Module 3 ARM

Module 3
Scales of Measurement & Data Processing

Scaling

The word scale or scaling is generally used for indicating measurements or measuring
something. Many aspects of social phenomena like emotion, attitude, faiths etc. are
not measurable directly. They are not quantitative in nature.

In social phenomena there are two types of variables- quantitative and qualitative.
Measurement or scaling implies conversion of qualitative data into quantitative data
and then measuring them. Various kinds of statistical measurements are used for this
purpose. Scaling is an attempt to bring about greater accuracy which is desired in both
physical and social sciences.

Measurement: Measurement is a systematic way of assigning numbers or names to

objects and their attributes. It is easy to assign numbers in respect of properties of
some objects, properties like weight, height. “When you can measure what you are
talking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it” Lord Kelvin.

Scales: Scales are devised for measuring variable in social science research. Scaling is
the procedure for determining the quantitative measure of abstract concepts like
leadership style, brand image of product etc. It is therefore,
a. Any series of items which is progressively arranged according to value or
magnitude into which an item can be placed according to its quantification.
b. A continuous spectrum or series of categories.
c. Used to represent, usually quantitatively, an items or persons place in
that spectrum.

Scale Classification or Types of Data Measurement Scale

1. Nominal scales
2. Ordinal scales
3. Interval scales
4. Ratio scale
5. Other type of Scales

1. Nominal Scale: Numbers or letters assigned to objects which serve as labels for
identification or classification. They are Scales “in name only”.
2. Ordinal Scale: Arranges objects or alternatives according to their magnitude in
an ordered relationship. eg rating career opportunities as excellent, good,
average poor or very poor.
3. Interval Scale: Interval scales not only indicate order, they also measure order

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or distance in units of equal intervals. When an interval scale is used to measure

psychological attribute, the researcher can comment on the magnitude of
differences or compare the average differences on attributes that are measured,
but cannot determine the actual strength of the attitude towards an object
4. Ratio Scale: A ratio scale has equal interval properties of an interval scale but
has two additional features:
Has a true zero. Possible to indicate the complete absence of a property.
The numerals of the ratio scale have the qualities of real numbers and can be
added, subtracted, multiplied, Divided and expressed in ratio relationships.
5. Other type of Scales
a. Likert Scale: Respondents indicate their attitude by checking how strongly
they agree or disagree with carefully constructed statements that range from the
very positive to the very negative towards the attitudinal object. Individuals
generally choose from five alternatives: strongly agree, agree, uncertain,
disagree and strongly disagree.
b. Semantic Differential: An attitude measure consisting of a series of seven –
point bipolar rating scales allowing response to a concept. Bi Polar adjectives
such as “good and bad”, “clean or dirty” anchor the beginning and end poles of
the scale.
c. Numerical Scales: An attitude rating scale similar to a semantic differential
except that it uses numbers as response options to identify response positions
instead of verbal descriptions. Usually five point scale or seven point scale.
d. Constant Sum Scale: A measure of attitudes in which the respondents are
asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of the
attributes.
e. Stapel: Scale Measures the direction and intensity of an attitude
simultaneously. E.g. To measure attitudes towards a supervisor. Supervisors
name +3 +2 +1 Supportive -1 -2 –3.

Scaling Techniques or Techniques of Data Scaling

1. Rating Scale: It means measuring an attribute by judgments in a continuum.

For eg. Students are rated by their teachers. In rating three elements are taken into
consideration namely judges, continuum and subjects. Judges must beimpartial.
Continuum must accommodate the attributes realistically. Subjects should be
amenable to rating. Rating scales are generally used for measuringthe attitudes
and the intensity of attitudes.

2. Ranking Scales: Ranking scales are identical to rating scales. In ranking scales,we
make relative the score will place judgments against other similar objects. There
are two generally used approaches of ranking scales namely.

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Method of Paired Comparison where the respondent can express his attitude by
making a choice between two objects.
Method of Ranking Order where the respondents are asked to rank their
choices.
3. Attitude Scales: In this type of scale, the attitude of an individual towards a matter
can be known from the score of his responses given on a questionnaire. The score
will place him in a scale. He simply expresses his likes or dislikes, agreement or
disagreement with the issue involved as given in the forms of questions. On the
basis of reply, he is assigned a score which indicates his position. In the attitude
scale some relevant statements are to be considered by the respondents. The
statements are found in such a way as to be intimately related to the attribute
which is sought to be measured.
4. Factor Scaling: This is a type of scaling in which multi dimensions of a complex
attitude is identified.
5. Sociometry: Sociometry is a qualitative method for measuring social
relationships. It was developed by psychotherapist Jacob L. Moreno and Helen
Hall Jennings in their studies of the relationship between social structures and
psychological well-being, and used during Remedial Teaching. Sociometry:
Preschool and elementary school teachers use Sociometry rating scales to measure
how a child is accepted or rejected by his or her classmates.
“Sociometry is a way of measuring the degree of relatedness among people.
Measurement of relatedness can be useful not only in the assessment of behavior
within groups, but also for interventions to bring about positive change and for
determining the extent of change”.
6. Checklist : The Checklist is a one-page, non-technical checklist for the key points
of good practice in research. Use of the Checklist can assist researchers and
organisations in fulfilling the requirements of regulatory, funding and other bodies
and ensure that important issues have not been overlooked.
 Checklist is a selected list of words, Phrases, Sentences and paragraphs
following which an observer records a check mark to denote a presence or
absence of whatever is being observed.
 After creating your questionnaire, you will need to check and review the
outline of the survey, the questions being asked, and the response options for
the respondents. To test the efficiency of the questionnaire, here is a
questionnaire checklist that will serve as your guide.
 The following questionnaire checklist includes three sections: the outline and
format, the questions and pre-test or pilot testing.

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Tests of Sound Measurement

Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In fact,
these are the three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement
tool. Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to
measure. Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement
procedure. Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy,
convenience and interpretability.

1) Test of Validity: Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to
which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be
thought of as utility. In other words, validity is the extent to which differences
found with a measuring instrument reflect true differences among those being
tested. Three types of validity in this connection are: (i) Content validity; (ii)
Criterion-related validity and (iii) Construct validity.
i. Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides
adequate coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a
representative sample of the universe, the content validity is good. Its
determination is primarily judgemental and intuitive. It can also be determined by
using a panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring instrument meets
the standards, but there is no numerical way to express it.
ii. Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or
estimate the existence of some current condition. This form of validity reflects the
success of measures used for some empirical estimating purpose. The concerned
criterion must possess the following qualities:
a. Relevance: (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge
to be the proper measure.) Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is
attained when the criterion gives each subject an equal opportunity to
score well.)
b. Reliability: (A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)
c. Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be
available.)
In fact, a Criterion-related validity is a broad term that actually refers to (i) Predictive
validity and (ii) Concurrent validity. The former refers to the usefulness of a test in
predicting some future performance whereas the latter refers to the usefulness of a test
in closely relating to other measures of known validity. Criterion-related validity is
expressed as the coefficient of correlation between test scores and some measure of
future performance or between test scores and scores on another measure of known
validity.

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iii. Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to
possess construct validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted
correlations with other theoretical propositions. Construct validity is the
degree to which scores on a test can be accounted for by the explanatory
constructs of a sound theory. For determining construct validity, we associate a
set of other propositions with the results received from using our measurement
instrument. If measurements on our devised scale correlate in a predicted way
with these other propositions, we can conclude that there is some construct
validity. If the above stated criteria and tests are met with, we may state that
our measuring instrument is valid and will result in correct measurement;
otherwise we shall have to look for more information and/or resort to exercise
of judgment.

2) Test of Reliability
The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A
measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring
instrument does contribute to validity, but a reliable instrument need not be a valid
instrument. Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and equivalence deserve
special mention. The stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent results
with repeated measurements of the same person and with the same instrument.
The equivalence aspect considers how much error may get introduced by
different investigators or different samples of the items being studied.
Reliability can be improved in the following two ways:
a. By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place
i.e., we must ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom,
fatigue, etc., are minimised to the extent possible. That will improve stability
aspect.
b. By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from
group to group, by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the
research and also by broadening the sample of items used. This will improve
equivalence aspect.

3) Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of
economy, convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of view, the
measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it should be economical, convenient
and interpretable.
Economy consideration suggests that some trade-off is needed between the ideal
research project and that which the budget can afford. The length of measuring
instrument is an important area where economic pressures are quickly felt. Although

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more items give greater reliability as stated earlier, but in the interest of limiting the
interview or observation time, we have to take only few items for our study
purpose. Similarly, data-collection methods to be used are also dependent at times
upon economic factors.
Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to
administer. For this purpose one should give due attention to the proper layout of
the measuring instrument. For instance, a questionnaire, with clear instructions
(illustrated by examples), is certainly more effective and easier to complete than
one which lacks these features.
Interpretability consideration is specially important when persons other than the
designers of the test are to interpret the results. The measuring instrument, in order
to be interpretable, must be supplemented by
(a) detailed instructions for administering the test;
(b) scoring keys;
(c) evidence about the reliability and
(d) guides for using the test and for interpreting results.

Technique of Developing Measurement Tools

The technique of developing measurement tools involves a four-stage process,

consisting of the following:
(a) Concept development;

(b) Specification of concept dimensions;

(c) Selection of indicators; and

(d) Formation of index.

Data Processing and Analysis

1. Checking: When the data is collected through questionnaires, the first steps of
data preparation process is to check the questionnaires if they are accepted or not.
Not accepted if:
 Incomplete partially or fully.
 Answered by a person who has inadequate knowledge.
 Which gives the impression that the impression that the respondent could not
understand the questions.

2. Field Work Validation: The second step in the processing of begins post the
primary data survey. The researcher needs to validate the fieldwork to check
whether the execution of the study was handled properly. Thus, he or she must
meticulously go over all the raw data forms and check them for errors and find out

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whether in the conducted interviews or schedules a standardized set of instruction

or reporting was followed.

3. Editing: Editing is the process of examining the data collected through various
methods to detect errors and omissions and correct them for further analysis.
Though editing, it is ensured that the collected data are accurate, consistent with
other facts gathered, uniformly entered and well-arranged so that further analysis
is made easier Practical guidelines for editing. While editing care has to be taken
to see that the data are as accurate and complete as possible. The following points
are to be noted;
a) The editor should familiarize with the copy of instructions given to the
interviewers.
b) The original entry, if found incorrect, should not be destroyed or erased. On the
other hand, it should be crossed out in such a manner that it is still eligible.
c) Any, modification to the original entry by the editor must be specifically
indicated.
d) All completed schedules must bear signature of the editor and the date.
e) Incorrect answer to the questions can be corrected only if the editor is
absolutely sure of the answer, otherwise leave it as such.
f) Inconsistent, incomplete or missing answers should not be used.
g) Sere that all numerical answers are converted to same units.

4. Coding: Coding is the process by which r response categories are summarized by

numerals or other symbols to carry out subsequent operations of data analysis.
This process of assigning numerals or symbols to the responses is called coding. It
facilitates efficient analysis of the collected data and helps in reducing several
replies to a small number of classes which contain the critical information required
for analysis. In general it reduces the huge amount of information collected in to a
form that is amenable to analysis.

Steps in coding
1. Study the answers carefully.
2. Develop a coding frame by listing the answers and by aligning codes to each of
them.
3. Prepare a coding manual with the detail of variable names, codes and instructions.
4. If the coding manual has already been prepared before the collection of the data,
make the required additions for the open ended and partially coded question.
Coding rules

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a) Give each respondent a code number for identification.

b) Provide code number for each question.
c) All responses including don’t know, no opinion Etc is to be coded.
d) Assign additional codes to partially coded questions.

5. Transcription creates a text-based version of any original audio or videorecording.

Qualitative data transcription provides a good first step inarranging your data
systematically and analyzing it. Transcription is vital for qualitative research
because it:
Puts qualitative data and information into a text-based format
Makes data easier to analyze and share
Allows researchers to become more immersed into the data they collect
Helps researchers create a narrative with their data
Makes patterns easier to find
Helps preserve the accuracy and integrity of the data.

6. Classification: Classification is the process of reducing large mass of data is to

homogeneous groups for meaningful analysis. It converts data from complex to
understandable and unintelligible to intelligible forms. It divides data in to different
groups or classes according to their similarities and dissimilarities. When the
data are classified, they give summary of whole information.
Objectives of classification
To organize data in to concise, logical and intelligible form.
To take the similarities and dissimilarities s between various classes clear.
To facilitate comparison between various classes of data.
To help the researcher in understanding the significance of various classes of
data.
To facilitate analysis and formulate generalizations.
Types of classification
A. Classification according to external characteristics: In this classification, data
may be classified either on geographical basis or periodical basis.
Classification on geographical basis: In this type of classification, the data
that are collected from different places are placed in different classes.
Classification on periodical basis (chronological classification): In this type
of classification, the data belonging to a particular time or period are put under
one class. This type of classification is based on period.
B. Classification according to internal characteristics: Data may be classified
either according to attributes or according to the magnitude of variables
Classification according to Attributes: In this type data are classified on the

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basis of some attributes an characteristics.

Simple Classification: If the classification is based on one particular attribute
only it is called simple classification. Eg; classification on the basis of sex.
Manifold Classification: If the classification is based on more than one or
several attributes it is called manifold or multiple classifications. in this data
are classified in several groups.
C. Classification according variables: Here the data are classified to some
characteristics that can be measured. Data are classified on the basis of quantitative
characteristics such as age, height; weight etc. quantitative variables are grouped
in to two
Discrete variable: If the variables can take only exact value, it is called
discrete variable.
Continuous variable: The variables that can take any numerical value within a
specified range are called continuous variable.

Characteristics of an ideal classification

 Unambiguity- Classification should be unambiguous. The various classes
should be defined properly.
 Stable- it should not change from enquiry to enquiry
 Flexibility- classification should have the capacity of adjustment to newsituations
and circumstances.
 Homogeneity- each class should contain homogenous items.
 Suitability- it should be suitable to objects of any statistical enquiry.
 Exhaustiveness- there should be no item which does not find a class.

5. Tabulation: Tabulation is the next step to classification. It is an orderly

arrangement of data in rows and columns. It is defined as the “measurement of
data in columns and rows”. Data presented in tabular form is much easier to
read and understand than the data presented in the text the main purpose of
tabulation is to prepare the data for final analysis. It is a stage between
classification of data and final analysis.
Objectives of Tabulation
1) To clarify the purpose of enquiry
2) To make the significance of data clear.
3) To express the data in least possible space.
4) To enable comparative study.
5) To eliminate unnecessary data
6) To help in further analysis of the data.

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Types of Tables
1. Simple Table: Here the data are presented only for one variable or characteristic.
Any frequency distribution of a single variable is simple table.
2. Complex table: In complex table, two or more characteristics are shown. If the
study is related to more than two variables, it is called multivariate analysis. They
may be of the following tables.
a) One- way table: In this type of table, data of only one characteristic will
be shown. It means that when one type of information is secured about
different groups or individuals, it can be displayed with the help of one-
waytable
b) Two- way table: When mutually related attributes of a phenomenon are to
be displayed, two way tables are used. In other words, this table shows two
types of characteristics.
c) Three-way table: It displays three types of attributes: It is used when
three inter- related or mutually related attributes or characteristics of a
phenomenon are to be displayed.
d) Manifold tables: When information about different mutually attributes or
characteristics of a phenomenon is to be displayed, manifold table is used.
Such tables display information about various characteristics orattributes.

Parts of a statistical table

a) Title of the table: The title of the table is placed above the table. If there are
more than one table in a research, each should bear a number for eas reference.
b) Caption or title of the column: It is also termed as “box head”. There may
be sub- captions under the main caption.
c) Stub (row heading): Stub refers to the title given to rows
d) Body (main data): This is the main body of information needed for the
research work.
e) End note (foot note): This is placed below the table to convey the expansions
of abbreviations to caption, stub or main body.
f) Source note: If the table is based on outside information, it should be
mentioned in the source note below.

Graphs and Diagrams

Diagrams and graphs is one of the methods which simplifies the complexity of
quantitative data and make them easily intelligible. They present dry and uninteresting
statistical facts in the shape of attracting and appealing pictures. They have a lasting
effect on the human mind than the conventional numbers.
Uses of Graphs and Diagrams
1) They help in presenting quantitative facts in simple, clear and effective

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pictures.
2) They make the whole data readily intelligible.
3) They can be used for comparison purpose.
4) They are useful in analyzing complex economic theories.
5) They save much time in understanding data.
6) Facts can be understood without doing mathematical calculations.
7) They help in locating statistical measures such as median. quartile, mode etc.

Types of Graphs

The following graphs are commonly used to represent data

1) Charts or line graphs

2) Bar charts
3) Circle charts or pie diagram
4) Pictograms

1) Line Graphs: A line graph displays information in a series of data points that
each represents an individual measurement or piece of data. The series of points
are then connected by a line to show a visual trend in data over a period of time.
The line is connected through each piece chronologically.

2) Bar Charts: The bar graph is a common type of graph which consists of parallel
bars or rectangles with lengths that are equal to the quantities that occur in a
given data set. The bars can be presented vertically or horizontally to show the
contrast and record information. Bar graphs are used for plotting discontinuous
(discrete) data. Discrete data contains discrete values and are notcontinuous.
Histogram: A histogram is a graph of frequency distributions. It is a set of
vertical bars whose are proportional to the frequencies. While constructing
histogram, the variable is always taken on the x- axis and the frequencies on
y-axis.
Frequency Polygon: The frequency polygon is a graph of frequency
distribution. Here we draw histogram of the data and then join by straight line
and mid points of upper horizontal sides of these bars. Join both ends of the
frequency polygon with the x- Axis.
Frequency Curves: A continuous frequency distribution can be represented by
a smoothed curve known as Frequency curves
Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Curve: A frequency distribution can be
cumulated in two ways, less than cumulative series and more than cumulative
series. Smoothed frequency curves drawn for these two cumulative series are

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called cumulative frequency curves or ogives.

 Less than ogive curve: In less than ogive curve the upper limit per limit of
each class interval is taken on x- axis in increasing order. For each such upper
limit on x-axis, the cumulative frequency of all the class intervals from the
first class interval to last class interval are taken on the y-axis.
 More than ogive curve: In more than ogive curve the lower limit of each
class interval is taken on x- axis in increasing order. For each such lower limit
on x- axis the cumulative frequency of all the class interval from that class
interval to the last class interval are taken on y-axis.

3) Circle Charts or Pie Diagram: A pie graph is a circle divided into sections
which each display the size of a relative piece of information. Each section of the
graph comes together to form a whole. In a pie graph, the length of each sector is
proportional to the percentage it represents. Pie graphs work. Particularly well
when each slice of the pie represents 25 to 50 percent of the given data.

4) Pictograms: A pictogram, also called a pictogram or pictograph, is an ideogram

that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object.
Pictographs are often used in writing and graphic systems in which the characters
are to a considerable extent pictorial in appearance. Pictography is a form of
writing which uses representational, pictorial drawing.

Meaning of Data

Data is a fact in a raw or unorganized form such as alphabets, numbers or

symbols that refer to or represent conditions, ideas or objects. This represents
facts and statistics which are collected together for reference or analysis.

Data is a collection of facts, figures, objects, symbols, and events gathered from
different sources.

Types of Data
a) Primary data
Primary data means first-hand information collected by an investigator.
It is collected for the first time.
It is original and more reliable.
For example, the population census conducted by the government of India
afterevery ten years is primary data.
b) Secondary data
Secondary data refers to second-hand information.

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 It is not originally collected and rather obtained from already published
orunpublished sources.
For example, the address of a person taken from the telephone directory or
thephone number of a company taken from Just Dial are secondary data.

Sources of Data
The sources of data can be classified into two types: Statistical and Non- Statistical.
Statistical sources refer to data that is gathered for some official purposes, incorporate
censuses, and officially administered surveys. Non-statistical sources refer to the
collection of data for other administrative purposes or for the private sector.
The following are the two sources of data:

1. Internal sources

 When data is collected from reports and records of the organisation itself, they
are known as the internal sources.
 For example, a company publishes its annual report‟ on profit and loss, total
sales, loans, wages, etc.

2. External sources

 When data is collected from sources outside the organisation, they are known
as the external sources. For example, if a tour and travel company obtains information
on Karnataka tourism from Karnataka Transport Corporation, it would be known as an
external source of data.

Data Collection

Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can
have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data
you will be not be able to complete your project.

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of

interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

Methods of Data Collection

a) In primary data collection: Primary data means original data that have been
collected specially for the purpose in mind. It means when an authorized organization
or an investigator or an enumerator collects the data for the first time himself or with

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the help of an institution or an expert then the data thus collected are called primary
data.
1. Interviews Method

Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants in a

study. Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face
interviews and face-to-face group interviewing. The asking and answering of
questions can be mediated by the telephone or other electronic devices (e.g.
computers). Interviews can be – A. Structured, B. Semi-structure or C.Unstructured.

Structured Interviews: The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of
questions. The questions are created prior to the interview, and often have a limited set
of response categories. The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and
friendly, but does not insert his or her opinion in the interview.

Semi-structured Interviews: The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal

interview. The interviewer develops and uses an „interview guide‟. This is a list of
questions and topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a
particular order. The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical
trajectories in the conversation that may stray from the guide when s/he feels this is
appropriate.

Unstructured Interviews: The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal

interview in that they have a scheduled time to sit and speak with each other and both
parties recognize this to be an interview. The interviewer has a clear plan in mind
regarding the focus and goal of the interview. This guides the discussion. There is not
a structured interview guide. Instead, the interviewer builds rapport with respondents,
getting respondents to open-up and express themselves in their own way.

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Different types of Interviews:

Telephonic Interview: Telephonic Interviewing stands out as the best method for
gathering quickly needed information. Responses are collected from the respondents
by the researcher on telephone.
Personal Interview: It is the most versatile of the all methods. They are used
when props are required along with the verbal response. Nonverbal responses can also
be observed.
Behavioral Based Interviews: Behavioral based interviews focus on a person‟s
specific past performances and experiences. Questions will predominately surround
past work experiences that can illustrate the candidate‟s competence. For these types
of interviews, the STAR system (Situation/Task, Action, and Result) may be useful
for answering questions. These four titles serve as a framework for describing work
experiences.
Case Interviews: Case questions are most commonly used in consulting
interviews. In this type of interview, the candidate is given a scenario and is tasked
with working through the details. These interviews highlight a candidate‟s analytical
ability and poise.
Informational Interviews: Informational Interviews are forums by which you can
discover the nature of the industry without performance pressure. This style of
interview allows candidates the opportunity to compare their expectations with the
position. You may have the opportunity to speak with those currently employed in
the position. Take this opportunity to discover the positive, and less positive,
aspects of the position.
In-Person (Traditional): A staple of the job application process, the traditionalin-
person, one-on-one interview is your opportunity to shine and to show a prospective
employer why they should hire you.
Phone Interview: Despite the fact that a phone interview is the least formal
method of interviewing, phone interviews can be challenging because of a candidate's
inability to sense subtle non-verbal cues, which would be otherwise obvious in an in-
person setting.
Second Interview: Being asked to return for a second interview could mean a few
different things. It might mean that you made an excellent impression, but the
prospective employer is having difficulty deciding between a few exceptionally strong
candidates.
Group or Panel Interview: A group or panel interview may be the most
challenging type of interview. This type involves being interviewed by multiple people
simultaneously. During a group or panel interview, maintain eye contact with the
speaker or the person whose question you are answering, think carefully about your
response to each question, and, if needed, ask for time to consider a question.
Depth Interview Method : They generally use small samples and also conduct

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direct one-to-one personal interviews. A detailed background is provided by the
respondents are elaborate data concerning the respondents opinions, values,
motivation, expression, feeling etc., are obtained. Even their non- verbal expressions
are observed. They take long time, therefore lengthy observations are involved.
Mail Survey: Questionnaires are sent to the respondents; they fill it up and send
it back.
Electronic Interview: Electronic interviewing is a process of recognizing and
noting people, objects, and occurrences rather than asking for information. For
example, when you go to store, you notice which product people like to use. The
Universal Product Code (UPC) is also a method of observing what people are buying.
2. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
A focus group discussion (FGD) is an in-depth field method that brings together a
small homogeneous group (usually six to twelve persons) to discuss topics on a study
agenda. The purpose of this discussion is to use the social dynamics of the group, with
the help of a moderator/ facilitator, to stimulate participants to reveal underlying
opinions, attitudes, and reasons for their behavior. In short, a well facilitated group
can be helpful in finding out the „how‟ and „why‟ of human behavior.

Advantages of FGD

 Are useful when exploring cultural values and health beliefs;

 Can be used to examine how and why people think in a particular way and
howis influences their beliefs and values;
 Can be used to explore complex issues;
 Can be used to develop hypothesis for further research;
 Do not require participants to be literate.

Disadvantages of FGD

 Lack of privacy/anonymity;
 Having to carefully balance the group to ensure they are culturally and gender
appropriate (i.e. gender may be an issue);
 Potential for the risk of „group think‟ (not allowing for other attitudes, beliefs
etc.);
 Potential for group to be dominated by one or two people;
 Group leader needs to be skilled at conducting focus groups, dealing with
conflict, drawing out passive participants and creating a relaxed, welcoming
environment;
 Are times consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time consuming to
analyze.

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3. Observational Method
Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the world around us. As human
beings, we are very well equipped to pick up detailed information about our
environment through our senses. However, as a method of data collection for research
purposes, observation is more than just looking or listening.
Observation is a systematic data collection approach. Researchers use all of their
senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations.
Classification of Observational:
Casual and Scientific Observation: An observation can be sometimes casual in
nature or sometimes it may act scientifically. An observation with a casual approach
involves observing the right thing at the right place and also at the right time by a
matter of chance or by luck whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the
tools of the measurement, but a very important point to be kept in mind here is that all
the observations are not scientific in nature.
Natural Observation: Natural observation involves observing the behaviour in a
normal setting and in this type of observation; no efforts are made to bring any type of
change in the behavior of the observed. Improvement in the collection of the
information and improvement in the environment of making an observation can be
done with the help of natural observations.
Subjective and Objective Observation: All the observations consist of the two
main components, the subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer
whereas the object refers to the activity or any type of operation that is being
observed. Subjective observation involves the observation of the one‟s own
immediate experience whereas the observations involving observer as an entity apart
from the thing being observed, are referred to as the objective observation. Objective
observation is also called as the retrospection.
Direct and Indirect Observation: With the help of the direct method of
observation, one comes to know how the observer is physically present in which type
of situation is he present and then this type of observation monitors what takes place.
Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the
recording by some of the other means like photographic or electronic. Direct
observation is relatively more straight forward as compared to the indirect
observation.
Participant and Non Participant Observation: Participation by the observers
with the various types of operations of the group under study refers to the
participant type of observation. In participant observation, the degree of the
participation is largely affected by the nature of the study and it also depends on the
type of the situation and also on its demands. But in the non-participant type of
observation, no participation of the observer in the activities of the group takes place
and also there occurs no relationship between the researcher and the group.

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Undisguised participant observation is often used to understand the culture and
behavior of groups of individuals. Disguised participant observation is often used
when researchers believe individuals would change their behavior if they knew it was
being recorded.
Structured and Unstructured Observation: Structured observation works
according to a plan and involves specific information of the units that are to be
observed and also about the information that is to be recorded. The operations that are
to be observed and the various features that are to be noted or recorded are decided
well in advance. Such observations involve the use of especial instruments for the
purpose of data collection that are also structured in nature. But in the case of the
unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically against the structured
observation. In such observation, observer has the freedom to note down what s/he
feels is correct and relevant to the point of study and also this approach of observation
is very suitable in the case of exploratory research. Structured observations are set up
to record behaviors that may be difficult to observe using naturalistic observation.
Controlled and Un-controlled Observation: Controlled observations are the
observations made under the influence of some of the external forces and such
observations rarely lead to improvement in the precision of the research results. But
these observations can be very effective in the working if these are made to work in
the coordination with mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording etc. Un-
controlled observations are made in the natural environment and reverse to the
controlled observation these observations involve no influence or guidance of any type
of external force.
Covert and Overt Observation: Covert observations are when the researcher
pretends to be an ordinary member of the group and observes in secret. There could be
ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular method of observation.
Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group s/he is conducting research
(i.e. they know they arebeing observed).
Advantages of Observation Method
 It is relatively free of observer bias. It can establish frequencies, and is strong on
objective measures which involve low inference on the part of the observer.
 Reliability can be strong.
 Generalisability
 It is precise.
 It provides a structure for the research.
Disadvantages of Observation Method
 There is a measure of unreliability: Qualitative material might be
misrepresented through the use of measurement techniques.
 Much of the interaction is missed.

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  It usually ignores the temporal and spatial context in which the data is
collected.
 It is not good for generating fresh insights.
 The pre-specification of categories predetermines what is to be discoveredand
allows only partial description.
 It ignores process, flux, development, and change.

4. Survey Method
Surveys provide a means of measuring a population‟s characteristics, self- reported
and observed behavior, awareness of programs, attitudes or opinions, and needs.
Repeating surveys at regular intervals can assist in the measurement of changes over
time. These types of information are invaluable in planning andevaluating government
policies and programs. Unlike a census, where all members of a population are
studied, sample surveys gather information from only a portion of a population of
interest. The size of the sample depends on thepurpose of the study.
Methods or techniques of survey method
a. Self-completion Surveys via mail, email, the internet or SMS are generally the
least expensive, particularly for a widespread sample. They allow respondents time
to consider their answers, refer to records or consult with others (which can be
helpful or unhelpful, depending on the surveys objectives). They also eliminate
interviewer errors and reduce the incidenceof selected people (or units) being
unable to be contacted.
b. Interviewer-based Surveys such as face-to-face or telephone surveys generally
allow more data to be gathered than self-completion surveys and can include the
use of more complex questionnaires. Interviewers can reduce non-response by
answering respondents‟ queries or concerns. They can often pick up and resolve
respondent errors.
c. Face-to-face surveys are usually more expensive than other methodologies. Poor
interviewers can introduce additional errors and, in some cases, the face to face
approach is unsuitable for sensitive topics.
d. Telephone surveys are generally cheaper and quicker than face-to-face surveys,
and are well suited to situations where timely results are needed. However, non-
response may be higher than for face-to-face surveys as it is harder for
interviewers to prove their identity, assure confidentiality and establish rapport.
e. Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) is a particular type of
telephone survey technique that helps to resolve some of the limitations of general
telephone-based surveying. With CATI, interviewers use a computer terminal.
The questions appear on the computer screen and the interviewers enter responses
directly into the computer. The interviewer‟s screen is programmed to show

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 questions in the planned order. Interviewers cannot inadvertently omit questions or
ask them out of sequence. Online messages warn interviewers if they enter invalid
values or unusual values. Most CATI systems also allow many aspects of survey
operations to be automated, e.g. rescheduling of call-backs, engaged numbers and
„no answers‟, and allow automatic dialing and remote supervision of
interviewer/respondent interaction.
f. Combinations of Collection Methods such as interviewers dropping off a
questionnaire to be mailed back or returning to pick it up, a mail survey with
telephone follow-up, or an initial telephone call to obtain cooperation or name of a
suitable respondent followed by a mail survey – are sometimes used to obtain
higher response/consent rates to a survey.
g. If in-depth or purely qualitative information is required, alternative research
methods should be considered. Focus groups, observation and in-depth
interviewing are all useful when developing a survey or initially exploring areas of
interest. They can also be a valuable supplement to survey data. However, results
from such studies should not be considered representative of the entire population
of interest.
Note: Whether a survey is being conducted by departmental/agency staff or by
consultants, it is important to be aware of potential sources of error and strategies to
minimize them. Errors arising in the collection of survey data can be divided into two
types - sampling error and non-sampling error.
a. Sampling error occurs when data are collected from a sample rather than the entire
population. The sampling error associated with survey results for a particular sub-
group of interest depends mainly on the number of achieved responses for that
sub-group rather than on the percentage of units sampled. Estimates of sampling
error, such as standard errors, can be calculated mathematically. They are affected
by factors such as –
Sample size - increasing the sample size will decrease the samplingerror.
Population variability - a larger sampling error will be present if theitems
of interest vary greatly within the population.
Sample design - standard errors cannot be calculated if theprobability
of selection is not known (for example, quota sampling).
b. All other errors associated with collecting survey data are called non- sampling
errors. Although they cannot be measured in the same way as sampling errors, they
are just as important.
5. Case Study Method
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or
community. Typically data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several
different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). The case study research method
originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e. the patients personal history). The

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case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing
„the case history‟ of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school
class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case studies allow a
researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were
trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with
the aim of „averaging‟.
Advantages of Case Study Methods
The case study helps to study and understand the human nature and conducts
very intensively. As a result, any researcher can formulate a valid hypothesis.
Any researcher can get actual and exemplary records of experience that may be
useful as guidelines to others life as this method carries out intensive study of
all aspects of a unit or a problem selected for research.
This case study method is very useful in sampling as it efficiently and orderly
classifies the units selected for research based on data and information so
collected.
As this method emphasizes historical analysis, this method is taken as a means
of knowing and understanding the past life of a social unit. That is why; it can
suggest the possible measures to be taken for having improvements in present
life by the lesson of past life. In other words, it is said that the old is gold and
morning show the day.
This method makes possible the study, to bring positive changes in the society.
As this method holds overall study of life of a social unit, the researcher can
know and understand the changes occurred in our society and can suggest to
make corrections in human behavior for the welfare, as well.
As this case study method holds study of all aspects of a social unit, terms of
past, present and future time, it gives the matured knowledge that could also be
useful to his/her personal and public life.

Disadvantages of Case Study Methods

 Under this case study method, the result is drawn up on the basis of all post
experiences. Collection of much data and information may lead to confusion to
find out pertinent and specific information.
 This case study method is based on comparison with the post life. However,
human value, attitude, behavior, reactions, circumstance are very wide and differ
with each other. It is difficult to compare from one another.
 This case study method always collects post information and data of the society.
However, there is no system of checking.
 Difficult to replicate.
 This case study method is time consuming, expensive and complex.

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6. Experimental Method
The prime method of inquiry in science is the experiment. The key features are control
over variables, careful measurement, and establishing cause and effect relationships.
An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an
experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is manipulated and the dependent
variable (the effect) is measured; anyextraneous variables are controlled.
There are three types of experiments need to know

a. Laboratory / Controlled Experiments: This type of experiment is conducted

in a well-controlled environment – not necessarily a laboratory – and therefore
accurate measurements are possible. The researcher decides where the
experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what
circumstances and using a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly
allocated to each independent variable group.
b. Field Experiments: Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life)
environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the
independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control
extraneous variables).
c. Natural Experiments: Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e.
real life) environment of the participants, but here the experimenter has no
control over as it occurs naturally in real life.

7. Projective Techniques
Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which
have been developed by psychologist and use projection of respondents for inferring
about underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secured through direct
questioning as the respondents either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out
himself. Examples are Word Association Test, Completion test, Construction
techniques, and Expression techniques.
8. Questionnaire Method
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are
often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The
questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911). Questionnaires have
advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as
much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have
standardized answers that makeit simple to compile data.

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Question Types:

a) Open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his/her own answer,

b) Closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer from a given number of
options. The response options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive
and mutually exclusive.
Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished –
Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options.
Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered
options.
Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered
options.
Continuous (Bounded), where the respondent is presented with a
continuous scale.

Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction:

 Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different
subpopulations of the population of interest.
 Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give
different answers.
 Think of having an open answer category after a list of possible answers.
 Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
 Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
 Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
 Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all
educational levels.
 Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
 Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like
strawberries and potatoes?).
 Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an
answer.

Advantages of Questionnaires:

 Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a

short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.
 Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with
limited affect to its validity and reliability.
 The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by

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 either a researcher or through the use of a software package.
 Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of
research.
 When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other
research and may be used to measure change.
 Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and /
or test existing hypotheses.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires:
 To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of
emotions, behavior, feelings etc.
 Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation
by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without
explanation.
 There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
 There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
 The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the
situation.
 People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on
their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is „good‟ to someone may be
poor to someone else; therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not
acknowledged.
9. Schedule Method
A schedule contains a set of questions which are asked and filled by an interviewer in
a face to face situation with a respondent. It is a standardized device or tool of
observation to collect the data in an objective manner. In this method the interviewer
puts certain questions and the respondent furnishes certain answers and the
interviewer records them as in a research instruments called schedule.

Difference b/w Questionnaire and schedule

 Questionnaire is filled by informant but schedule is filled by enumerators.

 In questionnaire, if the questions are complex, there are chances of non-
responses but in schedule there is no chance of non- responses.
 Questionnaire is list or series of questions prepared to be asked but schedules
isevents or plans to be executed on specific days or dates.
 To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical
butthrough schedules relatively more expensive.
 In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in
schedulethe identity of respondents is known.

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 Personal contact is generally not possible in case of questionnaire method but
incase of schedule direct personal contact is established with respondents.
 Questionnaire method is very slow but in case of schedule method
informationis collected in time.
 In questionnaire incomplete and wrong information is relatively more but
incase schedule the information is relatively more accurate.
 The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality
of thequestionnaire itself, but in case of schedules much depends on honesty.
 Wider and more representation is possible in case of questionnaire, but in
caseof schedule difficult to send enumerator to over wider area.

b) Secondary Data Collection Method: Secondary data is the data that is

collected from the primary sources which can be used in the current research study.
Collecting secondary data often takes considerably less time than collecting primary
data where you would have to gather every information fromscratch. It is thus possible
to gather more data this way.
Secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands –
Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics
and other related databases.
Qualitative: Semi-structured and structured interviews, focus groups
transcripts, field notes, observation records and other personal, research-
related documents. Secondary data is often readily available.
After the expense of electronic media and internet the availability of secondary data
has become much easier.
Published Printed Sources: There are varieties of published printed sources.
Their credibility depends on many factors. For example, on the writer, publishing
company and time and date when published. New sources are preferred and old
sources should be avoided as new technology and researches bring new facts into
light.
 Books: Books are available today on any topic that you want to research. The
use of books start before even you have selected the topic. After selection
of topics books provide insight on how much work has already been done on
the same topic and you can prepare your literature review. Books are secondary
source but most authentic one in secondary sources.
 Journals/periodicals: Journals and periodicals are becoming more important
as far as data collection is concerned. The reason is that journals provide up-to-
date information which at times books cannot and secondly, journals can give
information on the very specific topic on which you are researching rather
talking about more general topics.
 Magazines/Newspapers: Magazines are also effective but not very reliable.

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 Newspapers on the other hand are more reliable and in some cases the
information can only be obtained from newspapers as in the case of some
political studies.
 Published Electronic Sources: As internet is becoming more advance, fast
and reachable to the masses; it has been seen that much information that is not
available in printed form is available on internet. In the pastthe credibility of
internet was questionable but today it is not. The reason is that in the past
journals and books were seldom published on internet but today almost every
journal and book is available online. Some are free and for others you have to
pay the price.
 E-journals: e-journals are more commonly available than printed journals.
Latest journals are difficult to retrieve without subscription but if your
university has an e-library you can view any journal, print it and those that are
not available you can make an order for them.
 General Websites: Generally websites do not contain very reliable
information so their content should be checked for the reliability before quoting
from them. Weblogs: Weblogs are also becoming common. They are actually
diaries written by different people. These diaries are as reliable to use as
personal written diaries.
Unpublished Personal Records: Some unpublished data may also be useful in
some cases.

 Diaries: Diaries are personal records and are rarely available but if you are
conducting a descriptive research then they might be very useful. TheAnne
Frank‟s diary is the most famous example of this. That diarycontained the most
accurate records of Nazi wars.
 Letters: Letters like diaries are also a rich source but should be checked for
their reliability before using them.
 Government Records: Government records are very important for marketing,
management, humanities and social science research.
 Census Data/population statistics: Health records; Educational institutes‟
records etc. Public Sector Records: NGOs‟ survey data; Other private
companies records.

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