. With uniform movement along the
µM g
slopes, the sum of all forces should be zero. Re- (3)T = 2 = õM g 2
⃗ and F⃗f r with their resultant √1+µ 1+µ
place the forces N 1+µ2

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Q = N + Ff r (Fig.) and add the forces Q, ⃗ F⃗ and (c)Let’s find out at what mass ratio it is possible
m⃗g . They should form a closed triangle. Let us to choose the optimal angle α = arctan µ so that
⃗ is an angle δ
replace that the direction of force Q a person does not slide:

10
 m−M
T cos α ≤ µn α = arctan µ(m+M );
T cos α ≤ µ(mg + T sin α) T = g2 µ2 (m + M )2 + (m − M )2
p

T (cos α − µ sin α) ≤ µmg ←− (1, 2, 3) Note: In many places, this problem is formu-
2
√
µM
g 2 ( √1−µ 2 ) ≤ 
µmg
lated without the question about the angle, but
1+µ 1+µ
with the clarification m < M . The answer in
2
m ≥ M 1−µ the solutions given turns out to be very often the
1+µ2
2
same only with our case 2 (see 1, 2, 3).
2 (a) Consider m < M 1−µ 1+µ2 in this case, the As we found out, in fact, this solution is suitable
person will slide by himself and will not be able 2
not for m < M , but for m < M 1−µ1+µ2 . By the way,
to move the box. Obviously, you need to increase
the above links suggest a shorter way to find the
α in this case, the person will slide by himself
force, since it does not involve finding the opti-
and will not be able to move the box. Obviously,
mal angle.
you need to increase it until the Ff r for the box
becomes the limit. Then the optimal angle will Let’s estimate whether the error is large in the
2
be when µN = T cos α = µn so N = n: range M 1−µ
1+µ2 < m < M .
(
M g + T sin α = mg − T sin α The red line in the graph below shows the an-
T cos α = µN swer specified in Savchenko’s taskbook — this
( answer cannot be correct, since there should be
(m − M )g = 2T sin α no gap between the blue and red lines. The blue
(4)
T cos α = µM g + µT sin α dotted line for clarity shows the behavior of the
µM g
blue function outside the range of its applicabil-
(5) T = cos α−µ sin α −→ (4) ity, i.e. at
(m−M )g µM g sin α µM g 2
2 = cos α−µ sin α = 1
tan α −µ
m < M 1−µ
1+µ2 .
1
−µ= 2µM +µm−µM
= µ(m+M ) A small gap in the green line shows the accepted
tan α m−M m−M
m−M
value for m = 70 kg. It can be seen that the
(6) tan α = µ(m+M ) difference between the green curve to the right
m−M of the gap and the blue solid one is not very large.
α = arctan µ(m+M )
Answer:
(7) At m ≥ M 1−µ
2

1+µ2 :
1 1
cos α = √
1+tan2 α(9)
= r
α = arctan µ;
(m−M )2
1+ µ2 (m+M )2

à r T = õM g 2
1 1+µ
(8) sin α = 1 − cos α = 1− (m−M )2
=
1+ µ2 (m+M )2 2
s At m < mM 1−µ
1+µ2 :
2
(m−M )
1+ µ2 (m+M )2 −1 (m−M ) m−M
1 α = arctan µ(m+M
(m−M )2
= µ(m+M ) · r );
1+ µ2 (m+M )2 (m−M )2
1+ µ2 (m+M )2
T = g2 µ2 (m + M )2 + (m − M )2
p
(7, 8) −→ (5)
q
(m−M )2
2.1.28 1. The external force when the car is moving is
µM g µM g
T = 1− m−M
= 2M
( m+M )
1+ µ2 (m+M )2 = the friction force F = µmg , therefore, without
m+M
(s )
1+
(m−M )2 taking into account the resistance from the air,
µ2 (m+M )2
q the dynamic equation of motion has the form
µg (m−M )2
= 2 (m + M) 1 + = µ2 (m+M )2 ma = µmga = µg 2. The kinematic equations of
q motion in this case are as follows
)2
= µg (m + M )2 + (m−M = (
2 µ2 v = v0 − at
2

T = g2 µ2 (m + M 2 ) + (m − M )2
p x = v0 − at2
v0 v0
t= =
Answer: a µg

At m ≥ M 1−µ
2
3. When substituting acceleration and time
1+µ2 :
values into the second equation, we obtain the
α = arctan µ; equation of the braking distance of the car
Tmin = õM g 2 v02 v02 v02
1+µ x= µg − 2µg = 2µg
2 √
At m < mM 1−µ
1+µ2 : v0 = 2µgx

11
 From here,
√ the speed should be reduced by a fac- From where we find a1 as
tor of 10 F0 −µm1 g
a1 = m1
Answer:
√ Meanwhile, only the friction force with the bar
In 10 times.
acts on the board from external forces
2.1.29 We find the magnitude of the deceleration Then Newton’s second law for the board
a = − ∆v
∆ t = −4 m
s m2 a2 = µm1 g
∆v
∆t = a We expressa2
2. The kinematic equations of motion in this m1
a2 = µg m 2
case are as follows
v∆t2 v02
The answer:
x = v0 t − 2 = 2a = 50 m q
2lm2
a. F > µ(m2 + m1 )g; t = F0 −µ(m2 +m1 )g .
Let’s find the coefficient of friction µ :
b. a1 = F0 − µm1 gm1 , a2 = µgm1 m2
ma = µmg
a 2.1.31 Renumber the loads as shown in the figure, and
µ= = 0.4
g the axis X is directed to the right.
Answer: It is clear that then none of the loads can have a
µ ≈ 0, 4 and l ≈ 50 m negative acceleration.
Let’s prove that the loads 3 and 4 are moving as
2.1.30 a) In order for the body to start sliding, the ap- one. To do this, let’s assume the opposite: let the
plied force must exceed the friction force. When cargo 3 slides on the load 4. Then a friction force
determining the magnitude of the friction force,
it must be taken into account that in accordance Ff r = µmg
with Newton’s third law, the body acts on the arises between them, and an elastic force
board, and the board acts on the body, therefore, T > µmg
a double friction force
arises in the thread, while the acceleration of the
Ft = µg(m1 + m2 ) load 2 would be directed to the left, which cannot
Condition for the beginning of movement: be. Consequently, the acceleration of loads 2, 3
and 4 are the same.
F > µg(m1 + m2 )
Let’s denote the acceleration of these loads by
To determine Let’s use the kinematic equations a¯1 = a¯2 , and the cargo is accelerated 1 through
of sliding time: a¯1 .
2
q
l = at2 → t = 2L a Now let’s consider two cases.
Acceleration a when acting along the board of a Case 1. Let the loads 1 and 2 they are in relative
constant force F0 , we determine from the equa- rest and a¯1 = a¯2 .
tion of Newton’s second law in projection on the Let’s denote the modulus of the friction force at
direction of motion: rest between them by F1 -the modulus of the fric-
F0 − Ft = m1 a tion force between the weights 3 and 4 through
F0 −µg(m1 +m2 ) F2 and the modulus of the elastic force of the
a= m1 thread through T .
Sliding time:
Then: for cargo 1
q
2Lm1 F − F1 = M a1
t = F0 −µg(m 1 +m2 )

for cargo 2
b) Two external forces F0 and a friction force Ff r
act on the body. Let’s write down Newton’s sec- F1 − T = ma2
ond law for a body for cargo 3
m1 a1 = F0 − Ff r T − F2 = ma2
Given that for cargo 4
Ff r = µN = µm1 g F2 = M a 2
m1 a1 = F0 − µm1 g Solving this system of equations, we get:

12
 2m+M F
F1 = 2(M +m) F, a1 = a2 = 2(M +m) 2.1.33 Two forces act on a falling drop: the constant
force of gravity, which accelerates the movement
The same result can be obtained in another way.
of the drop, and the force of air resistance, which
Since the friction between all surfaces is a rest
slows down its movement and increases with in-
friction, the cargo system moves as one body
creasing drop velocity. The force of air resistance
with mass M = 2(M + m).
increases until it becomes equal to gravity. Then
Therefore, the speed change stops, and the drops fall at a
constant speed.
F̄ = ma¯1 , a¯1 = a¯2 = 2(MF+m)
As the size of the droplet increases, gravity in-
Case 2. creases in proportion to the volume, i.e. propor-
Let the cargo 2 slides the load 1. Then on the tional to the third power of the radius, and the
cargo 1 the friction force resistance force increases in proportion to the
section of the droplet, i.e. proportional to the
Ff′ r = µmg
square of the radius. Therefore, as the radius
acts and this load receives acceleration a1 = of the drop increases, gravity increases faster
F −µmg
m . than the force of air resistance, which means
Cargo system 2,3 and 4 moves as a single body that the constant speed at which the drop falls
whose mass M0 = 2m + M with acceleration to the ground increases as the size of the drop
µmg
increases.
a2 = 2m+M
α ≈ 0.7 kg
m
The first case is realized if
2.1.34 In this case, the movement occurs solely due to
F ≥ 2µm(m+M )g
2m+M the friction force, which, in fact, is the driving
Answer: force. If there were no friction force, then the
At F ≤ 2µm1 g(m1 +m2 )
≡ F0 we obtain a1lef t = bike, as well as the car, would not move from its
m2 +2m1
F place. Displacement with acceleration becomes
a1right = a2right = 2(m1 +m2 ) ;
possible when the projection of the friction force
At F ≥ F0 we obtain a2right = F −µm1 g
, a1lef t = on the horizontal axis exceeds the modulus of
m2
a1right = a2lef t = µm1 g
. the resistance force from the air
m2 +2m1
µmg ≥ f
2.1.32 The appearance of the action on the wedge from
the chalk is due to the accelerated movement of When moving without acceleration, at a con-
the body along the wedge stant speed, the latter inequality turns into
equality
Motion becomes possible under the condition
µmg = f
mg sin α ≥ µmg cos α
µmg = αv 2
otherwise the body will rest and acceleration µmg kg
will not occur. α= v2 ≈ 0.7 m

Using the principles of liberability, let’s imagine Answer:

the body as a free material particle under the α ≈ 0.7 kg
m
action of a system of forces mg; Ff r
2.1.35 Five forces act on the ball (see Fig.): gravity
The equation of Newton’s second law in projec-
F⃗g = M⃗g , buoyant force F⃗ , air resistance force F⃗r
tion on the direction of motion of the body is rep-
, Earth reaction force N ⃗ and friction force from
resented as follows:
the Earth F⃗f r .
max = mg sin α − µmg cos α
Denote by ⃗v ′ the velocity of the ball relative to
ax = g sin α − µg cos α the Earth. Then
The force acting on the wedge and the vertical F⃗r = −α(⃗v ′ − ⃗u)
wall
From the condition that the balloon moves uni-
F = mg cos α(sin α − µ cos α) formly in the horizontal direction, it follows
The answer: |F⃗r | − |F⃗f r | = 0
F = mg cos α(sin α − µ cos α) at µ ≤ tan α |F⃗ | + |N
⃗ | − M |⃗g | = 0
F = 0 at µ ≥ tan α In addition,

13
 |F⃗f r | = µ|N
⃗| 2.1.38 Two forces act on a falling drop: the constant
Taking into account that force of gravity, which accelerates the movement
of the drop, and the force of air resistance, which
|F⃗r | = −α(|⃗v ′ | − |⃗u|) slows down its movement and increases with in-
from the last three equations we obtain creasing drop velocity. The force of air resistance
increases until it becomes equal to gravity. Then
|⃗v ′ | = |⃗u| − µ (M |⃗g | − |F⃗ |)
α the speed change stops, and the drops fall at a
Answer: constant speed.
p µ
v = u (α )(mg − F ) at αu2 ≥ µ(mg − F ) Let’s write down the equation after a long period
otherwise v = 0 of time:
mg = γrv(1)
2.1.36 The equation of Newton’s second law for the di-
Find m through volume V :
rection of motion:
m = pV = 43 ρπr3
ma = Fr
Fr dvx And substitute in (1):
m = dt
43ρπr3 g = γrv
The time derivative of velocity
dvx d Hence:
dt = dt (v0 − βx) 4 ρπg
dvx dv0 dx
v= 3 γ · r2 = αr2 (2)
dt = dt − β dt = −βt
4 ρπg v 1
α= 3 γ = r2 = 108 m·s
the minus sign indicates that the acceleration
vector is directed in the direction opposite to the Substitute and find the answer
2
velocity vector. Combining the equations, we ob- v( 2r ) = α r4 = 0.25 m
s
tain the value of the resistance force as a func- 2
r r m
tion of velocity v( 10 ) = α 100 = 0.01 s

F = βmv Answer:
m m
v1 ≈ 0.25 s ; v2 ≈ 0.01 s
Answer: F = βmv
2.1.39 This is due to the Reynolds number for a given
2.1.37 Two forces act on a falling drop: the constant situation.
force of gravity, which accelerates the movement
of the drop, and the force of air resistance, which If the Reynolds number is Re < 2000, then the
slows down its movement and increases with in- drag force is proportional to the velocity
creasing drop velocity. The force of air resistance If Re > 2000, then the resistance force is propor-
increases until it becomes equal to gravity. Then tional to the square of the velocity
the speed change stops, and the drops fall at a
constant speed. 2.1.40 1. The acceleration of the washer is determined
by the equation of Newton’s second law:
Let’s write the equation after a long period of
time: µmg = ma

mg = Ap0 r2 v 2 (1) a = µg

Find m through volume V : 2. With the width of the conveyor belt d, the
washer will travel an equidistant distance x due
m = pV = 43 ρπr3 to the movement of the belt. From the similar-
And substitute in (1): ity of right triangles obtained on the vectors of
4 3 given velocities and geometric parameters of the
3 ρπr g = Ap0 r2 v 2
movement of the washer, we find the ratio:
Hence: d v
q x = v0
v = 43 ρπrg · 1
Ap0 ≈ 5.5 m
s (2)
d
= √ v
x v 2 +u2

Of(2), the greater the r, the greater the V. This d= x √v2v+u2

means that large drops fall to the ground at a 3. The distance traveled by the washer we find
higher speed x from kinematics:
(
Answer: v = v0 − at
2
m
Large; v ≈ 5.5 s x = v0 t − at2

14
 √
v0 v 2 +u2
v=0→t= a = µg
2.1.44 Since the speed changes quickly, the body does
not have time to move in the horizontal direction
v 2 +u2 v 2 +u2 v 2 +u2
x= µg − 2µg = 2µg and moves all the time in the direction ⃗v
4. Next, substitute the value of x into the equa- Since v = const, there is no acceleration in the
tion for d direction along the velocity ⃗v
√
v 2 +u2
d=v 2µg mg sin α = µmg
cosα
Answer:
√ cosβ
v
d = 2µg v 2 + u2 .
tan α
cosβ =
2.1.41 1. A translationally moving washer has only the µ
kinetic energy of translational motion For geometric reasons, the modules of the vec-
mv 2 tors ⃗v and ⃗u are related by the ratio
K1 = 2 u
v= tan β
the plane motion of the washer, which is a super-
tan α
position of translational and rotational move- v = uq µ
2
ments, is characterized by two components of ki- 1− tan
µ2
α

netic energy: translational and rotational: tan α

v = u√
mv 2 2
µ2 −tan2 α
K2 = 2 + Jz ω2
mv 2 mr 2 ω2 Answer:
K2 = 2 + 2 · 2
tan α
m 2 r2 ω2
v = u√
K2 = µ2 −tan2 α
2 (v + 2 )
3 2
K2 = 4 mv 2.1.45 Projecting m⃗g onto OY :
K2 > K1 From the figure, we find the reaction force of the
support:
2. The initial kinetic energy of the washers in
both cases will be spent on work against the fric- N = mg cos α
tion force According to the Amonton — Coulomb Law:
Af r = µmg∆x Ff r = µN = µmg cos α
3. According to the kinetic energy change theo- Because µ = tan α (by condition):
rem:
Ff r = µmg cos α
K2 ∆x2
= = 1.5
K1 ∆x1 Ff r = mg · tan α · cos α = mg sin α
Answer:
F = mg sin α
Rotating Redraw in the XY plane. At the initial
moment(φ = 90◦ ):
2.1.42 The sliding friction force acts along the line of
motion in the opposite direction, its magnitude At the final moment(φ = 0◦ ):
is determined only by the coefficient of friction of Consider an arbitrary moment:
the surfaces (i.e., for a given nail, it is condition-
ally constant in magnitude and does not depend Note that φ varies from 0◦ to 90◦ :
on the method of movement). Let’s write down Newton’s second law:
(
dux F sin φ
If you pull directly, you need to apply a lot of dt = m
force along the axis of the nail. And if you ro- duy F (1−cos φ)
dt = m
tate, then the vector of the friction force rotates (
d F sin φ
from the axis of the nail, decomposing into two dt (u sin φ) = m
d F (1−cos φ)
perpendicular forces: a small axial and a large dt (u cos φ) = m
radial. A large radial force is overcome using a
Solve the system of differential equations:
lever (the length of the pliers handles is much (
dφ F sin φ
larger than the diameter of the nail). There re- dt = mu (a)
mains a small axial component, which is easy to du F (1−cos φ)
dt = m (b)
overcome.
Divide (b) by (a):
2.1.43 v = √ ωRF
2 2
. du
= u 1−cos φ
Ff r −F dφ sin φ

15
 du 1−cos φ
u = sin φ dφ a2 = FM
2m(M +2m)
du
= tan( φ2 )dφ
u applies to the second body m2
Integrate both parts of the equation:
The answer:
tan( φ2 )dφ(c)
R du R
u = Accelerations of weights 1 − 3:
R du
= ln|u|(d) F (M +4m)
R u φ a1 = 2m(M +2m)
tan( 2 )dφ = −2ln(cos( x2 ))(e)
FM
a2 =
Substitute (e) and (d) in (c): 2m(M +2m)
F
ln(v) + C = ln(sin(φ)) − (ln(sin( φ2 ) − cos( φ2 )))(e) a3 = M +2m
v
vx = 2 2.1.48 Let’s consider a small displacement over time dt
Answer: from the point of view of kinematics:
v
2
For geometric reasons:
2.1.46 1. Since bodies of the same mass move down dy = dx · cot β
the plane with a stretched thread, the upper we differentiate both parts of the expression
body will have a rough surface. Bodies with a twice:
stretched thread will have the same accelera- dy dx
d2 t = d2 t · cot β
tions.
a1 = a2 · tan β(1)
2. Write down the equations of New-
ton’s second law in projection to the di- Because the author did not say anything about
rection
( of motion for each body separately: friction, example Ff r = 0 Next, we write down
m1 g sin α − T = m1 a1 Newton’s law 2 for a bar m1 on the OY axis:
m1 g sin α + T − F t = m2 a2 m1 a1 = N1 cos β
a1 = a2 N1 = m1 a1 cos β(a)
m1 = m2 Similarly for m2 :
mg sin α + T − Ff r = mg sin α − T m2 a2 = m2 g − 2N1 sin β(b)
Ff r = 2T Substitute (a) in (b):
Answer: m2 a2 = m2 g − 2m1 a1 · tan β
F = 2T Substituting (1) into (c):
2.1.47 A body of mass m3 moves with the acceleration m2 a2 = m2 g − 2m1 a2 · tan2 β
of the center of mass of the system
We express a2 :
Considering the whole system (without taking m2 g
into account internal forces) a2 = m2 +2m1 tan2 β (d)

F Considering (1), multiply (d) by tan β:

a3 = M +2m
m2 g tan β
In this case, a force equivalent to the double a1 = m2 +2m1 tan2 β
thread tension force 2T
Answer:
2T = M a3 m2 g tan α
a1 = 2
α
T = F 2(MM
+2m)
m2 +2m1 tan2 2
m2 g
acts on the body m3 . a2 = m2 +2m1 tan2 α
2

Two forces T⃗ and F⃗ act on the body m1 2.1.49 Let’s apply Newton’s second law:
Newton’s second law for the first body is written OX : T − T sin α = m0 a0x
as
T sin α = ma1x
F − T = ma1
OY : N − mg − T cos α = m0 a0y = 0
F (M +4m)
a1 = 2m(M +2m) T cos α − mg = ma1y
x0 −x1
Similarly, only T⃗ tan α = y0 −y1

m2 = T Considering α = const

16
 dx dx d
y0 dy1
0 1
d ( − )(y0 −y1 )−( dt − )(x0 −x1 ) wedge, the bar moved along the OX axis by dx,
dt (tan α) = =
dt dt dt
(y0 −y1 )2
0 and along the OY —by dy
d dx0
−
dx1
)(y0 − y1 )) = d dy0
−
dy1 Relative to the starting point, in the direction of
dt (( dt dt dt (( dt dt )(x0 − x1 ))
2
the Observer, the bar has shifted by
d2 x1 dy0 dy1
( ddtx20 − dt2 )(y0 − y1 ) + ( dx
dt −
0 dx1
dt )( dt − dt ) =
OX : dx = dx0 + dx1
2 2
( ddty20 − d y1
dt2 )(x0 − x1 ) + ( dy
dt
0
− dy1
dt ) · ( dx
dt
0
− dx1
dt ) OY : dy = dy0
(a0x − a1x )(y0 − y1 ) = (a0y − a1y )(x0 − x1 ) Because the bar does not come off,
tan α(a0y − a1y ) = a0x − a1x dy = dx · tan α(a)
Of (1) Let ’s iterate twice both parts of the expression
a0y = 0 (a):
dy dx
− tan αa1y = a0x − a1x d2 t = d2 t · tan α
Rope length: an = (aτ + a1 ) · tan α(1)!
y0 −y1 Let ’s write down Newton ’s second law for a bar
L = xw − x0 + cos α
on the axis:
Because the thread is inextensible
d2 L 2
d2 y0 d2 y1 OX : maτ = N sin α(2)
dt2 = − ddtx20 + 1
cos α ( dt2 − dt2 ) =0
2 2 2 OY : man = mg − N cos α(3)
( ddtx20 = a0x , ddty20 = a0y , ddty21 = a1y )
According to Newton ’s third law , the pressure
a0x · cos α = a0y − a1y force N⃗ ′ exerted by the bar on the wedge is equal
From (1) : a0y = 0 in modulus and opposite in direction to the force
of the normal reaction of the support N ⃗:
a0x cos α = −a1y
N⃗ ′ = −N ⃗
Dividing the equations from (1):
T sin α
= ma1x
−→ tan α(g + a1y ) = a1x Newton’s second law for a wedge on the OX axis:
T cos α m(g+a1y )
tan αa1y = a1x − g tan α M a1 = N sin α(4)

and using (4) Let’s compose and solve a system of equations

(0), (1), (2), (3) and (4) with respect to M :
a0x = g tan α 

 an = aτ · tan β
Dividing the equations from (1): 
an = (aτ + a1 ) · tan β



T (1−sin α) M a0x
T cos α = m · g+a1y maτ = N sin α

man = mg − N cos α

Note that: 



M a = N sin α
a1y = −g sin α 1
1−sin α M g tan α M sin α

cos α m = g−g sin α −→ m = (1−sin α)2 
 aτ · tan β = (aτ + a1 ) · tan α

ma = N sin α
M sin α τ
m= (1−sin α)2 

 man = mg − N cos α
Answer: M a1 = N sin α


a = g tan α M = maτ · 1
a1
m0 sinα
m= (1−sin α)2 aτ (tan β − tan α) = a1 tan α
aτ tan α
2.1.50 Let’s divide the acceleration of the bar ⃗a2 into a1 = tan β−tan α
normal ⃗an and tangential ⃗aτ components M= m aaτ1
From the figure:
M = m (tan tan α
β−tan α) .
an = a2 · sin β
Answer:
aτ = a2 · cos β
M = m (tan tan α
β−tan α) .
an = aτ · tan β(0)
Consider a small change in the coordinate of 2.1.51 The movement of the plate is complex, consists
the wedge and the bar on it in a small inter- of horizontal (due to the movement of the rollers)
val dt: The wedge moved by dx1 Meanwhile, the and at an angle to the horizon, and is progres-
bar in the frame of reference associated with the sive. Let’s set up our forces. The vectors in blue

17
are the forces acting on the rink (N1 is the force 2.1.52 Since the system is closed, there are no external
from the plate to the rink, it is equal to and op- forces
posite to the force from the rink to the plate, Ff r Accordingly, the center of mass of the system has
is the friction force acting on the rink (under its no acceleration
action the rink rotates), and the reaction force of
the support R at point P ). aC = 0(1)

Similar forces act on a skating rink with a Considering that ⃗a1 and ⃗a2 are directed in dif-
smaller radius. The red vectors indicate the ferent directions, the acceleration of the center
forces acting on the plate (N is the total reaction of mass of the system is described by the expres-
force of the supports, mg - gravity, F - friction sion
fr
m1 a1 −m2 a2
force from the rollers on the plate). aC = m1 +m2
Let’s choose the Ox axis in the direction of the Considering the ratio (1)
plate speed. The velocity itself is the instanta- m1 a1 = m2 a2
neous velocity of the point of contact between the
plate and the roller, and the point P is the in- From where, the mass of the second star
stantaneous center of velocities, and v is perpen- m2 = m1 aa21
dicular to P C(instantaneous radius of rotation).
Let’s write down the equation of motion of the Answer:
plate in projections on the Ox axis m2 = m1 aa21
ma = mg sin α2 + N sin α2 − Ff r cos α2 (1) 2.1.53 Let’s make the drawing larger. Let’s set up our
There are three unknowns in this equation. forces. At the initial moment, the dumbbell does
More equations need to be drawn up. Let’s write not move, so we write down Newton’s second law,
down the equation of rotational motion for the taking into account that the acceleration is zero.
roller. This equation has the form We write down the equilibrium condition on the
Iε = ΣM axis:
The product of the moment of inertia of a body by 0 = N1 − mg − T cos α
angular acceleration is equal to the sum of the 0 = N2 − mg cos(π − 2α) + T cos α.
moments of forces acting on the body. Let’s find
the shoulders of the forces acting on the roller It is not difficult to guess that the design was
PC carried out in the directions N1 and N2 . From
this system we find
2r cos α2
N1 − N2 ≥ 2mg
The shoulder of the friction force is
N1 + N2 ≥ mg − mg cos(π − 2α)
α
2r cos2 and the shoulder of force N is 2r cos α2 ·
2 because cos(π − 2α) = cos2 α, then
sin α2
N1 + N2 = mg − mg cos2 α
The shoulder of force R is zero.
By the condition of the problem α = 90◦
Let’s write down the equation of rotational mo-
tion for the roller (since the mass of the roller is With this in mind, we finally get
zero according to the condition of the problem, N1 = 3mg
then I = 0):
0 = −Ff r 2r cos2 α
+ N r sin α(2) N2 = − mg
2
2
From where The sign ”−” means that the force is directed in
α the opposite direction, as indicated in the figure.
Ff r = N tan 2
Answer:
substituting this value into the equation of mo- mg
tion (1), we get For the upper ball N1 = 2 ,
3mg
ma = mg sin α2 , for the lower ball N2 = 2

i.e. the desired acceleration is equal to 2.1.54 1. The stationary circular orbit of an electron,
a = g sin α which is a negatively charged particle with a rest
2
mass me , will take place if the Coulomb force of
Answer: attraction and the inertia force
a = g sin α2 Fk = Fi

18
 are equal in modulus T = M ω2 L + mω 2 (L2 −x2 )
2L
2. The inertia force is directly proportional to
the square of the linear velocity of the particle Answer:
and inversely proportional to the distance to the T = M ω 2 l,
axis of rotation mω 2 (l2 −x2 )
Tx = M ω 2 l + (2l)
me v 2
Fi = r
2.1.57 Projecting the tension force of the thread T , we
Thus, the Coulomb force in this case is inversely
write down Newton’s second law on the vertical
proportional to the distance between the elec-
and horizontal axes:
tron and the charged filament.
T sin α = mac
3. As the charge of the filament increases,
mg − T cos α = 0
me v 2
Fk > r Hence
to restore equilibrium, the radius of the orbit mg tan α = mac (1)
should decrease, while decreasing the charge, on
We find the centripetal acceleration through the
the contrary, the radius will increase.
angular velocity of rotation ω
me v 2
Answer: F = r . ac = ω 2 r = ω 2 R sin α
Close to parabolas, touching circle from the in- We substitute in (1)
side;
g = ω 2 R cos α
from the outside.
From where we find α
2.1.55 Because the thread does not sag cos α = gω 2 R
T1 = T2 = T Given the area of definition of the cosine
As soon as the nail appears, both bodies con- −1 ≤ cos α ≤ 1
tinue to move at a speed of v along the new tra-
At g > ω 2 R, the angular velocity will no longer
jectory r = 2l
be enough to lift the body to some angle and
T = man the body will take a stable position at the low-
T = m vl
2
est point of its trajectory corresponding to
2
α=0
We obtain the tension force of the thread imme-
diately after that Answer:
g g
2mv 2
cos α = (ω 2 R) at (ω 2 R) <1
T = l
α=0 at (ω2gR) > 1.
Answer:
T = 2mv 2 2.1.58 Projecting the tension force of the thread T for
l
the lower ball, we write down Newton’s second
2.1.56 1. In the case of a weightless and inextensible law on the vertical and horizontal axes:
thread, its tension is defined as: T sinβ = mac
mv 2 mω 2 L
T = Fi = L = 2L mg − T cos β = 0
T = mω L 2 Hence
2. Select a given section of the rope and deter- mg tan α = mac (1)
mine the mass of its part length (L − x) We find the centripetal acceleration through the
mx = m L−x angular velocity of rotation ω
L
3. Determine the distance from the axis of rota- ac = ω 2 r = ω 2 (l1 + l2 )
tion Oz to the center of mass of the rope segment ac = ω 2 l(sin α + sin β)
L−x
rx = L − 2 We substitute in (1)
rx = L+x
2
g tan α = ω 2 l(sin α + sin β)
4. The tension of the rope in the section x will From where we find ω
be due to the rotating mass M and the mass of q
the rope mx ω = l(sing β+sin
tan β
α) .

19
 The q
answer: 2.1.61 To begin with, I advise you to familiarize your-
ω= g tan β self with solution 2.1.60
l(sin β+sin α) .
Consider a small piece of harness of length dl =
2.1.59 We write down Newton’s second law for the load, 2αR
taking into account the elastic force of the spring
A piece of the harness is affected by the friction
Fel
force F⃗f r
mac = Fel = k∆x
Ff r = µN
We express ∆x in terms of the length of the un-
deformed spring l Due to the uniformity of the harness, a piece of
length dl = 2αR will have a mass
mac = Fel = k(R − l)(1)
dm = m α
π
We find the centripetal acceleration through the
angular velocity of rotation ω While centripetal acceleration
ac = ω 2 R a = ω2 R
ac = ω 2 (l + ∆x) will act on it
Substitute in (1) Newton’s second law is written as
k 2 dma = N
m (R − l) = ω R
From where we find l mα 2
πω R = N
2
l = R(1 − mω
) Where does the friction force
k
Ff r = µm α 2
πω R
The answer:
l = (1 − mω 2 come from Considering sin α ≈ α at small an-
k )R
gles, we write the equilibrium condition on the
2.1.60 Consider a small piece of harness of length dl = vertical axis
2αR 2T α + Ff r = dmg
Tension forces act on a piece of the harness 2T α + µm α 2 α
π ω R = mg π
T1 = T2 = 2kα(R − R0 ),
From where we find µ
taking into account sin α ≈ α at small angles mg
µ= (2πT −mω 2 R)
Tn = 2T α
Due to the uniformity of the harness, a piece of Answer:
length dl = 2αR will have a mass mg
µ= (2πT −mω 2 R)
dm = m α
π 2
v
At the same time it will be affected by centripetal 2.1.62 α = arctan gR
acceleration 2.1.63 Due to the fact that the angular velocity varies,
a = ω2 R in addition to the centripetal velocity an , there
We write Newton’s second law as will also be a tangential acceleration aτ
dma = Tn According to the Pythagorean theorem, we find
the total acceleration ⃗a
m π1 ω 2 R = 4k(R − R0 )α p
From where we find R a = a2n + a2 τ
p
R= R0 a = (ω 2 R)2 + (εR)2
mω 2
1− 4π 2k
√
a = εR 1 + ε2 R4
Analyzing the resulting expression,the result- Newton’s second law is written as
ing elastic force will act at R < R0 T⃗n aimed
at stretching, which will not be compensated ma = Ff r
by centrifugal force. Thus, the tourniquet will ma = µmg
stretch endlessly and eventually break. √
εR 1 + ε2 R4 = µg
Answer:
q This equality holds for
R0 k
R= mω 2
at ω < 2π m
q
2 g2
(1− 4π 2k ) t = βµ4 R 1
2 − β2
q
k
at ω > 2π m the ring stretches indefinitely. From where we find ω

20
 Since the resting friction force Ff r ≤ µN = µmg,
q
4 µ2 g 2
ω= R2 − ε2 )
we obtain the inequality
In this case, if ε > µg
2
R , then aτ will be so large m vR ≤ µmg
that the force of friction at rest will instantly √
v 2 ≤ µgR → v ≤ µgR
turn into the force of sliding friction, even when
an = 0 the maximum value√ of the velocity on the hori-
zontal track v1 = µgR.
Answer:
µg Consider the movement of a cyclist on an in-
ω1 = 0 at ε > R clined track. The forces acting on it are shown in
2 2
ω1 = ( Rµ2 −ε
g
2)
1
4 at ε <
µg Fig. (F⃗ is the resultant of the reaction forces of
R
the support N ⃗ and the friction forces of rest F⃗f r ).
2.1.64 Let’s depict the forces acting on the motorcy- According to Newton’s second law for projections
cle (see Figure above), and write down Newton’s on the X and Y axes:
second law on the Y -axis N cos α − Ff r sin α − mg = 0(1)
⃗ + m⃗g + F⃗f r = m⃗a.
N along the X-axis N sin α + Ff r cos α = man (2),
2
In the projection on the axis: where an = vR
Ox : Ff r = ma; (v is the speed of movement on an inclined
Oy : N − mg = 0. track). Let’s rewrite the system in the form:
(
Considering that when moving along a circle a = N cos α − Ff r sin α = mg, (1′ )
v2 2
R ,the friction force is equal to Ff r = µN , we N sin α + Ff r cos α = m vR (2′ ).
get that the maximum speed of a motorcyclist is
Let us express from this system N and Ff r . To
equal to
√ do this, multiply the equation (1′ ) by cos α, and
v = µgR the equation (2′ ) - on sin α:
When turning, the motorcyclist deviates to the
(
N cos2 α − Ff r sin α = mg cos α,
center of the circle by a certain angle (see Figure 2
N sin2 α + Ff r cos α sin α = m vR sin α.
below). Then according to Newton ’s second law
⃗ + m⃗g = m⃗a
N After addition, we get
2

Ox : N sin β = ma; N (cos2 α + sin2 α) = mg cos α + m vR

v2
Oy : N cos β = mg. N = m(g cos α + R)

Where from Multiply (1′ ) by sin α, and (2′ )- on cos α, then

(
a µg
tan β = g = g N cos2 α − Ff r sin α = mg cos α,
2
N sin2 α + Ff r cos α sin α = m vR sin α.
β = arctan µ
After calculations, we find
Consider the movement of a cyclist along a hor- 2
izontal drift (Fig.). Ff r = ( vR − g sin α)
The cyclist is affected by: gravity m⃗g and the Since Ff r is the friction force at rest, then
normal component of the reaction force of the 2
Ff r ≤ µN → m( vR cos α − g sin α) ≤ µm(g cos α +
⃗.
support N v2
R sin α)
The centripetal acceleration of a cyclist can only
v2
be reported here by the frictional force of rest, di- R (cos α − µ sin α) ≤ g(µ cos α + sin α)
rected along the radius of the circle to the center Divide both parts into cos α(from the condition
of O and arising when the cyclist leans towards cos α > 0).
the center of the circle. v2
R (1 − µtgα)(µ + tgα)
The resultant of the forces N ⃗ and F⃗f r → F =
gR(µ+tgα)
⃗ ⃗
Ff r + N passes through the center of gravity of If (1 − µtgα) > 0, then v 2 ≤ 1−µtgα , or v ≤
q
the cyclist, and otherwise there would be a tip- gR(µ+tgα)
1−µtgα
ping moment of forces.
This means that the maximum speed when moving
According to Newton’s second law, for projection along an inclined track is
2
into the radial direction X Ff r = man = m vR , q
where v is the speed of the cyclist. v 2 = gR(µ+tgα)
1−µtgα

21
 The ratio 2.2 Impulse. Center of mass
q
v2 µ+tgα
v1 = 2.2.1 u = 5v
2 .
µ(1−tgα)

Answer: 2.2.2 Ff r = F
√ u
q
µ+tan α
3
v = µgR, β = arctan µ, v = µ(1−µ tan α) . 2p sin( α
2)
2.2.3 t = F
2.1.65 The skater is informed by the centripetal accelera- (π+α)
at an angle β = to the initial velocity.
tion of the friction force on the ice 2

F⃗f r = µN
⃗ 2
F ∆t
2.2.4 m = (16L) . Using the experimental data, plot
where N ⃗ is the force of the normal reaction of the ice the dependence of the span time on the source
(Fig. a). voltage.
Since the skater does not move in the vertical direc- 2.2.5 t = mv(sin α−µ cos α)
at tan α > µ
⃗ is equal in modulus to the force of [µ(m+M )g]
tion, the force N
gravity acting on the skater M⃗g at tan α ≤ µ the box will not move.
Therefore, 2.2.6
Ff r = µmg 2 −u1 )
2.2.7 m1
m2 = (u(v1 −v2 ) . It is necessary to take into ac-
mv 2
R = µmg count the change in the velocity of the Earth.
Hence
√ 2.2.8
v = µgR
F 0 t0 F0 t0
2.2.9 u1 = m1 ; u2 =v− m2 .
When making a turn, the skater passes the distance
m0
S = πR 2.2.10 m = 3 .
during the time 2.2.11 u1 = u2 = 0, 2v.
q
t = vs = π Rµg (1) 2.2.12 At a distance of 4L horizontally from the gun
The larger the radius of the circle along which the S 35
2.2.13 L = 36
skater moves, the greater It’s time.
m1
√
Although the maximum speed of a skater increases 2.2.14 w = m2 u2 + v 2 .
with an increase in the turning radius, the distance p
traveled by him increases
√ even more: while the speed 2.2.15 p = p21 + 2p1 p2 cos α + p22 .
is proportional to R, the distance traveled is pro- √ 2 2 2 2 3 2
m1 v1 +m2 v2 +m3 v3
portional to R. That is why the skater tries to pass 2.2.16 V = m1 +m2 +m3
the turn as close as possible to the inner edge.
lm2 lm1
q 2.2.17 l1 = (m1 +m2 ) , l2 = (m1 +m2 )
2.1.66 vmin = gR sin α(tan α+µ)
µ tan α−1
2.2.18 The trajectory of the particle is obtained by
2.1.67 According to Newton’s second law, we have stretching with similarity coefficient 2 the tra-
mω 2 r = N + mg sin α jectory of a particle whose mass is 2m.
where N is the force of normal pressure. 2.2.19 Circles whose center lies in the center of mass of
In order to avoid slippage, the condition the system station - astronaut. Radii of circles:
Rm2 Rm1
mg cos α ≤ k(mω 2 r − mg sin α) R1 = (m1 +m2 ) , R2 = (m1 +m2 ) .

must be fulfilled 2.2.20 On the bisector of the angle at a distance l =

√
L 2
from where 4 from the vertex, where L is the length of
ω 2 ≥ gr (cos α + sin α) at k = l. half of the rod; at the point of intersection of the
medians; on the line connecting the centers of
Thus, 2
the disk and the hole, at a distance l = (Rdr 2 −r 2 )
q √
ω = gR2 from the center of the disk.
ρSvl
Answer: 2.2.21 u = m .
q √
uV (ρ0 −ρ)
ω = gR2 2.2.22 v = (ρV +ρ0 V0 ) .

22
 q
2.2.23 T = 2π 2R
3g
2.3 Kinetic energy. Work. Potential
energy
m1 m2 v 2
2.2.24 F = (m1 +m2 )l 2F l
2.3.1 At m = v2

m(v 2 −v 2 )
q
m2 T1 +m1 T2 2m1 m2 (T1 −T2 )
2.2.25 ω = Lm1 m2 ;m = m1 T2 −m2 T
2.3.2 F = 2
(2l)
1
; if F > 0, the direction of the force
coincides with the direction of the particles, and
m1 m2
2.2.26 T12 = m1 +m lω 2 for the thread connecting if F < 0, the direction of this force is opposite.
2 +m3
m1 and m2 ; the expressions for the other threads
2.3.3 F ≈ 2.5 · 106 H
are similar.
2.3.4
2.2.27 F = mg − ρV a q
F0 (l1 +2l2 +l3 )
2.3.5 v = m .
2.2.28 F = SρLa √
2.3.6 v > 2µgL.
u
2.2.29 At a speed of upwards.
4 2.3.7 A ≈ 0.8J
q
(m2 gtgα) ′ mv 2
2.3.8 x = v m x20 +
p
2.2.30 n = (m1 v) . k ; x = k

F2
2.2.31 F = N mg. Increasing. 2.3.9 Ek = (8k) .

(M +N m) 2
2.3.10 At the greatest force we can develop, the bow
2.2.32 H = h N m(N m+2M ) . should stretch as far as the arm span allows. For
a tighter bow, as for a less tight bow, the stored
mv 2 F N mv 2
2.2.33 F = R ;p = S = 3 elastic energy will be less.

2.2.34 ∆vN = ( MM 2N
(v2 − v1 ). 2.3.11 K = mgl cos α, K ′ = mgl(cos α − µ sin α)
+m )
v2
2.3.12 h = [2g(1−µ cot α) .
2.2.35 F = ρSu2 .
q
2A
Mg ′ M (g+a) 2.3.13 v = 4gh − m.
2.2.36 µ = u ;µ = u
2.3.14 Amin = mgl.
2.2.37 F = µ2 (u − v) + µ1 u.
2.3.15 Amin = mgl
2
ρSu
2.2.38 v = (ρS+k) pg
2.3.16 v = r l
q
F (ρ−ρ0 ) mv 2
2.2.39 v = (πr 2 ρρ0 ) . 2.3.17 n = (4πF R cos α) .
p
2.2.40 See Fig. 2.3.18 v = 2 (l − h)T m.

2.3.19 Moving through the pipe.

2.2.41 F = 3mg(1 − xl ).
2.3.20 sin β = √v sin
2
α
.
m(v 2 +gl) v +2gh
2.2.42 F = l .
q sin α mv 2
√ 2.3.21 sin β = l
at F l > 2 cos2 α
1−2F mv
2.2.43 v = gh 2

2.3.22 At the bottom. In the upper one. At angle α =

2.2.44 N = 2(F − ρv 2 ) cos α2
arctg √13 between the thread and the vertical
F
at v ≥ ρ
2.3.23 x = l TT−3mg
−mg .
2.2.45 K = k n .
2.3.24 F = 5mg for the rod; F = 6mg for the thread.
2.2.46 u = v ln n R
2.3.25 Lmin = 2(tan α−µ) .

2R
2.2.47 m ≈ 5.5 · 105 kg; 7.4 times less. 2.3.26 h = 3

23
2.3.27 h = 2, 5R. 2.4 System energy. Energy transfer.
2πRmg
√ Power
2.3.28 F = 4π 2 R2 +h2 4π 2 R2 + h2 + 16π 2 H 2

1
2.4.1 In a moving frame of reference, the force of ten-
2.3.29 F = mg(1 − k2 ). sion performs work. No
2.3.30 F = mg cos α(3 sin α − 2) at sin α ≥ 2 m1 v 2
3 2.4.2 K = 2 − F l.
2
F = 0 at sin α ≤ 3. k(x1 +x2 )x1
2.4.3 K1 = 2
√ k(x1 +x2 )x2
2.3.31 v = 2gl. K2 = 2 .

2.3.32 A = 2πµmv 2 mu2 mv 2

2.4.4 A1 = 2 − 2 ; A2 = −mu2
−2µα
2.3.33 K = K0e . 2.4.5 A = 2F r(2 sin α2 − 1), α = 60◦ .
2.4.6 The sum of the works of the mutual forces de-
2.3.34
pends only on the change in the distance be-
2.3.35 F = l tween the particles.
(mα2 ) q
m
2.4.7 x = v (3k) .
x2 px
2.3.36 A = (2mα2 ) − (αm) . √
2.4.8 v ′ = 2v.
2
F0 x √
2.3.37 U = (2x0 ) at |x| ≤ x0
2.4.9 v = gl.
x0
U = F0 (|x| − at |x| > x0
2 ) 4l
q 2.4.10 xmax = 3
Movement area: |x| ≤ 2Kx F0 at K ≤
0 F0 x0
2
q
2M gh
2.4.11 vm = tan α M +m tan2 α
x0 F0 x0
|x| ≤ ( FK0 + 2 ) at K > 2 .
q
2M gh
vM = M +m tan2 α + 2g(H − h).
kqQ
2.3.38 K = r2 ; at qQ > 0 - repulsion, q
2.4.12 v = ( 34 ) gR
3 .
at qQ < 0 - attraction
7mg
2.4.13 F = 9 .
2.3.39 No
2.4.14 h ≈ 0.25m
2.3.40 At E > 0, the region of motion
q 2.4.15 K ′ = 0.01K.
r ≥ l VE (−1 + 1 + VE ) q
k
q 2.4.16 vx = (l − l0 ) (2m) cos α
at E < 0, r is between r1,2 = l VE (−1 ± 1+ E
V ). x = (l − l0 ) sin α

2.3.41 h = 2mg 2.4.17 a. In translational motion. The acceleration of

k
the center of mass and the total external force
2.3.42 h = 2mg pm for the system is related in the same way as for
k ;v =g k
an individual particle.
3h 4h
2.3.43 H1 = 2 ; H2 = 3 . 2.4.18 µ = v2
(2gl) .

2.3.44 k = √ mgx0
2
q
T
2( 2 l +x0 −l)2 2.4.19 v = 2h(g − m ); K = mgh, Erot = T h.
q
2k(h−l) Lm2
2.3.45 F = mg(1 + 1+ (mg) ).
2.4.20 x = (M 2 −m2 )

F
2.3.46 F = (m1 + m2 )g. 2.4.21 lmin = l0 ; lmax = l0 + k
µmg cos α
p 2.4.22 x = k at µ ≤ tan α
2.3.47 x = ( m m
k )(g − a); xmax = ( k )(g + 2ga − a2 ). q
x = µmg2kcos α [1 + 1 − 2(1 − tan α 2
µ ) ] at
m2
2.3.48 F = µg(m1 + 2 ) tan α ≤ µ ≤ 3 tan α
µum0 2mg sin α
2.3.49 m = 2 . x= k at µ ≥ 3 tan α

24
2.4.23 The kinetic energy of the particle is 2.5 Collisions
m(⃗
u+V ⃗) 2
K= 2 , where ⃗u is its velocity relative 2.5.1 m1
= 1; yes.
m2
⃗ is the velocity of
to the center of mass and V π
2.5.2 α = 2.
the center of mass. In sum over all particles of
u1 (k−1) u2 2k
the system, the summands m⃗uV ⃗ give zero. 2.5.3 u = (k+1) ; u = (k+1) .

2.5.4 The mass of the neutron is close to the mass of

q
F2 2F 2 (m1 +m2 )
2.4.24 Kmax = (2k) ; Umax = k ; vrel =F (km1 m2 ) the deuteron (mn ≈ m2d ), so the energy loss in
elastic collisions with deuterons is much greater
2.4.25 At a velocity of the center of mass equal to zero than collisions with heavy lead nuclei.
2.4.26 ∆W = F l. √
2.5.5 m = m1 m2 .
2
Ft
2.4.27 ∆W = F (l − 2m ) 2.5.6 cos β = v1 v2 cos α
√
(u1 v1 +v2 −u21 )
2 2

F 2 m22 ∆W
2.4.28 ∆W = [k(m1 +m2 )2 ] , U= 2 2.5.7 v1′ = 2v − v1 ; v2′ = 2v − v2
2
F m1 m2
K = Fl + [k(m1 +m2 )2 ] 2.5.8 After any odd number of collisions the velocities
(m1 −m2 )v1 +2m2 v2 (m2 −m1 )v2 +2m1 v1
2.4.29 A = mu2 . Half of the work goes to increase the v1′ = m1 +m2 , v2′ = m1 +m2
internal energy. After any even - are equal to the initial ones.
∆W µ
2.4.30 = (tan α+µ) .
q q
m2 m3 m2 m1
A 2.5.9 v1 = v m1 (m 1 +m3 )
; v 3 = v m3 (m1 +m3 )

m1 m2
2.4.31 W = W1 + W2 + 2(m1 +m2 ) (V1 − V2 )2 , No. m1 +m2
2.5.10 tan β = tan α m2 −m1
.
2.4.32 √
2.5.11 d = 2 2R.
2
2.4.33 Q = m( v2 − gh)
2.5.12
m1 gh(m1 −m2 )
2.4.34 Q = (m1 +m2 ) 2.5.13 The two nearest balls obtain velocities v1 =
q q v cos α and v2 = sin α, directed on mutually per-
2.4.35 Q = 2mgR(1 − 1− l2
1− l2 pendicular sides of the cell, and the originally
(4R2 ) ) (4R2 ) .
moving ball will stop. These velocities are then
2.4.36 E ≈ 200 M J. transferred to the next balls in corresponding
rows
2.4.37 m ≈ 3 kg.
2.5.14 t = tn − tn−1 = 2∆t.
2.4.38 8 times (2R cos α)
2.5.15 t = v .
2.4.39 v = µgt at t ≤ t0 ≡ mµN2 g2 2 2
q 2.5.16 m1
m2 = sin (α+β)−sin
sin2 α
β
; m1 is the mass of an incom-
v = 2N N
m (t − 2mµ2 g 2 ) at t > t0
ing particle, m2 is the mass of a resting particle.
m2
2.4.40 N = m0 gω(1 − ω m0 2.5.17 sin α = m1 .
ω0 ), m= 2 .
2m1 v cos α
2.4.41 m = n2 m0 2.5.18 u = (m1 +m2 )
(2n1 )

√ m1 (p2 +p20 −2pp0 cos α)

2.4.42 v ≈ 20 km 2 2.5.19 m2 =
h ; α = arcsin 4 (p20 −p2 )

2.4.43 N = ρS(v − ωR)2 ωR.

p
2.5.20 u = v 2 + (v + u0 )2
π
2.4.44 η = 2v swivel angle φ = + arctan u0v+v
(v+u) .
2
q
m2
2.4.45 N = mgu 2.5.21 v = 2gh(1 + m1 ).
2 .

25
 q
2.5.22 v1 = 0; v2 = v at v > v0 ≡ 2gh(1 + m2
m1 )
2.6 The force of gravity. Kepler’s laws
2 −m1
v1 = v m2m 2
1 +m2
, v2 = v m
m1 +m2 at v < v0
2.6.1
Here v1 is the speed of the slide, v2 is the 2.6.2 a = RK2 where R is the distance from the planet
to the Sun, K is the constant.
velocity of the body.
q q 2.6.3 h ≈ 700 km
m2 2gRm1 2gRm1
2.5.23 v1 = m1 (m1 +m2 ), v2 = (m1 +m2 ) 2.6.4
2m2
N = m2 g(3 + m1 ) 2.6.5
r2 a
q
k(m1 +m2 ) m1 −m2
q
k(m1 +m2 ) 2.6.6 According to the given data γ = (2M ) ≈ 5 · 10−11
2.5.24 u = x m1 m2 , u1 = m1 +m2 x m1 m2 m 2
H · kg 2 , which is comparatively close to the re-
2m1
p
u2 = m1 +m2 x k(m1 + m2 )m1 m2 sults of exact measurements.
then u1 = u, u2 = 0 and so on. 2.6.7 M ≈ 6 · 1024 kg

2.5.25 h1max = m2 U m1 U 2.6.8 M ≈ 6 · 1030 kg

m1 g(m1 +m2 ) , h2max = m2 g(m1 +m2 )
2.6.9
2.5.26 1.5 times.
2.6.10 0.3 times.
2.5.27 K = 35.7 keV 2.6.11 6 times.
2.6.12 R = ( γm ⊙ 1
me
2.5.28 Emin = E(1 + m ). ω2 )
3

2.6.13 T1 ≈ 0.7 years.

2.5.29 Emin ≈ 27.2 eV q
3
q q 2.6.14 T = 2π γ(mR 1 +m2 )
.
2Em2 2Em1
2.5.30 v1 = m1 (m1 +m2 ) , v2 = m2 (m1 +m2 )
m r3
2.6.15 m⊙ =µ= T2
p21 m22 +p22 m21 −2p1 p2 m1 m2 cos Θ
2.5.31 E = 3γm
2m1 m2 (m1 +m2 ) 2.6.16 ω 2 = l3
km km
2.5.32 E = K sin α1 sin α2 2.6.17 v1 ≈ 7.9 s , v2 ≈ 1.7 s , T1 = 84 min,
T2 ≈ 105 min.
2.5.33 E = 4.1 M eV.
2.6.18 p = 2m0 γm α
p
R sin 2
(p2 −2mE)
2.5.34 cos α = (p2 +2mE) if 2mE < p2 3mv 2
2.6.19 F = (4R)
π
α= 2 if 2mE > p2
2.6.20 ∆N ≈ 9 · 103 H
h i2
(m1 −m2 )
2.5.35 h
h0 = (m1 +m2 ) . 2.6.21 a. R ≈ 42 · 103 km. b. The ”figure of eight”,
”touching” the 60th parallels with the point self-
(3− m1 )
m intersection at the equator.
Q
2.5.36 K = 4
2
M mh
2.6.22 ∆U = γ R(R+h) ; mgh−∆U
∆U = h
R
√ q
2.5.37 Q1 = 2 Q2 m(v − 2 Qm2 ). 2.6.23 v = 4.6 km
s
p
q
Fl
q 2.6.24 u = v 2 − v02
2.5.38 vn = m (1 + n1 ), un = Fl
1
m(1+ n )
q 2.6.25 10 times less
F
vn → at n → ∞ 2.6.26 v1 ≈ 11.2 km km
s , v2 ≈ 2.4
lm
s
√
2.5.39 tan β = tan α − 2µ with tan α > 2µ 2.6.27 ∆v = ( 2 − 1)v
otherwise β = 0 2.6.28 h = 59 km.

26
 2
3H
2.6.29 ρmax = (8πγ) . 2.6.46 Speed of ”sweeping” the area dS 1
dt = 2 bV0 =
q
1 γM
2b a . (See the solution of the problem 2.6.45.)
q
2.6.30 v = 3γmR . 2πab
The orbital period of the satellite T = (bV0 ) =
3
km
2.6.31 v ≈ 42 s .
2πa 2
√ .
γM
km
2.6.32 v ≈ 16.7 s .
One can solve this problem without referring to
km
the solution of Problem 2.6.45. The radius of
2.6.33 vmin = 29 s . curvature of the orbit at the apex of the major
2 2
2.6.34 U = −2K axis of the ellipse R = ka2 = ba . Therefore vR =
q q
v2 a M 2
b2 = γ r 2 → vr = γ Mab , dS 1 1 M
dt = 2 vr = 2 b γ a .
2.6.35
3
ab 2πa 2
2.6.36 S = ( 21 )vrt sin α Satellite orbital period T = 2π dS = √
γM
..
dt

ωp
2.6.37 ≈ 45
ωa
2.6.47 In 1910.
( 1+R
q c
R ) 2
3
2.6.48 t = π R
q
g[ ] .
2γM
2.6.38 ρ = R 1 + (Rv 2 ) .
2

2γM
2.6.39 V = v( rv r
, 2.6.49 t ≈ 65 days.
2 −1 ), R = 2γM
rv 2
−1
m
M is the mass of the Earth. 2.6.50 ∆v ≈ 70 s .

γM m γM m(R23 −R13 )
2.6.40 E = (ra +rp ) 2.6.51 F = (R1 +R2 )R12 R22

2.6.41 R1
= 2u2 γm2 γmM (3R2 r+r 3 ) √
R2 v2 2.6.52 N = 4r 2 − R(R2 −r 2 )2 ;R = 3 12R0 .
γM dφ
2.6.42 dv = (vp rp ) . The vector dv is directed to the 2.6.53 σ ≈ 1, 8 · 1012 P a
center of the planet.
2.6.43 The velocity momentum (vector product of the
velocity on the radius-vector drawn from the
2.7 Rotation of a solid
center of the orbit) of the probe is the same as 2.7.1 K2
= 32.
K1
the station’s velocity momentum.
mR2 ω 2
When the probe and station rotate by the same 2.7.2 K = 2 . The disk has less energy.

angle, the velocity vectors will also change in 2.7.3 M = mR2 ω

;M = mR2 ω 2
t (4πN ) .
the same way. From the constancy of the
ωR ω2R
probe’s velocity momentum: 2.7.4 t = (µg) , n = (4πµg) .

up = (v − V sin α)r it follows that 2.7.5 J = m1 r12 + m2 r22 .

p V
r= (1−ε sin α) , where ε = u. ω2R(1+µ2 )
2.7.6 n = [4πgµ(1+µ)] .
At ε < 1 the probe trajectory is an ellipse,
at ε = 1 it is a parabola, ω2R(1+µ2 )
2.7.7 n = [8πgµ(1+µ)] .
at ε > 1 it is a hyperbola
2.7.8
pu pu
2.6.44 When V < u, rp = u+V , ra = u−V |m1 −m2 |gR
αpr = arcsin Vu 2.7.9 w = (J+m1 R2 +m2 R2 )

mg Jw mg Jw
√ axis and 2.7.10 P1 = 2 − l ; P2 = 2 + l .
2.6.45 This velocity is parallel to the major
perpendicular to vector V , so V0 = u2 − V 2
2 2.7.11 a = (m1 F F
+m2 ) ; w = (m2 R)
Since a = 12 (ra + rp ) = u2pu
−V 2 ,
2
then a = γM (From the equation u = γM for 2.7.12 a = ( 12 )g sin α.Ff r = ( 21 )mg sin α.
V02 p p2

a circular orbit, it follows that pu = γM ) 2 2.7.13 T = ( 17 )mg sin α

q
Finally, V0 = γM
p
a 2.7.14 v = gl(sinα − 2µ cos α).

27
 2m2 g 1 2
2.7.15 a = (2m2 +m1 ) 2.7.41 Q = 10 mv

gt 2 3m22 v 2
2.7.16 J = mr2 [ (2h) − 1] 2.7.42 cos α = 1 − gl(4m1 +3m2 )(m1 +m2 ) .

1 R1 −m2 R2 )R1 1 R1 −m2 R2 )R2 2l

2.7.17 a1 = g (m
J+mR2 +m2 R2
, a2 = −g (m
J+m1 R2 +m2 R2
; 2.7.43 At a distance of 3 from the hand.
1 2 1 2
′ mRx J ′
T1 = m1 g J+m 2 R2 (R2 +R1 )
J+m1 R2 +m2 R2
T2 = 2.7.44 F = F ( J − 1). At x = (mR) F = 0.
1 2

m2 g J+m 1 R1 (R2 +R1 )

J+m1 R2 +m2 R2
. 2.7.45 After the first strike, the velocity of the dumb-
1 2

g 1 mg bell centers is (v1 −v

2
2)
, and they rotate in opposite
2.7.18 a = ;T = .
2 1+ mr2
directions with angular velocity (v1 +v 2)
J
1+ mr 2 . After a
J
l
2.7.19 a = g time 2(v1πl+v2 ) the second stroke will occur; the ro-
2
tation will stop and the dumbbells will fly with
r
2.7.20 cos α > R. the same velocities as before the first impact.
ω0 R Q
2.7.21 See Fig. t = (2µg) . E = 21 . 2.7.46 h = H( m13m 2
+6m2 ) .
2

2.7.22 t = v0 (3µg). Q 1 2.7.47 M = µ(u − ωR)R.

E = 3.
u M
2.7.23 t = v 2.7.48 N = µ(u − ωR)Rω.ω = −
(µg) . R (µR2 )

3v
2.7.24 ω > R.

2.7.25 ω1 = ω3 = ω
= − ω3 2.8 Statics
3 ; ω2

2.7.26 α = 60◦ . Less. 2.8.1 T = 98 H, F = 138 H

4m1 m2 g
2.7.27 N = (m1 +m2 )
2.8.2 F = 0, 98 H.

2.7.28 N = mgl2 2.8.3 h ≈ 700 m

(l2 +3a2 ) .
2.8.4 Neighboring strands form an angle of 120◦
1 −m2 ) 2g(m1 −m2 )
2.7.29 cos α = ω2g(m
2 l(m +m ) at | ω 2 l(m +m ) | < 1; otherwise
1 2 1 2
m1 sin α
α = 0 or π. 2.8.5 m2 = l
sin( R −α)

2.7.30 ω = J1 ω1 +J2 ω2
. Q= J1 J2 (ω2 −ω1 )2 √
J1 +J2 2(J1 +J2 ) 2.8.6 T ≈ 2, 6 H; α = arctg(3 3).
v
2.7.31 ω = (2R) . 2.8.7 x = 5F
k
(3ω1 −ω2 ) (3ω2 −ω1 ) 2.8.8 l0 = 2l2 − l1
2.7.32 ω0′ = 4 ; ω2′ = 4 .
mg ′ mg
2.7.33 u ≈ m2 v 2m2 vh 2.8.9 T = (2tgα) ; T = (2 sin α) .
m1 ; ω = (m1 R2 )
mg sin β mg sin α
2.7.34 ω = 2m2 vr 2.8.10 FA = sin(β−α) ; FB =
(m1 R2 +2m2 r 2 ) . sin(β−α)

ωmR2 2 mg cos 2α
2.7.35 ∆ω = It increases by a factor of (1 + mR 2.8.11 FA = mgtgα; FB =
J . J ). cosα

2.7.36 n = 33 −1 2.8.12 µ = tan( αmin

2 ).
8 h
1
2.7.37 West. Such a wind in the northern hemisphere 2.8.13 dmax = d0 + 2R(1 − √1+µ2 ).
is called a northeasterly trade wind
(µ1 −µ2 )
2.8.14 tgα = (1+µ .
2.7.38 m ≈ 4 · 1016 kg. 1 µ2 )

2.8.15 µ = √1
2.7.39 a. ”Humps” of tidal deformations of the Earth 3
and tides in its oceans are delayed in relation to
the passing of the zenith and the antizenith by 2.8.16 fn = F ( Ff )n
the Moon or the Sun. b. The tide in the Earth’s 2.8.17 F = F0 e−µθ .
atmosphere produces a momentum of forces that
accelerate the diurnal rotation. 2.8.18 a.F1 = F2 = 98 H; b.F1 = 24, 5 H, F2 = 171, 5 H.
√
2.7.40 v = 3gL 2.8.19 m ≤ 7, 5 g.

28
 √
2.8.20 m = m1 m2 3 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
h
2.8.21 ∆m = ( L )m0 tgα
3.1 Small deviations from equilib-
2.8.22 ∆m± = µ(M +2m)r
(L∓µr) , ”excess” and ”deficiency” are rium
possible.
3.1.1 F ′ = −2 cos α = −2F √l2x+x2 = [x ≪ l] = −2F xl
2.8.23 α = arctg( 31 ). q
x x
dU = 2F cos αdx = 2F l2 +x 2 = 2F l dx
q
mgL L 2
2.8.24 T = 2h ; P = mg 1 + ( 2h ) RU Rx Rx F x2
0
dU = 0
2F xl dx= 2F
l 0
dx = l

(2n−1)mg
2.8.25 Tn = sqrt3 .
q
F x20 mυ 2 2F
l = 2 ⇒ υ = x0 ml

2.8.26 P = ( 14 )mgctgα
3.1.2 F = −kx - spring force
1 dU = F dx = kxdx
2.8.27 µ ≥ 3
RU Rx Rx kx2
p 0
dU = 0 kxdx= k 0 xdx= 2
2.8.28 l < L < l 1+ µ2
q
k kx20 υ02 m
2.8.29 α ≤ arctg2µ. 3.1.3 a) υ0 = x0 ω = x0 m⇒ υ02 = m ⇒ k= x20

2.8.30 α > π b) F = −kx is the elastic force of the spring (ob-

3.
viously), since in any case in a normal spring
2.8.31 cos φ = ctgα
√ , consider µ > tgα. pendulum the return force is equal to the elastic
3
kx2
force of the spring. Then: U = 2
1
2.8.32 tgα ≤ µ
3.1.4
mg 1
2.8.33 F = 2 ,α = 0 at µ ≥ 2; F = 3.1.5 OX : F = −mg sin φ= −mg xl
mg 1−2µ
p 1
2
5µ − 4µ + 1, tgα = µ at µ = 2 .
2µ
mgx2
RU Rx
U= 0
dU = 0
mg xl dx= 2l
(1−µ1 µ2 )
2.8.34 tgα ≥ (2µ1 ) .
pg
3.1.6 υmax = Aω = x0 l
′ F (l+µh)
2.8.35 F = (l−µh)
3.1.7 E1 = E2
µR
√
2.8.36 sin α =
q
mgx21 mgx22 x21 R x1 R
(l+R) 1+µ2 2r = 2R ⇒ x22
= r ⇒ x2 = r

2.8.37 ω = vh
R2 .
3.1.8 maτ = −qE sin φ = [φ−small] ≈ −qEφ = −qE 2x
l
2qE
mẍ(t) + l x(t) = 0
2.8.38 Reasonable
2qE
ẍ(t) + ml x(t) = 0 - we got the harmonic motion
2.8.39 Fax = mg; Fpr = mg 4 , one spring is compressed,
equation.
the other is stretched. q
ω = 2qE ml
Mr
2.8.40 m = (R−r) .
q
2qEx20
2qE
υ0 = x 0 ω = x 0 ml ⇒m= lυ02
2.8.41 T = 3mg
3.1.9 dU = F dx
2.8.42 ∆S = ( Nµl )α(t2 − t1 )tgφ x
F = mg sin φ = mg R−r
RU Rx x mg
2.8.43 U = 0 dU = 0 mg R−r = R−r

√ Rx mg x2
2.8.44 F = µmg( 2 − 1) 0
xdx = R−r · 2

29
 2kQq
3.1.10 U1 = L - initial energy of the system. 3.2 Period and frequency of free oscil-
kQq kQq lations
U2 = L−x + L+x - system energy after bead dis-
placement
3.2.1 a) The equilibrium position is at the level of the
1 1 2 Qqx2
∆U = U2 − U1 = kQq( L−x + L+x − L )≈ 2πε0 L3 centre of the wheel.
k
Ek = ∆U F = −kx = [Ω2 = m] = mΩ2 x
mυ 2 Qq∆x2
q
mυ 2 πε0 L3
q
mπε0 L3 The values of the velocity and displacement of
2 = 2πε0 L3 ⇒ ∆x = Qq = υ Qq the load are repeated after time t = T = 2π
Ω

3.1.11 Fy = k∆l = kx cos α The velocity vector will only change its direction,
2 and the displacement will change sign.
mg = 2Fy cos α = 2kxcos α q
2kx cos2 α k
m= b) Ω = m
g
√ R = x0 , since point A is always at the same level
3.1.12 a.F = − 2mg ′ ′ 6mg
R x. b.R = R 3.F = − R′ x
as the weight.
q
gR
3.1.13 v = ∆m 2 . 3.2.2 T = 2π m
p
m
k
mg
3.1.14 Ω = φ0 Ll hg .
p
F = −k∆l = mg ⇒ k = ∆l
q q
mg(x0 +y0 )2 mυ 2 MU2 T = 2π m∆l ∆l
3.1.15 2l = 2 + 2 mg = 2π g
mυ = M U pm pm
3.2.3 T1 = 2π k , T2 = 2π k′
Solve the upper equation with respect to υ:
q
Mg 2
q
x0 g 2
k ′ = 2k + 2k - since the spring is split in two and
υ = (M +m)l (x0 + y0 ) = (x0 +y0 )l (x0 + y0 ) = the length of each half is 2l 2
q
x0 gl (1 + xy00 ) pm
T2 = 2π 4k =π m
p
k
Solve the upper equation with respect to U : T1
=2
q q T2
mg 2 y0 g 2
U = (M +m)l (x0 + y0 ) = (x0 +y0 )l (x0 + y0 ) = q
q 3.2.4 a) k ′ = k1 + k2 ⇒ T1 = 2π k1m
y0 gl (1 + xy00 ) +k2
q
b) k ′ = kk11+k
k2
⇒ T2 = 2π m(kk11k+k 2)

φ2 x20 2 2
3.1.16 Tmin = mg cos φ ≈ mg(1 − 2 )= mg(1 − 2l2 ) q
2
c) k ′ = k1 + k2 ⇒ T3 = 2π k1m +k2 (does not de-
ma = Tmax − mg ⇒ Tmax = m( υl + g)
pend on the distance between the walls)
mυ 2
mgl(1 − cos φ)= 2 - Law of Conservation of q 2
Energy 3.2.5 T = 2π gl ⇒ l = T4π2g = 24.8 cm
gx20
υ 2 = 2gl(1 − cos φ) ≈ glφ2 = l q q
Let us substitute this expression for the velocity 3.2.6 T = 2π l
g∗ = [g ∗ = g sin α] = 2π l
gsinα
into the expression for Tmax : q
l 2π
x20 3.2.7 a) T0 = 2π g, T = w
Tmax = mg(1 + l2 )
mẍ = −(mg + F ) sin φ = −(mg + F ) xl
φ2 A2
3.1.17 N = m cos φ ≈ mg(1 − 2 )= mg(1 − 2R2 ) (1) q
2 w = mg+Fml
N + ∆= m(a + g)= m( υR + g)
2
mυ 2 T2 mg mg(T 2 −T 2 )
mgR(1 − cos φ) ≈ mgR φ2 = 2 - Law of Conser- T02
= ⇒ F =
mg+F
0
T2
vation of Energy p
2
A2 b) mẍ = −( (mg)2 + F 2 ) sin φ
N + ∆ = m( gRφ 2
R + g)= mg(1 + φ )= mg(1 + R2 ) p
(2) mẍ = −( (mg)2 + F 2 ) xl
q√
Then we solve the system of equations (1) and (mg)2 +F 2
(2) and obtain that: w= ml
q 4
q
A = R 3N2∆ T0 (mg) +F 2
2
T04 −T 4
+∆ T4 = (mg)2 ⇒ F = mg T4

30
 3.2.8 Using the law of gravity, let us write down the 3.2.14 ma = Ff r1 − Ff r2 + F − F = Ff r1 − Ff r2
equations for determining the free-fall accelera- (
tions, taking into account that the acceleration Ff r1 = µmg(l+x)
l
above the field will be greater than far away from Ff r2 = µmg(l−x)
l
the field µmg(l+x)
ma = l − µmg(l−x)
l = µmg(l+x−l+x)
l = 2µmgx
l
g0 = 43 πRGρ0 ≈ 4πRGρ0 2µg
ẍ(t) + l x(t) = 0
g = g0 + gk ≈ g0 + 4πRG(ρ − ρ0 ) q
Let’s write down the ratio of the periods of os- ω = 2µg l
cillation of the pendulum given by the problem
condition 3.2.15 t = 22s
T −T0
α = T0 = 0, 1; ξ = TT0 = 1 + 10−3
q
3.2.16 T = 2π gl∗
Let’s express the ratio of periods through the
values of free-fall acceleration (g ∗ )2 = a2 + g 2 − 2ag cos α
r(ρ−ρ0 )
p
ξ 2 = g0g+g = 1 + Rρ
g ∗ = a2 + g 2 − 2ag cos α - Cosine Theorem
0 0
r
(ξ 2 −1)Rρ0
r = ρ−ρ ≈ 30 km T = 2π √ 2 2 l
0 a +g −2ag cos α
q q
l l
3.2.9 T0 = 2π g, T1 = 2π g∗ 3.2.17 The weight of a pendulum in space is zero.
g= GM
R2 , g∗ = GM
(R+H)2 mẍ(t) + mΩ2 (R + l)sinφ = 0
g
= (R+H)2
⇒ g∗ = gR2 ẍ(t) + Ω2 (R + l)φ = 0
g∗ R2 (R+H)2
Ω2 (R+l)
q ẍ(t) + x(t) =0
T1 = 2π R+H
R
l
g q
l

2π l
T =
∆T1 = T1 − T0 = T0 ( R+H
R − 1) = 2 min
Ω R+l

∆T2 = T2 − T0 = T0 ( R+h
R − 1) = 6.75 s 3.2.18 mẍ(t) + kx − mΩ2 x = 0
k
3.2.10 F = 2T sinφ ẍ(t) + ( m − Ω2 )x(t) = 0
mẍ(t) + 2T sin φ = 0 (sin φ ≈ φ = xl )
q
k
ω= m − Ω2
2T
ẍ(t) + ml x(t) =0 P
∗2 2T mlω ∗2 3.2.19 Iε = M = mgxsinφ−M glsinφ≈ φ(mgx−M gl)
ω = ml ⇒T = 2
I = M l2 + mx2
3.2.11 mẍ(t) − F = 0
(M l2 + mx2 )φ̈ + φ(M gl − mgx) = 0
1 1
F = kqQ( (L−x)2 − (L+x)2 ) M gl−mgx
φ̈ + M l2 +mx2 φ =0
4kqQLx
F = − (L2 −x2 )2 ≈ − 4kqQx
L3
q
g(M l−mx)
ω= M l2 +mx2
ẍ(t) + 4kqQx
mL3 x(t)
q q q
α
ω = 4kqQ = qQ 3.2.20 ω = β
mL3 mπε0 L3
mυ 2 m
x
3.2.12 F = mg R Ek = 2 ⇒β= 2
mg 2 2
kx2
mẍ(t) + R x(t) =0 Ep = mgl(1 − cosφ) + k(x/2) = mglφ +
2 2 8 =
g mgl x2 kx2 2 mg k mg k
ẍ(t) + R x(t) = 0 2 l2 + 8 = x ( 2l + 8 )⇒ α= 2l + 8
q
gk
ω2 =
pg
ω = R ⇒ T = 2π R g
+ 4m
l
q P
t = T2 = π R 3.2.21 Iε = M
g = 42 min
I = M R2 + mR2 = R2 (M + m)
3.2.13 mẍ(t) + F = 0
pg q R2 (M + m)φ̈ + mgRsinφ = 0
x R
F = mgcosφ = ⇒ω= mg R R⇒ T = 2π g mg
φ̈ + R(M +m) φ =0
q
t = T2 = π Rg ≈ 42 min ω2 = mg
R(M +m) ⇒ M = m( ω2gR − 1)

31
3.2.22 a) 2mẍ(t) + 2mgsinφ = 0 Therefore, in case (a) oxygen atoms make free
ẍ(t) + √ g x(t) =0 oscillations, the period of which is equal to
R2 −l2 q
√ g
Ta = 2π M
ω2 = R2 −l2
k

At oscillations of type b), equal in absolute value

α
b) ω 2 = β forces act on the carbon atom, and they are di-
√ rected in the same direction. If the ball - car-
Ep = 2mgR′ (1 − cosφ)= 2mg R2 − l2 (1 − cos φ)
√ bon atom is divided into two equal parts, it is
2mg R2 −l2 2
Ep ≈ 2 φ clear that they will oscillate as one whole: equal
√
2mg R2 −l2 forces always act on them and, consequently, the
α= 2 ball-halves and any moment will have the same
2mυ 2 2mω 2 R2 2mR2 2 acceleration, velocity and coordinates. The fre-
Ek = 2 = 2 = 2 φ̇
2mR2 quency of oscillation of the molecule CO2 , is
β= 2 equal to the frequency of oscillation of a system
√
2 −l2 consisting of an oxygen atom and half a carbon
ω2 = g R R2 atom. Thus, the problem is reduced to the de-
q
α
termination of the period of oscillation of balls
3.2.23 ω = β of masses M and m/2 connected by a spring.
kx2 k Such balls oscillate about the stationary cen-
Ep = ⇒α=
2 2 tre of mass of the system. If the length of the
mυ 2 Iω 2 2mυ 2 2m spring in the unstretched state is l, then the cen-
Ek = 2 + 2 = 2 ⇒β= 2 m
q tre of mass of the system is at a distance l m+2M
ω= k from the ball of mass M . Therefore, we can con-
2m
sider that the ball of mass M (oxygen atom) os-
3.2.24 I = mR2 + md2 , where d is the distance from the cillates relative to the centre of mass on a spring
past axis to the present axis: of length
m
I = mR2 + mR2 = 2mR2 l1 = l m+2M .
L= 2mR2
= 2R The stiffness of a part of the spring is greater
mR
q q than the stiffness of the whole spring. Since the
T = 2π Lg = 2π 2R
g stiffness is inversely proportional to the ratio of
p g the length of this part to the length of the whole
ω = 2R spring, the stiffness of the part of the spring is
3.2.25 m1 xc = m2 (l − xc ) ⇒ xc = m2 l k1 = k ll1 = k m+2M
m
m1 +m2
k1 xc = k2 (l − xc ) The period of oscillation of a ball of mass M on
k1 m2 l m2 l k2 m1 l a spring of stiffness k1 is equal to
m1 +m2 = k2 (l − m1 +m2 ) = m1 +m2 q q q
Tb
k1
= m1 Tb = 2π M k1 = 2π mM
,
k(m2 M ) Ta = m+2M
m =
k2 m2 q
k1 k2 k1 m2
m
k1 m2 1 + 2M
m .
k= k1 +k2 = k1 +k1 m2
1
m = m1 +m2
1
q q q Since M
m =
16
12 = 34 , then:
k1 k2 k(m1 +m2 )
ω= m1 = m2 = m1 m2 Tb
q
8
q
Ta = 1+ 3 = 11 3 .
√
ωHD 3
3.2.26 ωH2 = 2 Hence, the ratio of frequencies:
q
νb 3
3.2.27 Let us denote the stiffness of the springs of the νa = 11 .
molecule model k, the mass of the balls - oxygen q
atoms M and the mass of the ball - carbon atom 3.2.28 T = 2π β
α
m (m/M = 12/16).
mυ 2 MU2
Making oscillations of type a), both oxygen Ek = 2 + 2
mυ
atoms oscillate synchronously relative to the mυ = M U ⇒ U = M
fixed carbon atom. This is due to the fact that by mυ 2 m2 υ 2 m m 2
Ek = + = 2 (1 + M )υ
virtue of the symmetry of oscillations of oxygen 2 2M

atoms on the carbon atom at any moment act β= m

2 (1 + m
M)
on both sides equal in absolute value and oppo- 2
sitely directed forces that ”balance” each other. Ep = mgl(1 − cosφ) ≈ mgl φ2 = mg 2
2l x

32
 q
β
3.2.33 T = 2π α
mυ 2 m
Ek = 2 ⇒β= 2
′ mg 2 mg
Ep = m gx = m xl gx = l x ⇒α= l
q
l
T = 2π 2g
q
β
3.2.34 T = 2π α
m(ẋ)2 M (ẋ′ )2
Figure 1: For the 3.2.31 Ek = 2 +
2

S1 x = S2 x ⇒ x = SS12x
′ ′

mg
α= 2l Ek = ρHS1 (S1 +S2 )
(ẋ2 )
2S2
q
l(m+M ) ρHS1 (S1 +S2 )
T = 2π Mg β= 2S2

3.2.29 This system can be considered as oscillations of

′ ρgS1 x2 S1 x2
Ep = mg x2 + M G x2 = 2 + S2 ρgS2 2 =
four pendulums on springs of stiffness 2k each. ρgS1 (S1 +S2 ) 2
2S2 x
The stiffness of the springs increases as the balls
oscillate relative to the centres of mass of each α = ρgS1 (S 1 +S2 )
2S2
system consisting of two balls and a spring (the
centre of mass of this system is the centre of the
q
T = 2π H g
spring).
pm pm pg
T = 2π k∗ = 2π 2k 3.2.35 ω = H
T π
pm
a) t1 = 4 = 2 2k r
k
3.2.36 ω = 4 .
b) t2 = 43 T = 32 π 2k
m [m+ πρlR
p
r2
]

3.2.30 When the thread is twisted, the force is propor- 3.2.37 T = 2π H1

q
0 g
tional to the angle of twist
q q
F = −kφ T = 2π Hg2 = 2π H1 +∆H g
I0 φ̈ = −kφd M = ρw H1 S ⇒ H1 = M
q ρw S
T0 = 2π Tkd0 M + m = ρw H2 S ⇒ H2 = M +m
ρw S
Likewise T02 ρw gS
M= 4π 2
(I0 + I1 )φ̈ = −kφd T 2 ρw gS
M +m= 4π 2
T2 I+I0
T02
= I0 T 2 ρw gS T02 ρw gS ρw gS(T 2 −T02 )
2
m= 4π 2 − 4π 2 = 4π 2 ≈ 900 T
I = I0 ( TT 2 − 1)
0

3.2.31 Let spring is stretched to the x.

q q 3.3 Harmonic motion
2
h = L2 − (L+x) 4 = L 34 + 12 L
x

√ 3.3.1 The coordinate depends on time according to the

3 1
h =≈ L 2 − √
2 3
x law
kx2 ¨ x(t) = A cos ωt
Ep = 2 , Ep =k
h′ = 1
− 2√ ẋ Differentiating by time, we obtain the time de-
3
pendence of velocity
2mh2
Ek = 2 = 12 ẋ2 (2m 12
1
) dx d
= A dt cos ωt
dt
m
α0 = 6
q v = −Aω sin ωt
6k
ω0 = m Similarly, differentiate the velocity to get the ac-
q q celeration
Mg Mg
3.2.32 ω1 = (ml) , ω2 = 2ω1 = 2 (ml) . dv
dt
d
= −Aω dt sin ωt

33
 a = −Aω 2 cos ωt 3.3.6 Similarly to 3.3.5, the oscillation will consist of
two half-oscillations When a body slides along
According to Newton’s second law, the force act-
a trough of radius R, its motion, from the point
ing on a body is defined as
of view of kinematics, is no different from the
F = ma motion of a mathematical pendulum with a long
F = −mAω 2 cos ωt = −mω 2 x thread R Thus, the period of oscillation is
By Hooke’s law s
R
F = −kx T0 = 2π
g
Where is the stiffness of the spring
k = mω 2 I.e. half of the chute, it will pass in time
s
3.3.2 a)x = 5sin(3, 13t). b)x = 5 cos(3, 13t). Displace- R
ment is measured in millimeters, time in sec- T1 = π
g
onds
3.3.3 T = 0, 06 s Similarly, for a gutter of radius r
3.3.4 From 3.3.1, we find that velocity depends on
r
r
time according to the law T2 = π
g
v(t) = v0 sin ωt
Given that kinetic energy is defined by the ex- Thus the total period of oscillation
pression
mv 2 T = T1 + T2
Ek = 2
The dependence of kinetic energy on time will
have the following form s r
2
R r
Ek = E0 sin ωt T =( + )
g g
E0
The moment of time when Ek is Ek = 2 is de-
scribed by Eq. 3.3.7 t = π
q ; will not change
2 gl
sin2 ωt = 1
2
Whence
q
m
√ 3.3.8 t = π (2πR∆p) .
2
sin ωt = 2
3.3.9 Focused at distances l = π(n + 21 )v0
pm
This will occur at the nearest moment equal to k , where
π n is an integer
t= 4ω
3.3.10 The number of intersectionsp g is equal to an inte-
3.3.5 The first part of the path ”up to the nail”, the
ger part of the value πvl 0 R
pendulum will pass in time
q q √
T1 = 12 2π gl = π gl (1). 3.3.11 T = ( 43 )π lg
After hitting the nail, half of its length remains 3.3.12 l = Acos[π(1 − T )].
T0
in place and the other half continues to move at
the same speed
q
mg √
3.3.13 t = [π + 2arctg 2k(H−h) ] mk
Thus, the length of the pendulum is halved. q √ v′
l → 2l 3.3.14 t = π2 (µg) l
at v =≤ µgl, t = µg +
Making the substitution in (1)
q ′ √
q
l v
(µg) arccos v at v > µgl, where v ′ =
l p
T2 = π 2g v 2 − µgl.
Thus the total period of oscillation 3.3.15 w = 2R
at A ≫ R, w = 1
at A = 2R. Increase
(πA) 3
T = T1 + T2 q
d k
s 3.3.16 u = m, where n is an integer.
√ l 2πn
T = (1 + 1/ 2)π
g 3.3.17 t = T
+ τ
4 2

34
3.3.18 a)x = mg mg
k (cosωt − 1).b)x = k + l(cosωt − 1). The 3.4 Overlapping oscillations
x-axis is directed vertically upwards, the origin
is at the initial position. 3.4.1 There will be a superposition of horizontal and
q q vertical
q harmonic oscillations with frequencies
mv k
3.3.19 v = m+M cos m+M t, x = √ mv sin m+M k
t.
q
k(M +m) ω1 = 2k m and ω2 =
1 2k2
m . At k1 ̸= k2 rectilin-

3.3.20 From the moment the ball hits the wall for the ear motion is possible only vertically and hori-
first half-period there is compression and return zontally.
of the spring to an undeformed state. Then a 3.4.2 A body deflected from its equilibrium position by
second strike at the moment when the spring is a distance rqneeds to be given a velocity v = ωr,
not deformed, after which the balls start mov- k 2π
ingqwith constant velocity v. The period T = where ω = m .T = ω .
m
2π (2k) . 3.4.3 a. The trajectory is an ellipse with semi-axes A
and ωv . The limits of the variation of the distance
3.3.21 v1 = m1m+m
1
2
v(1 + m2
m1 cos ωt), v2 = m1
m1 +m2 v(1 − from ωv to A.
cos ωt).
b. The trajectory is an ellipse with semi-axes
T
3.3.22 Fmax = 2F ; τ = 2
r q
1 v2 v2 2
2 (A
2 + ω2 ± (A2 + ω2 ) − 4( xv 2
ω ) )
3.3.23
q π
2
3.3.24 A = A20 + Fk2 − 2Ak0 F cos ωt0 . When t0 = π(2n + 3.4.4 2φ = 6.

1)ω, where n is an integer, the amplitude is the 3.4.5 When 2φ = πn, where n is an integer, the screen
largest; at t = 2πn
ω it is the smallest. shows a segment; when 2φ = ± π2 + 2πn− cir-
√ cle.
3.3.25 x0 = u mk. √ The length of
√ the semiaxes of the ellipse is
A 2 cos φ and A 2 sin φ.
3.3.26 If u ≥ µg m
p
k a harmonic oscillation with am-
plitude A = µmg 3.4.6 Ellipse with axes vertically and horizontally.
k , at lower u an oscillation with
amplitude A = usqrt m k. 3.4.7 The segment along the diagonal of the screen
3.3.27 µ = kl will become an ellipse extended along the diago-
(4M gn) .
nal. ellipse, whose semi-axes will gradually be-
3.3.28 BC = g(M +m) come equal in length. Then a circle will appear,
(M ω 2 ) .
which will begin to turn into an ellipse stretched
3.3.29 F = −mω 2 x = −mω 2 A cos(ωt + φ), the force along the other diagonal of the screen, and so on.
mω 2 A is reached at time t = (πn−φ) , where n After a time of 2π
Ω the whole cycle will repeat.
ω
is an integer. 3.4.8 Tx : Ty = 1 : 2, except in the case d, when Tx :
3.3.30 When ω 2 A > g, the load bounces and its de- Ty = 2 : 1.
tachment from the surface of the diaphragm oc-
3.4.9 If Tx : Ty = p : q, where p and q are integers,
cursabove its middle position.
then in time pTy = qTx the point will return to
3.3.31 A = F its initial position. If Ty = Tx , the trajectory of
(mω 2 ) .
the point is an ellipse.
g ω 2 A2
3.3.32 h = A + (2ω 2 ) + (2g) at ω 2 A > g.
3.4.10 ωy : ωx = p : q = 3 : 4.
√
3.3.33 A = ( ωg2 ) π 2 n2 + 1, where n — integer. 2F
q
m1
3.4.11 µmin = (M +m1 +m2 ) , =except for the case m2
−11
3.3.34 At an amplitude A ≫ 10 cm, the acceleration p
q , where p and q are odd integers.
of the plate face is much greater than the accel-
eration g = 0.8 m s that friction can provide, so 3.4.12 F = k[A2 cos(ωt + φ2 ) − A1 cos(ωt + φ1 )].Emax =
the load practically stays in place with almost k 2 2 k 2
2 [A1 + A2 − 2A1 A2 cos(φ2 − φ1 )].Eav = 4 [A1 +
−11 2
no effect on frequency. At amplitude A < 10 A2 − 2A1 A2 cos(φ2 − φ1 )]. When φ2 − φ1 = π the
cm, the weight moves with the end and affects average energy takes the highest value, when
πg
the frequency in a noticeable way. vmax = (2ω) ≈ φ2 − φ1 = 0 - the lowest.
−6 m
1.57 · 10 s . 3.4.13 F = 2kA sin( ω2 −ω
2
1
t) sin( ω2 +ω
2
1
t).Eav = k4 (A21 +
2
3.3.35 A2 )
πv0 tgα
3.3.36 uav = (2µ) 3.4.14 N = ( 21 )ωF0 A sin φ

35
 q q
3.4.15 a.ω1 = 3k k 3.5.9 N = bv 2
m , ω2 = m.
d kx2 mv 2
b.v1 = v(cosω2 t+cos ω1 t)
, v2 = v(cosω2 t−cos ω1 t)
; x1 = 3.5.10 dt ( 2 + 2 ) = −bv 2 , hence m dv
dt = −kx − bv.
2 2
v( ω1 + ω1 )
x2 = 1
2
2
; ∆x = ωv1 . 3.5.11 See Fig. a: after a single shock there is a gradual
c.v1 = v(2cosω2 t + cos ω1 t), v2 = v(2cosω2 t − damping of oscillations;
v( ω2 + ω1 )
cos ω1 t); x1 = x2 = 1 2
; ∆x = ω2v1 .. Fig. b: with periodic shocks, initially the oscil-
2
lations swing, and then,when the energy gain of
3.4.16 The motion of the atoms will be the sum of the the order of pv compares with the loss per pe-
following motions: a) all atoms move progres- riod having the order bv 2 T , the oscillations are
sively with velocity v0 ; b) the carbon atom is sta- established.
tionary, and the velocities of the oxygen atoms
are equal in modulo and 3.5.12
q oppositely directed:
(1) k
v0 = ±v1 cos ω1 t, ω1 = M ; c) oxygen atoms 3.5.13
move with the same velocity v2 cos ω2 t towards
the carbon atom whose velocity which is equal 3.5.14 At γω0 ≈ 1.
to
q 3.5.15 The speed of the oscillator is less in n2 , n3 times
−v2 2M
m cosω 2 t, ω2 = k( 1
M + m
2
) its initial velocity
Shift of the oxygen atom toward the carbon atom 3.5.16 In τ the energy will decrease fourfold. In time
2
∆x = |vω11| + (1 + 2 M
m ) |v2 |
ω2 = 1
2 v( 1
ω1 + 1
ω2 ). τ2
2 the energy will be halved.

3.4.17 xmax =
v(ω1 +ω2 )[l(ω12 −ω1 ω2 +ω22 )−g]
,L = g2 3.5.17 See Fig.
ω1 ω2 [l(ω12 +ω22 )−2g] l(ω1 ω2 )2

m(ω 2 −ω02 )
3.5.18
3.4.18 k = 2 .
3.5.19 γ = 102 s−1 , ω = π · 103 s−1 . The error in re-
(A±B) 2π π
3.4.19 A1,2 = 2 ; ω1,2 = τ ± T placing ω by ω0 is quadratic on the small value
of ωγ0 .

3.5.20 a.γ ≈ 10−2 s−1 .

3.5 Forced and damped oscillations
b.γ ′ = γ4 .
3.5.1 See Fig. Q
ω0
3.5.21 a.Q = (2γ) , n = (2π) .
3.5.2 See Fig.
b. About 50 times for Q = 108 and only 1.5 times
3.5.3 See Fig. If the shocks follow each other at inter- at Q = 109
vals of time T0 , then amplitude p 2
q
v0 np
3.5.22 vmax = m 1−exp( −2πγ )
.
An = [ ω + (mω)]2 + x0 . 2 ω

vmax ≈ 2p 2πγ
m if ω ≫ 1;
If at intervals T20 , the amplitude
2ωp
q vmax ≈ (2πγm) if 2πγω ≪1
v0 np 2
An = [ ω + (mω)]2 + x0 . for odd n
q 3.5.23
v2
An = ω02 + x20 for even n, ω = 2π T0 F0
3.5.24 A = (mω 2) .

3.5.4
3.5.25
3.5.5 About 63 cm. q
3.5.26 a.A = [m(ωF2 −ω
0
2 , ω 0 = k
m.
3.5.6 Potholes on the road on the entry side are less 0 )]
q
frequent than on the exit side b.A = [m(ωF2 −ω , ω = k
m.
0
2 )] 0
0

3.5.7 Before the course and speed of the boat was

changed, there was a resonant swaying. 3.5.27 A = [m(ωF2 −ω
0
2 . The quantities B and φ are cho-
0 )]
sen so that at time t = 0 the initial conditions
3.5.8 As the amplitude increases, the loss per period x(0) = x0 , v(0) = v0 .
increases. When they are equal to energy gain
due to the shock, further rocking will stop. 3.5.28 x0 = F 0/[m(ω02 − ω)], v0 = 0, then B = 0.

36
3.5.29 The additional acceleration associated with free by these particles on the other side of the source
oscillations multiplied by the by the mass of at the same distance.
the oscillator is equal to the additional internal The velocity of the particles emitted at moment
force. π
t = (2ω) , v = mω F0
sin ωt; their mean velocity
3.5.30 Let us consider an example of vibrations of a vav = 0; the highest velocity of these particles,
F0 F0
body attached to a spring. Forced vibrations of vmax = (mω) , is attained at distance (mω 2 ) from

this body with a frequency less than the natu- the source.
ral frequency can be imagined as free vibrations F0
on the same spring of the body with additional 3.5.42 Cycloid; the average velocity vav = (mω) is di-
−F0
mass. The force with of this mass can be con- rected along the x-axis. If at t = 0 vx = (mω)
sidered as a forcing force. It is directed against and vy = 0, the particle will move on a circle of
F0
the elastic force and therefore in the direction of radius r = (mω 2) .

displacement. The forced oscillations with a fre-

quency greater than the of the same body with
an additional spring attached to it. The elastic
3.6 Deformations and stresses. Wave
force of this spring can be can be seen as a forcing
force. It is directed against the displacement. velocity.

3.5.31 3.6.1 F
k ; (N −1)F
k

3.5.32 See Fig.x(t) = 2F0

m(ω02 −ω 2 )
sin( ω−ω ω+ω0
2 t) sin( 2 t).
0
3.6.2 Increase by 10−14 m
ES
3.5.33 x(t) ≈ F0 t
sin( ω+ω 3.6.3 k = L ,F = ES( ∆L
L ).
2 t).
0
m(ω+ω0 )

F0 t
3.6.4 k = Ea
3.5.34 x(t) ≈ 2mω0 sin ω0 t.
3.6.5 See Fig. l = 3 mm
3.5.35 At |ω − ω0 |γ, the initially occurring beats grad-
ually transform into forced oscillations due to a 3.6.6 108 to −0.5 to 108 P a
decrease according to the law e−γt of the term
changing with the frequency ω0 . At ω = ω0 3.6.7 F = 5 · 104 H
the initial swing of oscillations with linearly
3.6.8 At 1.2 − 10−4 m
increasing amplitude smoothly decreases and
forced oscillations are established. The charac- 3.6.9 ∆l = mal
(2ES) .
teristic establishment time is equal to the time
of damping of free oscillations τ = γ1 , when their 3.6.10 w= Eε2
= σ2
2 (2E)
amplitude decreases by e. times.
π 2 Ea4
3.6.11 Amin = 6 l
3.5.36 a.F = −2Aγmω0 sin(ω0 t−φ). b.A = −F0 (2γmω0 );
ω0
in (2γ) times. 3.6.12 ν= k
(k+2k0 )
F0
3.5.37 γ = (2x0 ωm) . 3.6.13 ν = k
(k+2k0 )

3.5.38 ω0 = 550 s−1 , γ = 50 s−1 , Q = 5, 5. 3.6.14 Increasing. ν = 0, 5.

3.5.39 About 105 s. 3.6.15 χ = 3(1−2ν)
E
ω0 λ
3.5.40 v = (2π) . 3.6.16 Increases by about 30 m. The density of water is
kg
greater by 50 m 3 . The energy in unit volume is
3.5.41 The velocity of the particles after the time of 2.5 · 10 6 J
.
F0 m 3
flight v = mω (1 − cos ωt); their average velocity
F0 2F0
vav = (mω) ; the highest velocity Vmax = (mω) 3.6.17 The horizontal component of the tension force of
is attained by these particles at a distance of the thread is equal to F ; by the slope of the non-
F horizontal part of the thread, the vertical com-
mω 2 π(2n + 1) from the source, where n is an in-
teger. ponents of the tension force are found, and by
them the required forces.
The velocity of the particles emitted at time t =
π F0
ω , v = mω (cosωt−1); their average velocity vav = 3.6.18 See Fig. The forces applied to the bending points
F0 2F0
(mω) ; the highest velocity vmax = (mω) is reached 1, 2, 3 : F1 = −FL0b , F2 = F0 ( Lb + bl ), F3 = −Fl 0 b .

37
 2
3.6.19 u = −cε. 3.7.9 The vertical forces F1,3 = (ρv L−F )b and F2 =
q
2(F −ρv 2 )b F
q . When v → ρ the forces, acting on
3.6.20 a. dp c
dt = −ρ 2ε. b.F = F0 ε; c =
F0
ρ
L
the string, tend to zero - the string ”does not re-
q sist” bending. If the forces on
q the are fixed in one
−b Eb2 cb E
3.6.21 a.ε = L ,w = (2L2 ) ; u = −cε = L. b.c = ρ. way or another, then if v → Fρ the deformations
of the string increase infinitely. deformations of
3.6.22 a. dp 2
dt = ρcuS = −ρc εS. b.σ = −Eε, c =
pE
ρ . the string.

3.6.23 5 km
s . Let’s make a thin rod in a sheet of steel. 3.7.10 The velocities of the ”bend” waves and the distur-
Its transverse displacement is ”interfered” by bance will coincide, which will lead to a sharp in-
neighboring parts of the sheet. The stiffness of crease in the amplitude of the waves in the tire.
such a rod is greater than that of a rod with a This in turn can cause the tire to rupture.
free side surface.
m 3.7.11 The speed of the boat and the speed of the wave
3.6.24 550, 1400 and 340 s that the boat excites in the river coincided.
ρ(P −P0 )
3.6.25 c2 = [ρ0 (ρ−ρ0 )] . 3.7.12
3.6.26 With compression smoothly decreasing toward
3.7.13 Flat front. The direction of propagation forms
the wave front, the speed of sound is greater at
an angle α with the normal to the of the interface
the more distant sections, the disturbances of
(sinα = vc ).
the medium catch up with each other. In the
case of rarefaction, the distant sound velocity
3.7.14 α1 = α, sin α2 = ( cc21 ) sin α.
is lower, they lag behind, and the disturbance
blurs.
3.7.15 Engine noise propagates slower than the shock-
3.6.27 See Fig. Particle velocity and the height of wa- wave front generated by of a supersonic aircraft.
ter level rise in a running wave are related by the
relation uc = ∆h 3.7.16 sin α0 = cc12
h . We equate the rate of change
in momentum with the difference √ in pressure 3.7.17 Only the direction of the refracted wave will
forces; ρhcu = ρgh∆h. Hence c = gh
change:
ωl 14
3.6.28 c = 2arcsin( ω . At ω ≪ ω0 c = ω0 l, ω0 ≈ 0.5 · 10 sin α = c2 sin α1
2ω0 ) 2 c1 +v sin α1
Hz.
where c1 and c2 are sound velocities in still air
and water, v is air flow velocity, α1 is angle of
incidence.
3.7 Wave propagation
3.7.18 a. The parts of the wave front farther from the
3.7.1 p = ρcbS. shore move at a greater speed than those less
distant. Therefore, the angle between the wave
∆ρc l ∆ρ
3.7.2 a.qp = ∆ρc2 . b.v = ρ L; x = ρ l. front and the shore near the shore decreases. b.
See Fig.
3.7.3 P (t0 − rc ), where r is the distance to the sensor.
3.7.19 A complete internal reflection is possible at the
3.7.4 The momentum flux density qp = ρcu(x0 − ct). depth interface.
3.7.5 F = 1400 N
3.7.20 See figure showing ”sound rays” that are orthog-
−F onal to the wave surfaces; in the wind direction
3.7.6 u = (S √FEρ) , ε = (SE) ; ρ′ = ρ[1 + (SE)
F
]. The
the sound goes almost along the Earth’s surface,
momentum p = 0.5F τ p′ = F τ ; energy W = and in the opposite direction it goes away from
2 2
√ τ ,W′ =
0.5F F
√τ .
(S Eρ) (S Eρ) it.
K
3.7.7 A = 12.5 · 103 J, = 0.25. 3.7.21 ν = ν0
A (1− vc ) .
q q
c1 c2 F ⊥ F∥ F∥
3.7.8 See Fig.;u = c1 +c2 F ∥ , c1 = ρ′1 , c2 = ρ′2 3.7.22 ν1,2 = ν0 (1 ± vc ); ν3 = ν0 [1 − ( vc ) cos α].

38
 3.8 Wave superposition and reflection 3.8.16 In the presence of the spacer, the coefficient of
. passage of the wave received by the sensor in-
creases from 0.25 to 0.41. Secondary signals
3.8.1 In the first case (see Fig. a to Problem 3.8.1) the (”echo-signals”) appear, following each other at
2l
kinetic energy is zero, and potential energy U = s intervals, the power of which decreases geo-
2E. In the second case (see Fig. b to Problem metrically. At high frequency of signals repeti-
3.8.1) the kinetic energy K = 2E, and potential tion ”echo-signals” overlap each other, then By
energy is equal to zero. selecting the thickness of the spacer it is possible
to achieve almost complete passing or reflection
3.8.2 Spreading strain waves with ε = −0.5 · 10−3 . of the signal.

3.8.3 See Fig. 3.8.17 n = ( ρρ11 cc11 −ρ 2 c2 2

+ρ2 c2 ) , L =
2lc1
c2 .

3.8.4 See Fig. P = 2ρcωA cos ωt. Wavelength λ = 2πc

ω .
3.8.18 L = 2lc
c2 .n = 1. No
1

There is a velocity node and a pressure beam

3.8.19 l1 = 1.25 mm, l2 = 2.5 mm
near the wall. The first pressure node is away
λ
from the wall at a distance of 4

3.8.5 See the figure in the problem condition. In a 3.9 Sound. Acoustic resonators
”non-inverted” displacement wave, the sign of
the deformation is opposite to the sign of defor- 3.9.1 λ = c
= 6, 6 m
ν
mation of the incident wave.
c
3.9.2 l = 4ν = 82.5 cm.
v0
3.8.6 A = 2ω .
At the end of the rod there is a velocity 2l
beam and a pressure node. The first node of ve- 3.9.3 c = ν.
locity is at a distance λ4 from the end of the rod 3.9.4 v1 = 6.8 cm −8 m
s , v2 = 6.8 · 10 s , x1 = 0.11 mm,
(see Fig.). x2 = 1.1·10 −11
m, P1 = 3·10−4 atm, P2 = 3·10−12
atm
3.8.7 When a wave reflects from the inner surface of
the glass, it creates a region of of high tension 3.9.5 I > 3 kW
m2
(stretching).
3.9.6 F = 2L2 ρcv. At ω ≪ Lc there is almost complete
2P m cτ
3.8.8 u = (ρc) = 250 s ;l = 2 = 1cm. pressure equalization in the of the air jet, so the
emission of sound is weak
3.8.9 l = 12 (L − ωc arcsin σσ0 ) = L2 (1 − π1 arcsin σσ0 ).l = L
2
3.9.7 E = 2πR2 ω 2 A2 ρc. The pressure amplitude in
at σ0 ≫ σ, l = L4 at σ0 ≈ σ.
the wave is inversely proportional to the dis-
3.8.10 P = ρcu = 3.9 · 104 atm. The force applied to tance to the center of the ball.
the end of the rod from the side of the wall gen- 3.9.8 a. Two divergent waves: velocities
erates a compression wave in it. Reaching the F0
u= cos ω(t ∓ xc )
free end, it is reflected from it. The reflected 2Sρc
wave is a tensile wave. When the reflected wave (the coordinate x starts at the cross section
and the force wave from the wall overlap, the de- where the source of the force F is located) and
formation disappears and the velocity of the rod deformation ε ∓ uc .
sections changes sign. When the front of the re- b. A standing wave occurs between the force
flected wave reaches the wall, the entire rod is sources:
undeformed and its contact with the wall ceases. F0 l ωx
The contact time τ = 2l −4 u= cos ω(t − 2c ) cos c ;
c = 4 · 10 s. Sρc
outside the sources are two scattering waves:
2l
3.8.11 vl = v, vL = v|1 − L |. F0
u= Sρc cos ωl2c cos ω(t − xc )
3.8.12 (x-coordinate counting starts at the point lo-
vl1
cated in the middle between the sources of force
3.8.13 v1 = 0, v2 = l2 . F ). If at the distance l there is an even num-
√ √ √ ber of half-waves, the power of the resultant the
uref l u
3.8.14 = √ρ1 E1 −√ρ2 E2 , ref r = √ 2 E1√ ρ1
power of the resulting wave is maximal, if there
uf al ρ1 E1 + ρ2 E2 uf al E1 ρ1 + E2 ρ2
is an odd number of half-waves - the power of the
4ρ1 c1
3.8.15 D ≈ ρ2 c2 ≈ 1, 1 · 10−3 . resulting wave is zero. is equal to zero.

39
 3.9.9 When l = ( 41 + n)λ; when l = ( 34 + n)λ, λ = 2πc
ω . 3.9.25 The power of a passing wave is the same fraction
of the incident wave power whether the sound
Lω
3.9.10 L = 2λ, c = 4π . travels from air to water or from water to air,
and this fraction is very small. Pressure is an-
3.9.11 a. The stress nodes are at distances from the other matter. When a sound wave is reflected
σ0 S
free end divisible by λ2 .F0 = sin( 2πL
) in the air at the boundary with water, a pres-
λ

2πnc sure beam is formed, so the pressure in the wave

b. See Fig.; ω = (2L) ,
where nis an integer, c =
passing into the water is almost twice as much
ωλ
(2π) is the speed of sound. We can. as the pressure in the incident sound wave. (We
consider only the normal falling wave at the
3.9.12 νn = n · 2500 Hz. At a distance of 25 cm from its boundary of the two media; in other cases the
ends. picture is qualitatively the same). When, how-
ever. sound wave falls on the interface out of wa-
3.9.13 It will be halved. ter, a pressure node is formed at that interface,
A0 2π and the pressure in the passing wave in the air
3.9.14 A = |sin( ωL
.τ = ω|sin( ωL
.
c )| c )| is nearly zero. This approximation is based on
c the fact that ρc for the wave and air differ many
3.9.15 ν = (2L) = 8.25 Hz. times (about 330times). It is possible to calculate
the pressure change accurately. The pressure in
3.9.16 As the height of the air column in the vessel a passing wave in the first medium
changes, its resonance frequencies change. The 2ρ1 c1
sound is amplified when the difference between Pref r1 = ρ1 c1 +ρ2 c2 Pf al2
the frequency of the tuning fork and one of the where Pf al2 is the pressure of the incident wave
resonant frequencies of the air column. in the second medium. When passing from wa-
ter to air, the pressure decreases by a factor of
3.9.17 50, 250, 450 m, etc. about 150.
√
(1) (2)
3.9.18 ν0 3.9.26 M = ωmk ctgω m
p
= 300 Hz;ν0 = 150 Hz. k.

3.9.19 To make the instrument’s natural frequency set

as rich as possible. The tone decreases as the
size increases. 4 FLUID MECHANICS
3.9.20 The sound of the voice is influenced by the air’s
own vibrations. The corresponding wavelengths 4.1 Fluid pressure
in a helium-oxygen medium will be unchanged,
and the frequencies will increase as the of sound 4.1.1
velocity. The overall tone of the voice will in- √
crease. The frequency of vibration of the tuning 4.1.2 F1 = 2000 2 N . F2 = 0.
fork will not change, the same frequency as the
4.1.3 P = √4 F2
sound. 3a

3.9.21 F = 4l2 ν 2 µ = 144 N. 4.1.4 Yes.

3.9.22 Near the displacement bundles at a distance of 4.1.5 F = 2πr2 P.

l l
6 or 3 from the end of the string. 4.1.6 F = π(R2 − r2 )P.
3.9.23 Because of the friction between the hand and the 4.1.7 σ = (R−∆)2
R2 −(R−∆)2 P
rod, there will be a large loss of energy. They are
lowest for the middle of the rod, where there is a 4.1.8 The force F1 acting per unit length of the circum-
velocity bundle, the highest for its ends, where ference of the sausage cross section is less than
there is a velocity bundle. the force F2 acting per unit length of the perime-
ter of its longitudinal section.
3.9.24 The main energy losses are associated with the
transition of the wave from one medium (sap- 4.1.9 Atdistancel = d21 −d23
d21 +d22 +d23
a to the left of the center
phire) to another (air). The transmission coeffi-
of the stick.
cient is. D = ρ4ρ air cair
sapf csapf
= 0.7 · 10−4 (see Problem
3.8.15). The losses will increase about 104 times. 4.1.10 h = 727 cm.

40
4.1.11 FN = 4392 N ; Fc = 4314 N ; Fb = 4353 N ; F = 78 rotation, its position is stable. This condition is
N. satisfied at
√ √ √ q
1
4.1.12 F = ( 12 )ρga2 (3 3h − 2a) + ( 14 )P a2 3.
a
b > 6 ρρ0 (1 − ρρ0 ).

4.1.13 Constituent forces parallel and perpendicular

4.2.5 A = 34
to the bottom of the vessel: F∥ = a3 (ρ −
ρ0 )g sin α, F⊥ = a3 ρ0 g( ρρ0 cosα+ 21 sin α+ ha )+P a2 .
4.2.6 V = 147 cm3
2
4.1.14 x = H − ( Rr2 )(1 + ar )( ρ0ρ−1 )h. g
4.2.7 ρ = 1.5 cm3 .
4.1.15 h = 85 cm.
ρ′1 ρ1
4.1.16 h = 10, 1 m. 4.2.8 ρ′2 = ρ2 .

πR3 ρ
4.1.17 m = 3 . 4.2.9 x = 4m
.
[π(d21 +d22 )]

4.1.18
4.2.10 F = 0, 8 · 10−3 N
2 1 r2
4.1.19 A = πr (h + 2 l R2 )ρgl.
4.2.11 F = ( 32 )πr3 ρg(1 + 2r
l )
4.1.20 The pressure Pr can be found from the equilib-
rium condition of the highlighted thin cylindri- −2
cal volume in the figure: the force of attraction 4.2.12 F = 1, 2 · 10 N.
of this volume to the center of the planet, equal
2 g
to the product of the mass of the volume by the 4.2.13 ρ = 3 cm3
acceleration of the gravity field in the center of
mg
the volume, is balanced by the pressure acting 4.2.14 F = √3
on the lower section,
Pr = 23 πγρ2 (R2 − r2 ), P0 = 23 πγρ2 R2 . L 2 ρgL(H+R)2
4.2.15 .a.F = ρgR(H + 2) . b.F = 2 .
4.1.21 In the direction of acceleration of the vessel.
4.2.16
4.1.22 β = α − arctgµ
4.2.17 m = 520 g
4.1.23 The pressure P (x) can be found from the con-
dition that the pressure force on the inner base 3
4.2.18 m = ( 43 )π(R2 + r2 ) 2 ρ
of the thin cylindrical volume highlighted in the
figure is equal to mω 2 y, where y is the distance
ρa3 (6+5tgα+tg 3 α) ρa3 (6−5tgα−tg 3 α)
from the center of the cylinder to the axis of ro- 4.2.19 m1 = 24 ; m2 = 24
tation, m is the mass of the selected volume: √
2
ρω 2 [(R−x)2 − R4 ]
P (x) = . 4.2.20 T = 3mg72 .
2
2
1ω
4.1.24 y = x2 . 4.2.21 a. Q = 1 kJ .b. Q = πr2 ρghH[1 + 1 h ρ
− r2
2 H ρ0 (1 R2 )].
2 g

4.2.22 Q = ( 43 )πR3 ρgH = 410 J, ρ is the density of wa-

4.2 Swimming. Archimedes’ Law ter.
mg
4.2.1 P = S + P0 4.2.23 A = 2.5 · 106 J
H(ρ−ρ1 )
4.2.2 h = g ∆ ∆
(ρ2 −ρ1 ) 4.2.24 a. Can. ρ[ cm 3 ] = (1 + 2R−2H−2∆+l )(1 − l ).
(m−ρ1 hS)
4.2.3 H = [S(ρ2 −ρ1 )] .
4.2.25 F = ( 34 )πr3 (R − r)ρω 2
4.2.4 . If at a small rotation of the parallelepiped q
around the axis passing through the point O, 4.2.26 ω = (gtgα)
[R−(l+r) sin α] .
the momentum of the forces acting on the par-
allelepiped is directed in the opposite direction 2
to the direction of rotation. to the direction of 4.2.27 F ≈ (m1 −m2 2 )ω R .

41
 4.3 The motion of an ideal fluid 4.3.16 The problem is reduced to Problem 4.3.15 if
we move to a frame of reference in which the
m
4.3.1 28.5; 27.0; 25.6 s . To the twelfth floor. counter velocities of the armor and the metal jet
are equal in modulo. v = 1 km/s.
4.3.2 ∆T = 2ghρS.
4.3.17 h = l cos(t gl ).P = xρg
p
V2 2 in the vertical part of the
4.3.3 N = ρV [gh + (2S 2 ) ]. tube. P = yρg
2 in the horizontal part of the tube.
s 2
4.3.4 a. Because of the pressure difference in sections 4.3.18 a = g( S ) .
1and 2, the fluid between these sections in the
4.3.19 E = P V.
direction of its movement, a resultant pressure q
force greater than of the force acting on the side 4.3.20 v = 2 P ( R33 − 1), ρ is the density of water.
S 3 ρ r
ρv 2 S1 (1− S2 )2
of section A. b. = 2
1
.
4.3.21 If atmospheric pressure is not able to give the
4.3.5 Pressure in the vessel Pc = P0 + ρgx, pressure water velocity equal to the propeller edge veloc-
in the tube Pt = P0 + ρg(x − H). ity v, a cavity may appear behind the edge;v > 14
m
√ 2 s .
4.3.6 F = 2(P + pv )S
q
4.3.7 v = [ρ(S2F S
2 −s2 )] .
4.4 Viscous fluid flow
4.3.8 x = 5l
4.4.1 The force with which fluid layers act on each
4.3.9 h = 1
2g [v
2 mg 2
− ( ρvSN ) ] other across a unit area surface area AA′ , F =
dv
η dx . In a stationary flow, the resultant force act-
ρ−ρ0 ρR2 ing on the fluid layer between any interface sur-
4.3.10 a = ρ+ρ0 r 2
g, ∆P = ρ(R2 −r 2 )+ρ0 r 2 ρ0 gh.
(R2 −r 2 ) faces AA′ and BB ′ is zero. Therefore, the velocity
gradient is the same everywhere and equals vh0 ,
4.3.11 The size of the longitudinal section of the jet will
and the velocity at distance xfrom the stationary
increase by a factor of 2. The velocity √ of simi- plane is vh0 x , 0 < x < h, F = ηvh0 .
lar sections in the jet will increase by 2 times.√
Therefore, the discharge will increase by 2 2 4.4.2 v = P
− x), 0 < x < h; Q = P 3
2η x(h 12η h .
times
h3 ρg
4.4.3 a. Q = sin α. b. α ≈ 8 · 10−8 rad
4.3.12 The jets will be similar. All dimensions of the jet 3η

will decrease by H h times as the water level de- 2mg∆2

4.4.4 v = (πr 2 hη) .
creases, the velocity
q of similar sections in the jet
H 4.4.5 a) The resultant pressure force on the ends of
will decrease by times. Therefore, the veloc-
h
q the separated cylindrical volume P · πx2 is bal-
ity of level decrease will decrease in ( H
h )2 H
h = anced by the force of viscous friction 2πxlη dx dv
.
5
(H
h ) times.
2
dv xP P 2
Therefore dx = − 2lη , 0 < x < R. b).v = 4ηl (R −
x2 ). Volume of fluid flowing per unit time, Q =
4.3.13 From the law of conservation of energy it follows πR4 P 2
that the velocity of sections 2, 3of the jet on the (8ηl) .
plane will be equal to the velocity of section 1v, 4.4.6 t = T
and from the law of conservation of momentum
32ηl
it follows that 4.4.7 t = (ρgd2 sin α) .
h(1+cos α) h(1−cos α)
h1 = 2 , h2 = 2 . 4.4.8 a) The momentum of forces acting on the cylin-
4.3.14 We need to move to a frame of reference in which drical interface between the layers is indepen-
the plates move along their planes. In this sys- dent of the cylinder radius x, because only in
tem, the plates will move as two counter jets this case the resultant moment of forces acting
shown in in figure a. Their motion above and be- on the liquid between two cylindrical surfaces is
low the plane OO′ repeats the motion of the jet is zero and the fluid moves stationary. Therefore
considered in in problem 4.3.13. Then it is neces- Mx = −x · 2πx · ηx dω dωl M
dx = M, dx = − 2πηx3 , r <
l

sary to return to the previous frame of reference x < R.

(b). v1 = vtg α2 , v2 = vctg α2 . M
b.ωl 4πη ( x12 − 1 M 1
− 1
R2 ), ω 4πη ( r 2 R2 ).
(R2 −r 2 ) S1
4.3.15 Cone; cos α = (R2 +r 2 ) . 4.4.9 F = P2 S2 − P1 S1 − ρv12 S1 (1 − S2 ).

42
 4.5 Liquid surface tension 4.5.21
q
σ1 +σ2 −σ σ2
4.5.1 4.5.22 .h = 2r σ1 +σ2 +σ σ 2 −(σ1 −σ2 )2 .

4.5.2 4.5.23 R = rR0

= 120◦
(R0 −r) .α

4.5.3 r ≈ 0.5 cm 2σ
4.5.24 m = πr2 (ρh + Rg )
4.5.4 F = 2(σ1 − σ2 )l.
4.5.25 h = 0, 14 mm.
k(2πR−l)
4.5.5 σ = (2R) . 4.5.26 A = 1.4 · 10−5 J
2V σ
4.5.6 a.A ≈ ∆ . b.n ≈ 4. 4.5.27 In a thin jet, the sum of ρv2 + ρgh + σr (here
2

4.5.7 a = 2.1 cm ρ, σand v are density, surface tension and veloc-

ity of the jet, and r and h are the radius of the
rρgh
4.5.8 σ = 2 .
jet and the distance to the tap) does not change.
cm
h ≈ 2 cm.
4.5.9 Less than 0.2 s2 .

4.5.10 The figure shows forces acting on a section of the

plate of unit length (double arrows), and forces 4.6 Capillary phenomena
acting on sections of the lateral surface of the
liquid of unit length (bold arrows): F x is the 4.6.1 b. From the inside
desired force, mg is the force of gravity acting 2 2
2σ
on the plate, F0 = ρgxl and F∥ = ρgx
2
- forces 4.6.2 h = (ρgR) ; A = 4πσ 2πσ
(ρg) ; U = (ρg) . Part of the en-
2
caused by negative fluid pressure, σ- surface ergy is converted into heat.
tension. It follows from the condition of equilib-
4.6.3 r = 1.5 µm.
rium of the lateral surface of the liquid,that
ρgx2 ρgx2 πr 3 σ cm3
F∥ = 2 = σ − σ cos θ, cos θ = 1 − (2σ) .
4.6.4 a.V = (4ηh) . b.V = 1, 1 s .

From the equilibrium condition of the plate we 4.6.5 ∆ = 0, 4%.

have
4.6.6 r2 = −1, 5 mm, r4 = 1, 5 mm.
q
σ 2
Fx = F0 +mg+2σ sin θ = mg+ρgx(l+2 ρg − x4 ).
2σ 2σ
g 4.6.7 ∆x = (ρgr) if 0 < x < h − (ρgr) ; ∆x = h − x if
4.5.11 m = 0.55 cm 2. 2σ 2σ 2σ
h − (ρgr) < x < h + (ρgr) ; x0 = h + (ρgr) .
q
4.5.12 a. h = 2σ(1−sin
(ρg)
θ)
. b. h = 3.9 mm 2r
4.6.8 rx = cosθ .
q
4.5.13 a. x = 2sin θ2 σ
(ρg) . b. x = 5.4 mm
q
2 σ
4.6.9 ω = l (rρ) .
q
2ρl (σm +σl.m. −σl )
4.5.14 a.x = ρm (ρl −ρm )g if σl ≤ σm + σl.m. ; x = 0 4.6.10 x = 2h if l > h; x = l + h if l < h
if σl ≥ σm + σl.m. About 2.5 km2
4.6.11 t = 17◦ C.
4.5.15 The vertical component of the surface tension
4.6.12 The wetting liquid will move towards the narrow
force is equal to the perimeter of the wand cross
part of the capillary, the non-wetting liquid will
section multiplied by σ cos ϑ. Therefore, the vol-
move towards its wide part.
ume of liquid lifted by surface tension does not
depend on the shape of the wand cross section,
q
4.6.13 x = 12 H(1 − 1 − ρgαH 16σ 16σ
2 ), α > ρgH 2 ; x = H, α <
but depends on its perimeter.
16σ
ρdH 2 .
4.5.16
σ
4.6.14 x = ρg∆ (cosθ1 + cos θ2 ).
4.5.17 Pmax = 2σ R + ρg(h + R), Pmin = 2σ
R + ρg(h − R).
σ 4.6.15 F = aσ(1 − cos θ).
4.5.18 R = (ρgx) .
2aσ 2
4.6.16 F =
4.5.19 P = P0 + 2σ[ R1 + 1
(R−h) ]
(ρg∆2 )
q
σl h
4.5.20 About 3 liters. 4.6.17 h = (Sρg) , T = 2π g.

43
 5 MOLECULAR PHYSICS 5.2.13 a.vmin = v + Fr
m ,v
qmax = v+ Fr
m + ∆v, n′ = n.
2F l
b. vmin = v 1 + mv 2 , vmax = (v +
q q
2F l Fl
5.1 Thermal motion of particles ∆v) 1 + m(v+∆v)2 ≈ v 1+ mv 2 +
q q
2F l ′ 2F l
5.1.1 K ≈ 5.8 · 10−21 J,
p
⟨v 2 ⟩ ≈ 1.5 · 10−4 m ∆v. 1 + mv 2 , n = n. 1 + mv 2.
s

5.1.2 Twice as much. 5.2.14 a. It will decrease by a factor of exp( 2Fmlα ). b.ρ =
ρ0 exp( −mgh
kT ); it will not change.
5.1.3 m ≥ 0.01mg.
p 5.2.15 m = 10−24 kg, r = 10−9 m.
5.1.4 ⟨x2 ⟩ ≈ 6.4 · 10−8 m.
5.2.16 h1 ≈ 111 km, h2 ≈ 123 km.
5.1.5 ∆r ≈ 7 cm.At T = 100 K d ≈ 4 cm.
−q 15 −3
5.1.6 The lighter, i.e. more mobile particles pass 5.2.17 a. n ≈ n0 exp( kT ). b. n = 10 cm
through the baffle faster. Therefore, at first
the number of light particles per unit volume is
equalized, and the pressure in the section where 5.3 Collisions of molecules. Trans-
the heavy particles were, increases port processes
PHe √1 .
5.1.7 PH2 = 2 5.3.1 d ≈ 0.3 nm.
(n−1)
5.1.8 N1
N2 = ( µµ12 ) 2 . 5.3.2 l ≈ 60 nm
5.1.9 τ ′ = nτ 5.3.3 ν1 ≈ 6 · 1028 s−1 · cm−3 ; ν2 ≈ 3 · 1028 s−1 · cm−3
L2
5.1.10 In R2 times 5.3.4 Increased by a factor of 1.5.
√ √
5.1.11 N1 = N (√T +T√ 2
, N2 = N (√T +T√
1
. Toward 5.3.5 l1 ∼ π −1 [4R12 n1 + (R1 + R2 )2 n2 ]−1 ; l2 ∼
T1 ) T1 )
π −1 [4R22 n2 + (R1 + R2 )2 n1 ]−1
2 2
the first volume.
5.3.6 t ≈ 30 ps.
√
2 2rAB
5.2 Distribution of gas molecules by 5.3.7 n = (rA +rB ) .

velocities 5.3.8 a. A horizontal unit area ABlocated at height h

is crossed from top to bottom by a flux of radioac-
5.2.1 a. N = 1.3 · 1015 l−1 . b. N1 = 1.3 · 1017 m−3 ; tive atoms whose density is estimated by the for-
N2 = 1.3 · 1019 m−3 . mula W1 ≈ v̄z n2h+λ , where v̄z is the velocity close
q
5.2.2 N1 = 6.2 · 104 cm−3 , N2 = 1.2 · 104 cm−3
p
to the RMS (v̄z2 ) = kT m , and nh+λ = α(h+λ)is

5.2.3 a) N1 ≈ 1016 cm−3 , b) N2 ≈ 2 · 1022 m−3 the number of atoms per unit volume at height
h + λ. The density of the flux √ of atoms coming
5.2.4 T = 21 K kT
α(h−λ)
from below, W2 = v̄z n2h−λ ≈ m
2 . The re-
5.2.5 n = 0, 13. sulting flux density of radioactive
q atoms on the
kT µm
Earth W = W1 − W2 ≈ αλ . b. D ≈ 12 s .
5.2.6 n = 6 · 10−3 . m

nD1 D2
5.2.7 The temperature will decrease. 5.3.9 D = (n1 D2 +n2 D1 ) .

5.2.8 L = l tτ0 (1 + 2t
t0 +2τ ) 5.3.10 t ≈ L DSρ
D;m = L .
m
5.2.9 v = 300 s . 5.3.11 a. The solution is similar
q to the solution of Prob-
5.2.10 v = hω lem 5.3.8a : W ≈ nαλk kT m . No change. b. By a
0

(2π) .
factor of 6.2.
5.2.11 a. f ′ = 1l f ( vl ). b. f ′ = 1 v
kl f ( kl ).
5.3.12 W ≈ 12 W t, t ≈ 2 h. Due to air convection.
5.2.12 f (v) = v10 at v0 ≤ v ≤ 2v0 , f (v) = 0in the rest χ1 χ2
region of v values. The distribution function 5.3.13 χ = 1+ 1 [1+( χ1 q µ1 ) 21 ]2 + 1+ α [1+( χ2 q µ2 ) 12 ]2
4α χ2 µ2 4 χ1 µ1
f (v)will shift by ∆v = Fmτ to the region of higher
velocities. 5.3.14 t′ = nt

44
 5.4 Particulate gases. Interaction of 5.5 Equation of state of an ideal gas
molecules with the surface solid
5.5.1 Three times.
24 −1 −2 ∆p
5.4.1 ν ≈ 10 s · sm , ≈ 10 N. (P2 V2 −P1 V1 )
∆t 5.5.2 V = (P2 −P1 ) .

5.4.2 Will decrease by a factor of 1to k2 . 5.5.3 ∆m = m(k−1)n

(n−1) .

5.4.3 F ≈ πr2 nmv 2 5.5.4 P = P0 + mgh

(2πr 2 L) .

5.4.4 5.5.5 V = 885 l

L(1+ ρgL
2P )
2
q
µ 5.5.6 x = 2 .
5.4.5 F ≈ 4πr P v (RT ) , where R is the gas constant.
5.5.7 P = 1, 166 M P a
Ps
5.4.6 F = 2 . 5.5.8 δt = 140◦ C.
q
µ 5.5.9 In operation, when the gas in the cylinder is
5.4.7 F ≈ P Sv (RT ) . heated, its pressure must not exceed atmo-
spheric pressure.
5.4.8 As long as the free path length of gas molecules 9T0
is greater than the distance between the disks, 5.5.10 T = 8 .
the momentum of the viscous friction force de-
5.5.11 n = (P −P 0 )V0
.
pends on the pressure. φ = ( φ1
P1 )P . P0 V
P
ln( P0 )
5.5.12 n = .
′
5.4.9 ω = ω( rr12 )2 . ln(1+ VV )
0

5.5.13 It doesn’t depend.

5.4.10 When the plates are illuminated, the temper-
ature of the blackened surface becomes higher 5.5.14 The burner smokes due to a lack of oxygen. A
than the mirror surface. Therefore, in the rar- vertical glass tube causes the flow of oxygen to
efied gas the pressure on it is somewhat higher. the burner flame.
The rotor will rotate in the direction of the mir-
ror surface. 5.5.15 ∆P = 137 P a
2V 0+S(l+2x)
5.5.16 T = T0 2V 0+S(l−2x) .
5.4.11 F ≈ 10−2 N.
5.5.17 P = 1146 hP a.
m
5.4.12 v ≈ 1 s VB
5.5.18 VH = 1, 9.
F T1
5.4.13 P ≈ [S(T2 −T1 )] .
q
P0 P0 2
5.5.19 x = 12 {l + H + ρg − (l + H + ρg ) − 4lH}.
q
ρgh0
5.4.14 P0 = P T0 5.5.20 x = (H0 − H)(1 − P0 + ρgH)
T
2ρgh P0
√ −5 √ 5.5.21 a. H = h2 (1 + 2P0 +ρgh ). b.H = h
2 + ρg
5.4.15 P ′ = P (1 + 2) · 2 4 , T ′ = T 2. √
33−5
q 5.5.22 x = 2 a
3kT
5.4.16 w = 1, 5kn∆T .
µ 5.5.23 P = P0 + ρgH.

5.4.17 The division value of 5.5.24 P1 = 0.17 M P a, P2 = 0.18 M P a.

√ the temperature scale
should be reduced by 14times. 5.5.25 N2 O3 .
g
5.4.18 m ≈ 0.1 kg. 5.5.26 m = 210 m3
FHe 25
5.4.19 r ≈ ( WW 1
)2 .
1 5.5.27 FH2 = 27 .
2 πnδ

5.5.28 M = 13, 5m
5.4.20 In case a, the thermal conductivity does not
change: in case b, it decreases by a factor of N . 5.5.29 r = 15cm.

45
 µP0 V (T −T0 )
q
5.5.30 m = . 5.6.21 umax = 2gHh[1 − PS
+ PS PS
(RT T0 ) Mg M g ln M g ];

5.5.31 V = 15 m3
q
P S 35
umax = 2gHh[1 − 25 ( M g) +
3 PS
2 Mg
5.5.32 N = 0, 28
√ 1
5.6.22 V1 = V0 V2 , Amin = 5P0 V0 [( VV20 ) 5 − 1]. Each com-
5.5.33 T = T0 µPµ(P 0 r+4σ)
,
0 r−3δRT0 ρ
pressor performs the work Amin 2 .
where R is the gas constant.
3 3
P r1 +r2 −r
3 5.6.23 Q = 450 kJ. ∆U = 321 kJ
5.5.34 σ = 4 r 2 −r12 −r22
q 5.6.24 Oxygen
ml
5.5.35 T = 2π (2P0 S)
Q cT0 F
5.6.25 T = T0 + c when Q ≤ Q1 = P0 S ;
V22
5.5.36 V3 = V1 . Q+cT0 +RT0 (1+ 2PF S ) F
T = c(1+ PFS )+R(1+ 2PF S )
0
(1 + P0 S ) when Q ≥ Q1
0 0

5.6 The first beginning of thermody- 5.6.26 Q = 10ρgSh2

namics. Heat capacity
1
5.6.27 c = ( (1−n) + 32 )R, n = 53 ; n = 1
5.6.1 ε̄H2 = ε̄N2 = ( 52 )kT, ε̄H2 O = εCH4 = 3kT.
5.6.28 Cooled
5.6.2 U1 = 0.25 J, U2 = 0.2 M J.
2P0 V0
5.6.3 It hasn’t changed. 5.6.29 c = T0
P1 V1 +P2 V2
5.6.4 P = V1 +V2 ,T = T1 T2 P1PV11 TV12 +P2 V2
+P2 V2 T1 3H(1− PMS g)
5.6.30 x = 5 .
5.6.5 Twice.
q q 3H(1− PMS g)
5.6.6 v1max ≈ 3P0 V0 m2
≈ 3P0 V0 m1 5.6.31 x = .
m1 (m1 +m2 ) v2max m2 (m1 +m2 ) 5

2mv 2
5.6.7 Tmax = T0 + (3R) , where R is the gas constant

5.6.8 v ≈ 10 m 5.7 Gas leakage

s
q
5.6.9 When expanding without heat, the gas performs 5.7.1 v = 2cP T
.
µ
work and cools down.
q
5.6.10 In isobaric expansion. 5.7.2 v = 7(k+1)RT
.
(kµ1 +µ2 )
3P V
5.6.11 a) A = P V ; b) A = 2 .
km
5.7.3 a. T ≈ 3150 K. b. v ≈ 3 s .
5.6.12 A = 460 J.
km km km
5.6.13 Q = ( Rc )(P2 V2 − P1 V1 ) + P2 (V2 − V1 ), where R is 5.7.4 a) v ≈ 5.2 s ; b) v ≈ 5.7 s ; v≈7 s
the gas constant.
5.7.5 m = qM g ≈ 3.8 st .
2cP T
5.6.14 A = 2.6 kJ µ

5.6.15 A = 240 J 2γRT1

(γ−1) 1
5.7.6 v = { µ(γ−1) [1 − ( P
P1 )
2 γ ]} 2 .
5.6.16 Q ≈ 7.94 kJ. A ≈ 2.27 kJ.
m
√ √ 5.7.7 T ≈ 120 K, v ≈ 1370 s
5.6.17 A ≈ R( T3 − T1 )2 .

5.6.18 T = T0 (1 + M u2
= V0 ( 3P03P0 V0
3 5.7.8 T ≈ 193 K . P ≈ 0.33 M P a
3P0 V0 ), V V0 +M u2 ) .
2

q
2(γ 2 −1)q
5.6.19 A = 7νR(T1 −T2 )
. 5.7.9 v ′ = v 1+γ
1
[1 − P
ρv 2 + (γ + P 2
ρv 2 ) − ρSv 3 ]
2
Pµ
5.6.20 ∆t ≈ 10◦ C F = ρSv(v ′ − v), where ρ = (RT ) .

46
 5.8 Probability of thermodynamic probability at this transition ∆S = NTU + N klnc,
state where N is the number of gas molecules, c is
the ratio of gas pressure values above and be-
5.8.1 a . t = τ4 . b. t = τ8 . c. t = τ low the dashed line, separating regions of dif-
2N
ferent potentials. But ∆S is zero. Therefore,
5.8.2 a. p1 = 14 , p2 = 12 . b. p = 12 . c. p2 = 38 , p0 = 81 . c = exp( −U
kT ).
−2
5.8.3 a. p = (1 − V N
V0 ) b. V = V0 (1 − 10 N ). 5.8.15 Unreal.
15 5.8.16 Unreal. Real
5.8.4 p ∼ 10−10 , V ∼ 10−17 − 10−18 cm3 .

5.8.5 a. In the figure, the motion along the trajec-

tory is expanded by mirror images into motion 5.9 The second beginning of thermo-
between two parallel lines. The corresponding
dynamics
points of the trajectories are marked with the
same letters. It follows from this figure:
√ 5.9.1
v ′ ≈ 2Ax′ B ′ v ≈ v∆ 2; ∆ ≈ 12 [tg( π4 + ∆) − 1] = 2n
k
, kJ
5.9.2 ∆S = 1.2 K
where k and nare integers without a common di-
visor 5.9.3 ∆S = 7 kJ
K
tg( π4 + ∆) − 1 = k
n ; h1 ≈ 2a∆
k , h2 = 0.
5.9.4 a, b. ∆S = ( m
µ )Rln2.
b. It is unlikely that tg( π4
+∆)−1 is exactly equal
m V2 T2 32
to a simple fraction such as 0.03, because there 5.9.5 a − c. ∆S = µ Rln{ V1 ( T1 ) }
can be any number in the vicinity
√
of this number,
J
e.g., numbers like 0, 03 + n2 , n being an integer, 5.9.6 ∆S ≈ 20 K
which are as small as 0.03. These numbers are J
5.9.7 ∆S ≈ 60 K
called irrational, and mathematics proves that
the set of these numbers is more is more power- 5.9.8 ∆S = ( PTV )ln2
ful than the set of prime fractions. If a number
2
5 (T1 −T2 )
is irrational, then the trajectory is not closed. 5.9.9 a.∆S = − Q Q2
T1 + T2 = 2 R T1 T2
1
where −Q1 and
p = aS2 Q2 are the amount of heat transferred to the
c. p = V heater and the cooler during one cycle.
a3 .
R 3P2 V2 3P1 V1 2V2 2V1
q b. ∆S = 2 [ P1 V1 + P2 V2 + V1 + V2 − 10].
′ 1
5.8.6 a. v ≈ v∆ 1 − m2 ; tgα = m, tan(α + ∆) − 1 = P
2 2(T2 −T1 )ln( P2 )
k
n , h1 = 2α∆
k , h2 = 0. b. p = S
a2 . c. p = V
a3
5.9.10 a. η = 1 − ( VV21 ) 3 . b. η = 1
P .
5(T2 −T1 )+2T2 ln( P2 )
1
R
5.8.7 τ ≈ v∆ ; τ ′ ∼ τRH at H ≫ R, τ ′ ∼ τR
H at H ≪ R 5.9.11 It doesn’t exist.
′
and τ ∼ τ at H ∼ R
5.9.12 We can.
5.8.8
5.9.13 η ≈ 10, 8%, η = 30%.
5.8.9 p = ( VV0 )N
5.9.14 For any thermal cyclic process
5.8.10 A = 200 kJ. −Qh
+ Qr
> 0, Qh − Qr = A, η = A
Th Tr Qh ,
5.8.11 where Th and Tr are the temperatures of the
V2 heater and refrigerators, respectively, −Qh and
5.8.12 (1 − V02
)N times. Qr are the amount of heat transferred to the
22 heater and refrigerator during one cycle, A is
5.8.13 104,8·10 times. the work per cycle. From the above relations
5.8.14 a. The probability of states that differ only in it follows, that the efficiency factor η ≤ (ThT−T
r
r)
,
potential energy, are the same. Figures a and wherein the sign of equality takes place in case
Qh Qr
c show two states of an ideal gas half-full of Th − Tr = 0, i.e. when entropy does not change.
the same volume and have the same probabil- 5.9.15 During detonation, the entropy of the system in-
ity. Moving from state a to state c at constant creases.
temperature, using two pistons as shown in the
figures. The change in the logarithm of the state 5.9.16 A ≈ 33 kJ.

47
 5.9.17 A ≈ 3 · 1016 J. t ≈ 60 days 5.10.17 You can’t.

5.9.18 A = C[T − T0 − T0 ln( TT0 )]. 5.10.18 At the critical temperature, liquid and vapor are
indistinguishable.
C1 C2
)
5.9.19 A = C1 T1 + C2 T2 − (C1 + C2 )T1(C1 +C2 T2(C1 +C2 ) ≈ 5.10.19 Faster.
32 kJ
5.10.20 m = 11, 7 g
5.9.20 Increase
5.10.21 P = 0.2 M P a, A = 35 kJ.
5.9.21 Qmax = A(1−η)
η .
5.10.22 P = 0, 37P0 .
5.9.22 N = 0, 29 M W , N ′ = 0, 11 W.
mλRT mλRT
5.10.23 ∆v = [P0 (µq+RT )] .A = (µq+RT ) .
5.9.23 m = 5 kg.
5.10.24 h ≈ 580 m.
5.9.24 N = 138 W
5.10.25 5% water.
5.9.25 A = 46 kJ
5.10.26 6% ice.
5.9.26 No. The process lasts until there is saturation
of the environment with water vapor. 5.10.27 a . n = exp( mgh 2mσ
RT ) = exp( ρr ). b. ∆h = 15 cm

2φλµH2 O PH
5.10.28 ∆t = (7RP ) = 23◦ C
5.10 Phase transitions 5.10.29 It will be halved.

5.10.1 t ≈ 1 h. 5.10.30 P = P0 ( Rr )2

5.10.2 No 5.10.31 P = 2P0 ( RL)

2

√
5.10.3 In a vessel without a lid, water evaporates from 5.10.32 a. m n times. b. P = 200P0 .
the surface, which requires additional heat.
5.10.33 a = 1, 0 sm2
5.10.4 ∆p ≈ 10−8 P a
5.10.34 m1 = 1, 7 kg s , m2 = 170 f rackgs.
5.10.5 13% water
5.10.35 T ≈ 1720 K
5.10.6 A mixture of 100.5 g water and 30.5 g ice at 0 ◦ C.

5.10.7 m = 98 gs .
5.11 Thermal radiation
5.10.8 x ≈ 0, 11 m.
5.11.1 a. Φ ≈ 0.2 kW . b. φ = 89 MmW2 .
5.10.9 a. As long as there is water in the pot, the bottom
temperature is about 100◦ C. b. You can. 5.11.2 T1 ≈ 600 ◦ C, T2 ≈ 2000 ◦ C.
5.10.10 5.11.3 w = 7.56 · 10−16 T 4 J
m3

5.10.11 A layer of steam forms between the surface of the 5.11.4

hot plate and the drop, which makes it difficult
to bring heat to the water. 5.11.5 a. Quartz, unlike steel, almost does not ab-
sorb visible light, so when heated, it emits much
5.10.12 The low air temperature in the Dewar vial is weaker radiation in the visible region.
maintained by boiling air, and the low temper- b. Unlike black coal, which almost completely
ature of solid carbon dioxide by its strong evap- absorbs visible light, white chalk reflects that
oration from the surface. light. Therefore, when heated, chalk emits
5.10.13 There is evaporation of ice in the dry air. much less light and looks darker on the back-
ground of strongly emitting coal.
m
5.10.14 v ≈ 8 s .
q
T0 4 (T14 +T24 )
5.11.6 a. T = √
4 . b. T =
2 2 .
5.10.15 Carbon tetrachloride boils off 25 times faster.
q
R 2 kW
5.10.16 To prevent condensation of steam. 5.11.7 a.T = T0 ε( 2L ) . b . φ = 1.7 m2

48
 5.11.8 a. T = 200, 70, −35◦ C. b. Φ ≈ 4·1026 W . c.T = 140 6.1.12 r = 1, 4 · 10−8 cm
◦
C q √
(3 2−4)
6.1.13 ω = q (8πε 3 .
0 ml )
5.11.9 T = 2, 4 K
32πε0 mgR2
5.11.10 T = 20◦ C 6.1.14 qmin = Q
√
5.11.11 Φ = ε1 ε2 4
− T24 ) q2 √ a2 +l2
ε1 +ε2 −ε1 ε2 σS(T1 6.1.15 k = 32πε0 a ( a2 +l2 −l)
3

√
5.11.12 a. T ′ = T
√ . b. n = 32 q2 9 3
4
2 6.1.16 T = 8πε0 l2 ( 4 + 3 )
T0
5.11.13 T = √
4 6.1.17 E1 = 0, E2 = Qh
.
6,5+ 4R
r
3
[(4πε0 (R2 +h2 ) 2 ]
q
ε
5.11.14 T = 4
T14 − T24 + [T1 + 4
2−ε (T1 − T24 ) χh ]4 . 6.1.18 E = ρl
[4πε0 x(l+x)] .

5.11.15 6.1.19 a) E = σ (σ1 −σ2 ) σ

(6ε0 ) ; b) E = (4ε0 ) ; c) E = (2ε0 ) ;
√ √ 2 2 2
SΦ
5.11.16 a. a = 2πR2 mc . b. v = ( R11 − R12 ) SΦπmc d) E =
σ1 +σ2 +σ3 −σ1 σ2 −σ2 σ3 −σ1 σ3
; e) E =
√ (3ε0 )
ρh(1−cos α) 3lρ
5.11.17 a. The tail of the comet is affected by the pres- (2ε0 ) ; f )E = (12ε0 ) .
sure of the sun’s rays. b . r ≈ 1 µm.
6.1.20 b. Yes
√
6.1.21 a. q = 10Q. b. q = 9Q.
6 ELECTROSTATICS
6.2 The flux of electric field strength.
6.1 Coulomb’s law. Electric field Gauss’ theorem
strength
El2
6.2.1 a. Φ = 2 . b. Φ = −Eh2 , Φ = Eh2 .
4 −8 42
6.1.1 a.F = 1.8 · 10 N . b. F = 2.3 · 10 N . 4.17 · 10
6.2.2 Φ = E cos α · π(R2 − r2 ).
times.
6.2.3
6.1.2 q ≈ 1.05 · 10−5 Cl ≈ 3.16 · 104 CGS.
6.2.4 F = σΦ
6.1.3 a. E = 1 V
m = 3.3 · 10−5 CGS. b. E = 3 · 105 V
m = 10
CGS. qσ σ σq
6.2.5 a.F1 = F2 = (2ε0 ) , E = (2ε0 ) . b. F = (4ε0 ) .
V
6.1.4 At a distance of 1 m E1 = 9·1010 m = 3·106 CGS;
V
6.2.6 a) E = 0 at r < R, E = (4εQ 2
0r )
at r > R;
at a distance of 20 m E2 = 2.25 · 108 m = 7.5 · 103
b) E = (2περ 0 r) ; c) E = (2εσ0 ) ; d) E = (3ε ρr
0)
at
CGS.
ρR3 ρr
For a charge of 0.001 Cl, F1 = 9 · 107 N, F2 = r ≤ R; E = (3ε0 r 2 ) at r ≥ R; e) E = (2ε0 ) at
ρR2
2.25 · 105 N ; r ≤ R; E = R; E = at r ≥ R; f ) E
(2ε0 r) at = ρx
ε0
9 h
per 1, 000 CGS chargeF1 = 3 · 10 dyn, F2 = 7.5 · x ≤ 2 (x is the distance from the central plane
106 dyn ρh
of the plate); E = (2ε at x ≥ h2 .
0)

6.1.5 F = 2.56 · 109 N 6.2.7 a) ρ = 2E0 ε0 E0 ε 0

r ; b) ρ = r .
6.1.6 q = 3.5 · 103 Cl 6.2.8 The force
R acting on theR selected face of the cube,
q1 (4q2 +q3 ) q3 (4q2 +q1 ) F = σ En ds, where Ends is the flux through
6.1.7 T12 = 16πε0 l2 , T23 = 16πε0 l2 this face the electric field strength created by
√
6.1.8 At a distance x = √
l q1
√ from the charge q1. other five faces. As a closed surface, let us con-
( q1 + q2 )
struct a cube slightly larger than the given one.
Yes. No.
Then all six charged faces give a flux of electric
√ field strength through all six sides of the con-
6.1.9 q = l 8πε0 mg 2
structed surface Φ = εq0 = 6σl
ε0 and through one
1 2 q√2
6.1.10 T = 4πε0 l2 (Q − ). face Φ0 = σl
2
3 3 ε0 . But
q 3 2 σl2
Φ′ = En ds + 2ε
R
6.1.11 β = 2arctg( Q ) , α = π − β. 0
,

49
 φ φ
therefore, 6.3.14 E12 = a ; E23 = b.
2
σl2 σl2
Ends = σl
R
ε0 − 2ε0 = 2ε0 . 6.3.15 a. The field strength near the upper plate
σb
σ l
So, the force F = (2ε .
2 2
Similarly, for the tetra- Eu = [ε0 (a+b)] , near theof the lower plate En =
0 ) σa
hedron we obtain [ε0 (a+b)] . Accordingly, the surface density σv =
√ σ 2 l2 σb
− (a+b) σa
, σn = − (a+b) .
F = 3 (8ε0 ) .
qb qa
b. qa = − (a+b) ; qb = − (a+b) .
6.2.9 Between planes E1 = εσ0 , E2 = 0. Outside the
planes E1′ = 0, E2′ = εσ0 . 6.3.16 Q′ = −Q, σ = Q , E = (Q+q) . No. No. (4πR2 ) (4πε0 L2 )
6.2.10 E1 = ( εσ0 )sin( α2 ), E2 = ( εσ0 ) cos( α2 ).
6.3.17 The surface of the cavity has a charge −q,
6.2.11 Emax = ρh and the surface of the conductor has a charge
ε0
q,which (except for the area near the ends of the
6.2.12 EA = (6ερh
, E B = ρh
, E (r) = ρr
. conductor) is uniformly distributed over thesur-
0) (3ε0 ) (3ε0 )
face of the conductor. Therefore, E = 0 at 0 <
6.2.13 At any point inside the cavity the field strength x < r, E ≈ (2πεq0 xL) at r < x < R, E = 0 at
is directed along the line,connecting the centers x > R; x is the distance from the axis.
ρl
of the ball and the cavity, and E = (3ε 0)
.
6.3.18 The surface charge density at the corresponding
ρ r3
Outside the cavity E = 3ε0 [x + (l−x)2 ] at 0 < x < parts of the conductor surface will remain the
ρ3
l − r; E = [x − r3
] at l + r < x < R; E = same.
ε0 (x−l)2
ρ3 2 2 r2 6.3.19 See Fig.
ε0 [R x − (x−l)2 ] at x > R.
q q
ρl
6.2.14 a. E = (3ε 0)
. b. σ = 3ε0 E cos α, where α is the 6.3.20 φ1 = (4πε0 r) , φ2 = (8πε0 r) , φ3 = 0.
angle between the field direction and the radius 6.3.21 qr = −8πε0 rφ, q2r = 16πε0 rφ
drawn to a point on the sphere. σmax = 3ε0 E.
6.3.22 φ1 = φ (R2R−R
2
1)
, φ2 = φR
R2 .
1

6.3.23 E = 0, φ = 0 for r > R2 ; E = 4πεq0 r2 , φ = 4πε

q
(1 −
6.3 Electric field potential. Conduc- 1 1 1
0 r
1
R2 ) at R1 < r < R2 ; E = 0, φ = 4πε0 ( R1 − R2 at
tors in a constant electric field r < R1 .
m
6.3.1 a.v = 107 b.v = 1, 25 · 106 m
s . s 6.3.24 E = 4πεq0 r2 (1 − R q R1
R2 ), φ = 4πε0 (1 − R2 ) at r > R2 ; =
1

√ qR1
− 4πR q R1
2 , φ = 4πε R (1 − r at R1 < r < R2 ; E =
6.3.2 a.∆φ = 850 V . v = 3 · 107 m s . b.v = 8.8 · 10
6 m 2r 0 2
s 0, φ = 0 at r < R1 .
6.3.3 φ = 2, 7 · 108 B. ρr ρ 2 r2
√
6.3.25 E = 3ε0 , φ = 2ε0 (R − 3 at 0 < r < R; E =
6.3.4 φ = 2q ρR3 ρR3
(πε0 l) 3ε0 r 2 , φ = 3ε0 r at r > R.

6.3.5 ∆φ ≈ −11, 9 B. 6.3.26 ∆φ = ρR2 ρR2 ρh2

(6ε0 ) , ∆φ = (4ε0 ) , ∆φ = (8ε0 ) .
6.3.6 φ = 13, 5 kV = 45 CGS. 2 2 ρr 2
6.3.27 φ = 2ερ0 (r2 ln Rr + r2 − x2 at 0 < x < R; φ = R
2ε0 ln x
Q
6.3.7 φ = (4πε0 R) . No. Yes. at r < x < R.
Q2
6.3.8 6.3.28 F = (16πε0 h2 ) .

6.3.9 6.3.29 F = 3Q2

(32πε0 h2 ) .
nQ Q
6.3.10 b.Emax = (4πε0 R2 ) , Emin = (4πε0 R2 ) . c.E = ρ(2πb). √
q 2 (2 2−1)
6.3.30 NoF = (32πε0 l2 ) .
(σ1 −σ2 )
6.3.11 σ1′ = (σ1 +σ2 )
2 , σ1′′ = 2 , σ2′ = − (σ1 −σ
2
2)
, σ2′′ = q
(σ1 +σ2 ) 6.3.31 φ = (4πε0 L) .
2 .
qR
6.3.12 a.∆φ = 37.7 GHS = 11.3 kV. b. φ = 18.8 GHS 6.3.32 Q = − L .
= 5.65 kV. Qq
6.3.33 Will increase by F = (4πε0 L2 ) at L > R; will not
6.3.13 φ3 − φ1 = [(σ3 −σ1 )(h1 +h 2 )+σ2 (h1 −h2 )]
(2ε0 ) . change at L < R

50
6.3.34 6.5 Electric pressure. Electric field
2 2 energy
6.3.35 h = (16π3q2 ε0Rρgr6 ) , where h is counted from the cen-
ter of the ball. σ2 S σ2
6.5.1 a.F = (2ε0 ) .P = (2ε0 ) . b. σ = ε0 E.P =
′
6.3.36 0 = qQ ε0 E 2 E2
(Q−q) . 2 (inSI), P = (8π) (inSGS) .c. P = 4.325 P a,
σ = 8.85 µCl
m2 .
6.3.37
Q2
6.3.38 6.5.2 Will decrease by 1 + (2P0 ε0 S 2 ) times.

6.3.39 It will increase threefold. 6.5.3 By Gauss theorem, we determine the surface
charge density at the interface: σ = ε0 E. Us-
6.3.40 C = 4πε0 R ing the superposition principle,
E′ − σ
(2ε0 ) = E, E ′ + σ
(2ε0 ) = 2E,
we find the external field strength: E ′ = 3E
2 . The
6.4 Capacitors
force that acts on the charge falling on the unit of
the surface area of the interface of the fields, i.e.
6.4.1 2
the pressure from the external P = E ′ σ = 3ε02E .
6.4.2 a. Increased by a factor of four. b. Decreased by For fields E and −2E, reasoning similarly, we
a factor of two; decreased by a factor of n. obtain σ = −3ε0 E and E ′ = −E 2 . Thus, in the
second case the surface charge density is three
ε0 S
6.4.3 a. C = d . b. C = 5.3 cm = 5.9pF. times is greater, but the external field strength
is three times less. Therefore the electric pres-
6.4.4 a. Increase one and a half times. b. Increase 2
S′ sure will be the same: P = E ′ σ = 3ε02E .
1 + (2S) times. c. It will not change.
ρ2 h2
6.5.4 P = (2ε0 ) .
6.4.5 C = 4πε0 RR11−R
R2
2
.
Q2
6.4.6 C = 4πε0 [ R11 − 1
− d −1 6.5.5 P = (see solution of Problem 6.5.3).
R2 R0 (R0 −d) ] . (32π 2 ε0 R4 )

ε0 R 2 V 2
6.4.7 C = 2πε0 l
R . 6.5.6 P = [2r 2 (R−r)2 ] .
ln( R2 )
1
√
ε0 al ld 6.5.7 ρ = 2πR 2ε0 P .
6.4.8 C = d (1 + 2πR2 ). √ √
qσ 2qσ 3qσ
C1 C2 4C 6.5.8 a. F1 = (4ε0 ) , F2 = (8ε ) , F3 = (16ε 0)
; E1 =
6.4.9 a.C = (C1 +C2 √) , C = C1 + C2 . b. C0 = 3 . c. C0 = √ 0
σ 2σ 3σ Rρ
7C ( 5−1)C (4ε0 ) , E2 = (8ε0 ) , E3 = (16ε0 ) . b. E = (4ε0 ) .
5 . d. C0 = 2 . e. C0 = 6C
5 .
Q2 (R2 −h2 ) −Q
6.4.10 q = ±ε0 SE. 6.5.9 F = (32πε0 R4 ) ; q = 2 .

6.4.11 ∆V = a 6.5.10
d+a (V1 + V2 ).

6.4.12 a. It will increase one and a half times. b. It will 6.5.11 A = 2EσdS.
increase two times. ε0 E 2 ε0 E 2 hS
6.5.12 a. σ = ε0 E, P = 2 . b. A = 2 .
6.4.13 ∆q = qxd . σ 2 Sh
6.5.13 A= (2ε0 ) .
V Cd+2ε0 S 4n
6.4.14 V0 = ( Cd+ε0 S ) .
6.5.14 A = ε0 ShE0 (E0 − E).
6.4.15 F = 4.4 · 10−2 N . No. Q2 Q2
6.5.15 W = (8πε0 R) (inSI) ; W = (2R) (inGHS).
6.4.16 Will increase by a factor of k. Will increase by a
factor of n2 times. 6.5.16 r = 1, 4 · 10−15 m
2πε0 r1 r2 V 2 πε0 lV 2 6.5.17 1, 400 times.
6.4.17 a)W = 4.4 mJ; b)W = (r2 −r1 ) ; c) W = r
[ln( r2 )
].
1
3Q2
Q2 d Q2 dx
6.5.18 W = (20πε0 R) .
6.4.18 a. A = (2ε 0 S)
.b. A = [2ε0 a2 (a−x)] .c.Aa =
Q2 d Q2 dx Q2
(4ε0 A) ; Ab = (2ε0 a3 ) . 6.5.19 A = (8πε0 R) .

51
 Q2 −2
6.5.20 A = 8πε0 R (1 −N 3 ). 6.6.6 It will increase ε times.

6.5.21 At n times 6.6.7 ε = 2.

n(n−1)
6.5.22 A3 = 3A; An = 2 A.
6.6.8 q = (ε − 1)CV
′
6.5.23 A = 6A.
ε−1 ε−1
√ 6.6.9 ∆V = ε+1 V.∆V = ε(n−1)+1 V
6.5.24 A′ = 2A.
Q2 6.6.10 ∆V = k(ε−1)V
6.5.25 ∆W = (4πε0 l) n

(Q1 ∆φ1 +Q2 ∆φ2 ) ε0 (ε1 +ε2 )S

6.5.26 A = 2 . 6.6.11 C = (2d) .
2Q2 dc(d−c)
6.5.27 a)F = [ε0 a3 (2d−c)2 ] ; 6.6.12 C = ε0 ε1 ε2 S ε1 −ε2
ε2 d1 +ε1 d2 ; qpol = ε1 ε2 q.
2
ε0 acV
b)F = [2d(d−c)] .
ε0 d2 (ε−1)(S2 −S1 )+ε0 εd1 S1
6.6.13 C = d1 (d1 −d2 )+d1 d2
Q2 ab
6.5.28 A = [2Sε0 (a+b)] .
−q
6.6.14 ρ = (ε1 Sd) .
q 2 Sd
6.5.29 F = (8π 2 ε0 r 5 ) .
ε1 (ε2 −1)
6.5.30 The field strength of the charges distributed over 6.6.15 a. To the thread. b. F2 = ε2 (ε1 −1) F1 . c. F ∼
a spherical shell, the hole in which is closed with V2 , F ∼ r13 d. In ( Rr )3 times.
a cork, in the center of the sphere is zero and can
2
be represented as 6.6.16 F = (ε−1)SQ
8π 2 ε0 εR5 δ
E(0) = Eof theplug + Eof thespherewithouttheplug = 0.
2 2 2
ε (ε−1)SdE siN2 α
At ∆ ≪ r ≪ R the plug field is a dipole field, the 6.6.17 M = 0 2ε ; A = − ε0 (ε−1)SdE
2ε
sin α
.
field strength of which at point O is Eof plug (0) =
q′ ∆
(2πε0 R3 ) . After removal of the plug, redistri-
6.6.18 σinternal = (ε−1)Q (ε−1)Q
4πεr 2 , σexternal = 4πεR2 . See Fig.
bution of charges on the remaining part of the
2
spherical shell at ∆r, will be negligible, and for 6.6.19 .P = (ε−1)Q ( 14 − 14 ).
32π2 ε0 ε r R
estimation it can be assumed that
−q ′ ∆ Q2 d
E(0) = Espherewithoutcork ≈ −Ecork = (2πε0 R3 ) . 6.6.20 F = ε−1
2ε0 b [a+x(ε−1)]2
−qr 2
By Gauss theorem q ′ = (4R2 ) . Taking this into
ε0 (ε−1)V 2
account we have 6.6.21 h = (2ρgd2 ) .
q2 r2 ∆
E(0) = (8π0 εR5 ) . (ε−1)Q2
6.6.22 h = (2ε0 ερgS 2 )

q 2 ε−1
6.6 Electric field in the presence of a 6.6.23 W = 2C ε .
dielectric
V 2C
6.6.24 W = 2 (ε − 1).
6.6.1
1

6.6.2 p = 7.4 · 10 −37

Cl · m. 6.6.25 V = [ (ε1 2W
−ε2 )C ].E ∼ 10
2 9 V
m.

6.6.3 pav = 1 · 10−34 Cl · m. 6.6.26 The dipole moments in the dielectric are ori-
ented in the electric field with a lag; ε = 2.
6.6.4 σpr = ± σ(ε−1)
ε . Field strength:
σ
E= (ε0 ε) - in dielectric, 6.6.27 a. V ′ = ε−1
ε V. b. ∆T ∼ 10−5 K.
σ
E= ε0 - in the gap. 6.6.28 r = 0.12 nm.
The potential difference between the plates V =
( εσ0 )(d − h + hε ). 6.6.29 p = 4πε0 r3 E.
q
2
6.6.5 E = E0 sin2 + (cosε2 α) . 6.6.30 ε = 1 + 4πr3 n.

52
 7 MOTION OF CHARGED PAR-
q
qQ
7.1.21 ω = (2πε0 ml2 ) .
TICLES IN AN ELECTRIC q
g qQ(h+l) qQ(h+l)
7.1.22 ω = − at < mg.
FIELD l 4πε0 mh3 l 4πε0 h3

g qQ −1 qQ
7.1.23 T = 2π( R + 32πε0 mR3 )
2 at 32πε0 R2 > −mg.
7.1 Motion in a constant electric field 7.1.24 ∆t = πε0 R(me v 2 )2
.
(2e2 C)

7.1.1 When the initial velocity of a particle is directed 7.1.25 α = π

≈ 4K(∆α)2
4;δ (eE) .
along a straight line of force.
l
7.1.26 k = (2d) .
7.1.2 t = 0.56 µs; x = 2.8 m.
q1 q2
2(d−vt)m 7.1.27 b. p1 = (2πε0 vr) . c. l = 3, 4 · 10−13 m.
7.1.3 E = (qt2 ) .
1
q q 7.1.28 k = (2ε0 ) .
2qEd 2qEd
7.1.4 u = v 1 + (mv 2 ) , tgβ = tgα 1+ (mv 2 sin2 α)
.

7.1.5 Twice as much.

7.2 Focusing of charged particles
qEl
7.1.6 K = [2 cos2 α(tgα+tgβ)] .
7.2.1 Increase by half.
neU bl2
7.1.7 N = (2me vd) .
q
7.2.2 x = v π2 m(eρ) e ε0
at x ≤ l; x = l +
−17
7.1.8 q = 10 Cl.
q q
v 2meρe ε0 ctg( v1 (2meρe ε0 ) R) at x ≥ l.
√ √
1+sin2 α cosα √1+cos2 α−cos2 α
7.1.9 β = α − arctg cosα ; tgβ = cosα 1+cos2 α+sin2 α 7.2.3 a. By a factor of k will increase. b. By a factor of
q k will decrease.
1+2e(φ2 −φ1 )
7.1.10 tgβ = tgα (me v 2 sin2 α)
7.2.4
7.1.11 V = 19 kV. 7.2.5 y = y0 f
(x0 −f ) .
V
( 20 )
7.1.12 V = R . 7.2.6 a. Does not depend. b. If the electron moves
ln( R2 )
1
along a trajectory close to the straight line
7.1.13 The velocity will not change, but the time of the AA′ ,then the transverse momentum that the
positron’s flight will be longer. The positron can electron will receive in the region of the hole is
eΦ
not reach point B at all if its initial kinetic en- close to p ⊥= (2πrv) , where Φ = πr2 E is the flux
ergy K0 is less than eφ0 . of electric field strength across the surface of a
√ cylinder of radius r in the region of the hole, v
7.1.14 t′ = t 3.
is the speed of the electron in that region. The
√ 2
7.1.15 n focal distance f = −r·m p⊥
ev
= − 2m ev
(eE) = −4d. (The
eQ
minus sign at f means that electron scattering
7.1.16 K → 0 when l → 2R; K = 4πε ( 1 + l−R
0 R
1
− 4l ) at occurs. scattering of electrons.)
l > 2R. The condition of minimality will be the q
arrival of the electron at the midpoint of the in- 7.2.7 f = 43 d[(1 + VV0 )(2 VV0 + 2 VV0 ( VV+1
0
) − 1)] at V <
terval connecting the centers of the spheres with 8dV0
8V0 . At a distance of from the first cover at
zero velocity. V
V > 8V0 .
qQ −1
2R
7.1.17 t = v [1 − (m+M )2πε0 RmM v 2 ]
2 .
7.2.8 f = d( 4V0 2
V ) .
q
7.1.18 v = qEl 7.2.9 A particle of mass m having charge q and fly-
m .
ing with velocity v through a charged ball will
q
ml receive from the ball field a transverse momen-
7.1.19 T = 2π (2qE) . q∆q
tum p ⊥= (2πε 0 vx)
, where x ≪ R is the mini-
q
ml
mum distance between the particle and the cen-
7.1.20 T = 2π (mg+qE) when mg + qE > 0; T = ter of the ball, ∆q ≈ πx2 ρ2R is the charge of
the area of the sphere cut by a cylinder of radius
r
ml
2π √ . R V0
(mg)2 +(qE)2 x; f = mv 1
p⊥ x = 2 V .

53
7.2.10 At a distance f = 2R( VV0 )2 from the center of the 7.4 Interaction of charged particles
spheres. q
e γ−1
7.4.1 v = √
γ .
7.2.11 x ≈ 1
1 ,
( f1 − L )
where f = 2R( VV0 )2 . 4πε0 me r
q √
e2 (4+ 2)
2
7.4.2 v = (8πε0 me a) .
(a−b)
7.2.12 ∆E ⊥= (16d2 )
vp
q
me
√
q 7.4.3 ve = (m p
)(4 2 + 1) ≈ 0, 01. For the estima-
2d
7.2.13 V = V0 l .
tion, we can assume that the light positrons will
have time to travel far before the protons move.
4V (2E2 −E1 )
7.2.14 f = 7.4.4 rmin = e2
(4πε0 me v 2 ) .
(E2 −E1 )2

2
7.4.5 rmin = [4πε0 mee(v1 +v2 )2 ]
7.3 Motion in an alternating electric q
field 7.4.6 v = [2πεq01m
q2 (m1 +m2 )
1 m2 (R1 +R2 )]
.

de2
7.3.1 t = 2me l 7.4.7 rmin = (e2 +4πε0 me v 2 d cos α) .
(eEτ )
π
q q 7.4.8 α = 2.
7.3.2 a) 2eV
me − e∆V τ
me l ≤ v ≤ 2eV e∆V τ
me + me l ; q
q2
q q 7.4.9 v = (8πε0 md) .
2e(V −∆V )
b)v1 = 2e(Vm+∆V )
; v 2 = me at ∆V < V.
e √ √
r
q 2 (2 2−1) mv02 q 2 (2 2−1)
7.4.10 v = v0 1 − 8πε0 mv02 d
at 2 ≥ 16πε0 . If in-
7.3.3 νmax ≈ 109 Hz
stead of the dihedral angle we place charge +q
7.3.4 a. S = Ll mm at point A, the electric field in the region out-
(2V d) . b. S = 0.09 V .
side the conductor, and hence the forces do not
change. This allows us to consider the motion of
7.3.5 The circle radius is 5 cm.
the system of four charges shown in the figure.
q
7.3.6 ν > l 2eV
me .
r
4e2 r 2
7.4.11 v = 2 2
3
[πε0 me (4r +R ) 2 ]
πδντ
7.3.7 V = (2S) . Ze2
7.4.12 Kmin = (8πε0 r)
e l2 f 2 √
7.3.8 me = 2V (n+ 21 )2
where n is an integer e2 (2− 2)
7.4.13 Kmin = (4πε0 r) .
q √ √
V0 2e
p me ( 2−1)m
7.3.9 ∆α = ±arctg{ dω me V [1 − cos(ωl 2eV )]}. 7.4.14 nmin = M + 2.

ωl 4πeV0 n 7.4.15 vmin = 2v

7.3.10 a.v = (2πn) . b. ∆b = (me ω 2 d) , where n is an inte-
ger. 7.4.16 Impossible
q
e2 2
7.3.11 |umax | = 2eE0
me ω |cosφ|, vav = eE0
me ω cos φ. 7.4.17 rmin = 2πε0 mp v 2 + ρ2 + ( 2πε0emp v2 )2 .

7.3.12 K = 0.4 keV. 4q 2 (l−r)

7.4.18 m = 2 .
rl[u2 +v 2 +2uv cos(α+β)− rl 2 (u sin α−v sin β)2 ]

7.3.13 Because of the departure from the plasma of the √

7.4.19 t = 2 2t0 .
electrons accelerated by the high-frequency elec- q
tric plasma’s potential will increase until even 7.4.20 v ≥ qQ(m+M )
(2πε0 RmM ) when qQ > 0; any when qQ < 0.
the fastest electrons even the2 fastest electrons
2eE
can no longer escape. V = me ω02 ( Eω0 )2 . mv0
q
M V0 2 QqM
0 7.4.21 v = m+M + ( m+M ) − 2πε0 Rm(m+M )

√ eE0
7.3.14 A = . q
3qQ(m+M )
[me (ω 2 −ω02 )2 +4γ 2 ω 2 ] 7.4.22 v = (4πε0 mM R) at qQ > 0; v = 0 at qQ ≤ 0.

4πne e2
q q
7.3.15 ε = 1 + √ . 7.4.23 vc = q2 q2
[me (ω −ω02 )2 +4γ 2 ω 2 ]
2 (6πε0 ml) ; vkr = (24πε0 ml) .

54
 8 ELECTRIC CURRENT
q
q 2 m(2R−l)
7.4.24 v = [2πε0 RlM (M +2m)] .

2
R Q
7.4.25 x = 2 ( 4πε0 µmgR2 − 1), vmax = 8.1 Current. Current density. Cur-
√ Q
µgR( √ − 1). rent in vacuum
4πε0 µmgR2
q
e4
2
h0 cos α q2 8.1.1 a. I ≈ nec = 0, 02A. b. I = [16ε0 me (πr)3 ] =
7.4.26 h = mg [ 8πε0 (H−h 0 )H sin α
(1 − µctgα) − mg(1 − l
0, 0012A.
µtgα)]
Il
8.1.2 v = q
3q 2
7.4.27 W = (32πε0 l) .
8.1.3 I = 2ε0 Eav = 1, 3 · 10−4 A.
2
7.4.28 k = [ (2πεq0 l1 l2 ) ](l1 + l2 + 2l0 ). 8.1.4
cm
q 8.1.5 v = 0, 4 s .
1+q 2
7.4.29 vmax = v (4πε0 Rmv 2 )
8.1.6 j = eν.
Q2 2
8.1.7 j = −ene u.
7.4.30 a)W = 34 πR3 ρv 2 + 4πε0 R + 4πR2 σ(2 − 2 3 )
Q2 +q 3 (Q−q)2 8.1.8 I = sj sin α = 10 A
b)W = 43 πR3 ρv 2 + 8πε0 R − √
3
8πε0 2R
+ 4πR2 σ(2 −
2
23 ) 8.1.9 t = 8 · 10−6 s
j
8.1.10 ρ= v
7.4.31 The charge will oscillate along the axis of the
cylindrical hole. Its velocity is maximal at the 8.1.11 E≈ I
= 6 · 105 V
≈ [ 8m e rv
2 1
m; L (3eE) ] ≈ 0.1 m.
2
(2πε0 vr)
point O
8.1.12 a)ρ = q ρ0 v0 where x is the distance to the
q v02 − 2eEx
2 Sσ 2 me
7.4.32 v = 2gh[1 − (4εSσ 0 mg)
] at mg > (2ε0 ) ; e 0 m v2
front grid. b) ρ2 = 2ρ1 at x < x0 = (2eE) ;ρ = 0
q
v = 2ε(σ
2
0 mg h
2 S) at mg < (2ε Sσ 2
. at x > x0 . From the dependence of ρ2 on x the
0)
greatest charge field strength between the grids:
Rx ρ me v02
E1 = 2ε10 0 0 ρ2 dx = 0ε0 eE .
q
q2 1 1
7.4.33 v = 4πε0 m ( r − R ).
The charge field of the beam can be neglected
q if E1 ≪ E. When E1 is comparable to E, i.e.
ρ2 l R1
7.4.34 v = v0 1− 2πε0 mv 2 ln R2 .
ρ0 me v02
(ε0 eE) ≈ E, it must be taken into account.
eε0 E 2
q Hence the estimate ρ ≈ (me v02 )
.
4πε ml3
7.4.35 T = 2π √0
( 2q 2 )
.
8.1.13
7.4.36 a) Electrons and ions separate completely. The 8.1.14 The curve T1 corresponds to the iso-temperature
neh
electric field of the ions Ei = (2ε 0)
will stop the cathode and the curve T3 corresponds to the
electrons after a time high-temperature cathode.
2ε0 me v e2 hn
t≈ (e2 hn) ; ν ≈ (8ε0 me v) . 8.1.15 If the field were not close to zero, then all of the
b) Part of the ions and electrons form charged electrons from this boundary would either to-
areas at the layer boundaries (see figure) whose ward the anode or toward the cathode, depend-
electric field causes the harmonic ing on the sign of the field.
q motion of the
2
electrons with period T = 2π (εe0 mne ) . There-
q
8.1.16 ρ = SI m ed √
2eV
1
x
= 1, 75 · 10−6 √1x m
Cl
3.
T
fore, the electrons will stop after time t = 4 =
q
2 When x → 0 the charge density ρ → inf, never-
( π2 ) (εe0 mne ) , ν = 4t
1
. Rd
theless the charge per unit area (σ = 0 ρdx), is
√
limited: σ = 3.5 · 10−6 d. Therefore the largest
7.4.37 n = 8 sin2 ( α2 ). value of the of the spatial charge field strength
is limited: E ′ = (2εσ0 ) . In this case E ′ ≪ Vd and
q2
p
7.4.38 x = l2 + l02 − l + l0 , where l0 = (8πε0 µM g) . the action of the spatial charge can be neglected.

55
 3
R0
q
8.1.17 n = 43 ; j = 49 ε0 2e V 2
, I = jS 8.2.16 R = cos2 α .
me d2
1
8.2.17 I = 4πrλV ; R = (4πrλ) .
8.1.18 The charge density increases by a factor of n,
3
and the current increases by a factor of n 2 times. 8.2.18 R = 0, 14 Om
i
8.1.19 j = (2πr) . 8.2.19
λq
q 1 1 1
8.1.20 a.j1 = 4πr2I
2
22I l
1 − rl 2 ; j2 = 4πr 2 r where l is the
8.2.20 R = 4πλ ( r1 − r2 ); I = εε0
distance from the middle of the segment AB to 8.2.21 C = εε0
(λR) ; no.
point in which j is determined; r is the distance
from A or B to this point. In the first case the 8.2.22 The electrodes should touch the center of the
current is perpendicular to the symmetry plane, plate from different sides.
in the second case it lies in it. The total currents
through the plane are I and 0, respectively. 8.2.23 K = 12 me ( enIe S )2 = 2 · 10−15 EV
q
2I
b. j = 4πr
2
1 − hr2 where r is the distance from Fl F l2
2 8.2.24 I = (qR) ; v = (q 2 R)
the source to the point at which j
qvR Fl
8.2.25 a. φ = l . b. φ = q .
qvl
8.1.21 j = (2πr 3 )
8.2.26 V = W e ; Imax = eν. If R <
W
e2 ν the current does
not change with the load
8.2 Conductivity. Resistance. q
8.2.27 I = I0 (1 − VV0 ).
Sources of EMF .
e 2 ne τ
8.2.28 See Fig. W = Ec l
8.2.1 a. λ = me . b. τ = 2, 4 · 10−15 s.
8.2.29 ε = 1, 13 V.
8.2.2 ∆N
N = 1, 5 · 10−10 .
8.2.30 ε = 1.07 V. There is an inflow of heat from the
−n2e v environment.
8.2.3 f = λ .

8.2.4 I = me ωrλs
= 1, 7 mA. 8.2.31 ν = 1.4 · 10−2 mol
(eτ )
8.2.32 The capacitor will not discharge completely due
8.2.5 The change in the field occurs at the speed of
to the appearance of a chemical counter-EMF,
light.
increasing as the number of baths increases.
8.2.6 The ratio χλ is almost the same for these met-
2 2 8.2.33
als. Theoretical estimate: χλ = π(3ek 2 T) , where k is
V
Boltzmann constant, T is temperature, e is car- 8.2.34 k = (2ε) .
rier charge

8.2.7 E = λj ; V1 = ( jl
λ ) cos α; V2 =
πjl
(2λ) 8.3 Electrical circuits
8.2.8 σ = ε0 j( λ11 − 1
λ2 ).
8.3.1 r = 1.5 and 50 kOhm.
λ2 πjl
8.2.9 tgα2 = λ1 tgα1 ; σ = ε0 j cos α1 ( (2λ) ) 8.3.2 r = 20 Ohm
ε0 j
8.2.10 ρ = (λa) . 8.3.3 V = 1 kV

8.2.11 a .I = Q0
b. Q = Q0 exp[ (ε−t 8.3.4 In circuits a and e the instruments will show
(ε0 ρ) . 0 ρ)
].
a decrease in current, in circuit d an increase
8.2.12 in current, in circuit b and f the current does
λSV l
not change. In circuit c the upper ammeter will
8.2.13 I = l ;R = (λS) . show increasing current, the lower ammeter will
l 1 1 1 l1 l2 show a decrease in current.
8.2.14 RI = πr 2 ( λ1 + λ2 ), RII = π ( r12 λ1 + r22 λ2
); II =
∆V R ∆I r
V V
at |r2 − r1 | ≪ l1 , l2 . 8.3.5 a. = (R+r) . b. = (R+r) .
R1 , III = RII V I

IV 10
8.2.15 R = 0, 0566 Om 8.3.6 I6 = 64 , V ≈ 40 V

56
 8.3.7 100 Ohm. 8.3.31 V = 0; I = 0, 75 A.
8.3.8 More 8.3.32 V = 0, 75 V.
8.3.9 V = 48 V ; I = 15 A 8.3.33 In 12, 54 and 27 min.
rR2
8.3.10 rx = R1 ;saved. 8.3.34 N = I 2 R.
N0 (N −N0 )
8.3.11 RB = V1 V2 V1 8.3.35 N ′ = .
I1 ; R = (I2 V1 −I1 V2 ) ; N
(V1 V3 I2 −V3 V2 I1 −V2 V1 I3 ) 8.3.36 R = 9(n − 1)r
RA = I3 (V1 I2 −V2 I1 ) .
√
8.3.12 Here is the part of the circuit that includes the 8.3.37 r = R1 R2 .
required resistance. To the nodes A and O we 8.3.38 2 and 100 V ; 20 and 0.1 W . The current is almost
connect a battery, and a voltmeter to nodes C unchanged. will not change, but the power will
and O, and ammeters to nodes C and A, C and almost double
B, and nodes A and B are connected by a wire.
The current through resistance R is ICA + ICB . 8.3.39 S = 42 mm2 ; approximately 10 times.
Then R = (ICA V+ICB ) , where V is the reading of
8.3.40 N = (E − Ir)I; R = r.
the voltmeter.
8.3.41 N1 = 125 W ; N2 = 80 W ; N3 = 45 W.
8.3.13 R = 7 Ohm
√ √ 8.3.42 At r = R
8.3.14 a.r
√ n−1= 3R. b. r = ( 3 − 1)R. c. In = I(2 −
′ 2
√3)n−1 through
√ a resistance of 2R; In = I(2 − 8.3.43 Np = (V −ε)ε ; Nt = (V −ε) .
r r
3) ( 3−1) through
√ resistance R, n is the cell
number, R0 = ( 3 + 1)R. If ε > V2 , then the useful power is greater than
the thermal power.
8.3.15 R1 = 9r; R2 = 10r9 .
8.3.44 N = 4 W
8.3.16 In section a:V = ε−I(r+R); b : V = −ε−I(r+R); λCV 2
c : V + ε1 + ε2 − I(r1 + r2 + R); d : V = ε1 − ε2 − 8.3.45 N = ε0
I(r1 + r2 + R). 2
8.3.46 N = I( m2eev
− IR).
8.3.17 ε = 34.3 V ; r = 1.43 Ohm 2 2
8.3.47 q = 4π 2 ε0 a3 ene Rv, v ≫ a emne e R .
8.3.18 Battery with EMF E = 10 V and internal resis-
tance r = 14 Ohm R0 I 2 2 2
8.3.48 T = T0 + (χ−I 2 R α) , χ > I R0 α. When χ < I R0 α
0

8.3.19 See Fig. the temperature T increases indefinitely.

8.3.20 I = 10 A, r = 20 Ohm; ε = 200 V , r = 20 Ohm.

8.3.21 I = 80 A 8.4 Capacitors and nonlinear ele-
I3 R 3 I3 (R2 +R3 ) ments in electrical circuits
8.3.22 I2 = R2 ; I1 = R2 ;V =
I3 (R1 R2 +R1 R3 +R2 R3 )
R2 . 8.4.1 a. q = 8 · 10−4 Cl. b. V = 60 s. 30, 30, 60 V
V0 x
8.3.23 See Fig. 8.4.2 V = swap sources
(2x−l) ;

8.3.24 q
8.4.3 φA = φB + 2(l − x2 ) εkx
0S
.
8.3.25 a.V = 5ir; R = 5r6 ; I = 6i. b. See Fig. I =
7i
2 ;R =
12r
7 ; c. RAB = 13r
7 ; RCD = 7 .
5r 8.4.4 .φA − φB = ε( R1R+R 1
2
− ( C1C+C
2
2
. It should be
measured with an electrostatic voltmeter, q1 =
8.3.26 I = 8 A. C1 R1 ε C 2 R2 ε
(R1 +R2 ) ; q2 = (R1 +R2 ) . In this case, the influence
8.3.27 a. I = 2i ; R = 2r . b. R = 3r . c. RAB = 2r of of these voltmeters on the electrical circuit.
3 ; RAC =r
CV 2 R1 CV 2 R2
(ε1 r2 +ε2 r1 ) r1 r2 8.4.5 W1 = 4 R1 +R2 ; W2 =
8.3.28 ε = (r1 +r2 ) = 21 V , r = (r1 +r2 ) = 3, 75 Ohm. 4 R1 +R2

q2
8.3.29 See Fig. 8.4.6 W = A − C.

Cε2
8.3.30 It will decrease by a factor of three. 8.4.7 q = Cε; W = 4 .

57
 C(ε−V0 )2
8.4.8 W = 2 ,ε > V0 ; W = 0, ε < V0 . 9.1.5 α = 45◦
mg
C(V −ε)2 9.1.6 I = 2aB ctgα
8.4.9 W = C(V − ε)ε; W = 2 .
9.1.7
8.4.10 First the capacitor must be charged from one q
cell, then from two cells connected in series, and 9.1.8 ω = 6BI
m .
so on. Then the energy loss will be n1 fraction of
the stored energy 9.1.9 tgα = IB
(4ρg)
8.4.11 Ng = Iq Iq
C > Nk = (2C) . These quantities dif- 9.1.10 The current frame will be divided into trape-
fer from each other because of the work done by zoidal microcircuits with current I as is shown
changing the capacitance of the capacitor. in the figure. The moment of forces acting on all
microcircuits when ∆h → 0 coincides with the
8.4.12 In τ ≈ 10−3 RC.
momentum of forces acting on the frame with
ε1 R2 +ε2 R1 ε1 R2 +kε2 R1
8.4.13 q = C R1 +R2 q = C kR1 +R2 current:
N⃗ ⃗ → Σi [∆Mi × B] = [(Σi ∆Mi × B)] ⃗ →
V0 Rτ ∆h→0 ∆h→0
8.4.14 V = (rT +Rτ ) . ⃗ × B]
⃗
[M
dV V −τ
8.4.15 = − RC ; V = V0 exp( RC ). 9.1.11 a. tgα = IB π(4+π)IB
2ρg . b. tgα = 4(1+π)(2+π)ρg .
dt
V0 −τ
I= R exp( RC ) πR2 IB(sinα+cos α)
9.1.12 N = 2 .
8.4.16 R < 40 kOhm
P
−V0 −1
9.1.13 B = (πRIn)
8.4.17 ν = (RCln VV −V1
) .
2πRIB sin α
qv 9.1.14 a = .
8.4.18 a. I = d . b. N o m
F
ε0 (ε−1)εav 9.1.15 B = (RI) .
8.4.19 I = d .
1 ε 1 ε 2 ε2 12
8.4.20 I = 2αR2 + R − [( 2αR 2 + R) − R2 ]
9.2 The magnetic field of a moving
8.4.21 On the volt-ampere characteristic draw the line charge. The induction of the mag-
I = (ε−V )
R ; the point of their intersection gives netic magnetic field of a linear
gives a current of 2 mA. Drawing the corre-
sponding straight lines through the ends of the
current
rectilinear of the characteristic line, we find that µ0 ρv
9.2.1 B = (2πr) , where r is the distance to the thread
at R > 0.3 kOhm and R > 3 kOhm the diode
stops working at the straight line part of the µ0 I
9.2.2 B = (2πr) , where r is the distance to the wire.
volt-ampere characteristic.
9.2.3 µ = 1, 25.

9.2.4 B = 1, 88 · 10−5 T l
9 PERMANENT MAGNETIC µ0 I 1
9.2.5 B = 2π ( x + y1 ).
FIELD
9.2.6 B = µ2πl
0I
sin α2 where l is the distance to the in-
tersection point of the wires.
9.1 Induction of a magnetic field. The µ0 qv µ0 Il
effect of a magnetic field on a cur- 9.2.7 a. B = 4πr 2 sinα. b. B = 4πr 2 sinα.

rent 9.2.8
µ0 I µ0 IR2
9.1.1 B = 100 T l 9.2.9 B = (2R) ; Bh = 3 .
[2(R2 +h2 ) 2 ]

9.1.2 B = 20 T l 9.2.10 n = sin( α2 ).

q
L2
9.1.3 a) F1 = F II1 1+ − 2 Ll cosφ. b)F2 = 2F RI 2
9.2.11 B = µ0 I
+ π2 )
l2 lI 2πR (1

aλV B µ0 I
9.1.4 ∆h = (bρg) . 9.2.12 B = (4R) .

58
 µ0 I(π+1)
9.2.13 B0 = 2πR
9.3.2 B = 10−10 T l.
µ0 I R4 2R3 1 µ0 i
9.2.14 Bh = 1 9.3.3 2 .
2 [ π 2 (R2 +h2 ) + (R2 +h2 )3 + 5
π(R2 +h2 ) 2
]2 .
√ √ 9.3.4 Between planes B = µ0 (i1 −i2 )
, outside planes
9.2.15 a. I = I0 10. b. I = 2I0 10. 2
B = ±µ0 (i21 +i2 ) .
µ0 M
9.2.16 B = (2πh3 ) .
µ0 I 2
√ 9.3.5 F = (2b) .
µ0 M 1+3 sin2 α
9.2.17 B = (4πr 3 ) , M = Ia2
µ0 aI 2
b. B1 ≈ 10 T l. B2 ≈ 35 T l
9.3.6 a. ∆ = (8Eb2 ) .
9.2.18 Two flat circuits with current I, having differ-
ent shapes but the same area, break them into 9.3.7 B∥ = µ0 e0 E⊥ v = µ0 iΩ , where E⊥ = σΩ is the
(4π) (4πε0 )
square microcircuits with current as shown in component of of electric field of current carriers,
the figure. The induction of the magnetic field perpendicular to the surface, σ - their surface
created by these microcircuits when ∆h → 0 co- density, v - velocity
incides with the induction of the contours inside
which the microcircuits are located. The mag- 9.3.8 a. B = µ40 i . b. B = µ0 i; independent. c. B = µ0√aj .
(4 3)
netic field of the circuits in question is close to
the field of a single micro-loop at a large distance 9.3.9 T = µ0 nRI 2
2
multiplied by the number of microcontours in-
side each loop. But this product when ∆h → 0 9.3.10 a. B∥ = µ(4π) 0 iΩ
, where Ω is the solid angle at which
for each loop tends to the same value since the the surface of the cylinder (see problem 9.3.7).
number of microcontours depends only on the In the section AA′ the solid angle Ω = 2π, so
area of the contour. B∥ = µ20 i .
9.2.19 a. In the figure each microcircuit with momen- b. B = 21 µ0 i(1 − q 1 R 2 ), B =x1 →inf
⃗
1 R 2
4 µ0 i( x1 )
1+( x )
tum M0 is surrounded by a circuit with current 1

I = M a2 . At distances much greater than the

0
B = 21 µ0 i(1 + q 1 R 2 ), B =x2 →inf⃗ µ0 i
1+( x )
distance between neighboring microcircuits, the 2

field of microcircuits tends to the field of sur- 9.3.11 a. The magnetic field of a cylinder is composed
rounding current I, which coincides with the of the magnetic fields of thin discs of thickness
field of the current I, flowing along a large cir- ∆ into which this cylinder can be divided. The
cuit. The magnetic moment of such a loop M = magnetic field of each disk coincides with the
2
Ib2 = Ma02b = nM0 . magnetic field of the current flowing with linear
b. The magnetic field of a thin plate is close to density M (M is the magnetic moment unit vol-
the magnetic field of the contour current I = ume of iron); on the outer surface of the disk (see
hM , where M is the magnetic moment of a unit the solution of problem 9.2.19).
volume of the plate. But the magnetic field in- b. The direction of magnetic field induction in
duction
√
B is related to I by the relation B = the center of the cube coincides with the direc-
µ0 I 8 Bπa
(πa) . Therefore, M = (µ0 h 8) .
√ tion of of magnetization. The modulus of this
vector will be as many times smaller than the
R2 h
9.2.20 B = µ0 M 3 modulus of induction of the magnetic field in-
[2(R2 +l2 ) 2 ]
side the rod as many times 8π 3 (the solid angle
−2 at which the side faces of faces of cube 1 − 4) is
9.2.21 B = 4, 9 · 10 T l.
less than 4π, i.e. n = 1.5 times.
9.2.22 The vector B0 must be parallel to the surface of µ0 M
3 c. B = sqrt1+4( r 2;B r⃗ → µ0 M, B( r )→inf →
the disk. N = 2πBB µ0
0R
. l) ( l )→0 l
⃗
µ0 M l
q 2r .
πHF
9.2.23 M = (2µ 2
0 ah )
. d. B = µ0 M (1 − √ 1 r 2 ); B( r )→0 ⃗ →
1+4( l ) l
2µ0 M r 2
l2 , B( r )→inf
⃗ → µ0 M.
l

9.3 The magnetic field of a current 9.3.12 The induction of the magnetic field inside a rect-
distributed over a surface or angular column will be as many times greater
space than B, how many times greater 4π is the solid
angle at which the side faces of the plate can be
9.3.1 B = µ0 σv
2 .
seen from its center. B = (2πaB
√ 0 .
2h)

59
 q
9.3.13 B∥ = 6, 28 · 10−4 T l, B⊥ = 0, 377 T l 9.4.8 B2 = B4 = B1 aa21 =
B12 +B32 +2B1 B3 cos α
2 cos( α
2)
B0 χh
9.3.14 ∆B = (2R) 9.4.9 a. Br = 12 B0 xr , tgα = 21 xr ; See Fig. b. Br =
9.3.15 a.B = µ0 Ix µ0 I
1 r x n−1
2 nB0 x0 ( x0 ) , Br = 12 rB0 δf
(2πr 2 ) , 0 < x < r; B = (2πx) , x > r. δx

b. B = µ0 xj, x = a2 ; B = µ0 aj
< a2 . 9.4.10 Since the magnetic flux of the radial compo-
2 ,x
nent of the field induction outside the cylinder
9.3.16 Bmax = µ(2πr)
0N I µ0 N I
, Bmin = (2πR) . is conserved, the magnetic field induction will
decrease as αR r , where r is the distance to the
µ0 I B0 R
9.3.17 a. Above the plane B = (2πx) , the magnetic field axis 340 of the cylinder, α = (2x is the radial
0)
induction lines coincide with with the field in- component of the magnetic field induction near
duction lines of an infinite straight wire; below of the cylinder surface.
the plane B = 0.
µ0 I 9.4.11 a. At a sufficiently large distance from the end
b. Above plane B = (2πx) , below plane B =
µ0 (I−I0 )
of the cylinder the magnetic field induction B0 =
(2πx) . µ0 i, and the magnetic flux in section πR2 is equal
c. Inside the cable B = (2πx) µ0 I
, outside the cable to πR2 B0 . Part of this flux (Φ1 ) comes out of the
cylinder through section AA′ , part (Φ2 ) - through
B = 0.
the side surface: πR2 B0 = Φ1 + Φ2 . Hence
9.3.18 µ0 I β
B = 2πr tg 2 v Φ2 = πR2 B0 − Φ1 . As in section AA′ B∥ = B20 (see
solution of problem 9.3.10a), then Φ1 = πR2 B∥ =
µ0 hj 2
9.3.19 See Fig. Bmax = 2 . πR2 B0 2
and Φ2 = πR B0 = µ0 πiR .
2 2 2
µ0 h µ0 h h b. The force acting on a dedicated section of
9.3.20 B = 2 jx, 0
< x < = 2;B − 2 hj(1 4x ), x > 2
where x is the distance to point O. one half of the solenoid in the axial direction,
µ0 jd
∆F k = B⊥ ∆S − nI = nI = ∆Φ, where ∆Φ
9.3.21 B = 2 . is the magnetic flux from the other half of the
µ0 ja solenoid through this section. Therefore, the to-
9.3.22 a. B = 2 . b. i = 2B0 sin µφ0 , imax = 2B0
µ0 . See Fig. tal axial force F∥ = nI − Φ, where the total mag-
9.3.23 The component induction of the magnetic field netic flux from the second half of the solenoid 2

along the solenoid axis B∥ = µ0 nI, and compo- through the surface of the first half Φ = µ0 πnIR
2 .
2
nent of the magnetic field induction perpendic- So F∥ = µ0 π(nIR)
2 .
ular to the solenoid axis, B⊥ = µ0 nItgα. √
9.4.12 B = 2µ0 F (πR2 ).
9.3.24 To determine the equivalent surface currents
(see the solution of the problem 9.3.11a) the 9.4.13 F = nI(Φ1 − Φ2 ).
cylinder should be divided into thin layers, one µ0 π(rR)2
of which is shown in the figure. The planes of 9.4.14 a. L = l3 . b. L = µ0 nπr2
the layers should be perpendicular to the direc-
tion of magnetization. B = µ02M when x < r; B =
( µ02M )( xr )2 at x > r.
10 MOTION OF CHARGED
PARTICLES IN COMPLEX
9.4 Magnetic flux FIELDS
√ 2
9.4.1 a. Φ = 3 Ba
2 b. Φ = BS sin α.
10.1 Motion in a homogeneous mag-
9.4.2 Φ = B · πR2 (sin2 α − sin2 β)
netic field
9.4.3
10.1.1 R = 0, 2 m
9.4.4
10.1.2 R = 0, 68 m
9.4.5
10.1.3 a. ω = qB
m . b. ω = 1, 75 · 10
11 −1
s
9.4.6
q
sinα R1 K1
9.4.7 n = sinβ , i = ( µB0 ) cos α(1 − tgαctgβ). 10.1.4 R 2
= K2

60
 2πm
10.1.5 t = (qB) . 10.2 Drift motion of particles
3(eBR)2 2v(B1 −B2 )
10.1.6 K = (4mp ) 10.2.1 vdr = [π(B1 +B2 )]
eBl eB
10.1.7 sin α = at ≤ vl ; α = π at eB
> vl . 10.2.2 vdr ≈ αme v 2
(eB0 ) .
(me v) me me

10.1.8 x1 = 0.29 m, x2 = 0.41 m, x3 = 0.5 m, x4 = 0.58 q

1 2mEl
m, ∆l = 3.7 mm. 10.2.3 See Fig.R = B q
∆V √
10.1.9 V0 < 0, 025 vdr = √
2 qlE
√
2 qlB+π mE
2mv mv(δα)2
10.1.10 l = (qB) , ∆z = 10.2.4 v = E
B.
(4qB)
mv sin α 2πmv cos α
10.1.11 R = (qB) , h = (qB) . 10.2.5 vdr = E
B
2πme v πme v(δα)3
10.1.12 x = (eB) , ∆y = (4eB)
E
10.2.6 vdr = ( B )sinα
√
10.1.13 See fig. a. B > B0 = 2 (eR)
2me k
. b. P2 > P1 . 10.2.7
me v e eBh V
10.1.14 B = (eR) + (16πε0 vR2 ) .
10.2.8 v ≤ (4me ) or v = (hB)

eB eB 2 d2
10.1.15 ω = ω0 − (2me ) . 10.2.9 V = = 3, 5 · 105 V
(2me ) ; V
q
10.1.16 V ′ = 2V h
R − Bh 2eV
me . 10.2.10 In a coordinate system moving with drift veloc-
E
ity B , the electron moves on a circle of radiusIn
me E 2
10.1.17 a.y = eB 2 lL z . a coordinate system moving with drift velocity′
b. y[m] = 1, 1 · 10−4 m−1 · z 2 E/B, the electron moves on a circle of radius meB
ev

2 1
, where v ′ = (v 2 + 2 B
E E
cos α + B 2)
q 2
me E
c. y = eB 2 lL z z 2 + ( eBlL 2
me c ) .
F
πmp 2 2 2 10.2.11 vdr = (qB) .
10.1.18 t = e2 BV ( e 2m
B R
p
− K)
2 2 10.2.12 ve ≈ 8 · 10−7 m
s , vp ≈ 1.5 · 10−3 m
s
eB d
10.1.19 V = 2π 2m
e
· k12 where k = 1, 2, .... The size of
the spot is determined by the initial velocity of
electrons.
10.1.20 v = mg
− µ cos α) at µ ≤ tgα; v = 0 at µ >
11 ELECTROMAGNETIC IN-
qBµ (sinα
tgα DUCTION
10.1.21 M = 2πR2 ρvBR.
Q(B2 −B1 )R
10.1.22 v = (2m)
11.1 Motion of conductors in a con-
10.1.23
stant magnetic field. Electric mo-
tors
10.1.24
10.1.25 M = QR2 (B1 −B2 )
. Preserved 11.1.1 Between the ends of the wings
2

10.1.26 The time of motion of the electron through the 11.1.2 V = 0.03 V.
highlighted area t = ∆l v , where v is the projec- 11.1.3 V = vbB; σ = ε0 vB
tion of velocity on the plane passing through it
and the axis. The change of momentum in the 11.1.4 v < Ze
(4πε0 Br 2 ) .
direction perpendicular to this plane is ∆p⊥ =
− eB⊥vv∆l = −eB⊥ ∆l = − (2πR)
e∆Φ
, where ∆Φ is the 11.1.5 V < 7 M V.
magnetic flux through the plot. Change of mo-
e 11.1.6 E = vB.
mentum ∆M = R∆p⊥ = −( 2π )∆Φ. Therefore,
e
M2 − M1 = ( 2π )(Φ1 − Φ2 ). 11.1.7 B = V
(a2 ω) .
pB1
(1− ) 2 2
B2 b B2 ω
10.1.27 n = 2 . 11.1.8 a. See Fig. b. M = ( a R ) sin2 ωt
q
10.1.28 r = R B2 B 2 vab B 2 vb2
B1 . 11.1.9 W = (2ρ) , a < b; W = (2ρ) , a > b.

61
 B 2 l2 vtgα
11.1.10 W = (2ρ) . 11.2.4 E1 = 6.4 · 10−6 V
m, E2 = 2.56 · 10−5 V
m

(vB)2 SL 11.2.5 E = µ0 αx, where x is the distance from the cen-

11.1.11 N = (4ρ) = 1W.
ter line
11.1.12 I = λBvS = 10 kA, V = vBh = 200 V
11.2.6 E = ( µ0 πνn
l0
0 I0
)x cos(2πνt), where x is the dis-
11.1.13 V = IB tance from the coil axis; E = 0.12 V.
(ρh) .
C1 C2
q
2BIlL
11.2.7 a. q = Cφ. b. q1 = q2 = C1 +C2 φ.
11.1.14 a.v = m . b. v ≈ 1, 1 · 107 m
s
C3 (C2 −C1 ) φ
√ 11.2.8 a. q1 = C1 φ2 , q2 = C2 φ2 . b. q3 = C1 +C2 +C3 2
11.1.15 v = IB(ρb)
11.2.9 a. I = 1.44 mA. b. I = 2.5 mA, the current
2πr02 Bv
11.1.16 It = [R0 (r0 +vt)] . through the jumper is zero. c. I1 = 2.79 mA,
I2 = 1.77 mA, I3 = 0.96 mA.
SB
11.1.17 Q = R IkT
11.2.10 b. ∆I = (RC)
11.1.18 B = 1.1 · 10−2 T l
gmR 11.2.11 Φmax = V RC = 5 · 10−7 V b.
11.1.19 v = (Bl)2 . In heat. q q
3 2
2 2 gtm
11.2.12 a. V1 = t 2µ(hd)
0 ma
, V2 = t3 32µ 0 mb
(9hd)
11.1.20 v(t) = g BmR B l
2 l2 [1 − exp(− mR t)]; v(t) = (m+CB 2 l2 ) .
V V
b. V1 = (8, 7 · 108 s )t, V2 = (1, 2 · 1014 s3 )t
3
11.1.21 k = I
2
mgR 11.2.13 ε = ( πr3 )nB0 ω sin ωt.
11.1.22 v = (B0 πa2 α)2 .
qBl2
mg
11.1.23 I = ( BL ) cos ωt. 11.2.14 ω = (2mr 2 ) . There will be no change in

2ε 2F R 2F 2ε r2
11.1.24 a.ωinst = BL 2 (1− BεL ), I = BL . b. ω(t) = BL2 [1−
11.2.15 B(t) = αt(1 + r02 )
.
3B 2 L2
exp(− 4mR t)]
11.2.16 Decreasing. As the magnetic field induction in-
11.1.25 I = ωBr 2
= 0, 4 A. creases, the Lorentz force and the electron ve-
(2R)
locity increase. But the latter is not fast enough
11.1.26 ω = ω0 − 4M ρ for the electron to stay on a circle of the same
(a3 B 2 ) .
radius
11.1.27 When the rotor stops, the circuit will have max- 3r0
imum current flow because there will be no in- 11.2.17 l = 4 . By a factor of 100. If the initial radius
duction EMF r < l, the electron will move along the conver-
gent to the center spiral, at r > l - along the
11.1.28 ε = 40 V divergent spiral.
2πM Rf0
11.1.29 f = f0 ( εε0 − E02
). 11.2.18 ω = 2σB
[r(ρ+2µ0 σ 2 )] .

11.1.30 ε = 120 V . N = 240 W 11.2.19 a. 2.6 · 1012 times. b. nSr ≈ 7 · 10−14 m2 where
2εI0 ω n is the number of turns per unit length of the
11.1.31 M = ω02
.
solenoid, r is the radius of the solenoid, S is the
2V (I1 −I2 )+R(4I12 −I22 ) I2
wire cross-section.
11.1.32 l = 2ρ(I22 −I12 )
,v = 2F [2V − I2 (2ρl + R)].
CV 2
11.2.20 me.m. = ε0 µ0 CV 2 = c2 where c is the speed of
light
11.2 Vortex electric field 11.2.21 me.m . ≈ 10−27 kg

11.2.1 Φ = 1 V b, 100 V b, 300 V b

11.2.2 E = αr 2
(2l) = 2.5 · 10−5 V
m
11.3 Mutual inductance. Conductor
inductance. Transformers
11.2.3 In position C, because of the axial symmetry of
the magnetic field, the induction flux through 11.3.1 Φ = µ0 ISn sin α, L12 = µ0 Sn sin α.
the ring does not change. Therefore, there is no 2
EMF in the ring 11.3.2 L12 = ( µ0 πr
2
n
)(cosα + sin α).

62
 11.3.3 L12 = µ0 πr2 nN 11.4 AC electrical circuits
εt ε2 τ 2
11.3.4 V = µ0 πr2 nN ωI0 cos ωt 11.4.1 I(t) = L,A = (2L) . In the energy of the magnetic
field
11.3.5 L = µ0 πr2 n2 l. b. Equation of motion of the elec-
tron in the solenoid 11.4.2 a) V = α(Rt + L). b) V = I0 (R sin ωt + Lω cos ωt)
L dI (LI)2
e(E − l dt ) = me dv
dt , l = 2πrN.
11.4.3 Wmax = (RT )

But ene Sv = I. Therefore, the first equation can 11.4.4 I(t) = ( ε0 )(1 − cos ωt).
ωL
be rewritten as
11.4.5 See Fig.
El = V = (L + e2mneelS ) dIdt . t2
11.4.6 C(t) = C0 [1 − (2LC 0)
]
me l
So L1 = L + e2 ne S . Can. q
11.4.7 Vmax = V0 R C L
µ π(r 2 +r r +r 2 )n2
11.3.6 L = 0 1 31 2 2 = 2.3 Gn
m 1
11.4.8 a. When open. b. C = [(2πνN )2 L] ≈ 1 µF
√
11.3.7 t = (VB√µv0 ) = 8.9 · 10−2 s.
q
11.4.9 Imax = ε C L , qmax = 2εC.

11.3.8 At h ≪ dL = µd0 h = 6.3 · 10−8 Gn

q q
m .
CL2 CL1
11.4.10 I1max = V L1 (L 1 +L2 )
, I2max = V L2 (L1 +L2 )
µµ0 r1
11.3.9 L = 2π ln r2 .
q
C √1
11.4.11 a.I = V0 L sin ω0 t, where ω0 = LC
µ0
11.3.10 L = 4π (µ1 + 2µ2 ln rr12 ) b. I = V0
(ω0 sin ω0 t − ω sin ωt); Imax =
L(ω02 −ω 2 )
V0
µ0 h L|ω−ω0 | ≈ 4, 8 kA
11.3.11 L = π ln r .
I0
11.4.12 a. See Fig V R = RI0 , V L = ωLI0 , V C = (ωC) .
11.3.12 Increased by a factor of k q ωL− 1
1 (ωC)
b. V0 = I0 R2 + [ωL − (ωC) ]2 , φ = arctg R .
11.3.13 L1 = µ0 π(n21 r12 l1 + n22 r22 l2 + 2n1 n2 r12 l2 ); L2 =
µ0 π(n21 r12 l1 + n22 r22 l2 − 2n1 n2 r12 l2 ). 11.4.13 ε0 = 208 V.
ε0 (ω 2 LC−1)
11.4.14 I(t) = ωL(2−ω 2 LC) cosωt
11.3.14 L = L1 + L2 + 2L12
√ 11.4.15 L = 2.8 Gn
11.3.15 L12 = L1 L2 . 2ωC0 R0
11.4.16 V = V0 sin(ωt − φ), where φ = arctg (ωCR) 2 −1 .

11.3.16 E2 = ( µµ0 Nl1 N2 S )I0 ω cos ωt.V1 = 11.4.17 a. I = 0, I = ( ε0 ) sin ωt, N = 200 W
L R R
µµ0 N12 S
( l )I0 ω cos ωt. b. IR = ( εR0 ) sin ωt, IC = −ε0 ωC(sinωt +
cos ωt), N = 200 W
11.3.17 V2 = const
11.4.18 L = 0.16 Gn
11.3.18 11.4.19 See Fig.
11.3.19 11.4.20 If VC0 and VC are the potential differences re-
spectively on the capacitor C0 and C, and I is
11.3.20 the current in the circuit, then VC0 − VC = LdI
dt =
q
LCC0
V0 cos ωt, ω = (C+C0 ) . But (V0 −VC0 )C0 = VC C.
11.3.21 ν = 100 Hz
From these equations we find
C −1
11.3.22 To reduce Foucault currents VC = (1 + C0 ) V0 (1 − cos ωt)
C −1
Therefore, at V < 2V0 (1 + C0 ) the breakdown
11.3.23 occurs after time
1 C V
τ= ω arccos[1 − (1 + C0 ) V0 ]
11.3.24 V = 10 V
C −1
and at V > 2V0 (1 + the
capacitor of capac-
C0 )
11.3.25 V = 60 V ity C does not break through

63
11.4.21 b. If I1 and I2 are currents through the induc- 11.5.13 The magnetic field above the superconducting
tance coils L1 and L2 , and ω = √ 1 and plane AA′ coincides with the magnetic field,
(L1 +L2 )C
V0 which is the result of superposing the magnetic
I0 = (ωL , then L1 I1 + L2 I2 = LI0 , I1 − I2 =
1) fields of a straight wire with current I and a wire
I0 cos ωt. From these equations we find with current (−I), symmetrically located under
the AA′ plane. There is no magnetic field above
q
L1 C
I2 = L1 +L2 (1 + cos ωt)I0 , Imax = 2V0 L1 +L2
µ0 I 2
the AA′ plane. Therefore, P = [2(πh) 2 ] . The in-

11.4.22 a. L1 I1 + L2 I2 = L1 I = (L1 + L2 )I0 , where I0 teraction with the superconducting plane of a

is the steady-state current through the coils of long wire with current I is equivalent to the in-
inductors L1 and L2 . teraction of two wires that are 2h apart, with
1 2 1 2 L1 L2
W = 2 L1 I − 2 (L1 + L2 )I0 = 2(L1 +L2 ) I . 2 currents flowing in opposite directions. There-
µ0 I 2
fore f = (4πh) .
2(I1 −I2 ) 2(I1 −I2 )
b. I1 to I1 − L1 ; I2 to I2 + L2 .
(1+ L ) (1+ L )
2 1 11.5.14 v = (πrV2 nB) = 2 kms
11.4.23 R = 1, 4 · 10−3 Ohm
11.5.15
(L+CR2 )(I12 −I22 )
11.4.24 W = 2 . 11.5.16 From the laws of conservation of energy and
q magnetic flux in the solenoid follows
LC ωl √2 ; v
11.4.25 φ = 2arcsin(ω 2 ).v = at ω < = 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2µ0 B0 (W −w)+ 2 mv0 = 2µ0 B W + 2 mv , B0 (W −
φ LC
√l at ω ≪ √1 . w) = BW
LC LC
where B0 = µ0LN I and B are the maximum mag-
netic field induction in the solenoid before and
11.5 Conservation of magnetic flux. after the projectile, W = πR2 L and w = πr2 l are
Superconductors in a magnetic the volumes of solenoid and projectile. From the
given equations we obtain
field q
2l
∆v = v02 + πµ0 ( NLI )2 r2 l[1 − (Rr2 L) ] − v0
11.5.1 q
πµ0
11.5.17 v = N Ir (12lm) .
11.5.2 B = B0 ( rr0 )2

11.5.3 It will be halved. 11.5.18 When entering a magnetic field in a supercon-

ducting rod, a current arises that creates a field
11.5.4 One and a half times inside the rod, the induction of which is equal in
modulo to the induction of the external field and
11.5.5 Reduced by a factor of three is directed in the opposite direction to it. The
B 2 Sl
11.5.6 Only the axial component of the magnetic field work to create this current A = (2µ 0)
is equal to
induction changes. In the region of the external the changeq in kinetic energy of the rod. Hence,
field it is equal to ( 12 )B0 cos α, and outside this vmin = B (µSl 0 m)
.
field it is equal to −( 12 )B0 cos α.
11.5.19 The magnetic flux in any cross section of the tube
2
11.5.7 I = I0 − ( πrL )B 0 cos α. during the projectile’s flight does not change:

πD 2 B
πr12 B = π(r12 − r02 )B1 , πr22 B = π(r22 − r02 )B2 .
11.5.8 I0 = (4L) .
Using these equations and the law of conserva-
11.5.9 Outside the steel cylinder the induction will de- tion of energy gives
crease by B20 , inside it will increase by B20 . ∆K = ( lB
2 r4 r24
2µ0 )[ (r 2 −r 2 ) − ].
1
1 0 (r22 −r02 )

11.5.10 See Fig. x - coordinate of the front end of the B 2 lSs2

11.5.20 v1 = v, v2 = 3v if mv 2 < [4µ0 (2S−s)(S−s)] ; v1 =
rod, counted from the beginning of the coil. 2 2
B lSs
I0 I0 3v, v2 = v if mv 2 > [4µ0 (2S−s)(S−s) ].
a. Imax = 1− σ . b. Imax =
1− l
σ .
S (Sh)
(v2 −v1 )2 B 2 lSs2
2 2 11.5.21 v1′ = v1 , v2′ = v2 if 1 1 > 2µ0 (2S−s)(S−s)
11.5.11 L = µ0 πr (1 −2 r N m +m
R2 ) l
1 2
2m2 v2 +(m1 −m2 )v1 2m1 v1 +(m2 −m1 )v2
q v1′ = m1 +m2 , v2′ = m1 +m2 ,
11.5.12 I = a 2ρCµu0 gh = 380 A, ρCu is the density of (v2 −v1 )2 B 2 Ss2
copper. if 1 1 < 2µ0 (2S−s)(S−s)
m +m
1 2

64
11.5.22 11.6.9 a. B = µ0 εh0 vV inside conductor, B = −µ0hε0 vV
between conductor and capacitor’s coils.
11.5.23 T ′ = q T
2 4 2 (ε+1)
1+ B(4LJ)
r T
b. Will decrease by a factor of (ε−1) .
q
µ0 ah
11.5.24 ω = 2i [m(l−d)] 11.6.10 See Fig. In the first case, because of the po-
larization current flowing through the circuit
abb′ a′ , the circulation of the magnetic field in-
q
LxI02
11.5.25 v = v0 (1 + 1 + (mv2 ) )
0 duction vector through this contour will be ε
2 times greater than in the second case. There-
11.5.26 B = B0 + 2µ(Br
0 ρv ∆
0)
≈ 500 T l, P = B 2 (2µ0 ) ≈ 1011 fore, the motion of the medium together with the
Pa contour reduces the induction of the magnetic
field by a factor ε
11.5.27 Equation of motion of the electron in the tube
′
r d(B−B ) 11.6.11 a. The induction of the magnetic field caused by
me dv
dt = eE = e 2 dt , 2

where B and B ′ are the inductions of the exter- an alternating electric field, B1 = πr(2πr)αµ0 ε0
=
µ0 ε0 αr
nal magnetic field and the field created by the 2 .The induction of the magnetic field
moving electrons. Therefore, me v = er(B−B
′
)
. caused by the polarization current of the dielec-
2
On the other hand, ene vh = j, B ′ = µ0 j, where tric is ε − 1 times greater:B2 = (ε − 1)B1 . There-
j is the linear current density. From the last fore B = B1 + B2 = εB1 = µ0 ε02εαr .
e2 hB µ0 εε0 αV r µ0 ε0 αV
equations we get j = (2me +e2 rµ0 ne h) and then b. B1 = 2h , B2 = 2hr0 [r2 (ε − 1) + r02 ].
′ me B −5
B−B = me +e2 rµ0 ne h
= 5.7 · 10 T l.
µ0 Ir
2 11.6.12 See Fig. B0 = (2πr02 )
. When x < r the value
11.5.28 B = 2me ω
e
of B = µ2πr 0 Ix
2 , at r0 > r > r the value B =
0
2 2 2
µ0 Ir (r0 −x )
2πx2 r0 (r0 −r 2 ) , for x > r0 the value of B = 0.

11.6 Relation of the alternating elec-

tric field to the magnetic field
12 ELECTROMAGNETIC
11.6.1 CB = 1c dN dN
dt (in GHS); CB = µ0 ε0 dt (in SI). CB WAVES
is the circulating magnetic field induction, N is
the electric displacement flux, c is the speed of
light, ε0 and µ0 are the electric and magnetic
12.1 Properties, radiation and reflec-
constants.
tion of electromagnetic waves
11.6.2 a. dN dN
dt = vlE, CB = µ0 ε0 vlE, CB = µ0 ε0 dt (in
SI), CB = 1c dN 12.1.1 In the direction of the z-axis
dt (in GHS)

11.6.3 N = 9 · 105 V · m 12.1.2 a), b) Will be reversed

11.6.4 According to Gauss’s law the electric displace- 12.1.3 E = E0 sin[ 2π

λ (z − ct)]
ment flux inside the capacitor N = εQ0 , where p
Q is the charge of the capacitor and the rate of 12.1.4 E0 = E12 + E22 + 2E1 E2 cos(φ1 − φ2 )
1 dQ
change of flux dN 1
dt = ε0 dt = ε0 I, where I is the E1 sin φ1 +E2 sin φ2
φ = ω(t − zc ) + arctg E 1 cos φ1 +E2 cos φ2
.
current in the circuit. Therefore, the circulation
of magnetic field induction CB = µ0 ε0 DNdt = µ0 I 1
12.1.5 E = 2E0 , w = 2 2
2π E0 cos [(t − zc )∆ + φ]
coincides with the circulation of magnetic field
induction that would be created by the current 12.1.6 B = E
c (inSI), B = E(inGHS)
I.
√ √
e
11.6.5 B = 2, 5 · 10−6 T l 12.1.7 B = E c (inSI), B = E ε(inGHS).

11.6.6 n = 2πN r 12.1.8

L
√
εµ √
11.6.7 B = µ0 ε0 Ev cos α 12.1.9 B = E c (inSI), B = E εµ(inGHS).
B 1 1 1 1
11.6.8 σ = (µ0 v ) 12.1.10 See fig. 2 , 2 ; 1.0; 2 , 2 .

65
12.1.11 a. Two plane waves running in opposite direc- same electrons during interaction with the in-
tions. Wave length d, electric field strength in cident wave. Due to superposition of secondary
the wave E2 . b. Two plane waves propagating per- radiation coming in the antiphase on the wave
pendicularly to the planes AB and A′ B ′ in oppo- passing through the film the intensity of the
site directions. Induction of the electric field in wave decreases, and due to superposition of pri-
the wave cB2 mary radiation coming in the shifted phase on
it the intensity of the wave decreases. radia-
1v
12.1.12 a. Erad = 2 cE tion coming with a phase shift of π2 , the inten-
b. When the sphere stops, all the energy of the sity of the wave increases. The first effect is two
magnetic field will be transferred to the radi- times stronger than the second one. Therefore,
ation energy. At any point, the magnetic field the intensity of the wave after passing through
induction of a moving charge is equal in GHS the film will decrease by an amount equal to the
to the electric field strength of the electric field intensity of the reflected wave
multiplied by ( vc ) sin θ. Therefore, the energy
12.1.16 λ = 4 · 10−5 cm
transferred to radiation, would be equal to the
2
Q
electric field energy (2r) multiplied by ( vc )2 if 12.1.17 As the film thickness increases, more and more
there were no multiplier sin θ. Because of this electrons become involved in the radiation re-
multiplier, the energy of the magnetic field de- flection. more electrons and the amplitude of the
creases by another factor and a half. Thus, reflected wave increases linearly (region x < x1 ).
Q2 v 2 Q2 v 2
The linear dependence of the amplitude on the
W = 3r ( c ) (inGHS), W = 12πε0 r ( c ) (inSI). film thickness is broken when the fraction of re-
c. The intensity of the ”extra” fields will increase flected radiation is large. This is the case when
by a factor of two. Radiated energy is propor- x > x2 .
tional to the square of the intensity. Therefore,
12.1.18 ∆ ≈ 4πm e νε0 c
(ne e2 ) ≈ 10
−5
cm.
the power of radiation will increase by a factor
of four.
12.1.19 E = 0, B = 2E c
12.1.13 Interference of radiation from different plates. 12.1.20 λ = 4 · 10−5 cm, x = 2 · 10−5 cm.
ν ′ k = dc k, ν ′′ k ≈ dc (k + 12 ), cE0
12.1.21 j = 2ε0 cE, P = 2ε0 E 2 (inSI); j = (2π) ,P =
k is an integer E2
(2π )(inGHS)
12.1.14
12.1.22 P = c0 E02
12.1.15 a. See Fig. At time t at point A, the electric field
12.1.23 P = 2 mP a, P = 0.5 mP a
strength radiation Erad = E1 +E2 , where E1 and
E2 are the field strengths in the wave emitted by 12.1.24 r ≈ 1µm
the upper and bottom plates:
1 1
12.1.25 See Fig. a) E ′ = −E, B ′ = B. b) E ′ = E
E1 = 2c Evt− xc = 2c Ea(t − xc ), E2 = √
− 2c1
Evt− (x+d) = − 2c 1
Ea(t − x+d ). 12.1.26 E = P ε0 cos2 α
c
c

So, Erad = E1 + E2 = adE 12.1.27 The force acting on an electron moving along a
(2c2 ) .
metal surface is F = e(E − vc B) = 0. Therefore
µ0 ci0 i0
b. Erad = = (2cε0 ) (inSI); Erad = E v
2 B = c.
2πi0
c (inGHS). c+v 1 2 c+v
12.1.28 P = 2ε0 E02 c−v (inSI); P = 8π E0 c−v (inGHS).
c. In the electric field of the wave
c∆
E0 sin ωt(ω = 2πλ) the speed of the electrons 12.1.29 v= (2ν0 +∆)
eE0
v = m eω
cosωt.The amplitude of the electric
field strength in the wave emitted by these 12.1.30 v = c k−1
k+1 .
eE0 ne e
electrons, Erad = m e ω 2cε0
. Reflection coefficient
12.1.31 a. The charges induced on the flat boundary cre-
Erad 2 ne e 2 x 2
k = ( E0 ) = [ (4πme νε0 c) ] . ate an electric field perpendicular to the flat
You can also find the reflection coefficient by de- boundary. Therefore, only the perpendicular
termining by how much the wave is attenuated component of electric field strength of the wave
after passing through the film. In this case sec- decreases by a factor of ε
ondary emission of electrons caused by their in- b. Induced surface currents create a magnetic
teraction with the wave already emitted by the field whose induction is parallel to the surface.

66
 Therefore, only the parallel component of the 13 GEOMETRIC OPTICS.
wave’s magnetic field induction increases by a
factor µ.
PHOTOMETRY. QUANTUM
NATURE OF LIGHT
12.1.32 On different sides of the interface the electric
field strength and the magnetic field induction
are the√same: E − E√0 = En , B + B√0 = Bn , and
ε ε 13.1 Straight-line propagation and re-
B = E c 1 , B0 = E0 c 1 , Bn = En cε (see Prob-
flection of light
lem 12.1.7).
√
From these equations it follows that
√
E0 ( ε2 − ε1 ) √ √
E = ( ε2 + ε1 ) . At ε1 < ε2 the signs of E0 13.1.1 See Fig.
√ √
√ √
and E are the same, and for ε1 > ε2 are oppo-
site. This means that in the first case the phase 13.1.2 See Fig
of the reflected wave does not change, and in the
second case it changes by π. 13.1.3 See Fig
12.1.33
13.1.4 An image of the Sun appears on the wall. In the
7E02 r03 case where the size of the hole will be is larger
12.1.34 See Fig. In the GHS W1 = 3 , W2 = 2E02 r03 .
than the image of the Sun on the wall.

13.1.5 The mirror does not ”flip” the image. But an

12.2 Propagation of electromagnetic opaque object appears to us upside down from
waves right to left, because usually we only see the side
reflected by the mirror if the object is rotated
12.2.1 180◦

12.2.2 The wavelength and speed decrease by a factor 13.1.6 H = h

2
of n, the frequency does not change.
13.1.7 Doesn’t change
12.2.3

12.2.4 sin αk = kλ
k is an integer. 13.1.8 The double reflection results in an inverted im-
b ,where
age. From anywhere in the room
12.2.5 In k 2 times
13.1.9 Note: Look in the kaleidoscope.
12.2.6 ∆α = 13, 5′
2r 2 2r 2 13.1.10 α = 120◦
12.2.7 l = λ , lk = [λ(k+1)k] .

13.1.11 The course of the rays is shown in the figure.

12.2.8 The intensity of radiation at other points will in-
crease.
13.1.12 x = h2 .
12.2.9 Four times
R
13.1.13 f = 2.
12.2.10 See Fig.
13.1.14
12.2.11 Increased by a factor of 100 (a) and 324 (b).

12.2.12 c = λi , a = A∆Si 13.1.15 f = 36 cm

(rλ) (multiplying by i means the
π
phase shift of the secondary wave by 2 ).
13.1.16 l = 20 cm.
12.2.13 a. R ≈ 1 km. b. R ≈ 1.5 m.
13.1.17 f = 48 cm.
12.2.14 l ≈ 1 m, 0.5 km, 150 km
13.1.18 See Fig
12.2.15 a. The blue part of the filament spectrum is scat-
tered on the matte surface stronger. 13.1.19See Fig
c. Because of fluctuations in atmospheric air
density, the blue part of the spectrum is scat- 13.1.20 A paraboloid of rotation if its axis is parallel to
tered stronger. the rays

67
 13.2 Refraction of light. Lens formula 13.3 Optical systems
13.2.1 α = 48◦ 13.3.1 See Figure: a) k = 12 ; b) k = 32 ; c) k = 14 ; d) k = 3
4

13.2.2 a. h = 4m. b. h = 4 km. 13.3.2 See Fig.

13.2.3 Decrease in L+l

times 13.3.3 f = 20 cm
L+ nl
13.3.4 f = 2f.
13.2.4 n = 1, 13.
13.3.5 v = 2ωf
13.2.5 a. αa = 24, 6◦ , αc = 49◦ , αa , c = 33, 7◦
f2
13.3.6 k = 2
b. Because of the total internal reflection of the (a−f )2 − l4
rays from the bubbles. 3
13.3.7 f = 7 m
13.2.6 No
13.3.8 t = 5 ms
ln
13.2.7 R = (n−1) . 13.3.9 df
= vk db
dt 1+k , dt = vk.
r1 −r2
13.2.8 At α > arc cos( 23 ) the light already at the first 13.3.10 To the lens at distance l = D f
2 +r2
reflection will partially leave the cone. At α <
arc cos( 23 ) the light will first be completely re- 13.3.11 2.3 m < l1 < 3.2 m; 1.6 m < l2 < 8 m.
flected from the side surface. After each reflec-
tion the angle between the ray and the normal to 13.3.12 D1 = −5 Dpts, D2 = 2 Dpts
the surface of the cone will diminish by 2α, and 13.3.13 Severely short-sighted.
after several reflections the light will leave the
cone through its surface again. 13.3.14 The aperture limits the working area of the lens
and allows viewing objects less than 25 cm away
R
13.2.9 r = from the eye. The magnification will be k = 25
2 x ,
where x distance.
13.2.10 r′ = r
n
13.3.15 f = 2.5 cm
n n n
13.2.11 sin α = kN −1
if kN −1
< 1; always passes if kN −1
>
1 13.3.16 tgα′ = (1 − αf )tgα

n0
13.2.12 H = 12 ( α−R ). 13.3.17 k = 2.
f (a−2f ) f
13.3.18 a. l1 = (a−f ) , l2 = a − f. b. f ′ =
13.2.13 2

f1 f2
13.2.14 c. 1
= (n − 1)( R11 + 1 13.3.19 f ′ = 1
f1 +f2 ; f ′ = 1
+ 1
R2 )
f1 f2
F
f
13.2.15 a. F = 0.25 m, D = 1
= 4 dpt. b. R = 0.6 m 13.3.20 f ′ ≈ 2 + 3l
4 from the first lens
F
13.3.21 At a distance greater than 10 cm from the near-
13.2.16 R = 0.26 m.
est lens
13.2.17 a) x1 = 1
nf − n−1
nr ; b) 1
x = 1
f − n−1
r . 13.3.22 f > 0.6 m
1
13.2.18 f = − (n−1) R 2
13.3.23 x1 = (d−R)f df
d−R−f , x2 = d−f when d > R + f ; x = d−F
fd
δ
at f < d < R + f ; at d < F there is no solution.
13.2.19 ∆ = α(n1 − n2 )f. (R− 2l )
13.3.24 n = (R−l)
13.2.20 From the part of the lateral surface of the half-
n(n0 −1)
cylinder bounded by the angle α = 2arcsin( n1 ) 13.3.25 f1 = n
2 f ; f2 = 2(n0 −n) f

13.2.21 n = 43 . 13.3.26 h2
h1 = (l − f )f
3 a
13.2.22 n = 2
13.3.27 Will increase by (a−f ) times
x 25l
13.2.23 y = n 13.3.28 At f1 f2 ; will decrease by a factor of k.

68
 13.4 Photometry 13.5 The quantum nature of light
13.4.1 h = 1 m 13.5.1 E1 ≈ 10−6 W
m2 , E2 ≈ 4 · 10−6 W
m2 , E3 ≈ 4 · 10−5 W
m2

13.4.2 E1 = 130 lx, E2 = 71 lx, E2 = 25 lx 13.5.2 W = hν − eV0

13.4.3 E = 41 lux. 13.5.3 The velocities of the electron and positron must
2 2 be equal in modulo and oppositely directions.
I[h +(h+2x) ]
13.4.4 E = h2 (h+2x)2 ν = 1.24 · 1020 Hz
sin(θ1 +θ2 )
13.4.5 See Fig. 13.5.4 a. v = c εε11 −ε
+ε2 . b.v = c sinθ1 +sin θ2
2

13.4.6 At 80, 000 times. 13.5.5 a. m = (1 − cos θ) chν

2
hν ′
2 δν . b. ∆ν = (1 − cos θ) m c2
e

I(1−k)
13.4.7 I ′ = (1+k) . 13.5.6 a) When a photon is emitted in the direction of
the atom’s motion
13.4.8 x ∼ 5 light years. mv 2 m(v−∆v)2 hv
2 = 2 + hv + ε, mv = m(v − ∆v) + c
′
N
13.4.9 N ∼ ( Rr )2
where R is the radius of Venus, and r When a photon is emitted in the direction oppo-
is the distance from Earth to Venus. site to that of the atom,
R2 mv 2 m(v+∆′ v)2 ′
13.4.10 x ∼ r , where r is the characteristic size of the 2 = 2 + hν + ε, mv = m(v + ∆′ v) − hνc
car
In (1) and (2) m is the mass of the atom, ∆v and
∆′ v are the change in velocity, ε is the change
13.4.11 The illumination of the image will decrease: the
in the internal energy of the atom, ν ′ is the
upper part of the arrow-object - slightly more
unknown photon frequency. For ∆v, ∆′ v ≪ v
than twice as much, the lower part slightly less 1− v
than twice as much it follows from (1) and (2) that ν ′ = ν 1+ vc . b)
c
ν ′ = ν(1 − vc ).
13.4.12 It will increase twice.
13.5.7 The attraction of photons to the star.
Elef t R 2
13.4.13 Eright = ( 2l )
νγM
13.5.8 ∆ν = (Rc 2 ) , γ is the gravitational constant.
2 2 9
a f
13.4.14 E = E0 [xf −(a−x)(x−f a ∆νC ≈ 10 Hz. Thermal atoms on the surface
)]2 . If x = 2
of the Sun affects the frequency of photons emit-
L0 D 2 ted by it to a greater than the gravitational field.
13.4.15 L = D02
R2 c2
13.5.9 f ∼ (6γM ) ∼ 109 pc
BπD 2
13.4.16 No. Emax = R2 .

13.4.17 D = 1.85 m

13.4.18 N ≈ 4x T 42
3 14 SPECIAL THEORY OF REL-
d2 ( TC ) ≈ 770, where TC ≈ 6 · 10 K is the
surface temperature of the Sun ATIVITY
13.4.19 It won’t change.
14.1 Constancy of the speed of light.
13.4.20 The luminous flux from the star to the eye in-
creases dramatically. Addition of velocities

13.4.21 d2 = 5d1 14.1.1 l = 15 km.

6
m
13.4.22 t1 = t2 ( kk12 +1 2 14.1.2 v = 6 · 107 s .
+1 ) .

14.1.3 tgα = vc .
13.4.23 n ≈ (10πr2 L)−1
−4
g 14.1.4 tg 12 ∆ = sinα. v
( vc +cos α) ≃ c sin α = 10 sin α, where
13.4.24 ρ = 0.2 m3 km
v = 30 h is the velocity of the Earth relative to
13.4.25 Eight times the Sun.

69
14.1.5 For station observers, the travel time of the light probe travel time, and the probe velocity is equal
signal, which three times traveled distance l be- to the distance between the stations at the mo-
tween stations is 3l c , and the probe travel time ment of the probe launch, divided by this time:
l L′ c+u
is v , v being the speed of the probe. The travel v1 ≃ 3c−u L′ = c 3c−u .
c+u · c
times of the probe and the signal coincide: 3l c =
l c Exactly the same velocities will be recorded by
v . Therefore, v = 3 . The probe’s apparatus
the probe hardware: the first station will move
records a light signal that moves away from the c−u
away from the probe with velocity c 3c+u and the
probe at speed c. Toward of the probe, a second c+u
station moves towards it with speed v. There- second station is approaching with speed c 3c−u .
fore, the time of movement of the light signal
from the first station to the second one measured 14.1.7 The velocities of both signals as observed from
by the probe equipment is equal to (c+u) l′
, l′ is the the ship are the same. Therefore, for the space-
craft observer at the time of reflection the sta-
distance between the stations measured by the
tions were at the same distance, and the signal
probe equipment. The time of movement of the
from them was reflected simultaneously, as in
light signal from of the second station to the first
l ′ this case simultaneously sent signals and will
one is equal to (c−u) , and the total time of move-
return after the reflection at the same time. And
l′ l′
ment of the light signal is equal to (c+u) + (c−u) + what is observed from the stations? The signals
l′ relative to the ship are no longer equal to the
(c+u) , and it is equal to the time of movement of
the second station towards the probe u . From l speed of light, but equal to either c + v, or c − v.
l ′
l ′
l ′ ′ Therefore, the signal cannot be reflected simul-
the equation (c+u) + (c−u) + (c+u) = lu we find
taneously from the stations at the moment when
that u = 3c . Thus, the observers of the station the ship was at the same distance from them. In
and the instrumentation of the probe will record this case, the signal would travel faster to the
the same speed of approach of the probe with the ship from the station to which the ship is mov-
second station, equal to 3c . ing. Moreover, signals cannot be reflected at all
at the same time. Indeed, for the simultane-
14.1.6 For an observer at the first station, the travel ously reflected signals to also arrive at the ship
time of the light signal to the second station will simultaneously, the ship must be at a distance
L
be (c+u) , L is the distance between the stations (c+v)
(c−v) greater from the station it is approach-
at the time of emission of the signal and the ing than the distance to the station it is moving
probe. The signal will return to the first station away from. But then it would have to send sig-
for the same time. Therefore, at the moment of nals to these stations at different times, since
signal reflection from the first station the second only then would they arrive at these stations at
l
station will move to the distance 2 c+u · u (F ig.a) the same time. Therefore, the stations necessar-
and the distance between stations will be equal ily observe the arrival of the signals at different
to l = L c−uc+u . Therefore, the third time the signal times, and at the moment of reflection the ship
l c−u
will be in transit time c+u = L (c+u) 2 , and the is necessarily is observed at different distances
3c+u
total signal travel time will be equal to L (c+u) 2. from the stations. To determine the difference in
Exactly the same time is in the way of the probe, the timing of the reflections of the signals from
the time of movement of which is determined the stations, we need to find the distance of the
through the desired velocity of the probe v1 by ship from stations x and l − x at the time of the
the formula v1L+u . Equating these times, we ob- signals from the ship. These distances are found
tain the equation L (c+u) 3c+u L from the condition of equality of signal travel
2 = v +u , from which we
c−u
1
times:
determine v1 = c 3c+u .
x x v l−x x v
For the observer of the second station, the sig- c + c−v (1 + c ) = c + c+v (1 − c )

nal travel time from the first station to the sec- From this equation it follows that x = 21 (1 −
L′ v 1 v
ond will be c . During this time the first station c )l, l −x = 2 (1+ c )l. Therefore, the signal travel
L′ times from the ship to the stations are defined by
will move by distance c u (F ig.b), and therefore
the signal will return to the first station after the formulas
′u
L′ − L ′
time c+uc = Lc c−u c+u . After the reflection from τ1 = x
c = 12 (1 − vc ) cl , τ2 = l−x
c = 12 (1 + vc ) cl
the first station the signal will return to the sec-
and the difference in signal reflection times by
ond station after the same time. Thus, the to-
the formula
tal time of motion of the signal will be equal
′ ′
L′ 3c−u
to Lc + 2 Lc c−u
c+u = c c+u and is equal to the τ1 − τ2 = v
c2 l.

70
 The distance to the stations at the moments of depending on whether the pulse is flying away
reflections is easily found through τ1 , τ2 , x and from the lab or towards it, is less or more than
2
l − x : x1 = x2 = 12 (1 − vc2 )l. the speed of light by the value u.
(k−1)(1−β 2 ) The speed of the laboratory u is found from the
14.1.8 v1 = (1 − k1 )c, v2 = (k−1)(1+β)+1 c. equation
2
14.1.9 F ig.a shows schematically two consecutive re- v(1− u ) vu(v−u)
v′ − v = c2
1− uv −v = c2 −uv = αv,
flections of a radar pulse from an object. If τ1 c 2

and τ2 are the return times of the pulse, then where α = 10−4 . At this small α the velocity u ≃
(τ1 +τ2 ) αc2
time interval between the first and the km
2 v = 90 s . The velocity of the object relative to
second reflection from the object, and c(τ12−τ2 ) the Earth is equal to the difference between the
is the path traveled by the object during this velocity of the object approaching the laboratory
time. So, the velocity of the object is determined and the velocity of the laboratory, observed from
through the time of momentum return by the the Earth:
formula v0 = v ′ = u = v · c2 −u2
−u= v−u
≃ 100, 000 km
c(τ1 −τ2 ) c2 −uv 1− vu
c2
s
v= 2
= c k−1 −90 km
99, 910 km
= s .
c(τ1 +τ2 ) k+1
2 s
where k is the ratio of return times ττ12 . And what 14.1.10
speed of the object will be obtained if we listen to
the general? F ig.b shows the speed of the radar 14.1.11 v = 2, 9 · 108 km s .
pulse and the flight times of the pulse from re-
(v+ c )
flection to reflection. In this case, the velocity 14.1.12 u = (1+ nv ) .
nc
of the object approaching the station is deter-
mined through the values shown in F ig.b by the 14.1.13 T = 2nlv2 .
c(1− c2 )
formula
+ −
(c−u)τ1 +(c−u)τ2
v′ =
q
Lτ c2 l3 (l+2L)
− +
2(τ1 +τ2 ) 14.1.14 v = l(l+2L) ( 1+ (Lτ c)2 − 1); at τl , Lτ ≪ c we get
+ − l 2
In this formula we have to τ1,2 and τ1,2 determine v = (2Lτ ).
through the observed values τ1 and τ2 . To do √
this it is necessary to use the following obvious (c2 −vu− (c2 −v 2 )(c2 −u2 ))
14.1.15 v0 = (v−u) .
relations
+ − τ+ (c−u) 2
τ1,2 + τ1,2 = τ1,2 , τ1,2
− =
(1+2 u u
v + c2 )
1,2
(c+u) 14.1.16 N = 2 .
(1+ vu
c2
+u
c2
)
± (1∓ u
c )τ1,2
from which it follows that τ1,2 = 2 , and
the velocity 14.1.17 The figure shows the trajectories of the light sig-
2 2 nal as observed from Earth and from the rocket.
′ (1− u )(k−1)c (1− u )v
c2 c2
v = [k+1− u (k−1)] = (1− vu ) . The minimum distance between the rocket and
c c2
the Earth is the same for both observations and
This velocity v ′ is different from velocity v and is equal to l. Therefore, the return time of the
is determined, as the general assumed, not only signal is equal to 2lc for observations from the
by the ratio of times k, but also by the velocity
Earth, and the return time is equal to 2l c for ob-
of the laboratory u relative to the Earth. But
′ servations from the rocket. observations from
does the The velocity v with the approaching
the rocket, the return time is ( 2l 1 √2l
c )· cosα = c 1−β 2 ,
velocity observed from Earth? After all, τ1 and
τ2 , the times of momentum return in the labo- where β = vc = sin α. Thus, the time interval be-
ratory system, do not coincide with the times of tween the departure and arrival of the light sig-
return τ1′ and τ2′ observed from the Earth, only nal on the Earth increases when observing from
their ratios are the same: τ1 : τ2 = τ1′ : τ2′ . a rocket by √ 1 2 times.
1−β
But the equality of these ratios is already suffi-
cient for v ′ coincides with the approaching veloc- 14.1.18 Suppose the following happens. Several ob-
ity, observed from the Earth. This result means servers move near the Earth with different ve-
that the difference in the approaching velocities locities. A radar pulse reflected from one ob-
recorded by the laboratory and Earth observers server has returned to the Earth. While this
is due to the fact that these groups record dif- pulse traveled, the hands of the clock at the
ferent speeds of the momentum of light relative starting place made three complete revolutions,
to the lab. The first group observes this veloc- during the second trip of the pulse the hands
ity equal to the speed of light, while the latter, made two more revolutions. Both the observer

71
 from whom the impulse was reflected and all the observers on the rocket. But in the same
other observers will record the events: three way. the observers at the station could also ex-
turns of the hands of the earth clock during the plain it, thinking that they were fine and that
first trip of the impulse and two turns of the the distortions are observed by the rocket guys.
hands during the second trip. Each revolution q
2 2
for any observer lasts the same amount of time. 14.1.21 In 1 − uc2 + uv2 times
Therefore, for all observers, the ratio of the du-
ration of the first and second journeys of the 14.1.22 The speeds of the hares and Mazai are equal to
pulse is equal to the ratio of the number of turns the previous speed of the fourth hare.
of the hands of the clock 3 : 2. The above exam-
ple illustrates the independence of the ratio of 14.1.23 See Fig. λ+ = λ2 , λ− = 2λ, λ⊥ = 5λ
4
the ratio of times characterizing the events from
the speed of the observers. 14.1.24 N = (1+β)
2

14.1.19
q
14.1.25 δ ≃ ∆ c
14.1.20 The period of oscillations of light walkers irre-
2
spective of their orientation according to obser- 14.1.26 sin α1 = sinα+2β+β sinα
1+2β sin α+β 2
1
vations from the station will increase by √
1−β 2
14.1.27 In a frame of reference that moves with velocity
times, and therefore the walkers will ”walk”
1 u sin α in the direction opposite to the ship mo-
in √ times slower. To determine the dis-
1−β 2 tion, the missile velocity vp is perpendicular to
tance between the mirrors l′ which is observed the ship motion direction vk ; vp and vk are de-
from the station at the longitudinal walkers, we fined by the formulas
define the period of oscillations of the walkers (v−u cos α).
vp = u sin α 1 − ( uc )2 cos α, vk = (1−
p
through l′ : vu cos α
c2
)
l′ l′ 2l′
τ1 = c(1+β) + c(1−β) = c(1−β 2 ) In the reference frame in which the ship velocity
1 is zero, the components of the missile velocity v⊥
This period of √ times the period of the
1−β 2 and v∥ , perpendicular and parallel to the former
walker oscillations 2l
c measured in the rocket. ship velocity vk , are defined by the formulas
So, √ 2 2
u +v −2vu cos α−( vu 2 2
c ) sin α.
q
2
v1 = v⊥ + v∥ = 2 .
2l′ (1− vu cos α )
τ1 = c(1−β 2 ) = √2l c2
c 1−β 2
α 1
Itp follows from the last equation that l′ = 14.1.28 tgν = γtg( 2 ), γ = √1−β 2 .
l 1 − β 2 . This means that the walkers and the
rocket, and the people in it, will ”flatten” by
√ 1 2 times in the direction of velocity βc ac-
1−β
14.2 Time dilation, shrinking bodies
cording to observations from the Earth. Simi-
larly, everything will ”flatten” at the station ac-
in moving systems. systems.
cording to observations from the rocket. The Lorentz transformation .
relative motion of the station introduces many
changes in the observed motion picture. The for- 14.2.1 2.5 times
mer simultaneity of events is broken, and the
14.2.2 v > √ c τ c 2
clock on the station runs slower by √ 1 2 times, 1+( l )
1−β
1
and everything shrinks by a factor of √ in 14.2.3 ∆v = 6 · 104 km
1−β 2 s
the direction of travel. But the ”flattened” peo-
ple at the station with their ”flattened” instru- 14.2.4 ∆ν = 107 Hz
ments, using ”slowed down” time and incorrectly
14.2.5 At a point moving at the speed of the wall,
determining simultaneity of events, they get,
the frequencies of the electromagnetic oscilla-
measuring the relative speed of light flying away
tions of the incident and reflected waves coin-
from them, not the speed c − βc, but the speed
cide. Therefore, the frequency of the incident
c. The light, which is flying towards them, ap-
wave ν is related to the frequency of the reflected
proaches to them not with speed c + βc, but, ac-
wave ν. the frequency of the reflected wave ν ′ by
cording to their distorted measurements, at c.
the equality
So that would explain explain the difference in
ν ν ′ ν(1−β)
measurements of the relative speed of light by (1+β) = (1−β) , ν = (1+β) .

72
 14.2.6 At points traveling at wall velocity, the fre- will lead to an increase in the surface charge
quency of electromagnetic oscillation of the wave density of each plate by a factor of γ.Therefore,
in the dielectric and outside the dielectric is the the electrical voltage will increase by a factor of
same. Therefore, the frequency of the wave out- γ:
side the dielectric ν is related to the frequency of E ′ = γE, B = βE ′ = γβE
the wave inside the dielectric ν ′ by the following
equality 14.3.2 E⊥ = γ · E cos α, E∥ = E sin α, B = γβE cos α =
ν′ (n−1)β
p
ν ′
/ (1 + β) = (1+nβ) , ν − ν = (1+nβ) . βE⊥ , γ = 1 1 − β 2 .
l(1− vu ) 2γρ 2γβρ 1
14.2.7 τ = q c2 14.3.3 Er = r , Br = r , where γ = √ ,r is the
u2 1−β 2
v 1− c2
distance to the thread.
4
14.2.8 In 5 · 10 years. −ρ 1
14.3.4 a. ρe = γ , ρi = γρ, γ = √
1−β 2
14.2.9
b. Will increase by a factor of γ
14.2.10 A pencil case moves towards the pencil with ve-
locity βc. The length of the pencil case is γl (γ = c. Different changes in the charge density of
p electrons and ions during the movement of the
1 1 − β 2 ) is γ 2 times less than the length of the conductor leads to the appearance of an un-
pencil γl. At the moment when the bottom of the compensated bulk charge density ρ′ = γρ−ρ =
γ
pencil case reaches the front end of the pencil,
β 2 γρ.The electric field of this charge is E =
the bottom will stop. However, the open end of β 2 γρs
the pencil case will move with velocity cβ until r , and the magnetic induction of a moving
the wave of ”stopping” sections of the pencil case, conductor is B = βγρsr , where s is the cross sec-
coming from its bottom with velocity βc , reaches tion of the conductor, and r is the distance to its
the open end. At this point, the length of the axis. Therefore, E = βB.
pencil case is equal to the length of the pencil. 1
14.3.5 a. ρi = γ1 ρ, where γ1 = √ . To determine
and the pencil case slams shut. 1−β12
the electron density, we will go into a state of
14.2.11 motion with a velocity of β1 c through an inter-
14.2.12 tgα = √ββ1 2 . mediate state of motion with a velocity of βc,
1−β1 in which the electrons are stationary and their
density is equal to ρ′e = −ρ
p
14.2.13 γ , γ = 1 1 − β 2 . Then,
cν02 (ν12 −ν22 )
informing the intermediate state of the velocity
14.2.14 ∆v = (ν12 −ν02 )(ν22 −ν02 )
c(β1 −β)
β 2 c = (1−β , we move to the desired state in
1 β)

14.2.15 which the electron density is determined by the

ρ′
formula ρe = √ e 2 = −γ1 (1 − ββ1 )ρ.
(cosα+β) ′ (1+β cos α) 1−β2
14.2.16 cos θ = (1+β cos α) , ν = √ .
1−β 2
b. Will increase by a factor of γ1 .
L τ1 (1+vu)
14.2.17 a) τ = (v+u) , τ2 = √ c. E1 = β1 B1 .
1−( u
c)
2

vaτ
τ1 (1+ 2c21 ⃗ = −[β⃗ × B].
⃗
q
)
b) τ1 = av ( 1 + 2al
− 1), τ2 = 14.3.6 a. E
v2
q
2
1− vc2
b. In the moving state, the electric field E is
14.2.18 The center of oscillation moves with velocity βc. defined by the formula E = −[β⃗ × B], ⃗ where
The coordinates of the body relative to the center ⃗ ′
B is the magnetic field induction in the moving
are related to time t′ by the following relations: ⃗ ′ is close to B
state. At small β B ⃗ . Therefore,
ωt′ βz ′ ωt′ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ′
a) z ′ = A ′
γ sin γ (1 + ωc ); b) y = A sin γ , γ =
E ≃ −[β × B ].
p
1 1 − β2. c. Both explanations are valid. This means that
the absolute motion of the magnet cannot be de-
termined.
14.3 Transformation of electric and 14.3.7 a. As a test body we choose a straight conduc-
magnetic fields tor, which is stationary in the initial state and
in which conduction electrons move with veloc-
14.3.1 The distance between the charges in the plates ity βc. The density of electrons per unit length
will decrease by a factor of γ = √ 1 2 , which of the conductor is −ρ, and the density of ions of
1−β

73
 the crystal lattice of the conductor is +ρ. There- electric field will still be directed along the ra-
fore, the conductor is not charged and the elec- dius vector. However, the strength of the new
tric field in the initial state does not act on it. field will depend not only on the the distance to
In the −βc moving state, the conduction elec- the charge r, but also on the angle α between
trons are stationary and the ions are moving at the direction of velocity βc and the radius vec-
a velocity of −βc. The density of electrons in tor r. For example, if we compare this strength
the conductor will decrease by a factor of γ, and with the strength of a stationary charge, it will
the density of ions will increase by a factor of γ. will increase in the transverse direction by a fac-
Therefore, the conductor will be charged after tor of γ 2 times, and in the longitudinal direction
the transformation with density γρ − γρ = β 2 γρ, it will decrease by γ 3 times. For the other di-
and the force β 2 γρE will act on the unit length rections, the intensity will be determined by the
of the conductor in the transverse direction from formula
the side of the electric field E. But the conductor ⃗ = q3 · 1−β 2
E r 3 ·⃗ r.
(1−β 2 sin2 α) 2
is moving without acceleration. This means that
the force on the electric field side E is compen- There was no magnetic field in the initial state.
sated by the force acting on the magnetic field Therefore, the magnetic field induction is deter-
side: IB 2 ⃗ = [β⃗ × E].
mined by the formula B ⃗
c + β γρE = 0, I = −γρβc is the current
in the conductor after conversion, B is the mag-
14.3.13 When the system moves at a velocity of −βc,
netic field perpendicular to both the conductor
the dielectric plate will stop and the capacitor
and the electric field strength. It follows from
shells will move at a velocity of −βc. The den-
the last formula that the magnetic field B ap-
sities of surface charges on the linings will in-
pears in the transformed system, related to the
⃗ = [β⃗ × E].
⃗ crease by γ = √ 1 2 times and will be equal to
electric field by the relation B 1−β
±γσ, where ±σ - densities of the surface charge
b. In the transformed system (see problem a), densities of the fixed capacitor shells. In ad-
the magnetic field is defined by the formula B ⃗ =
⃗ ⃗ ′ ⃗ ′ dition, there will be a current with linear den-
[β× E ], where E is the electric field in the trans- sity ±γσβc. These surface charges and currents
formed system. At low drift velocities, E ⃗ ′ is close
will create inside the stationary dielectric elec-
⃗ Therefore, B
to E. ⃗ ≃ [β⃗ × E].
⃗
tric voltage E ′ = 4πγσ
ε and magnetic induction
B ′ = +4πγβσ. The motion of the new sys-
14.3.8
tem with velocity βc returns it to its original
1 state. The electric and magnetic fields inside
14.3.9 a) Increase by √ times; b) Decrease in
1−β 2 the dielectric are determined by the field conver-
√ 1
times. sion formulas, given in the condition of problem
1−β 2
14.3.8. a:
14.3.10 Increase by √ 1
times E = 4πσγ 2 ( 1ε − β 2 ), B = 4πσγ 2 β(1 − 1ε ).
1−β 2
14.3.14 The motion of the state with velocity −βc leads
14.3.11 Emax = √Q , σmax = Q
√ , σmin = to a state in which the stationary dielectric is
(R2 1−β 2 ) (4πR2 1−β 2 )
Q in a magnetic field of induction γB, γ = √ 1 2
(4πR2 ) 1−β
and in an electric field of strength γβB. The
14.3.12 The figure shows a sphere around a stationary magnetic field has no effect on the dielectric,
charge and an ellipsoid arising from this sphere but the electric field, which is perpendicular to
when it is drifting together with the charge with the plate, is weakened by a factor of ε : E ′ =
γβB
velocity βc. The minor axis of the ellipsoid is ε . The motion of the new state with veloc-
1
in γ = √ times smaller than the sphere. ity βc returns the old state, whose electric field
1−β 2
is found by the electric field transformation for-
On the surface of this ellipsoid there is an elec-
mula given in the condition of Problem 14.3.8.
tric field, which used to be on the surface of the
a:E = γ 2 β(1 − 1ε )B. The potential induced by
sphere. The transverse component of this field
this field is U = Eh = γ 2 βhB(1 − 1ε ).
E⊥ increases by γ times, while the longitudi-
nal component E∥ does not change. Therefore,
q
(1+β)
14.3.15 will increase in (1−β) times.
the tangent of the angle between the new field
strength and the drift direction will increase by β
(1+ n )
a factor of γ. The tangent angle between the new 14.3.16 Increase in √(1−β 2 ) times
field strength and the drift direction times the
(1+β)
tangent of the angle of the radius vector. So the 14.3.17 Will increase by a factor of (1−β) .

74
 (1+β sin α)
14.3.18 Will increase by a factor of (1−β sin α) .
2γme cβ, so τ = 2γm e cβ
(eE) , where E is the elec-
tric voltage. In the second case, during the
(1+ββ1 )
14.3.19 Will increase in √ 2
times. time of motion T , the momentum of the elec-
(1−β1 )
tron has changed by the value γ1(eE)me cβ
, where
1 βγj 2
14.3.20 Increase in √ times; ρ = c .
β1 c = 2βc(1 + β ) - is the velocity of the elec-
1−β 2
tron after the field has acted on it. Therefore,
14.3.21 No T = γτ .
x′ β l′ βγ 2
14.4.2 In a frame of reference in which the field is sta-
14.3.22 E = 4πγ[σ − j(t′ − c )] = 4π[γσ − jt′ + c ].
tionary,
14.3.23 The longitudinal field does not change during 2m e v1
q
2

motion. Only the place and time of its of its ap- τ1 = r

2
= τ 1 − uc2 ,
v1
eE 1− c2
pearance. Electric field in a stationary capacitor
E = 4π(σ − jt). The electric field in a capacitor (v+u)
and the velocity of the electron v1 = (1+ vu .
c2
)
moving with velocity βc,
′ ′ Therefore
E0 = 4π[σ − j(t′ − xcβ )] = 4π(σ − γj t′ + l βγ
c ), 2me (v+u)
E= 2
q
2
.
where l is the distance from the front plate, γ = [eτ (1− u c2
) 1− vc2 ]
√ 1 2. me v
1−β 14.4.3 E = q
v2
.
(eτ 1− c2 )
14.3.24 P = vM. q
u2
14.4.4 a) Will increase by a factor of 1 1 − c2 .
14.3.25 P = vM. q
2 2
14.3.26 F± = 2µev e2 v ′ = v 2 + u2 − v cu2 .
3 , R±
R±
= (2γme v 2 )
b) Will increase by a factor of q 1 [1 + uv (1 −
2
14.3.27 1− u
c2
q
2

14.3.28 No. In a moving capacitor, the components of the 1 − uc2 ).

force F acting on the first plate along and across v′ = (v+u)
(1+ vu )
the velocity are equal to c2

F∥ = QE cos α, F⊥ = QE sin α(1 − β 2 ), 14.4.5 τ = me v q 1

e E( 2
− q 1
2
)
1− 4v
c2
1− vc2
and the components of acceleration are
√ me c2
a∥ = k cos α, a⊥ = k sin α, k = QE 1−β
, 14.4.6 x = eE .
M
where Q, M, E are respectively the charge, rest 14.4.7 p′ = p. In √ 1 2 times
1−β
mass and electric field inside the capacitor. This
acceleration is perpendicular to the plate, equal 14.4.8 v = q c
2
.
in magnitude to the acceleration of the second 1+( mee2cz R )2

plate and is opposite to the acceleration of the q

1 cos2 α
second plate. Therefore, the capacitor will not 14.4.9 In (1−β 2 ) times. In sin2 α + (1−β 2 )2 times
rotate.
14.4.10 v = √1+(cmcω )2
2qE

14.4.11 a) In a system moving with velocity βc,

p distances
14.4 The motion of relativistic par-
are reduced by √ 1 2 times. l′ = l 1 − β 2 . b)
ticles in electric and magnetic 1−β

fields magnetic and electric In the first case

fields c2 ∆m = ( √me − me )c2 = eEl, l = me √ 1
eE ( 1−β 2 −
1−β 2
1).
14.4.1 a) In a system moving with velocity βc, the time
In the second case, the initially stationary elec-
interval between the two events - crossing of the
tron, gaining velocity βc, passes the distance
field boundary by the electron - will be in γ =
√ 1 2 longer: T = γτ . me c 2 √ 1
l1 = eE ( 1−β 2 − 1),
1−β

b) In the first case, during the time τ the mo- moving in the direction of the field. During this
mentum of the electron has changed by the value time the field moves a distance ∆l = cβτ , where

75
 m
√e cβ
p
τ= is the time for the electron to gain 14.4.30 ev = (me c2 )2 + (hH)2 − me c2
(eE 1−β 2 )
the velocity βc. Therefore 14.4.31 The electron velocity βc at the moment the field
p p
l′ = l1 + ∆l = m
eE (1 −
e
1 − β2) = l 1 − β2. is turned on is perpendicular to E and is the
sum of the rotational velocity β1 c and the drift
1+ uv
2
q
2
14.4.12 E = qme cv2 ( q c2v2 − 1 − uc2 ) velocity kc.k = B E
(see the solution of Problem
1− c2 1− c2 p
14.4.12). Therefore, β1 = β 2 (1 − k 2 ) + k 2 , and
r (β1 +k)
(2− mlEl
c2
)me l vmax = c (1+β 1 k)
.
14.4.13 τ = e
eE
q
ε 1 ε
14.4.14 l = = 1 km. τ = mπ0 ε(2 + mπ0 c2 ) = 0.34
ms
eE eE 14.5 Law of conservation of mass and
momentum
14.4.15 2N 2 = 1 = 2 · 106 times more than me c2 . In
k = 2N − ( N1 ) ≃ 2000 times more the energy of 14.5.1 m = M
2 .
electrons in collisions.
W τ
me c2 +E 2mp c2 +E 14.5.2 m = c2 = 4, 4 c
14.4.16 tgαe = 2m 2 +E · m c2 +E tgαp at αp ≪ 1, αe ≃
e c p √ √
me c2 +E 2mp c2 +E m m 1−β 2 mc2 (1− 1−β 2 )
2me c2 +E · mp c2 +E αp = 0.075 rad. 14.5.3 m1 = 2 , m0 = 2 ,E = 2 .
q 2
q
v2
14.4.17 v1 = sinv2 α + cos sin4 α + ( me c2 )2 − me c . 14.5.4 m = (k + 1)m , v = c 1 − k12
2α l e p
p
14.4.18 ε = (mp c2 )2 + (eBR)2 − mp c2 = 4, 3 M eV . εe = 14.5.5 ε1 = c2 (mp − me ) = 938 M eV , ε2 = c2 (mπ0 −me ) =
2
80, 5 M eV 67 M eV
sinα
14.4.19 B = el ε(ε − me c2 ) = 0, 04 T l, N ≃ 4% 14.5.6 M1 = M + m, p = mc
1 1
p
14.4.20 Rp = eB ε2 − (mp c2 )2 = 13 km; Re = 3 km. 14.5.7 v = cm
(M −m)
eB
14.4.21 ω = me c(1+ meUc2 ) cṁt
p M
e 14.5.8 v = (M −ṁt) , m0 = ṁt(M − 2ṁt), t < (2m) .
2
m
√e c
14.4.22 B = = 0, 28 T l 14.5.9 M = m1 + m2 , v =
(eR N 2 −1 √
(m1 v1 )2 +(m2 v2 )2 +2m1 m2 v1 v2 cos α
πm 2
√e c . .
14.4.23 T = (m1 +m2 )
(eB 1−β 2
14.5.10 me = 0.51 M eV , mp = 939 M eV , mπ0 = 135
πme c2 (1+ββ1 )
14.4.24 T = √ M eV , mψ = 2820 M eV
eB(1+β12 ) 1−β 2
p mπ0 c2
(ε− )
14.4.25 ε = (me c2 )2 + (eBh)2 − me c2 = 8.5 M eV. 14.5.11 εK = 2
= 152 M eV.
E
m
qe vc
14.4.26 l = 14.5.12 εK < 2me c2 ( mπ 2
4me − 1) .
0
2
eB 1− vc2
p
14.5.13 εK = M c2 − (M c2 )2 − εe (εe + 2me c2 ) − Eν2 .
q
h 2
14.4.27 ε = (me c2 )2 + (eBR)2 [1 + ( 2πR ) ] − me c2 .
E 14.5.14
14.4.28 vdr = c B
14.5.15 v = c · cos α2 .
14.4.29 If a constant homogeneous
√ magnetic field with
induction B = 1 − k 2 , k = BE
, in which the elec- 14.5.16 c2 mπ0 (mπ0 +4mp ) c2 mψ (mψ +4mp )
ε1 = (2mp ) , ε2 = (2mp ε3 ) =
tron rotates, moves with drift velocity kc, we ob- 6mp c2 .
tain a crossed field with magnetic induction B
and electric intensity E, in which the electron 2c2 (m2p −m2e ) m
14.5.17 ε= me ,N = 2( mpe − 1) = 3, 7 · 103
makes drift motion. The maximum and mini-
mum velocities of the electron are defined by the q
m2e
formulas 14.5.18 ε = mp c2 1 + (1 − 2 2
m2p )ctg α
β1 +k β1 −k
vmax = c 1+β , vmin = βc = c 1−β 14.5.19 a. v = m m
1k 1k M c, ∆m = m. b. u > Mc
where β1 c is the velocity of the electron in the q
(mµ+me )2 c2 2
initial state. From the above equations we find 14.5.20 ε max = ε[1 − m2π ][1 + 1 − ( mπ0
E ) ] = 4, 4
2 0
vmax = c [2k+(1+k )β]
(1+k2 +2kβ) GeV ; Emin = 0

76
14.5.21 The range of neutrino energies is from zero to
1 2m2e 2
2 (mµ − mµ )c , the range of kinetic electron en-
(mµ −me )2 c2
ergies from zero to (2mµ ) .
√
ε+ ε2e +(me c2 )2
14.5.22 εmax = ε √
2ε+εe − ε2e −(me c2 )2

m ′
14.5.23 mγ = 1+mme (1−cos α) , me = me + m − mγ .

77