The Energy Macronutrients:

Carbohydrates, Protein,
Fats & Energy Balance

Dovie Brabante- Ponciano, MAN, RN

NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY

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NUTRITION AND DIET THERAPY

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 Primary fuel for our body
CARBOHYDRATES

Image or icon Image or icon Image or icon

widely available and are an economic source of energy

They are easily packed and have a long shelf-life in dry

storage

They are mild flavoured and combine well with other foods. &
foods are easy to prepare.
CARBOHYDRATES
Made through the process of photosynthesis
Image or icon Image or icon Image or icon

Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The

suffix hydrate indicates that water and oxygen occur in the
same proportion as in water.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

GLUCOSE
MONOSACCHARIDE FRUCTOSE
Icon GALACTOSE
SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
SUCROSE
DISACCHARIDES LACTOSE
MALTOSE

COMPLEX POLYSACCHARIDES STARCH, DEXTRINS,

CARBOHYRATES GLYCOGEN, CELLULOSE,
PECTINS
 GLUCOSE (DEXTROSE)

Also known as: BLOOD SUGAR and the principal form

Icon in CHO is used in the body.

It is found in fruits, sweet corn, and corn syrup.

fuels the work of the body's cells.

provide energy for the brain, other nerve cells, and

developing red blood cells.
 FRUCTOSE (LEVULOSE)

Icon the sweetest of simple sugars

It is found in honey, most fruits, and some

vegetables.

It is converted into glucose in the body.

 GALACTOSE

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not found free in foods.

It is produced from lactose (milk sugar) by digestion

and is converted into glucose in the body

.
 DISACCHARIDES OR DOUBLE –SUGARS

Sucrose Lactose Maltose

Icon *It is produced by
* ordinary table sugar- (milk sugar) hydrolysis of starch
granulated, powdered, *is found in milk and milk and is converted into
or brown is processed products except cheese. glucose in digestion.
from cane and beet *It is converted into glucose
sugar and galactose in digestion *It occurs in malt
and is less soluble and less products and in
*It is found in fruits, sweet than sucrose. germinating cereals.
vegetables, syrups, *It remains in the intestine
and sweet food longer than other sugars and *It can be found in
production and is encourages the growth of certain infant formulas,
converted into glucose certain useful bacteria. beer, and malt
and galactose upon *It forms approximately 40% beverage products.
of milk solids. Cow's milk
digestion contains 4.8% lactose while *It is less sweet
* It is composed of human milk has 7%. It favors compared to glucose
calcium and phosphorus
glucose and fructose. assimilation.
and sucrose.
 POLYSACCHARIDES

composed of many molecules of simple sugars

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They are commonly known as complex sugar include

the following:

STARCH PECTINS

DEXTRINS GLYCOGENS

CELLULOSE
 STARCH

❑ Is the most significant polysaccharide in human

nutrition.
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❑ Its major food sources include cereal grain potatoes

and other root vegetables, and legumes.

❑It is converted entirely into glucose upon

digestion; is more complex than sugars; and
requires a longer time to digest.
 DEXTRINS

❑ Are not found free in foods

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❑ They are formed as intermediate products

in the breakdown of starch.
 CELLULOSE

❑ forms the framework of plants found in unrefined grains, ❑ They are non-digestible because digestive
vegetables,
Iconand fruits enzymes are unable to break them down.

❑ It is nondigestible by humans; no specific enzyme is

present and provides important bulk in the diet which ❑ They lower the blood glucose levels of people
helps move digestive food mass along and stimulates with diabetes mellitus.
peristalsis.

❑ Main sources are stems and leaves of vegetables, seed

and grain coverings, skins, and hulls..

❑ Cellulose, hemicellulose and pectins which are

components of the skins of fruits, coverings of seeds
and the structural parts of edible plants is referred as
FIBRE.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CELLULOSE

• Structural parts of plant cell walls (cellulose,

hemicellulose and lignin)
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INSOLUBLE • whole wheat, wheat bran, seeds, nuts and
vegetables.
FIBRE • accelerate gastrointestinal transit, increase fecal
weight, slow down starch hydrolysis, and delay
glucose absorption.

• Viscous plant fibres are soluble in water

• pectins, gums and mucilages. Soluble fibres are
SOLUBLE found in fruits, oat and barley, oats legumes and
beans.
FIBRE • delay gastrointestinal transit and glucose
absorption, and lower blood cholesterol.
CLASSIFICATION AND SOURCES OF DIETARY FIBRE

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 PECTINS

PECTINS which occur in ripe fruits have the ability to

absorb water and to from gels. This property of pectins is
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made use of in the preparation of jams and jellies.

Non-digestible, colloidal having a gel property.

Sources includes mostly fruits and are often used as base

for jellies.

Use for treatment of diarrhea as they absorb toxins and

bacteria in the intestines and bind cholesterol reducing the
amount the blood can absorb.
 GLYCOGENS (ANIMAL STARCH)

Formed from glucose and stored in liver and muscle

Icon tissues.

Food sources mainly meats and seafoods.

Converted entirely into glucose upon digestion.

 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

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 UTILIZATION IN THE BODY ( DIGESTION)

• All monosaccharides require no digestion

while disaccharides are not digested in the
mouth
mouth • Starch is partly hydrolysed by ptyalin
(salivary amylase) in the mouth to dextrose
and maltose

• Mechanical digestion continues (peristalsis)

stomach • Gastric secretions contain no specific
enzyme for breakdown of CHO
UTILIZATION IN THE BODY ( DIGESTION)
Starch and dextrin are further hydrolysed to maltose by amylase in the
small intestine. Maltose, sucrose and lactose are further broken down to
glucose, fructose and galactose (simple sugar units) by the enzymes
maltase, sucrase and lactase

Much of the chemical digestion of CHO happens in the small intestine

and is completed by enzymes such as amylase (starch to maltose) and
disaccharidases like sucrase, lactase, maltase (disaccharides to
monosaccharides-ready for absorption)

Lactose remains in the intestine longer than other sugars and

encourages growth of certain useful bacteria. Also aids in calcium and
phosphorus absorption

Fiber passes through the small intestine undigested and forms bulk of
the stool

Bacteria in the large intestine breakdown undigested CHO producing gas

and some short chain fatty acids which are used by colonic cells for
energy
 FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

The primary function of carbohydrates in the body is to supply energy

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Carbohydrates act also as reserve fuel supply in the form of glycogen, stored in
muscles and liver

Carbohydrates serve other special functions in the body. Carbohydrates provide

chemical framework, which combine with the nitrogen to synthesize non-essential
amino acids in the body

Carbohydrates and their derivatives work as precursors of important metabolic

compounds. These include nucleic acids, the matrix of connective tissue and
galactosides of nerve tissue
 FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

Lactose, the milk sugar, provides galactose needed for brain development. It aids
absorption
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of calcium and phosphorus, thus helping bone growth and maintenance.

Lactose forms lactic acid in the intestinal track due to the action of the bacteria
(lactobacilli) present.

Carbohydrates are an important part of some compounds, which increase our

resistance to infection (immunopolysaccharides)

Carbohydrates are needed for ensuring complete normal metabolism of fats, thus
preventing acidosis
 FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are needed to prevent dehydration..

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Dietary fibre acts like a sponge and absorbs water.

 HEALTH EFFECTS OF STARCH AND FIBERS

They stimulate the peristaltic (rhythmic) movements of the gastrointestinal tract

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by adding bulk to the intestinal contents

The insoluble fibre needs chewing and may improve mastication of food.

Fibre reduces transit time and binds some minerals such as calcium, iron, zinc,
etc

Soluble fibre binds bile acids and cholesterol and helps carry these out of the
body.
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF STARCH AND FIBERS

WEIGHT CONTROL – Fibers rich in complex carbohydrates tend to be low in fat

and added sugars and can promote weight loss.
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HEART DISEASE – high carbohydrates diets, rich in whole grains can protect
an individual against heart disease and stroke.

CANCER – High carbohydrate diets can help prevent many types of cancer

DIABETES – high carbohydrates, low fat diets help control weight.

GASTROINTESTINAL HEALTH
 RECOMMENDED INTAKE OF CARBOHYDRATES

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© 2015 Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology. All rights reserved. Revised September 2018
• Effect of foods on a person’s blood glucose level

• A low GI food (<55) will release glucose more slowly and

steadily which leads to a more suitable post prandial blood
glucose readings

• Intermediate GI (55-70)

• A high GI (>70) food causes more rapid rise in blood glucose

levels and is suitable for energy recovery after exercise or for a
person experiencing hypoglycemia
 FACTORS THAT MAY INFLUENCE GLYCEMIC INDEX

• Form of CHO
• How food is prepared
• Fat and fiber content
 FACTORS THAT MAY INFLUENCE GLYCEMIC INDEX

• Foods with lower index are healthier option to control

blood sugar levels; can also decrease risks for fiber
related diseases

• Foods rich in unrefined CHO, fat and CHON have a

lower glycemic index

• Foods with purer sources of sugar or starch have a

higher glycemic index
• How much CHO is in the food and how much each gram
of CHO in the food raises blood glucose levels

• Based on glycemic index

• CHO content (grams) per serving X GI / 100

• Low GL <15

• Intermediate GL 15-20

• High GL >20
 PROTEIN

Prepared by: Dovie Brabante-Ponciano, MAN, RN

 Next to water, protein is the most abundant component of the
PROTEIN body.

Proteins are
Imagepresent
or icon in all livingImage
tissues,
or iconboth plant and animal.
Image or icon

They are essential to life because vital parts of the nucleus

and protoplasts of every cell are proteins.

Proteins are very large organic compounds.

proteins contain about 16 per cent nitrogen, which is their

unique feature and distinguishes them from carbohydrates and
fats. .
PROTEIN Proteins are more complex than fats and carbohydrates, as
the size of the molecule is large and there is a great variation
in the units from which it is formed.

Image or icon Image or icon Image or icon

*Plants are the primary source of proteins in nature.

Made from a combination of amino acids (building blocks of

protein) and always contain nitrogen

About 20 common kinds of amino acids are needed for the

formation of proteins in the body
 Nine of these amino acids cannot be made in the body,
PROTEIN thus, must be consumed in the diet
Essential or Indispensable amino acids
Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine,
Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, and Valine
Image or icon Image or icon Image or icon

Digestion takes about 2 hrs

When digested, they are broken down into amino acids
then reassembled into proteins by the liver

Recommended Protein Intake:

10-15% of the total calories
Normal intake should not exceed 20%
extra protein consumed adds burden to the kidneys
Excess are converted into body fats
High in meat protein could lead to increase in cholesterol
or other diseases such as gout
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEIN

SIMPLE PROTEINS
Image or icon Image or icon Image or icon

those which yield only amino acids upon hydrolysis.

COMPOUND PROTEINS
(conjugated proteins or proteids)
Performs functions that a constituent could not properly
perform by it self
.

DERIVED PROTEINS
Products formed in the various stages of hydrolysis of protein
molecule..
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEIN

SIMPLE PROTEINS
Image or icon Image or icon Image or icon
.

ALBUMINS GLOBULINS
. .

GLUTELINS HISTONES & PROTAMINES

. .

PROLAMINS ALBUMINOIDS
. .
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEIN

COMPOUNDImage
Image or icon PROTEINS
or icon Image or icon
.

NUCLEOPROTEINS CHROMOPROTEINS
. .

MUCOPROTEINS & GLYCOPROTEINS

.

LIPOPROTEINS METALLOPROTEINS
. .

PHOSPOPROTEINS
.
 AMINO ACIDS

There are 22 (or more) amino acids, all of which are vital to human life and health

The body is able to synthesize 13 of these but is unable to make 9 others

These nine amino acids have to be provided in the diet in sufficient amounts and
are called ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
AMINO ACIDS
PROTEIN DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

Protein digestion starts only in the stomach as there are no protein

splitting enzymes in the saliva

In the stomach, protein is hydrolysed by the enzymes with the help of

hydrochloric acid into peptides or amino acids

The amino acids thus formed are absorbed either by the stomach wall,
the intestinal walls or by the colon.

Most of the amino acids are, however, absorbed in the small intestine.
After passing through the walls of the digestive tract, the amino acids are
picked up by the circulating blood stream and transported to the liver and
to the various body tissues.
PROTEIN DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

PANCREAS
*Trypsin (produced first as inactive precursortrypsin and then activated by
enterokinase) converts protein proteoses, and peptones into polypeptides
and peptide.
*Chymotrypsin (produced first as inactive precursor chymotrypsinogen
and then activated by active trypsin) converts proteoses and peptones into
polypeptides and dipeptides; also coagulates milk.
*Carboxypeptidase converts polypeptides into simpler
peptides, dipeptides, and amino acids.

INTESTINES

*Aminopeptidase converts polypeptides into peptides

and amino acids.

*Dipeptidase converts dipeptides into amino acids.

 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN

The PRIMARY FUNCTION of proteins is TISSUE BUILDING. *Proteins are the

main solid matter in the muscles, they are also the major constituents of blood,
matrix of bones, teeth, skin, nails and hair

PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS:

1. Body-Building or Building of New Tissues:

amino acids must be supplied in the diet for building new tissues. Proteins provide the amino
acids needed for the formation of new cells. They also provide the material from which nucleic
acids are formed, e.g., DNA and RNA, which carry the genetic code.
 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN

2. Maintenance of tissues:
The need for protein to maintain and repair the old tissues continues throughout
life.

3. Regulatory Functions:
*Hemoglobin, a protein and iron complex, ensures the smooth running of
respiratory cycle by being the vital oxygen carrier in the red blood cells.
 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN

5. TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENTS
*proteins are ideal carriers of nutrients across cell membranes.
 RECOMMENDED INTAKE OF PROTEINS

© 2015 Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology. All rights reserved. Revised September 2018
 RECOMMENDED INTAKE OF PROTEINS

© 2015 Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology. All rights reserved. Revised September 2018
 FATS OR LIPIDS

Prepare by: Dovie Brabante-Ponciano, MAN, RN

FATS AND Fats constitute 34% of the energy in the
human body
OTHER Image or icon Image or icon Image or icon

LIPIDS Includes substances such as fat, oil, waxes,

and related compounds that are greasy to
touch and insoluble to water.

Provides a more concentrated source of

energy compared to carbohydrates.

A layer of fat beneath the skin acts as a

insulation against cold.
FATS AND
OTHER Image orAicon
layer Imagethe
of fat beneath or icon
skin acts as a Image or icon
insulation against cold.
LIPIDS
The vital organs (brain, heart, liver) are protected
by a sheath of fat and water, which holds them in
place and prevents injury

The fat around the joints acts as a lubricant and

allows us to move these smoothly.
 Fats are the best known members of a chemical
group called, the LIPIDS
FATS AND
OTHER Image or icon Image or icon
Food fats include solid fats, liquid oils and
Image or icon

related compounds such as fat-soluble vitamins

LIPIDS and cholesterol.

Fat digestion takes the longest of all the

macronutrients requiring up to 4 hours

FATTY ACIDS, FATS and OILS,

PHOSPOLIPIDS, STEROLS and
LIPOPROTEINS are some of the groups of lipid
compounds
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS

SIMPLE LIPIDS
which include fats and oil

COMPOUND LIPIDS
which comprise of phospholipids, glycolipids
and lipoproteins
DERIVED LIPIDS
such as fatty acids, glycerol
and steroids
 FATTY ACIDS

Fatty acids are the main building blocks of fats.

About twenty (20) fatty acids are found in foods

and body tissues..

Fatty acids have a methyl group (CH3) at one

end and a carboxyl group (COOH) at the other
end with a chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms
in the middle
FATTY ACIDS IN FOODS
 FATTY ACIDS IN FOODS

SATURATED FATTY acid has a single bond

between its carbon atoms, thus the molecule is
saturated with hydrogen.
Eg: Stearic acid

UNSATURATED FATTY acids have one or more

double bonds in their molecule and are thus not
saturated with hydrogen.

MONOSATURATED FATTY acids (MUFA) have

only one double bond in the molecules.
Eg: Oleic acid,
 FATTY ACIDS IN FOODS

POLUSATURATED FATTY acids (PUFA) have

two or more double bonds in the molecules.
Eg: Corn oil

*METHYL end of the fatty acid molecule

is called the omega end.
Eg: Oleic acid - Omega-9-fatty acid,
which is a MUFA
Linoleic acid- omega-6-fatty acid,
which is a PUFA.
Linolenic acid- omega-3-fatty acid,
which is also a PUFA
 ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (EFAs)

Linoleic acid (omega-6 PUFA) and linolenic acid

(omega-3 PUFA) are called essential fatty acids
because
1. these are not synthesized in the human body
2. these are required for important functions in the
body and
3. these are available only through diet.
FOOD SOURCES OF ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (EFAs)

Green leafy vegetables, cabbage and lettuce, tuna,

sardines and salmon

vegetable oils (corn, sesame, sunflower, cottonseed,

soybean, safflower); in less amount-nut, seeds, grains
 TRIGYLCERIDES

*Fatty acids combine with glycerol to form a

glyceride

Every time a triglyceride crosses a cell

membrane, it must be broken or deesterified and
after it enters the cell it is reesterified

In digestion, most triglycerides are hydrolysed to

form free fatty acids, monoglycerides and
glycerol, which are absorbed into the intestinal
cells and the majority of these are rebuilt into
triglycerides.
 *PHOSPOLIPIDS

formed mainly in the liver from fatty acids,

glycerol, phosphoric acid and a nitrogenous base

LECITHIN, a phospholipid contains choline-

phosphate attached to one hydroxyl of the
glycerol molecule

Lecithin is an important component of all

membranes and it takes part in fat digestion
Eg: eggyolk

Two other phospholipids –SPHINGOMYELINS

and CEREBROSIDES – are found in the brain.
 *PHOSPOLIPIDS

Phospholipids are important as components of

active tissues (brain, nervous tissue and liver).

They are powerful emulsifying agents and are

essential for the digestion and absorption of fats.

Phospholipids help to carry lipid particles across

the cell membrane in the blood stream
 STEROIDS

lipids with a multiringed (steroid) structure

CHOLESTEROL is an important sterol. It is a

waxy substance.

*CHOLESTEROL is a precursor of
vitamin D, hormones and bile acids..
 LIPOPROTEINS

synthesized in the liver

These serve as the major vehicle for fat transport

in the blood stream

The lipoproteins contain triglycerides,

cholesterol and other substances such as fat
soluble vitamins.

*The density of lipoproteins is dependent on

the amounts of fat and protein in it
 4 GROUPS OF LIPOPROTEINS

chylomicrons

low density lipoproteins (LDL)

high density lipoproteins (HDL)

very low density lipoproteins

(VLDL)
 FUNCTIONS OF FATS

Protein-sparing because its availability reduces the need to burn protein for
energy.

Fat forms the fatty centre of cell walls, helping to carry nutrient materials
across cell membranes.

Fats act as a cushion for certain vital organs. Nerve fibres are protected by
the fat covering and it aids relay of nerve impulses.
 FUNCTIONS OF FATS

*source of two groups of essential nutrients — essential fatty acids (EFA)

and fat soluble vitamins A, D, E & K and their precursors.

Fat forms the fatty centre of cell walls, helping to carry nutrient materials
across cell membranes.

Fats act as a cushion for certain vital organs. Nerve fibres are protected by
the fat covering and it aids relay of nerve impulses.
 FUNCTIONS OF FATS

*Layer of fat beneath the skin helps to conserve body heat and regulate
body temperature.

*Facilitates absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins, vit. A,D,E,K

**The flavour, palatibility and satiety value of foods is increased by fats

 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LIPIDS

HEART DISEASE- elevated blood cholesterol is a major risk factor for

cardiovascular diseases.

RISKS FROM SATURATED FATS- lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids

raised blood cholesterol levels. Stearic acid does not.

BENEFITS OF MONOSATURATED FATS- olive oil lowers risks of heart

disease
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LIPIDS

BENEFITS FROM OMEGA -3 POLYSATURATED FATS- lower blood

cholesterol and prevent heart disease. EPA sources like fish, eaten once a
week, can lower blood cholesterol and the risk of heart attack and stroke.

CANCER - fat does not instigate cancer development but can

promote it once it has arisen.

OBESITY - High-fat diets tend to store body fat ably

 DIGESTIONS OF FATS

digestion of fats starts in the stomach

The chemical changes necessary for fat digestion occur in the small
intestine, The entry of fat in the duodenum, the first part of the small
intestine stimulates secretion of the bile from the gall bladder.

Pancreatic lipase breaks off one fatty acid at a time from the triglyceride.

The cholesterol esterase from pancreatic juice acts on the free cholesterol to
form a combination of cholesterol and fatty acids for absorption first into the
lymph vessels and finally into the blood stream. .
 DIGESTIONS OF FATS

Lecithinase, secreted by the small intestine, acts on lecithin to break into its
components for absorption.

The products of digestion are absorbed through the walls of the small
intestine and circulated through the lymph.

Some of these are used to synthesise important lipid compounds needed for
body function. .

Some fat is used to supply energy. The rest is stored as fat in the adipose
tissues for future use.
 DIGESTIONS OF FATS

ORGAN ENZYME ACTIVITY

MOUTH NONE Mechanical digestion
STOMACH NO MAJOR ENZYME Mechanical separation
of fats as protein and
starch digested out

SMALL AMOUNT OF Tributyria (butter fat) to

GASTRIC LIPASE , fatty acids and
TRIBUTYRINASE glycerols.

SMALL INTESTINE GALL BLADDER (BILE Emulsify fats

SALTS) EMUSIFIER
PANCREATIC LIPASE Triglycerides to
diglycerides and
monoglycerides in turn,
then fatty acids and
glycerols
 RECOMMENDED INTAKE OF FATS OR LIPIDS

© 2015 Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology. All rights reserved. Revised September 2018
 MACRONUTRIENTS
(Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins)

By
HONEY LOVELEEN R BONTILE, RND, MSPH
 CARBOHYDRATES
(Sugars, Starches, Fibers)
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
6-carbon ring (hexose)
5-carbon ring (pentose)
Sugars (Saccharides);
BUILDING BLOCKS
• Linked either with alpha bond (starch - spiral) and beta (cellulose - linear) bonds
• Linked through condensation (H2O molecule is released); separated through hydrolysis (H2O
molecule splits the bond)
Chief source of energy
•Brain - Glucose (preferred fuel source)
FUNCTION
•Liver (storage/reserve) - Glucose, Glycogen, Fat
Stores glucose in the form of glycogen
Spares protein breakdown
Prevents ketosis
Simple - contains 1 to 2 sugar units
•Monosaccharide - Glucose, Galactose, Fructorse
•Disaccharide - Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose
TYPES AND
CLASSIFICATIONS Complex - has more than 2 sugar units
•Oligosaccharide - Raffinose and Stachyose
•Polysaccharide - Glycogen (storage in animals); Starch (storage in plants, i.e., Amylose and
Amylopectin) and Fibers (Soluble/Insoluble)

FOOD SOURCES
Main Source: Plants - produced during photosynthesis
Note: Glucose and glycogen are not sourced from food
CARBOHYDRATES
(Digestion Process)
ANATOMICAL Enzymes/Hormones
DIGESTION ACTIVITY
ORGAN Involved
Mouth Begins digestion → Breakdown of CHO into shorter sugar units (polysacch to Salivary Amylase
disacch)
Stomach CHO digestion stops. Acidity of stomach juices halt action of salivary amylase HCl Acid,
and stops carbohydrate digestion protein-digesting
Fiber is not digested - delays gastric emptying enzymes
Pancreas Produces an enzyme to breakdown starch, released through the pancreatic Pancreatic Amylase
duct into the small intestine Insulin
Regulates blood glucose (high glucose stimulates insulin release; low glucose Glucagon
stimulates release of glucagon)
Small Most CHO digestion occurs here, P. amylase continues starch digestion Pancreatic Amylase
Intestine Disaccharide enzymes hydrolyze disacchs into monosacchs (absorbed through Sucrase, Maltase,
the intestinal cells) Lactase
Fiber is not digested - delays absorption of other nutrients
Large Most fiber passes intact through GIT to large intestine. Bacterial enzymes Bacterial Enzymes
Intestine digest fiber and produces short-chain FA and gas; fiber holds water, regulate
bowel activity, binds substances (bile, cholesterol and some minerals)
Carbohydrates and Health
Sugar and Dental Carries Bacteria in the mouth feed on sugars → produce acids that eat aay tooth enamel and
dental structure → dental caries
Fiber and Obesity Foods rich in fiber are typically low in fat and total energy. More filling (high satiety) - great
volume less calories, take longer to eat (delays gastric emptying)
Fiber and Type 2 Diabetes Intake of soluble fibers delay glucose uptake and smooth out blood glucose reponse
Fiber and Cardiovascular Soluble fiber binds bile acid and prevent reabsoption into the body → create new bile
Disease acids → prevent cholesterol buildup
Short chain fatty acids produced from bacterial fermentation of insoluble fiber (prebiotics)
in the colon can inhibit cholesterol synthesis
Fiber and Gastrointestinal Insoluble fiber helps promote healthy GIT functioning.
Disorders Fiber add bulk and increase water in the stool, softening the stool and make it easier to
pass and regular movement
High fiber intake and adequate fluid intake prevents constipation, hemmoroids,
diverticular disease
Some negative effects Can increase intestinal gas and bloaing; can also bind small amounts of minerals (zinc,
calcium, iron) preventing absorption
But people with high fiber intake and with enough intake of these minerals do not
significantly affect mineral status
 Lipids
(Fats and Oils)

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE Carbon chain with a Methyl Group and Acid (Carboxyl) end

BUILDING BLOCKS Fatty Acids (determine the characteristics of a fat -- solid or liquid)
CHARACTERISTICS Chain Length, Degree of Saturation, Location of Double Bonds
Triglycerides - 3 FA with glycerol backbone - most predominant in food and in the body
Phospholipids - glycerol head and FA tails - soluble in fat and water (emulsifiers)
CATEGORY Sterols - multiple ring structures - precursor of other substances

Energy Source / Reserve; Insulation and Protection, Carrier of Fat-Soluble Compounds;

FUNCTION
Sensory Qualities
Essential = FA with double bonds before the 9th carbon (Omega 3 and 6)
TYPES AND Non-essential = FA with no double bonds before the 9th carbon (Omega 9)
CLASSIFICATIONS

FOOD SOURCES Plant and Animal Origin

LIPIDS
(Digestion)
ANATOMICAL Enzymes/Hormones
DIGESTION ACTIVITY
ORGAN Involved
Mouth sublingual salivary gland release an enzyme → hydrolyze milk Lingual lipase
fats
Stomach fat mixes with acid through churning activity Gastric lipase
Gastric secretions hydrolyze small amount of fat
Small Intestine CCK signals the gallbladder to release bile via common bile duct CCK
Bile binds with fat and becomes emulfied Bile
Pancreas release an enzyme through pancreatic duct → Pancreatic lipase
pancreatic lipase and intestinal lipase breakdown fats into Intestinal lipase
monoglycerides, glycerol, and fatty acids for absorption
Large Intestine Fat and cholesterol trapped in fiber exit the body as fecal matter
Lipids and Health
Obesity Excessive accumulation of body fat leading to a body weight in relation to height
Fat is calorie dense and increases the calorie content of food → if taken in excess can
lead to formation of adipose tissues (fats) as a result of lipogenesis
Heart Disease Principal types of CVD -- often a result of high fat diet which results in accumulation of
and Stroke visceral fats; thickening of arterial walls, blocking the blood flow
Cancer Cancer rates is higher among those with high fat intake
Fat intake does not initiate cancer development but rather, promote cancer once it has
arisen
Diabetes High fat intake can also result in blocking the insulin receptors causing insulin
Mellitus resistance
Liver disease Accumulation of fats in the liver result in fatty liver disease → liver failure
 PROTEIN

Central carbon chain with an amino group (NH2) and acid group (COOH),
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE hydrogen, and a side group (unique structure and differentiates one AA from
another)
Amino acids - (20 common AA -- each one contain different side group) linked
through peptide bonds
• Essential AA - (9 needs to be supplied through diet -- TVPMILLH
BUILDING BLOCKS
• Non-essential AA - (11 can be synthesized by the body -- A4CG3PST)
• Conditionally EAA - Arginine, Cysteine, Glutamine, Glycine, Proline and
Tyrosine
Sequence and properties of AA determines protein shape
CHARACTERISTICS
Shape determines protein’s function
Collagen, motor protein, keratin, enzymes, hormones, immune function, fluid
FUNCTION
balance, acid-base balance, ransfport function, source of energy and glucose,
Complete Protein - contains all essential AA
TYPES AND Incomplete Protein - some essential AA are missing
CLASSIFICATIONS Complementary Protein - Combination of incomplete protein provides sufficient
amounts of all essential amino acids
FOOD SOURCES Plant (Incomplete Protein) and Animal (Complete Protein)
PROTEIN
(Digestion)
ANATOMICAL
DIGESTION ACTIVITY Enzymes/Hormones Involved
ORGAN
Mouth no protein digestion occurs here
Stomach HCl denatures a protein (unfolding it) and making AA HCl
accessible to the action of enzymes

Stomach lining produe proenzyme pepsinogen →binds Proenzyme pepsinogen (inactive

with HCl and activates pepsin → cleaves protein to small precursor) → pepsin
polypeptides and some free amino acids (inhibits
pepsinogen synthesis)
Small Intestine Pancreatic and small intestinal enzymes split polypeptides Enteropeptidase (converts pancreatic
further → tripeptides, dipeptides, amino acids trypsinogen to trypsin) → Trypsin
(inhibits trypsinogen synthesis →
Enzymes hydrolyze peptides and the cells absorb them cleaves to next AA (lysine and arginine)
→ converts pancreatic
procarboxypeptidase →
carboxypeptidase → pancreatic
chymotrypsinogen → chymotrypsin...
 PROTEIN
(Digestion)
ANATOMICAL
DIGESTION ACTIVITY Enzymes/Hormones Involved
ORGAN
Small Intestine Enzymes hydrolyze peptides and the cells absorb them chymotrypsin (cleaves pep bonds to
AA (Phen, Tyr, Tryp, Met, Asp, His) →
carboxypeptidases → elastase and
collagenese (smaller polypepties and
tripeptides) → intestinal tripeptidases
(tripeptides to dipeptides)→ intestinal
dipeptidases dipeptides to AA) →
intestinal aminopeptidases (amino
ends of small peptides)
Large intestine no protein digestion here
(any undigested protein and unabsorbed pass directly here; but Diseases: celiac disease and cystic
normally, the body efficiently digests and absorbs protein) fibrosis
Liver and Kidneys • Excess or remaining carbon skeletons can be used to make
fatty acids or glucose or broken down completely to yield
energy

• The liver removees amino groups from excess AA and

converts amino group to urea for excretion by kidneys
Health Effects of Low Protein Intake
Protein-Energy Malnutrition • Kwashiorkor - severe protein deficiency which
• a condition resulting from long-term occurs mostly among children with infection disease
inadequate intakes of energy and protein (marginal amount E; very low CHON intake)
leading to wasting of body tissues and • symptoms: poor growth, edema (moon face),
increased susceptibility to infection apathy, weakness, susceptibility to infection
• from Ghanian word that describes “illness of the
• Edema = result of lack of blood proteins first child when the second child is born”
reduces the force that keeps fluid in the
bloodstream allowing fluid to leak out into the • Marasmus - severe calorie and protein deficiency
tissues - resulting from chronic inadequate intake (↓E;
• Wasting = insufficient supply from diet forces ↓CHON)
the body to draw on its own stores (synthesis • symptoms: muscle and fat wasting (skin and
of visceral proteins; fluid accumulation in the bones with old man’s face); poor growth
abdomen) • from Greek term marasmos “withering”
Health Effects of Excessive Protein Intake
• Strain Kidney • Kidneys excrete the products of the protein breakdown (esp harmful for DM
Function patients)
• Diet with ↑ E from protein increases kidney filtration rate in healthy adults
• Increase fluid intake to dilute the by-products of protein breakdown
• Mineral Losses • high protein diet (esp purified proteins) increases calcium excretion → bone
mineral losses
• adequate intake of protein = adequate calcium intake and acid neutralizing F&V
• Obesity • High protein foods are often high in fat
• Large amts of protein and fat in diet can provide ↑ E contributing to obesity
• high dietary protein alters hormones and body’s response (leptin - regulates
food intake) → increases risk of obesity
• Heart Disease • high intake of animal protein (meats and processed meats are ↑SFA)
increases blood cholesterol and risk of heart disease, stroke and diabetes
• choose lean red meats, decreasing food intake, avoid processed meats
• Cancer • prolonged high intake of red meat and processed meats increases colon cancer
risk and mortality
• Gout • diets high in meat and seafood increases the risk of gout (inflammatory arthritis)