The Lower Paleolithic era on the Korean Peninsula and in Manchuria began roughly

half a million years ago.[1][2][3] The earliest known Korean pottery dates to
around 8000 BC and the Neolithic period began thereafter, followed by the Bronze
Age by 2000 BC,[4][5][6] and the Iron Age around 700 BC. The Paleolithic people are
likely not the direct ancestors of the present Korean people, but their direct
ancestors are thought to be the Neolithic People of about 2000 BC.[7]

According to the mythic account recounted in the Samguk yusa (1281), the Gojoseon
kingdom was founded in northern Korea and southern Manchuria in 2333 BC.[8][9][10]
The first written historical record on Gojoseon can be found from the text Guanzi,
attributable to 7th century BC.[11][12][13] The Jin state was formed in southern
Korea by the 3rd century BC. In the late 2nd century BC, Gojoseon eventually fell
to the Han dynasty of China, which led to succeeding warring states, the Proto–
Three Kingdoms period.

From the 1st century BC, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla grew to control the peninsula
and Manchuria as the Three Kingdoms of Korea (57 BC–668 AD), until unification by
Silla in 676. In 698, Dae Jo-young established Balhae in the old territories of
Goguryeo,[14][15] which led to the Northern and Southern States period (698–926)
with Balhae and Silla coexisting.

In the late 9th century, Silla was divided into the Later Three Kingdoms (892–936),
which ended with the unification by Wang Kŏn's Goryeo dynasty. Meanwhile, Balhae
fell after invasions by the Khitan-led Liao dynasty; fleeing refugees including the
last crown prince emigrated to Goryeo, where he was absorbed into the ruling
family, thus unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo.[16][17] During the
Goryeo period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and
culture influenced by Buddhism flourished. However, Mongol invasions in the 13th
century brought Goryeo under the influence of the Mongol Empire and the Yuan
dynasty of China until the mid-14th century.[18][19]

In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) after a

coup d'état in 1388 that overthrew the Goryeo dynasty. King Sejong the Great (1418–
1450) implemented numerous administrative, social, scientific, and economic
reforms, established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty, and
personally created Hangul, the Korean alphabet.[20]

After enjoying a period of peace for nearly two centuries, the Joseon dynasty faced
foreign invasions from 1592 to 1637. Most notable of these were the Japanese
invasions of Korea.[21] The combined force of the Ming dynasty of China and the
Joseon dynasty (whose naval fleet was successfully led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin)
repelled these Japanese invasions, but at a cost to both countries. Henceforth,
Joseon gradually became more and more isolationist and stagnant with frequent
internal strifes.

By the mid 19th century, with the country unwilling to modernize, and under
encroachment by European powers, Joseon Korea was forced to sign unequal treaties
with foreign powers. After the assassination of Empress Myeongseong by Japanese
mercenaries in 1895, the Donghak Peasant Revolution, and the Gabo Reforms of 1894
to 1896, the Korean Empire (1897–1910) came into existence, heralding a brief but
rapid period of social reform and modernization. However, in 1905, the Korean
Empire was forced to sign a protectorate treaty and in 1910, Japan effectively
annexed the Korean Empire; the treaties involved were later confirmed to be null
and void. Korea then became a de facto Japanese colony from 1910 to 1945. Korean
resistance manifested in the widespread March First Movement of 1919. Thereafter
the resistance movements, coordinated by the Provisional Government of the Republic
of Korea in exile, became largely active in neighboring Manchuria, China proper,
and Siberia.
After the end of World War II in 1945, the Allies divided the country into a
northern area (protected by the Soviets) and a southern area (protected primarily
by the United States). In 1948, when the great powers failed to agree on the
formation of a single government, this partition became the modern states of North
and South Korea. The peninsula was divided at the 38th Parallel: the "Republic of
Korea" was created in the south, with the backing of the US and Western Europe, and
the "Democratic People's Republic of Korea" in the north, with the backing of the
Soviets and the communist People's Republic of China. The new premier of North
Korea, Kim Il Sung, launched the Korean War in 1950 in an attempt to reunify the
country under Communist rule. After immense material and human destruction, the
conflict ended with a ceasefire in 1953. In 1991, both states were accepted into
the United Nations. In 2018, the two nations agreed to work toward a final
settlement to formally end the Korean conflict and promote the common prosperity
and reunification of Korea.

While both countries were essentially under authoritarian rule after the war, South
Korea eventually liberalized. Since 1987 it has had a competitive electoral system.
The South Korean economy has prospered, and the country is now considered to be
fully developed. North Korea has maintained a totalitarian militarized rule, with a
personality cult constructed around the Kim family. Economically, North Korea has
remained heavily dependent on foreign aid.

Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Korea
Paleolithic

Korean earthenware jar with comb pattern; made 4000 BC, Amsa-dong, Seoul, now in
British Museum
No fossil proven to be Homo erectus has been found in the Korean Peninsula,[22]
though a candidate has been reported.[2] Tool-making artifacts from the Paleolithic
period have been found in present-day North Hamgyong, South Pyongan, Gyeonggi, and
north and south Chungcheong provinces,[23] which dates the Paleolithic Age to half
a million years ago,[5] though it may have begun as late as 400,000 years ago[1] or
as early as 600,000–700,000 years ago.[2][3]

Neolithic
Main articles: Jeulmun pottery period and Mumun pottery period
The earliest known Korean pottery dates back to around 8000 BC,[24] and evidence of
Mesolithic Pit–Comb Ware culture (or Yunggimun pottery) is found throughout the
peninsula, such as in Jeju Island. Jeulmun pottery, or "comb-pattern pottery", is
found after 7000 BC, and is concentrated at sites in west-central regions of the
Korean Peninsula, where a number of prehistoric settlements, such as Amsa-dong,
existed. Jeulmun pottery bears basic design and form similarities to that of
Mongolia, the Amur and Songhua river basins of Manchuria, the Jōmon culture in
Japan, and the Baiyue in Southern China and Southeast Asia.[25][26]

Archaeological evidence demonstrates that agricultural societies and the earliest

forms of social-political complexity emerged in the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500–
300 BC).[27]

People in southern Korea adopted intensive dry-field and paddy-field agriculture

with a multitude of crops in the Early Mumun Period (1500–850 BC). The first
societies led by big-men or chiefs emerged in the Middle Mumun (850–550 BC), and
the first ostentatious elite burials can be traced to the Late Mumun (c. 550–300
BC). Bronze production began in the Middle Mumun and became increasingly important
in ceremonial and political society after 700 BC. Archeological evidence from
Songguk-ri, Daepyeong, Igeum-dong, and elsewhere indicate that the Mumun era was
the first in which chiefdoms rose, expanded, and collapsed. The increasing presence
of long-distance trade, an increase in local conflicts, and the introduction of
bronze and iron metallurgy are trends denoting the end of the Mumun around 300 BC.
[27]

In addition, 73 tombs similar to the ones found in Japan, estimated to date back to
Gojoseon (100 BC), have been found in the southern tip of the Korean peninsula, and
the discovery of jar burials, suggest a close relationship with Japan,[28] and
Gojoseon, proving that Gojoseon and Yayoi period Japan maintained close relations
with one another even during the ancient times.

Bronze Age
The Bronze Age in Korea is often held to have begun around 900–800 BC,[5] though
the transition to the Bronze Age may have begun as far back as 2300 BC.[6] Bronze
daggers, mirrors, jewelry, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of
walled-town polities. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and
rectangular pit-houses and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found
throughout the peninsula.[29] Contemporaneous records suggest that Gojoseon
transitioned from a feudal federation of walled cities into a centralised kingdom
at least before the 4th-century BC.[30] It is believed that by the 4th century BC,
iron culture was developing in Korea by northern influence via today's Russia's
Maritime Province.[31][32]

Ancient Korea
Main articles: Gojoseon, Jin (Korean state), and Four Commanderies of Han

Korea in 108 BC

Korean Bronze Age sword. Seoul, National Museum of Korea

Gojoseon
See also: Dangun, Gija Joseon, and Wiman Joseon
Gojoseon was the first Korean kingdom, located in the north of the peninsula and
Manchuria, later alongside the state of Jin in the south of the peninsula.

The founding legend of Gojoseon, which is recorded in the Samguk yusa (1281) and
other medieval Korean books,[33] states that the country was established in 2333 BC
by Dangun, said to be descended from heaven.[34] While no evidence has been found
that supports whatever facts may lie beneath this,[35][36] the account has played
an important role in developing Korean national identity.

In the 12th century BC, Gija, a prince from the Shang dynasty of China, purportedly
founded Gija Joseon. In pre-modern Korea, Gija represented the authenticating
presence of Chinese civilization, and until the 20th century, Koreans commonly
believed that Dangun bestowed upon Korea its people and basic culture, while Gija
gave Korea its high culture—and presumably, standing as a legitimate civilization.
[37] However, due to contradicting historical and archaeological evidence, its
existence was challenged in the 20th century, and today no longer forms the
mainstream understanding of this period.

The historical Gojoseon kingdom was first mentioned in the Chinese record in a text
called Guanzi, attributed to 7th century BCE.[11][12][13] By about the 4th century
BC, Gojoseon had developed to the point where its existence was well known in
China,[38][39] and around this time, its capital moved to Pyongyang.[40][41]

In 194 BC, the King of Gojoseon was overthrown by Wi Man (also known as Wei Man), a
Korean-Chinese refugee from the Han vassal state of Yan. Wi Man then established
Wiman Joseon.[42][43]

In 128 BC, Nan Lü (南閭), a leader of Ye who was receiving pressure from Wiman
Joseon, surrendered to the Han dynasty and became the Canghai Commandery.[44][45]
Chinese commanderies
In 108 BC, the Chinese Han dynasty defeated Wiman Joseon and installed four
commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula.[46] Three of the commanderies fell
or retreated westward within a few decades, but the Lelang Commandery remained as a
center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties for four
centuries, until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313 AD.

The Four Commanderies of Han, established in the former territory of Gojoseon after
the fall of Wiman Joseon.[47] The location of the commanderies has become a
controversial topic in Korea in recent years.[48] However, the location of the
commanderies is not controversial outside of Korea.[note 1]
Jin State
Around 300 BC, a state called Jin arose in the southern part of the Korean
peninsula. Very little is known about Jin, but it established relations with Han
China and exported artifacts to the Yayoi of Japan.[49][50][51] Around 100 BC, Jin
evolved into the Samhan confederacies.[52]

Many smaller states sprang from the former territory of Gojoseon such as Buyeo,
Okjeo, Dongye, Goguryeo, and Baekje. The Three Kingdoms refer to Goguryeo, Baekje,
and Silla, although Buyeo and the Gaya confederacy existed into the 5th and 6th
centuries respectively.

Proto–Three Kingdoms
Main article: Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea

Proto–Three Kingdoms, c. AD 1

Gold buckle of the Proto–Three Kingdoms period

The Proto-Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Several States Period (열국시대,列
國時代),[53] is the time before the rise of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which
included Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje, and occurred after the fall of Gojoseon. This
time period consisted of numerous states that sprang up from the former territories
of Gojoseon. Among these states, the largest and most influential were Eastern
Buyeo and Northern Buyeo.

Northern states
Main articles: Buyeo, Okjeo, and Eastern Ye
After the fall of Gojoseon, Buyeo arose in today's North Korea and southern
Manchuria, from about the 2nd century BC to 494 AD. Its remnants were absorbed by
Goguryeo in 494, and both Goguryeo and Baekje, two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea,
considered themselves its successor.[54]

Although records are sparse and contradictory, it is thought that in 86 BC,

Dongbuyeo (Eastern Buyeo) branched out, after which the original Buyeo is sometimes
referred to as Bukbuyeo (Northern Buyeo). Jolbon Buyeo was the predecessor to
Goguryeo, and in 538, Baekje renamed itself Nambuyeo (Southern Buyeo).[55]

Okjeo was a tribal-state that was located in the northern Korean Peninsula, and was
established after the fall of Gojoseon. Okjeo had been a part of Gojoseon before
its fall. It never became a fully developed kingdom due to the intervention of its
neighboring kingdoms. Okjeo became a tributary of Goguryeo, and was eventually
annexed into Goguryeo by Gwanggaeto the Great in the 5th century.[56]

Dongye (Eastern Ye) was another small kingdom that was situated in the northern
Korean Peninsula. Dongye bordered Okjeo, and the two kingdoms faced the same fate
of becoming tributaries of the growing empire of Goguryeo. Dongye was also a former
part of Gojoseon before its fall.[57]
Southern states
Main articles: Samhan, Mahan confederacy, Jinhan confederacy, and Byeonhan
confederacy
Sam-han (삼한; 三韓) refers to the three confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan.
The Samhan were located in the southern region of the Korean Peninsula.[58] The
Samhan countries were strictly governed by law, with religion playing an important
role. Mahan was the largest, consisting of 54 states, and assumed political,
economic, and cultural dominance. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of 12 states,
bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. The Samhan were eventually
conquered by Baekje, Silla, and Gaya in the 4th century.[59]